CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 THE GANGA RIVER
The Ganga is a major river of the Indian subcontinent rising in the Himalaya
Mountains and flowing about 2,510 km (1,560 miles) generally eastward
through a vast plain to the Bay of Bengal.
1.1.1 Origin and History of Ganga River
Ganga flows southeast through the Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and
West Bengal. In central Bangladesh it is joined by the Brahmaputra and
Meghna rivers. Their combined waters (called the Padma River) empty into
the Bay of Bengal and form a delta 220 miles (354 km) wide, which are shared
by India and Bangladesh. It’s plain is one of the most fertile and densely
populated regions in the world (A.A. Ansari et. al., 2000). In the Uttarakhand
Himalayas, where glacial water flowing from a cave at Gaumukh, is the origin
of the Bhagirathi River. Gaumukh has been described as a desolate place at an
altitude of about 4,000 meters (13,000 feet). Twenty-three kilometres from
Gaumukh, the river reaches Gangotri, the first town on its path. Thousands of
visitors come to Gangotri each year, from every part of the world (C.K. Jain et
al 2002). The river which joins the Alaknanda river at Devaprayag, also in the
Uttarakhand Himalayas, to form the Ganga. The Ganga then flows through the
Himalayan valleys and emerges into the north Indian plain at the town of
Haridwar (K.R. Beg et. al. 2008).
On its 1,560- (2,510-km) course in plains, Ganga flows southeast through the
Indian states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and West Bengal. The Ganga
passes some of the most populous cities of India including Kanpur, Allahabad,
Varanasi, Patna, and Kolkata (C.K. Jain, 2002). The Yamuna, which
originates less than a hundred miles east of the Bhagirathi, flows parallel to the
Ganga and a little to the south for most of its course before merging with the
1
Ganga at the holy city of Allahabad, also known as Triveni Sangam. New
Delhi, capital of India, and Agra, site of the Taj Mahal, are two of the major
cities on the Yamuna river (A.R. Khwaja et. al., 2001).
Now flowing east, the river meets the Tamsa River (also called Tons), which
flows north from the Kaimur Range and contributes an average flow of about
190 m3/s (6,700 cu ft/s). After the Tamsa the Gomti River joins, flowing south
from the Himalayas (G. Muller, 1997). The Gomti contributes an average
annual flow of about 234 m3/s (8,300 cu ft/s). Then the Ghaghara River
(Karnali River), also flowing south from the Himalayas of Nepal, joins. The
Ghaghara (Karnali), with its average annual flow of about 2,990 m3/s
(106,000 cu ft/s), is the largest tributary of the Ganges. After the
Ghaghara(Karnali) confluence the Ganges is joined from the south by the Son
River, contributing about 1,000 m3/s (35,000 cu ft/s). The Gandaki River, then
the Kosi River, join from the north flowing from Nepal, contributing about
1,654 m3/s (58,400 cu ft/s) and 2,166 m3/s (76,500 cu ft/s), respectively. The
Kosi is the third largest tributary of the Ganges, after the Ghaghara (Karnali)
and Yamuna.
Along the way between Allahabad and Malda, West Bengal, the Ganges
passes the towns of Chunar, Mirzapur, Varanasi, Ghazipur, Patna, Bhagalpur,
Ballia, Buxar, Simaria, Sultanganj, and Saidpur. At Bhagalpur, the river
begins to flow south-southeast and at Pakur, it begins its attrition with the
branching away of its first Distributary, the Bhāgirathi-Hooghly, which goes
on to become the Hooghly River. Just before the border with Bangladesh the
Farakka Barrage controls the flow of the Ganges, diverting some of the water
into a feeder canal linked to the Hooghly for the purpose of keeping it
relatively silt-free (M.Singh et. al., 2003). The Hooghly River is formed by the
confluence of the Bhagirathi River and Jalangi River at Nabadwip, and
Hooghly has a number of tributaries of its own. The largest is the Damodar
2
River, which is 541 km (336 mi) long, with a drainage basin of 25,820 km2
(9,970 sq mi). The Hooghly River empties into the Bay of Bengal near Sagar
Island. Between Malda and the Bay of Bengal, the Hooghly River passes the
towns and cities of Murshidabad, Nabadwip, Kolkata and Howrah.
