Physicochemical and Microbiological Properties of Selected Rice
Flour-Based Batters for Fried Chicken Drumsticks
A. Mukprasirt,* T. J. Herald,*,1 D. L. Boyle,† and E. A. E. Boyle‡
*Food Science Program, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506; †Division of Biology, Kansas State University,
Manhattan, Kansas 66506; and ‡Animal Sciences and Industry, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas 66506
than WFBB. The TBA values of RFBB and WFBB increased
(P < 0.05) with increased frozen storage time at −40 C for
90 d. The RFBB with MC exhibited the lowest TBA values,
whereas WFBB had the highest values. Microstructural
analysis revealed that freezing caused structural deterioration of all batters, but the RFBB with MC exhibited
less freezing tolerance than other samples. The total plate
counts of immediately fried or frozen fried chicken stored
for 90 d were less than 1 log cfu/g sample. The RFBB
with 5% oxidized corn starch and MC can replace WFBB
on fried drumsticks. Additionally, RFBB results in a
healthier product due to lower fat absorption.
ABSTRACT Rice flour-based batter (RFBB) formulations for chicken drumstick coating were developed as
an alternative for traditional wheat flour-based batter
(WFBB). Physicochemical properties and storage stability
of selected RFBB were evaluated and compared to WFBB.
Batter pickup of RFBB formulated in combination with
oxidized corn starch and methylcellulose (MC) was not
significantly different from that of WFBB. In contrast,
batters with only rice and corn flour (60:40% flour weight)
exhibited significantly higher pickup. Rice flour batter
with 15% oxidized corn starch had the lowest batter
pickup. All RFBB exhibited (P < 0.05) lower oil absorption
(Key words: chicken drumstick, rice flour, batter, coating, adhesion batter)
2001 Poultry Science 80:988–996
absorption of battered foods through several chemical
and physical changes that occur, including starch gelatinization, protein denaturation, water vaporization, and
crust formation (Saguy and Pintus, 1995). Oil absorption
during deep-fat frying is a function of oil quality (AbdelAal and Karara, 1986; Blumenthal, 1991), composition
(Makinson et al., 1987), and initial moisture content, product shape and porosity, and frying time and temperature
(Pravisani and Calvelo, 1986; Gamble et al., 1987a,b; DuPont et al., 1992; Pinthus and Saguy, 1994). Rancidity
development during storage is a major concern in frozen,
fried chicken products. Factors influencing the lipid oxidation rate include fatty acid composition, oxygen concentration, temperature, surface area of lipids exposed to
air, moisture content, and pro-oxidants (Nawar, 1996).
Shih and Daigle (1999) reported that oil uptake of rice
flour fried batter was less than that of wheat flour-based
batter (WFBB). Mukprasirt et al. (2000a) developed a rice
flour-based batter (RFBB) for fried chicken drumsticks
INTRODUCTION
The consumption of battered or breaded chicken has
increased significantly, and annual sales of fried chicken
in United States during 1995 were estimated to be more
than six billion dollars (Mohan Rao and Delaney, 1995).
Commercially, battered or breaded foods are fully or partially cooked by deep-fat frying or oven heating prior to
being frozen (Loewe, 1993). Critical battered food characteristics include viscosity, percentage of batter pickup,
batter adhesion, oil absorption, appearance, and flavor.
Generally, viscosity has direct implications on batter
pickup. Batter pickup is regulated by the USDA and varies for product types; the amount permitted on meat or
poultry products is 30% (USDA, 1997). Batter adhesion
plays a critical role in battered food quality. Partial or
total loss of coating during processing, frozen storage,
transportation, and handling during consumption causes
undesirable aesthetic and economic effects. Traditional
deep-fat frying generates poor adhesion because the food
shrinks away from the coating.
Deep-fat frying, which is a common method for cooking
battered products, can affect appearance, flavor, and oil
Abbreviation Key: HPMC = hydroxypropyl methylcellulose; MA =
malonaldehyde; MC = methylcellulose; RFBB = rice flour-based batter;
WFBB = wheat flour-based batter; WOF = warmed-over flavor; 6R0S0M
= 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt) and no oxidized corn starch
or methycellulose; 6R15S0M = 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt),
15% oxidized corn starch (dry basis), and no methylcellulose; 6R5S3M
= 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 5% oxidized corn starch, and
0.3% methylcellulose (dry basis); 5W0S0M = 50% wheat flour:50% corn
flour (wt/wt) and no oxidized corn starch or methylcellulose.
