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B. Hebrew Language and Writing
Hebrew is a Semitic language and is related to many of the
languages that were used in the ancient world. Unlike Akkadian cuneiform, it is alphabetic rather than syllabic (i.e., each
sign is a letter rather than a syllable). It is written from right to
left using only consonants. A system of marks above and below
the consonants was developed during the first millennium AD
to fill in vowels and thus preserve the pronunciation of what
was at that time a dying language.
R.
Ya r m u k
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Treaty/Covenant — Hittite treaties from second millennium
BC and Assyrian treaties from first millennium that use a
literary format similar to that which the Old Testament uses
for the covenant
■ Ugaritic Texts — Archive from 13th century BC that provides literary texts that would have been familiar to the Canaanites of the Judges period
■ Sumerian Proverbs — Several collections of proverbial sayings that date back to a millennium before Solomon and
often deal with topics similar to biblical Proverbs
■ Egyptian Instructions — Wisdom literature offered as inC. Ten Key Bridges to the Ancient Near East
struction from a father to his son to prepare him for life and
■ Enuma Elish — Babylonian praise hymn to their chief God,
often for rule
Tablet containing the
recounting his ascension to the head of the pantheon. Dates
Enuma Elish
■ Neo-Assyrian Royal Inscriptions — Record of the activities
(© Z. Radovan)
to about 1200 BC and contains an account of creation
of the Assyrian kings that provides many details illuminat■ Gilgamesh — Epic from second millennium BC that records the
ing the Old Testament historical context
exploits of Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, and his companion, Enkidu, and
■ Atrahasis Epic — Akkadian text from early in second millennium BC
ultimately the king’s search for immortality. Includes an account of a
that has an account of creation, followed by population growth and then
devastating flood that destroyed humanity
a flood that destroys the human race
■
BIBLICAL STUDIES / OLD TESTAMENT
Words for “King” in Various Scripts
US $6.99/UK £9.99/CAN $19.99
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ISBN-10: 0-310-27318-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-310-27318-9
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All rights reserved. No part
of this publication may be
reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmied in any form or by any
means, except for brief
quotations in printed
reviews, without the prior
permission of the publisher.
Ashkelon
Gaza
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ISBN 10: 0-310-27318-8
ISBN 13: 978-0-310-27318-9
Samaria
Hamath
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Zondervan Get An A! Study Guide: Survey of
the Old Testament
Copyright © 2007 by John H. Walton
Mt. Gilboa
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Nineveh Nuzi
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by
Andrew E. Hill
and
John H. Walton
Megiddo
R.
Mt. Tabor Ya r m u k
RIA
axes R.
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and
Old Testament Today
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Companion to
A Survey of the Old
Testament
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Mediterranean Sea
Sea of Galilee
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Revelation (to God’s holiness) — God has revealed his character in the OT
through the covenant and Israel’s history. The entire constellation of his
attributes serves to demonstrate his holiness, which he wants his people to
imitate.
Presence (to God’s love) — God’s love for people is reflected in his desire to
be present among us. The world was created for that, but his presence was
lost when people sinned. The OT is the story of God’s plan to reestablish his
presence through the covenant, the law, and the temple.
Covenant (to God’s faithfulness) — God chose Abraham and made promises to him with the intention of reestablishing his presence and relationship to him through the covenant. Throughout the long centuries of Israel’s
repeated unfaithfulness, God remained faithful to carry out his promises.
Blessing (to God’s graciousness) — From the beginning, God has been gracious in blessing people even in times of unfaithfulness. The blessing on all
humanity (Gen. 1) grew into the blessing connected with the covenant with
Israel, and eventually, through innumerable acts of grace, all the world was
blessed with God’s revelation of himself, his presence, and the opportunity
to be in relationship with him.
Creation (to God’s order) — God brought order to the world in the days
of creation and then took his place at the controls to preserve order in the
world. In this way his work as creator continues as order is maintained.
History (to God’s sovereignty) — History is not just a sequence of events,
but also a testimony to God’s sovereignty as he works out his plan in the
world. The history written in the OT focuses on what God is doing.
Sin (to God’s justice) — Sin broke humanity’s relationship with God, and
justice called for our destruction. But God’s grace and love work alongside
his justice, and judgment was forestalled while God enacted a plan to bring
us back to him.
Mt. Carmel
Sidon
Tyre
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Caphtor
(Crete)
Dan
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Haran
Ugarit
Mt Hermon
Lit an i R.
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Carchemish
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D. Key Themes Tied to Divine Attributes
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A. Maps of Israel and Ancient Near East
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I. BACKGROUND
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John H. Walton
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It’s about God. It is easy for us to focus our attention on the human characters of the Bible or on our own needs. Instead of looking to the Bible to give us tips for living or decision-making, our first line of
interpretation should be to seek to understand how God is revealed.
The Bible is a cultural artifact. Although the Bible is God’s Word, it is also
an ancient book that contains information communicated to an ancient audience. Our interpretation must recognize this rather than thinking of it as
if it had been written recently. It is important to remember that although it
was written for everyone, it was written to Israel.