Only the Amazon and Congo rivers have a greater average discharge than the
combined flow of the Ganges, the Brahmaputra, and the Surma-Meghna river
system.
The Indian subcontinent lies on a top of the Indian tectonic plate, a minor plate
within the Indo-Australian Plate. Its defining geological processes commenced
seventy-five million years ago, when, as a part of the southern supercontinent
Gondwana, it began a northeast wards drift lasting fifty million years across
the unformed Indian Ocean. The subcontinent's subsequent collision with the
Eurasian Plate and subduction under it, gave rise to the Himalayas, the planet's
highest mountains. In the former seabed immediately south of the emerging
Himalayas, plate movement created a vast trough, which, having gradually
been filled with sediment borne by the Indus and its tributaries and the Ganges
and its tributaries, now forms the Indo-Gangetic Plain.
History-The birth of Ganges
The Late Harappan period, about (1900–1300 BCE), the Harappan spread
settlement eastward from the Indus River basin to the Ganges-Yamuna doab,
although none crossed the Ganges to settle its eastern bank. The disintegration
of the Harappan civilization, in the early 2nd millennium BC, marks the point
when the centre of Indian civilization shifted from the Indus basin to the
Ganges basin. There may be links between the Late Harappan settlement of
the Ganges basin and the archaeological culture known as "Cemetery H", the
Indo-Aryan people, and the Vedic period.
3
This river is the longest in India. During the early Vedic Age of the Rigveda,
the Indus and the Sarasvati River were the major sacred rivers, not the Ganges.
But the later three Vedas give much more importance to the Ganges. The
Gangetic Plain became the centre of successive powerful states, from the
Maurya Empire to the Mughal Empire.
In 1951 a water sharing dispute arose between India and Bangladesh (then
East Pakistan), after India declared its intention to build the Farakka Barrage.
The original purpose of the barrage, which was completed in 1975, was to
divert up to 40,000 cu ft/s (1,100 m3/s) of water from the Ganges to the
Bhagirathi-Hooghly distributary in order to restore navigability at the Port of
Kolkata. It was assumed that during the worst dry season the Ganges flow
would be around 50,000 to 55,000 cu ft/s (1,400 to 1,600 m3/s), thus leaving
10,000 to 15,000 cu ft/s (280 to 420 m3/s) for East Pakistan. East Pakistan
objected and a protracted dispute ensued. In 1996 a 30-year treaty was signed.
The terms of the agreement are complicated, but in essence they state that if
the Ganges flow at Farakka was less than 70,000 cu ft/s (2,000 m3/s) then
India and Bangladesh would each receive 50% of the water, with each
receiving at least 35,000 cu ft/s (990 m3/s) for alternating ten day periods.
However, within a year the flow at Farakka fell to levels far below the historic
average, making it impossible to implement the guaranteed sharing of water.
In March 1997, flow of the Ganges in Bangladesh dropped to its lowest ever,
6,500 cu ft/s (180 m3/s). Dry season flows returned to normal levels in the
years following, but efforts were made to address the problem. One plan is for
another barrage to be built in Bangladesh at Pangsha, west of Dhaka. This
barrage would help Bangladesh better utilize its share of the waters of the
Ganga. The following table 1.1 shows the history of Ganga, Ganga river
passes from Two Countries Bangladesh and India and this table also shows the
tributary rivers of Ganga.
4
Table 1.1 Introduction of Ganga Basin
Countries
India, Bangladesh
States
Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal
Tributaries
Left
Ramganga, Gomti, Ghaghara, Gandaki, Burhi Gandak, Koshi,
Mahananda
Right
Yamuna, Tamsa, Son, Punpun
Cities
Haridwar, Kanpur, Jajmau, Allahabad, Varanasi, Mirzapur,
Ghazipur, Patna, Rishikesh, Munger, Bhagalpur, Baharampur,
Kolkata
Source
Gangotri Glacier, Satopanth Glacier, Khatling Glacier, and
waters from melted snow from such peaks as Nanda Devi,
Trisul, Kedarnath, Nanda Kot, and Kamet.