2001 Poultry Science Association, Inc.
Received for publication September 26, 2000.
Accepted for publication March 13, 2001.
1
To whom correspondence should be addressed: therald@oznet.
ksu.edu.
988
989
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE FLOUR BATTER
and found that with appropriate levels of oxidized corn
starch and methylcellulose (MC), RFBB exhibited good
adhesion. This paper further elucidates the physicochemical and microbiological properties of RFBB on commercial
chicken drumsticks.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Batter Ingredients and Formulations
Batters were formulated with rice flour RL-1002 and
yellow corn flour3 60:40 (flour weight) rice:corn flour; 0,
5, and 15% (dry basis) oxidized corn starch4; and 0 and
0.3% (dry basis) methylcellulose.5 All batter treatments
were formulated with 5% salt, 2% sucrose, and 0.2% xanthan gum.6 To compensate for increases in oxidized starch
and MC in the formulations, the percentage of flour was
reduced while keeping the desired flour ratio constant.
The solid to water ratio of batters was 1:1.3 (wt/wt). All
dry ingredients were mixed at low speed for 1 min in a
stainless-steel bowl in a Model K-45 mixer.7 Ingredients
were then mixed with water for 2 min, cooled to 10 C in
a refrigerator, and then stored in an ice bath to maintain
the temperature during batter application.
Sample Preparation
Individual quick frozen chicken drumsticks8 ranging
in weight from 100 to 130 g/piece were thawed overnight
in a refrigerator until their temperatures reached 4 C.
Three separate batches of drumsticks consisting of two
drumsticks per batch were prepared. Individual drumsticks were placed in a plastic bag9 and manually predusted with 1.3 g of egg white powder type P-11010 for
10 s. Drumsticks were dipped into batters and any excess
batter was allowed to drip off for 10 s. Drumsticks were
deep-fat fried in canola oil at 175 ± 5 C until the internal
temperature reached between 71 to 75 C as measured
with a meat thermometer at the thickest part of drumsticks. Then drumsticks were cooled to room temperature
for 10 min prior to evaluation.
Storage Conditions
After being fried, samples were held at room temperature for 10 min, placed in plastic bags11 (3 mil, nylon and
polyethylene bag, O2 transmission rate: 3.5 g/100 in2 per
24 h at 1 atm, 70 C, and 90% RH), and then sealed with
packaging machine12 at speed number 1. Packed samples
were kept in cardboard cartons and stored in an air blast
freezer at −40 C for 90 d.
Composition Analysis
Rice and corn flours were analyzed for starch damage
using Megazyme kits13 following AACC Method 76.31
(AACC, 2000). Protein content was determined by nitrogen combustion analysis (AOAC, 1995a) with factor N ×
5.95, 6.25, or 5.70 for rice, corn, and wheat flours, respectively, using Leco-FP-2000.14 Fat and moisture contents
were determined by the rapid microwave-solvent extraction method using CEM15 (AOAC, 1995b).
Pickup and Cooking Loss
Pickup refers to the amount of batter adhering to a
food substrate during battering and is expressed as a
percentage of the total product weight (Suderman, 1983).
The modified method for pickup and cooking loss described by Olewnik and Kulp (1990) and Cunningham
and Proctor (1984) were used, respectively. Drumsticks
were dipped into batters, and excess batter was allowed
to drip off for 10 s. The amount of batter pickup and
cooking loss were calculated as follows:
cooking loss (%) =
Riviana Foods Inc., Houston, TX 77252.
3
ADM Milling Co., Lincoln, NE 68501.
4
National Starch and Chemical Co., Bridgewater, NJ 08807.
5
Dow Chemical Co., Midland, MI 48647.
6
Jungbunzlauer Inc., Newton Center, MA 02159.
7
KitchenAid Division, Hobart Co., Troy, OH 45374.
8
Tyson Foods, Inc., Springdale, AR 72765.
9
DowBrands L.P., Indianpolis, IN 46268.
10
Henningsen Foods Inc., Omaha, NE 68144.
11
Koch Supplies Inc., Kansas City, MO 64116.
12
Hollymatic Corporation, Countryside, IL 60525.
13
Megazyme International Ireland Ltd., Co., Wicklow, Ireland.
14
Leco Corporation, St. Joseph, MI 49085.