What would the audience have understood? Even though later readers of
the Bible often can get more meaning from passages because of what God
has been doing in history, our first obligation to the text is to try to understand it as the communication between the original author and his immediate audience. We want to hear it as they heard it and thus take the text at
face value.
The nature of prophecy and fulfillment. Prophets had messages given by
God and understood those messages and communicated them competently to an audience who likewise understood them. They proclaimed God’s
perspective and plan. Fulfillment is identifying how the plan works out in
history. In prophecy, God is more interested in revealing himself than in
revealing the future.
Law reveals the holiness of God. The law should not be considered simply
a collection of rules. Like every other part of Scripture, the law serves as
God’s revelation of himself. It illustrates what holiness looks like and how it
is maintained.
Importance of history writing. In history writing today we value
highest the perspective of an eyewitness. In the Bible what is
most important about history is often what an eyewitness could
not see. Events themselves are not as important as the outcomes
that reflect God’s activity and purposes.
Guides to literary analysis. A book of the Bible is not thrown together randomly but is carefully written with a literary purpose. We can understand
the literary strategy of the book by observing the selection of what to include, the arrangement of the material, and the emphasis that is evident in
how the material is presented.
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V. INTERPRETATION: SOME POINTERS
Jo rd a n R.
Zechariah
God’s love for Israel
The Day of the Lord
Israel’s injustice
Judgment on Edom
God’s compassion
Judah’s injustice
Judgment on Nineveh
Judgment on the Babylonians
The Day of the Lord
Priorities and the construction of
the Temple
Comfort for Judah and call to
repentance
Israel’s relationship with God
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Retribution Principle (to God’s justice) — The belief that those who are righteous will prosper and those who are wicked will suffer. The converse was
often believed — as expressed in Job — that those who are prospering must
be righteous and those who are suffering must be wicked.
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Hosea
Joel
Amos
Obadiah
Jonah
Micah
Nahum
Habakkuk
Zephaniah
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Isaiah 53 speaks of a suffering servant that the New Testament sees fulfilled
in Christ. He suffers and offers his life for the sins of the people.
Joel 2 refers to the Day of the Lord, a time of turmoil when the Spirit of God
will descend and those who call on his name will be saved. The apostle Peter identifies that day as having arrived at Pentecost when the Spirit comes
upon the disciples in the upper room and he preaches to thousands, urging
them to call on the Lord and be saved.
Exodus 12 records the 10th plague on Egypt, with the Israelites being
spared from the angel of death. This event was then celebrated yearly to remember their great deliverance from Egypt. Jesus used that occasion at his
last supper with the disciples to give them another deliverance to celebrate
and remember — his death for them.
2 Samuel 7 contains the covenant God made with David to provide for a
succession of kings on his throne. This developed into the hope of an ideal
future king from David’s line, referred to as the Messiah. Jesus fulfills this
as one who has the right to sit on David’s throne.
Exodus 20 and Deuteronomy 5 record the Ten Commandments. These
served as the foundation for the Israelite law. In the Sermon on the Mount,
Jesus shows that even in these commandments the letter of the law is not
sufficient — it is the spirit of the law that must be observed.
Jeremiah 31 speaks of a new covenant that will be written on the heart.
This is ushered in by the death and resurrection of Christ and referred to at
the Last Supper, where he identified the wine as “the new covenant in my
blood.”
Psalm 110 refers to the Messiah’s combined role of priest and king. This
dual role is attributed to Christ by the author of the book of Hebrews.
Micah 5:2 indicates that the future ideal Davidic king will come out of
Bethlehem just as David had — not out of Jerusalem, where kings would be
expected to be born. The wise men were directed to Bethlehem when they
inquired of Herod, and that is where they found the Christ-child.
Isaiah 9:6 reveals the nature of the future ideal Davidic king through characteristics reflected in his name.
Isaiah 7:14 speaks of a child named Immanuel, “God with us.” Jesus, the
virgin-born Son of God, came and dwelt among us, bringing God’s presence
in a way that had never been anticipated.
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PROPHET
C. Ten Key Bridges to the New Testament with Brief Explanation
Ki
The purpose of the book of ECCLESIASTES is to demonstrate that
there is nothing in life that is able to bring self-fulfillment or give
meaning to life. Frustration and troubles are unavoidable, and we
should not expect answers to why things happen. Rather than pursuing self-fulfillment, we should enjoy the good things of life as a
gift from God. We should recognize that troubles help to shape us
as people. A God-centered approach to life accepts both success and
adversity as coming from the hand of God.
The purpose of the book of SONG OF SONGS is to help us to
understand that love and sex are among the most powerful issues
we deal with. The wise person will learn to control as well as enjoy
these aspects of life.
The purpose of the book of ISAIAH is to demonstrate the trustworthiness of God with regard to two kings that Isaiah advised.
Ahaz did not trust God; he ignored Isaiah’s advice, followed his
own schemes, and suffered the consequences. Hezekiah,
in contrast, trusted God, and Jerusalem was delivered
from the Assyrians. In the second half of the book
the exiles are encouraged to trust God to bring deliverance.