Location
Uttarakhand, India
elevation
3,892 m (12,769 ft)
coordinates 30°59′N 78°55′E
Mouth
Ganges Delta
- location
Bay of Bengal, Bangladesh & India
- elevation
0 m (0 ft)
coordinates 22°05′N 90°50′E
Length
2,525 km (1,569 mi)
Basin
1,080,000 km2 (416,990 sq mi)
Map of the combined drainage basins of
the
Ganges
(orange),
Brahmaputra
(violet), and Meghna (green)
5
1.1.2 Fertilization of Ganga River
The Ganges alone drains an area of over a million square km with a population
of over 407 million. Millions depend on water from the holy river for several
things: drinking, bathing, agriculture, industry and other household chores (J.
Pandey et. al., 2010).
After flowing 250 kilometres (160 mi) through its narrow Himalayan valley,
the Ganges emerges from the mountains at Rishikesh, then debouches onto the
Gangetic Plain at the pilgrimage town of Haridwar. At Haridwar, a dam
diverts some of its waters into the Ganges Canal, which irrigates the Doab
region of Uttar Pradesh, whereas the river, whose course has been roughly
southwest until this point, now begins to flow southeast through the plains of
northern India.
The Ganges Basin with its fertile soil is instrumental to the agricultural
economies of India and Bangladesh. The Ganges and its tributaries provide a
perennial source of irrigation to a large area (Richa Pandey et. al., 2010).
Chief crops cultivated in the area include rice, sugarcane, lentils, oil seeds,
potatoes, and wheat. Along the banks of the river, the presence of swamps and
lakes provide a rich growing area for crops such as legumes, chillies, mustard,
sesame, sugarcane, and jute. There are also many fishing opportunities to
many along the river, though it remains highly polluted. Kanpur, largest
leather producing city in the world is situated on the bank of this river ( K. R.
Beg et al, 2008).
1.1.3 People Residing on bank of Ganga River
It is the longest river of India and is the second greatest river in the world by
water discharge. The Ganges basin is the most heavily populated river basin in
the world, with over 400 million people and a population density of about
1,000 inhabitants per square mile (390 /km2) (K. R. Beg et. al., 2008) .
6
The basin covers parts of four countries, India, Nepal, China, and Bangladesh,
eleven Indian states, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, West
Bengal, and the Union Territory of Delhi (A.A. Ansari et. al., 2000). The
Ganges basin, including the delta but not the Brahmaputra or Meghna basins,
is
about
1,080,000
km2
(420,000 sq mi),
of
which
861,000
km2
(332,000 sq mi) are in India (about 80%), 140,000 km2 (54,000 sq mi) in
Nepal (13%), 46,000 km2 (18,000 sq mi) in Bangladesh (4%), and 33,000 km2
(13,000 sq mi) in China (3%). Sometimes the Ganges and Brahmaputra–
Meghna drainage basins are combined for a total of about 1,600,000 km2
(620,000 sq mi), or 1,621,000 km2 (626,000 sq mi). The combined GangesBrahmaputra-Meghna basin (abbreviated GBM or GMB) drainage basin is
spread across Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, and China.
The Ganges basin ranges from the Himalaya and the Trans Himalaya in the
north, to the northern slopes of the Vindhya range in the south, from the
eastern slopes of the Aravalli in the west to the Chota Nagpur plateau and the
Sunderbans delta in the east. A significant portion of the discharge from the
Ganges comes from the Himalayan mountain system. Within the Himalaya,
the Ganges basin spreads almost 1,200 km from the Yamuna-Satluj divide
along the Simla ridge forming the boundary with the Indus basin in the west to
the Singalila Ridge along the Nepal-Sikkim border forming the boundary with
the Brahmaputra basin in the east. This section of the Himalaya contains 9 of
the 14 highest peaks in the world over 8,000m in height, including Mount
Everest which is the high point of the Ganges basin.