15
CEM Corp., Matthews, NC 28105.
16
Waring Products Division Dynamics Corporation of America, New
Hartford, CT 06057.
[1]
(B − F)
× 100
I
[2]
where B = battered chicken weight, I = initial chicken
weight, and F = battered fried chicken weight.
Oil Absorption and Rancidity Analysis
Fried battered chicken drumsticks were deboned and
ground with liquid nitrogen for 30 s in a Waring blender.16
Ground samples were immediately analyzed for fat content using the CEM rapid microwave-solvent extraction
method. The oil absorption was calculated as
oil absorption (%) =
2
(B − I)
× 100
I
batter pickup (%) =
Ffinal − Finitial
× 100
Ffinal
[3]
where Finitial and Ffinal are fat contents in fried drumsticks
before and after frying. The TBA test, which is expressed
as milligrams of malonaldehyde (MA) per kilogram of
sample, was performed as described by Witte et al. (1970).
Frozen samples were thawed for 30 min before being
tested.
Microstructural and Texture Analyses
Microstructural and texture properties indicating adhesion of batter to drumsticks were evaluated using a laser
990
MUKPRASIRT ET AL.
TABLE 1. Comparison between the physical properties of rice flour-based batters to traditional wheat
flour-based batter at a fixed water to solid ratio (1.3:1, wt/wt)1
Property
Batter pickup (%)
Cooking lossNS (%)
Fat content (%)
Moisture content (%)
Oil absorption (%)
6R0S0M
a
30.00
18.82
10.48a
56.85b
49.95b
6R15S0M
c
21.84
19.14
10.36a
57.52b
48.32b
6R5S3M
b
26.14
18.57
9.20b
58.82a
46.40c
5W0S0M
24.58bc
19.21
10.53a
56.96b
50.57a
Means with different superscripts within the same row are significantly different (P < 0.05).
Means within same row are not significantly different (P < 0.05).
1
6R0S0M = 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 0% oxidized corn starch, and 0% methylcellulose; 6R15S0M
= 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 15% oxidized corn starch (dry basis), and 0% methylcellulose; 6R5S3M
= 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 5% oxidized corn starch (dry basis), and 0.3% methylcellulose (dry
basis); 5W0S0M = 50% wheat flour:50% corn flour (wt/wt), 0% oxidized corn starch, and 0% methylcellulose.
a–c
NS
scanning microscope17 and a texture analyzer18 as described by Mukprasirt et al. (2000a).
Microbiological Analysis
Three replications of fried battered chicken drumsticks
with two drumsticks per replication were deboned and
ground aseptically in a Waring blender. Microbiological
testing was performed on 25-g samples from each treatment using the total plate count method on plate count
agar.19 The colony-forming units were counted after incubation under aerobic conditions at 35 C for 48 h (Swanson
et al., 1992).
Statistical Analysis
All batter treatments were prepared and tested in three
replicates with two subsamples per replication. Statistical
analyses were performed using the general linear models
procedure to determine the effect of storage time on physicochemical properties of frozen fried chicken drumsticks
coated with RFBB and WFBB. The Bonferroni test was
used to detect differences among means. Correlations between TBA values and fat and moisture contents, between
moisture content and time, and between cooking loss
and moisture content were analyzed using the Pearson
correlation method. All statistical analyses were determined at a significance of P < 0.05 (SAS Institute, 1996).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Batter Pickup and Cooking Loss
From our preliminary test, viscosities at 10 C of
6R0S0M, 6R15S0M, and 6R5S3M were similar to that of
traditional wheat flour-based batter. Therefore, these formulations were selected for further study. Among RFBB,
the 6R0S0M showed the highest pickup of 30%, whereas
batter pickup of 6R15S0M was the lowest at 21.8% due
to composition differences (Table 1). The amounts of rice
17
Carl Zeiss, Inc., Thornwood, NY 10594.
Texture Technologies Co., Scarsdale, NY 10583.
Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI 48232.
18
19
and corn flours decreased as the level of modified corn
starch increased in the ingredient formulation, which resulted in the 6R15S0M having less flour than other treatments. According to Cunningham and Tiede (1981), batter
pickup is a function of batter viscosity. Mukprasirt et al.