The purpose of the book of JEREMIAH is to call
the people of Judah back to faithful dependence on
God. He warns them of the punishment of exile
that is coming quickly upon them as the Babylonians expand their empire.
The book of L AMENTATIONS records a number of
poems that express the sadness of the people of Judah
over the tragedy of the destruction of Jerusalem in 587 BC. The
people weep from the feeling that God has abandoned them. The
poems show the peoples’ sense of guilt, confession, and repentance
as they realize how deeply they have hurt God by their sin and unfaithfulness.
The purpose of the book of EZEKIEL is to tell the Israelites that
destruction of the city of Jerusalem is coming. Ezekiel is already
in exile, but he warns the people still in Israel that God’s presence
is about to depart from the temple, leaving the people exposed to
Babylonian invasion. After the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple, he tells of a future restoration including a vision
of a glorious new temple. He sees a time when God’s presence will
return to the temple.
The purpose of the book of DANIEL is to demonstrate the sovereignty of God. As Daniel and his friends trust him, God shows
himself able to protect and deliver. Daniel’s visions proclaim God’s
sovereignty over kings, nations, and empires. At the same time, his
prophecies inform the people of Israel that the kingdom will be longer in coming than expected, so meanwhile they are to live out their
faith in the midst of an unbelieving world, trusting in God for deliverance and protection.
The purpose of the MINOR PROPHETS is to preserve the messages of the prophets to Israel and Judah from the eighth through
fifth centuries BC. The emphasis of each is as follows:
i
Wa d
The purpose of JOSHUA is well summarized in Joshua 21:43 – 45:
“So the LORD gave Israel all the land, . . . and they took possession of
it and settled there. The LORD gave them rest on every side. . . . The
LORD handed all their enemies over to them. Not one of all the LORD’s
good promises to the house of Israel failed; every one was fulfilled.”
The book shows how God kept his covenant promise to give the land
to Israel.
The purpose of JUDGES is to show the failure of the Israelites to
keep their part of the covenant. The cycles show how God demonstrated his power and mercy by delivering them time after time after his
justice had demanded that he bring punishment. The book shows that
neither the judges nor the tribal leadership succeeded in helping the
people remain faithful. Instead, the leaders were as bad as the people.
The purpose of RUTH is to show that when people are faithful,
God is faithful. It provides a contrast to the book of Judges, showing that faithfulness survived in Israel among some of the
common folk. God preserved such families of faithfulness, and that is the very background from which David came.
The purpose of the books of SAMUEL is to tell
the story of the establishment of the kingship covenant with David. God’s plan was to have a king who
would give a good example of what God’s kingship
is like. David is shown to be the legitimate choice of
God, but is also shown to have been at times an obstacle rather than an instrument of God’s rule.
The purpose of the books of K INGS is to demonstrate
that the kings of Israel and Judah failed to live up to the ideals
of the kingship covenant. As in the book of Judges, however, God
continues to reveal what he is like even through the failures of the
kings. Sometimes he does this through punishment or judgment;
other times, by raising up better representatives of his kingship
(such as Elisha). The books are written from the exile and show
how the people ended up in exile.
The purpose of the books of CHRONICLES is to show that throughout Israel’s history, obedience led to blessing and disobedience led
to trouble. The Chronicler demonstrates that the kingdom is not
dependent on a king, but is spiritual. The priests and the temple are
therefore of highest importance. Written long after the exile, the
books help the Israelites understand the nature of God’s kingdom
in their dire circumstances.
The purpose of the books of EZRA and NEHEMIAH is to show the
many ways in which God was at work to restore the people of Israel
to their land. God brought favor with the Persian rulers and helped
the Israelites overcome the obstacles presented by their enemies as
they rebuilt the walls of Jerusalem and set up the law as the foundation of society. The books recount the restoration of the temple, the
community, Jerusalem, and the covenant.
The purpose of the book of ESTHER is to show that God can
accomplish his purposes just as easily through “coincidences” as
through grand miracles of deliverance. Although he works behind
the curtain, God is in control. Events that others see as chance or
fate can be seen by believers as signs of God’s sovereignty.
The purpose of the book of Job is to test God’s policies concerning justice. The conclusion is that God’s justice cannot be assessed
because we can never have enough information to assess it. Instead,
his justice must be inferred from his wisdom.
The purpose of the book of PSALMS is to use the familiar hymns
of Israel to provide a cantata-like presentation of God’s kingship
through his anointed representatives, the kings of David’s line. It
shows God as one who delights in rewarding the righteous and who
will bring punishment to the wicked. The themes and message of
the book are embedded in Psalms 1, 2, and 145.
The purpose of the book of PROVERBS is to pass on wisdom for
living to the leaders of the next generation. It insists that all of the
world’s wisdom must be based on “the fear of the Lord” (that is, awe
and reverence) to be valid.
The word king Lugal in
Sumerian script.
The word king nesu in
Egyptian Hyroglyphic script.
The word king melek in
Iron Age Hebrew script.
The word king ŝarru in
Neo-Assyrian Akkadian script.