The discharge of the Ganges also differs by source. Frequently, discharge is
described for the mouth of the Meghna River, thus combining the Ganges with
the Brahmaputra and Meghna (J Pandey et. al., 2010 ). This results in a total
average annual discharge of about 38,000 m3/s (1,300,000 cu ft/s), or
7
42,470 m3/s (1,500,000 cu ft/s). In other cases the average annual discharges
of the Ganges, Brahmaputra, and Meghna are given separately, at about
16,650 m3/s
(588,000 cu ft/s)
for
the
Ganges,
about
19,820 m3/s
(700,000 cu ft/s) for the Brahmaputra, and about 5,100 m3/s (180,000 cu ft/s)
for the Meghna.
The natural forest of the upper Gangetic Plain has been so thoroughly
eliminated it is difficult to assign a natural vegetation type with certainty.
There are a few small patches of forest left, and they suggest that much of the
upper plains may have supported a tropical moist deciduous forest with sal
(Shorea robusta) as a climax species ( A.A. Ansari 2000).
The Ganges River itself supports the mugger crocodile (Crocodylus palustris)
and the gharial (Gavialis gangeticus). The river's most famed fauna is the
freshwater dolphin Platanista gangetica gangetica, the Ganges River dolphin,
recently declared India's national aquatic animal.
1.1.4 Economical value of Ganga River
The hydrologic cycle in the Ganges basin is governed by the Southwest
Monsoon. About 84% of the total rainfall occurs in the monsoon from June to
September. Consequently, stream flow in the Ganges is highly seasonal. The
average dry season to monsoon discharge ratio is about 1:6, as measured at
Hardinge Bridge. This strong seasonal variation underlies many problems of
land and water resource development in the region. The seasonality of flow is
so acute it can cause both drought and floods (K. R. Beg et. al., 2008).
Bangladesh, in particular, frequently experiences drought during the dry
season and regularly suffers extreme floods during the monsoon.
In the Ganges Delta many large rivers come together, both merging and
bifurcating in a complicated network of channels. The two largest rivers, the
8
Ganges and Brahmaputra, both split into distributary channels, the largest of
which merge with other large rivers before themselves joining. This current
channel pattern was not always the case. Over time the rivers in Ganges Delta
have changed course, sometimes altering the network of channels in
significant ways.Tourism is another related activity.
The Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna basin has a huge hydroelectric potential, on
the order of 200,000 to 250,000 megawatts, nearly half of which could be
easily harnessed. As of 1999, India tapped about 12% of the hydroelectric
potential of the Ganges and just 1% of the vast potential of the Brahmaputra.
The Ganges suffers from extreme pollution levels, which affect the 400
million people who live close to the river. Sewage from many cities along the
river's course, industrial waste and religious offerings wrapped in nondegradable plastics add large amounts of pollutants to the river as it flows
through densely populated areas. The problem is exacerbated by the fact that
many poorer people rely on the river on a daily basis for bathing, washing, and
cooking.
1.1.5 Holy River and Worship
The Ganges is the most sacred river to Hindus and is also a lifeline to millions
of Indians who live along its course and depend on it for their daily needs. It is
worshipped as the goddess Ganga in Hinduism. It has also been important
historically: many former provincial or imperial capitals (such as Patliputra,
Kannauj,
Kara, Kashi, Allahabad, Murshidabad, Munger, Baharampur,
Kampilya and Kolkata) have been located on its banks (Richa pandey et. al.,
2010).
The Ganges begins at the confluence of the Bhagirathi and Alaknanda rivers.
The Bhagirathi is considered to be the true source in Hindu culture and
mythology, although the Alaknanda is longer. The headwaters of the
9
Alakananda are formed by snowmelt from such peaks as Nanda Devi, Trisul,
and Kamet. The Bhagirathi rises at the foot of Gangotri Glacier, at Gaumukh,
at an elevation of 3,892 m (12,769 ft). The Ganges follows an 800-kilometre
(500 mi) arching course passing through the cities of Kannauj, Farukhabad,
and Kanpur. Along the way it is joined by the Ramganga, which contributes
an average annual flow of about 500 m3/s (18,000 cu ft/s). The Ganges joins
the Yamuna at the Triveni Sangam at Allahabad, a holy confluence in
Hinduism. At their confluence the Yamuna is larger than the Ganges,
contributing about 2,950 m3/s (104,000 cu ft/s), or about 58.5% of the
combined flow (A.R. Khwaja et. al., 2001).