(2000b) found that RFBB containing higher flour levels
exhibited greater viscosity because of damaged starch,
which has a propensity to absorb water. The amounts of
damaged starch in rice and corn flours were 7.03 and
2.43%, respectively. Our study was consistent with the
results of Olewnik and Kulp (1990), who reported that
the amount of batter pickup increased as flour protein
level and damaged starch increased. By comparison, the
amount of pickup for WFBB was not significantly different from that for the 6R5S3M or 6R15S0M but was lower
(P < 0.05) than that for 6R0S0M. Gluten protein in wheat
flour might have contributed to the batter viscoelastic
property, which facilitated adherence to the drumsticks.
Burge (1990) reported that batter pickup ranged between
24.4 to 39.6% when the ratios of corn to wheat flour were
0:1 and 2:1, respectively.
The cooking losses of all batters were not significant
(Table 1). Cunningham and Tiede (1981), however, found
cooking loss to be substantially reduced with a more
viscous batter and greater percentage of breading pickup,
which may have been due to different batter formulations.
Fat and Moisture Contents
Fat contents ranged between 9.20 and 10.53%, and
moisture contents ranged between 56.85 to 58.82% (Table
2). The 6R5S3M treatment had a significantly lower fat
content but a higher moisture content than other treatments. Perhaps a thermal gel formed by MC prevented
mass transfer of moisture and oil during deep-fat frying.
According to Meyers (1990), gums and starches serve
as oil and moisture barriers more than other functional
ingredients in batters. The MC and hydroxypropyl MC
(HPMC) have been more widely investigated and used
as oil barriers than any other hydrocolloids (Ang 1989;
Lee and Han, 1988). Kuntz (1997) reported that these
gums can reduce oil absorption up to 40% depending on
factors such as frying time and temperature and surface
to weight ratio. Balasubramaniam et al. (1997) reported
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE FLOUR BATTER
991
that the effectiveness of HPMC on fat reduction and moisture retention of a deep-fat fried poultry product were
up to 16.4 and 33.7%, respectively, compared to a control.
Oil Absorption
Percentage of oil absorption by fried chicken drumsticks differed (P < 0.05) as a result of batter formulation
(Table 1). The 6R5S3M treatment exhibited the lowest oil
absorption (46.4%) that may have been due to the addition
of MC. Pinthus et al. (1993) reported that HPMC (Methocel K100M and F50LV) was more effective than powdered
cellulose in reducing oil uptake of deep-fat fried donuts
and falafel balls because of their thermal gelation and
film-forming properties (Anon, 1980; Henderson, 1988).
The 5W0S0M treatment exhibited the greatest oil absorption (50.57%) compared to other RFBB treatments.
This increased absorption might have been due to differences in protein composition. Wheat gluten proteins
might be responsible for oil absorption in fried batter.
Gluten protein can expand during deep-fat frying because
of an intrinsic viscoelastic property, resulting in a fluffy
coating that may facilitate water and fat transfer. Water
loss from food being deep-fat-fried lowers the internal
pressure, allowing penetration of the frying medium.
Conversely, the RFBB might not have expanded because
of a gluten deficiency, resulting in a different product
surface and shape compared to WFBB. Annapure et al.
(1998) stated that surface properties rather than chemical
composition or physicochemical properties were primarily responsible for oil uptake during deep-fat frying. Their
results showed that wheat flour had a higher oil-holding
capacity than rice flour, whereas rice flour had a higher
TABLE 2. Peak force (Newtons) needed to pull selected batters off
fried chicken drumsticks using an attachment developed
for texture analyzer
Storage time1
Treatments2
Day 0
Day 30NS
Day 60
Day 90NS
6R0S0M
8.1dx
(0.5)
10.9bx
(0.9)
11.6ax
(1.1)
7.6x
(0.7)
8.2y
(0.8)
8.5y
(0.4)
6.5aby
(0.4)
7.4ayz
(0.6)
6.3bz
(0.5)
5.7y
(0.8)
6.5z
(0.7)
6.2z
(0.7)
9.8cx
(0.5)
8.5y
(0.7)
7.4ay
(0.7)
6.1z
(0.6)
6R15S0M
6R5S3M
5W0S0M
a–d
Means (SD) of three replications with different superscripts within
the same column were significantly different (P < 0.05).
x–z
Means (SD) of three replications with different superscripts within
the same row were significantly different (P < 0.05).
NS
Means (SD) of three replications with different superscripts within
the same column were not significantly different (P < 0.05).
1
Storage period at −40 C.
2
6R0S0M = 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 0% oxidized corn
starch, and 0% methylcellulose; 6R15S0M = 60% rice flour:40% corn flour
(wt/wt), 15% oxidized corn starch (dry basis), and 0% methylcellulose;
6R5S3M = 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 5% oxidized corn
starch (dry basis), and 0.3% methylcellulose (dry basis); 5W0S0M = 50%
wheat flour:50% corn flour (wt/wt), 0% oxidized corn starch, and 0%
methylcellulose.
FIGURE 1. The TBA values of fried chicken drumsticks coated with
selected rice flour-based batters compared to wheat flour-based batter
during 90 d of frozen storage; 6R0S0M = 60:40% (flour wt) rice:corn
flours without oxidized corn starch or methylcellulose; 6R15S0M = 60:40
rice:corn flours with 15% (dry basis) oxidized corn starch; 6R5S3M =
60:40 rice:corn flours with 5% oxidized corn starch and 0.3% (dry basis)
methylcellulose; 5W0S0M = 50:50% (flour wt) wheat:corn flours batter;
MA = malonaldehyde.
water-holding capacity than wheat flour at 30 to 80 C.
Additionally, differences in chemical structure of rice and
wheat proteins might play a critical role in oil absorption.
Our results agreed with Shih and Daigle (1999) who reported that oil retention in RFBB and WFBB were 27.6
and 49.3%, respectively. They explained that wheat protein binds tightly with oil molecules, thus increasing fat
content; however, the mechanism is not clear. Olewnik
and Kulp (1990) reported that chicken drumsticks coated
with wheat flour (7 to 12% protein) absorbed approximately 49 to 64% oil depending upon flour protein content. Batter from higher-protein flour yielded more fat
absorption but less moisture retention. In contrast, the
authors found that the level of flour protein did not influence the perceived greasiness of fried coating evaluated
by subjective scoring. Baker and Scott-Kline (1988) found
that batters containing pregelatinized or modified flour
produced coatings with high moisture content and absorbed little fat. The breading reduced the perception of
rubberiness and greasiness. Makinson et al. (1987) reported that oil absorption in plant foods with high initial
water content and low fat content was higher than that
in animal foods. Battered fish without breading markedly
retarded oil absorption because of the rapid formation
of a hard crust, which was relatively impervious to the
movement of water and fat.
TBA Analysis
The TBA values of frozen prefried battered chicken
drumsticks increased (P < 0.05) with storage time (Figure
1). The relationship between time and TBA values was
positive with a correlation coefficient (r) of 0.76. The TBA
value of treatment 6R5S3M was the lowest compared
to other treatments at any period, possibly because MC
formed a thermal gel during frying. This gel would act as
992
MUKPRASIRT ET AL.
an oil barrier (Meyers, 1990), thus reducing oil absorption.
The TBA values of WFBB were significantly higher than
those of RFBB treatments after 60 d of frozen storage, but
all values were in the same ranges reported by other
researchers. Wang et al. (1976a) reported that TBA, peroxide, and acid values of frozen prefried chicken products
from a grocery store ranged between 2.1 to 9.2 mg MA/
kg, 7.0 to 25.5 meq/kg, and 0.99 to 2.64 mg KOH/g,
respectively. Although the rancidity indicators were high,
they reported that no rancid odor was detected. Igene et
al. (1985) investigated TBA-reactive substances in relation
to warmed-over flavor (WOF) development in cooked
chicken. They reported that chicken with TBA values of
2.07 to 2.41 mg MA/kg was described as having pronounced WOF by panelists. Ang and Huang (1993) reported TBA values from 2.59 to 3.47 mg MA/kg for
chicken patties.
The average TBA value for all treatments was lower
(P < 0.05) at Day 0 compared to other storage periods.
TBA increased as the storage time increased except at
Days 7 and 15, which were not significantly different from
each other. The mean TBA values at Day 0 was 1.4 mg
MA/kg sample, whereas it increased to 2.77 mg MA/kg
sample at Day 90. The TBA of treatments 6R15S0M and
6R5S3M decreased from Days 7 to day 15 and then increased through the remaining storage period. The reason
for this observation might be the nature of the TBA analysis, because short-chain carbon products of lipid oxidation are not stable (Fernandez et al., 1997). The oxidation
of these products results in organic alcohols and acids,
which are not determined by the TBA test (Tarladgis and
Watts, 1960; Seo, 1976; Almandos et al., 1986). Additionally, MA can react with amino acids thus decreasing TBA
values (Buttkus, 1976; Gardner, 1979). However, Fernandez et al. (1997) reported that the TBA test was the most
sensitive to detect linolenic and linoleic acid oxidation
products. Lai et al. (1991) found that the TBA values of
control frozen chicken nuggets kept up to 6 mo were 1.67
to 3.64 mg MA/kg and decreased after 4 mo of frozen
storage. Tomas and Anon (1990) found that storage time
significantly affected TBA values in salmon and chicken
breast muscles, but the freezing rate did not.