Three towns holy to Hinduism – Haridwar, prayag (Allahabad), and
Varanasi – attract thousands of pilgrims to its waters. Thousands of Hindu
pilgrims arrive at these three towns to take a dip in the Ganges, which is
believed to cleanse oneself of sins and help attain salvation. The rapids of the
Ganges also are popular for river rafting, attracting hundreds of adventure
seekers in the summer months. Street vendors sell homemade bowls of flowers
with tea light for visitors to set on the water at sunset(A. Yadav et. al., 2003 ).
1.1.6 Tributary Rivers of Ganga
 The largest tributary to the Ganga is the Ghaghara, which meets it before
Patna, in Bihar, bearing much of the Himalayan glacier melt from Northern
Nepal.
 The Gandak, which comes from near Katmandu, is another big Himalayan
tributary.
 Other important rivers that merge with the Ganga are the Son, which
originates in the hills of Madhya Pradesh.
 Gomti which flows past Lucknow and then meets with the River Chambal.
10
 In Bangladesh, the main branch of the Ganges is known as Padma River
till it is joined by the Yamuna River the largest distributaries of the
Brahmaputra.
 In downstream, the Ganges is fed by the Meghna River, the second largest
distributaries of the Brahmaputra and takes on its name.
Although many small streams comprise the headwaters of the Ganges, the six
longest and their five confluences are considered sacred. The six headstreams
are the Alaknanda, Dhauliganga, Nandakini, Pindar, Mandakini, and
Bhagirathi rivers. The five confluences, known as the Panch Prayag, are all
along the Alaknanda. They are, in downstream order, Vishnuprayag, where the
Dhauliganga joins the Alaknanda; Nandprayag, where the Nandakini joins;
Karnaprayag, where the Pindar joins, Rudraprayag, where the Mandakini
joins; and finally, Devprayag, where the Bhagirathi joins the Alaknanda to
form the Ganges River proper (V. Tare et. al., 2003).
Fanning out into the 350 km wide Ganges Delta, it empties out into the Bay of
Bengal. The delta of the Ganga, or rather, that of the Hooghly and the Padma,
is a vast ragged swamp forest (42,000 sq km) called the Sundarbans world’s
largest Ganga delta.
Fig. 1.1 Ganga River and tributary rivers of Ganga
11
After the 16th century the Padma grew to become the main channel of the
Ganges. It is thought that the Bhagirathi-Hooghly became increasingly choked
with silt, causing the main flow of the Ganges to shift to the southeast and the
Padma River. By the end of the 18th century the Padma had become the main
distributary of the Ganges. One result of this shift to the Padma was that the
Ganges joined the Meghna and Brahmaputra rivers before emptying into the
Bay of Bengal, together instead of separately. The present confluence of the
Ganges and Meghna formed about 150 years ago.
1.1.7 Ecology and environment
Human development, mostly agriculture, has replaced nearly all of the original
natural vegetation of the Ganges basin. More than 95% of the upper Gangetic
Plain has been degraded or converted to agriculture or urban areas. Only one
large block of relatively intact habitat remains, running along the Himalayan
foothills and including Rajaji National Park, Jim Corbett National Park, and
Dudhwa National Park. As recently as the 16th and 17th centuries the upper
Gangetic Plain harbored impressive populations of wild Asian elephants
(Elephas maximus), tigers (Panthera tigris), Indian Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros
unicornis), gaurs (Bos gaurus), barasinghas (Rucervus duvaucelii), sloth Bears
(Melursus ursinus) and Indian lions. In the 21st century there are few large
wild animals, mostly deer, boars, wildcats, and small numbers of wolves,
jackals, and foxes. Bengal tigers survive only in the Sundarbans area of the
Ganges Delta. Crocodiles and barasingha are also found in the Sundarbans.
The Sundarbands freshwater swamp ecoregion, however, is nearly extinct.
Threatened mammals in the upper Gangetic Plain include the tiger, elephant,
sloth bear, and chousingha (Tetracerus quadricornis). Fish are found in all the
major rivers of the Ganges basin, and are a vital food source for many people.