The relationship between fat content and TBA values
in our study was positive (r = 0.73). These results suggested that increasing fat content promoted increased
lipid oxidation and resulted in higher TBA values. This
observation was expected, because polyunsaturated fatty
acids accounted for most of the lipid composition in these
samples. The abundance of polyunsaturated fatty acids,
which are TBAR-reactive substance precursors, in chicken
meat contributed to oxidation susceptibility (Melton,
1983; Pikul et al., 1985). In addition, NaCl used in the
formulation might have had an effect. Kanner et al. (1991)
reported that NaCl promoted lipid oxidation by enhancing iron ion activity. An adverse effect of NaCl was noted
in the presence of air and absence of antioxidants (Jul,
1984). Method of freezing was another factor affecting
lipid oxidation. Berry and Cunningham (1970) reported
results from a TBA test suggesting that freezing rate af-
fected the degree of rancidity in frozen fried chicken.
Liquid nitrogen was the most desirable method to reduce
lipid oxidation during freezing, and use of a household
freezer was the least desirable.
Although some treatments showed high TBA values,
rancid odor was not detected in this study by authors
in an informal panel. Lai et al. (1995) reported that the
correlation coefficient between TBA values and sensory
score was low. The TBA test may be less sensitive to
monitoring WOF in meats in long-term frozen storage
(after 4 mo), because of the instability and reactivity of
MA. However, the TBA test appeared to detect the variation over storage time better than sensory evaluation.
Greene and Cumuze (1981) reported the relationship between TBA values and inexperienced panelists’ assessments of oxidized flavor in cooked beef. They found that
panelists initially detected oxidized flavor when the TBA
values ranged from 0.6 to 2.0 mg MA/kg, whereas Tarladgis et al. (1960) found that trained panelists recognized
rancid odor at 0.5 to 1.0 mg MA/kg. Melton (1983) found
that rancid flavor was detectable at 0.3 to 1.0 mg MA/
kg in beef or pork, greater than 3.0 mg MA/kg in turkey,
and 1.0 or 2.0 mg MA/kg in chicken. However, these
ranges should not be used as general references for
thresholds of rancid flavor in meat, because TBA values
are affected by dietary status, age of animals prior to
slaughter, and methods used for TBA analyses (Fernandez et al., 1997). A threshold for detectable rancidity in
fried chicken products is needed.
Microstructural Analysis
Micrographs of battered fried chicken drumsticks comparing RFBB formulations to WFBB samples at 0, 30, 60,
and 90 d are shown in Figures 2 to 5, respectively. At 0, 30,
60, and 90 d, all samples with different batter formulations
showed good adhesion between batter and chicken skin.
Differences between treatments within the batter layers
were observed over the 90 d frozen storage. Initial observations indicated voids (Figure 2) within the batter layer.
Voids observed at 0 d may be from water evaporated or
be the result of batter expansion during frying. These
voids were smallest in size and less in numbers in the
wheat formulation as compared to the larger more numerous voids in the 6R5S3M formulation. One possible
explanation for this observation may be that the batter
containing MC had a higher moisture content. The MC
had a high water absorption (Glickman, 1969) and has
been reported to form a thermal gel (Dow Chemical, 1996)
that may prevent water evaporation during frying. Number and size of voids increased within the fried batter
during storage due to water retention, which upon slow
freezing would lead to ice crystal growth. Micrographs
at 90 d of frozen storage (Figure 5) revealed that the
6R5S3M (Figure 5-D) treatment exhibited more damage
compared to other treatments. Our results were similar
to findings of Corey et al. (1987), who reported that differences in the batter ingredients and freeze-thaw cycle did
not significantly affect adhesion of breaded fish portions,
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE FLOUR BATTER
993
FIGURE 2. Microstructure of fried chicken drumsticks coated with
(A) wheat flour-based batter; (B) 6R0S0M, rice flour-based batters,
60:40% (flour wt) rice:corn flours; (C) 6R15S0M, 60:40% rice:corn flours
with 15% (dry basis) oxidized corn starch; and (D) 6R5S3M, 60:40%
rice:corn flours with 5% oxidized corn starch and 0.3% (dry basis) methylcellulose at 0 d, as visualized by laser scanning confocal microscopy.
Arrowheads indicate voids that possibly occurred during frying or
frozen storage.
FIGURE 4. Microstructure of fried chicken drumsticks coated with
(A) wheat flour-based batter; (B) 6R0S0M, rice flour-based batters,
60:40% (flour wt) rice:corn flours; (C) 6R15S0M, 60:40% rice:corn flours
with 15% (dry basis) oxidized corn starch; and (D) 6R5S3M, 60:40%
rice:corn flours with 5% oxidized corn starch and 0.3% (dry basis) methylcellulose at 60 d, as visualized by laser scanning confocal microscopy.
Arrowheads indicate voids that possibly occurred during frying or
frozen storage.
FIGURE 3. Microstructure of fried chicken drumsticks coated with
(A) wheat flour-based batter; (B) 6R0S0M, rice flour-based batters,
60:40% (flour wt) rice:corn flours; (C) 6R15S0M, 60:40% rice:corn flours
with 15% (dry basis) oxidized corn starch; and (D) 6R5S3M, 60:40%
rice:corn flours with 5% oxidized corn starch and 0.3% (dry basis) methylcellulose at 30 d, as visualized by laser scanning confocal microscopy.
Arrowheads indicate voids that possibly occurred during frying or
frozen storage.
FIGURE 5. Microstructure of fried chicken drumsticks coated with
(A) wheat flour-based batter; (B) 6R0M0S, rice flour-based batters,
60:40% (flour wt) rice:corn flours; (C) 6R15S0M, 60:40% rice:corn flours
with 15% (dry basis) oxidized corn starch; and (D) 6R5S3M, 60:40%
rice:corn flours with 5% oxidized corn starch and 0.3% (dry basis) methylcellulose at 90 d, as visualized by laser scanning confocal microscopy.
Arrowheads indicate voids that possibly occurred during frying or
frozen storage.
994
MUKPRASIRT ET AL.
TABLE 3. Total plate counts (log cfu/g) of raw materials and frozen fried chicken drumsticks
Storage time2
Treatments1
Day 0
Day 30
Day 60
Day 90
Raw drumsticks
Raw batter
6R0S0M
6R15S0M
6R5S3M
5W0S0M
Fried battered drumsticks
6R0S0M
6R15S0M
6R5S3M
5W0S0M
5.78
...
...
...
3.61
3.26
3.50
3.48
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
<1
<1
<1
<1
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
<1
<1
<1
<1
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
Estimate
1
6R0S0M = 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 0% oxidized corn starch, and 0% methylcellulose; 6R15S0M
= 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 15% oxidized corn starch (dry basis), and 0% methylcellulose; 6R5S3M
= 60% rice flour:40% corn flour (wt/wt), 5% oxidized corn starch (dry basis), and 0.3% methylcellulose (dry
basis); 5W0S0M = 50% wheat flour:50% corn flour (wt/wt), 0% oxidized corn starch, and 0% methylcellulose.
2
Storage period at −40 C.
3
Means of three replications.
but breading loss increased significantly with each freezethaw cycle.
Texture Analysis
Peak forces needed to pull batter off drumsticks implied adhesion between batter and the drumstick surface.
At Day 0, the 6R5S3M required the highest force compared to other treatments (Table 2). However, there were
no significant differences among treatments at Day 30.
At 60 d, the 6R5S3M batter required the lowest force
compared to other treatments, whereas there were no
significant difference in forces of all treatments after 90
d. There was a relationship between force and storage
time (r = −0.83), indicating that batter adhesion decreased
as storage time increased. In each treatment, forces significantly decreased after 90 d storage compared to 0 d.
Forces for all rice flour treatments at 60 and 90 d frozen
storage were not significantly different. Treatments
6R15S0M and 5W0S0M exhibited less decrease in force
throughout the storage period compared to 6R5S3M. This
result suggested that an oxidized corn starch and wheat
flour may contribute to good batter adhesion during frozen storage, whereas MC provided good adhesion immediately after frying but may not be suitable during frozen
storage. A plausible explanation was that the 6R5S3M
batter had a high moisture content and thus increased
freezer damage, as supported by the structural analysis.
Consequently, the 6R5S3M batter showed higher deterioration compared to other treatments. In contrast, gluten
protein in wheat flour may have been more tolerant to
freezing, resulting in less structural damage.
Microbiological Analysis
The initial viable counts of raw chicken drumsticks and
batters are shown in Table 3. The total plate count from
raw chicken drumsticks was higher than counts found in
raw batter. The WFBB had a lower initial viable count
compared to RFBB probably because of the different flour
sources. Surkiewicz et al. (1967) reported that a dry batter
mix composed of flour, seasoning, nonfat dry milk powder, and dried egg had bacterial counts of 1,000 to 60,000
organisms/g. Additionally, drumsticks, processing environment, and food handlers were other sources of contamination. The initial microbial load in our study could
be considered as an intermediate contamination (103–104
organisms/g) based on guidelines suggested by Fung
(1983) and Cunningham (1989). A higher initial microbial
load might have been prevented by using freshly prepared batter chilled to 10 C before applying to the drumsticks. In support of this hypothesis, Surkiewicz et al.
(1967) reported that the bacterial count of unchilled batter
is significantly higher than that of chilled batter.
The microbial counts of all fried drumsticks coated with
RFBB or WFBB were <1 log cfu/g (estimated) (Table 3)
immediately after frying or during 90 d of storage at −40
C. This result suggested that the final temperature of the
cooked product played a critical role in microbial control.
This finding agreed with previous studies on chicken
patties. Yi and Chen (1987) reported that the microbial
count of chicken patties decreased from 3.64 to 1.52 log
cfu/g when the internal temperatures were increased
from 48.9 to 71.1 C. Ang and Huang (1993) found that the
microbial count of chicken patties cooked to an internal
endpoint temperature of ≥70 C decreased to <10 cfu/g
with negligible growth during 7 d at 4 C. Smith and
Alvarez (1988) reported that psychrotrophic aerobic colony-forming units were not found in turkey breast roll
cooked to an internal temperature of 71 C. Vanderzant et
al. (1973) reported that aerobic plate counts and coliform
counts in frozen breaded raw shrimp decreased slightly
during storage for of 3 to 12 mo. Wang et al. (1976b)
found that total microbial count of frozen, prefried
chicken products obtained from a retail store varied
among samples, but molds and yeasts were not detected.
They reported that the mesophilic and psychrophilic
counts were 2.90 to 4.78 and 2.74 to 4.66 log cfu/g, respec-
PHYSICOCHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF RICE FLOUR BATTER
tively. Lillard (1971) reported that flour used for breading
had 8.4 × 103 to 3.9 × 104 organisms/g, flour with a spice
mixture had 2.2 × 105 to 3.8 × 105 organisms/g, the spice
mixture had 2.3 × 106 organisms/g, and batter had 1.1 ×
105 to 2.1 × 106 organisms/g. The uncooked products
had 6.7 × 104 to 2.9 × 105 organisms/g, whereas cooked
products had less than 3 × 103 to 6.5 × 103 organisms/g.
The author concluded that the commercial cooking process greatly reduced the frequency and number of Clostridium perfringens in finished products.
In addition to temperature (refrigerated batter application and high frying temperature), another factor that
might control microbial growth is pH of the batter. Batters
prepared in this study had pH values between 5.51 to 5.63.
This slightly acid pH would not favor microbial growth.
In conclusion, based on the physicochemical evaluation
in this study, RFBB may be used in place of wheat flour
batter to coat chicken drumsticks for deep-fat frying. Batters formulated with rice flour alone or with addition of
MC showed lower fat absorption than wheat flour batter.
Thus, RFBB contributed to a healthier product that was
more resistant to lipid oxidation during frozen storage.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Tyson Foods, Inc. (Springdale, AR
72765) for supplying chicken drumsticks. Thanks also go
to Riviana Foods Inc. (Houston, TX 77252); ADM Milling
Co. (Lincoln, NE 68501); National Starch and Chemical
Co. (Bridgewater, NJ 08807); Jungbunzlauer Inc. (Newton
Center, MA 02159), and Dow Chemical Co. (Midland, MI
48647) for supplying materials. This is Contribution No.
01-43-J from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
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