In the Bengal area common fish include featherbacks (Notopteridae family),
barbs
(Cyprinidae),
walking
catfish
(Clarias
batrachus),
gouramis
(Anabantidae), and milkfish (Chanos chanos). The critically endangered
12
Ganges shark (Glyphis gangeticus) is also found in the river and other places
in south Asia. Many types of birds are found throughout the basin, such as
myna, parrots, crows, kites, partridges, and fowls. Ducks and snipes migrate
across the Himalayas during the winter, attracted in large numbers to wetland
areas. There are no endemic birds in the upper Gangetic Plain. The Great
Indian Bustard (Ardeotis nigriceps) and Lesser Florican (Sypheotides indicus)
are considered globally threatened.
The lower plains contain more open forests, which tend to be dominated by
Bombax ceiba in association with Albizzia procera, Duabanga grandiflora,
and Sterculia vilosa (Okonkwo et. al., 2011). There are early seral forest
communities that would eventually become dominated by the climax species
sal (Shorea robusta), if forest succession was allowed to proceed. In most
places forests fail to reach climax conditions due to human causes. The forests
of the lower Gangetic Plain, despite thousands of years of human settlement,
remained largely intact until the early 20th century. Today only about 3% of
the ecoregion is under natural forest and only one large block, south of
Varanasi, remains. There are over forty protected areas in the ecoregion, but
over half of these are less than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi). The fauna of
the lower Gangetic Plain is similar to the upper plains, with the addition of a
number of other species such as the Smooth-coated Otter (Lutrogale
perspicillata) and the Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha).
Fig. 1.2 Ganga River in Kanpur
13
1.2 HEAVY METALS
The term heavy metals refer to metals and metalloids having densities greater
than 5 g/cm3, Heavy metal is a member of a loosely defined subset of elements
that exhibit metallic properties. It mainly includes the transition metals, some
metalloids, lanthanides, and actinides or the elements with a specific gravity
that is at least 5 times the specific gravity of water. The specific gravity of
water is 1 at 4°C (R.S. Boyd et. al., 2000).
There are 35 metals that concern us because of occupational or residential
exposure; 23 of these are the heavy elements or "heavy metals": antimony,
arsenic, bismuth, cadmium, cerium, chromium, cobalt, copper, gallium, gold,
iron, lead, manganese, mercury, nickel, platinum, silver, tellurium, thallium,
tin, uranium, vanadium, and zinc (J.Pandey et. al., 2009). Interestingly, small
amounts of these elements are common in our environment and diet and are
actually necessary for good health, but large amounts of any of them may
cause acute or chronic toxicity (poisoning) (N. Khellaf et. al., 2009 ).
1.2.1 Biochemical roles
Some of these elements (essential metals) are required by organisms at low
concentrations (Brown et. al., 1995) (Dobler 2000). For example, zinc(Zn) is
the component of a variety of enzymes (dehydrogenases, proteinases,
peptidases) but is also involved in the metabolism of carbohydrates, proteins,
phosphate, auxins, in RNA and
Shuiping
1999),
(Felix,1997).
ribosome formation in plants (Cheng
Copper
(Cu)
contributes
to
several
physiological processes in plants (photosynthesis ,respiration, carbohydrate
distribution, nitrogen and cell wall metabolism, seed production)including also
disease resistance (Cheng Shuiping
1999). The good functioning of the
metabolisms of humans and bacteria is also dependent on these two metals
(Adriano, 2001;Blencowe & Morby, 2003; Cavet et al., 2003). However, at
high concentrations, these metals exhibit toxic effects on cells (Baker &
14
Walker et. al., 2000). On the contrary, cadmium (Cd) is not involved in any
known biological processes (non essential metal) and may be quite toxic as it
is accumulated by organisms. It is known to disturb enzyme activities, to
inhibit the DNA-mediated transformation in microorganisms, to interfere in
the symbiosis between microbes and plants, as well as to increase plant
predisposition to fungal invasion (Bourne et. al., 2000). In humans, it may
promote several disorders in the metabolism of Ca and vitamin D leading to
bone degeneration and kidney damage (itai-itai disease) (Adriano, 2001).
The excessive uptake of heavy metals by animals and humans is the result of
the successive accumulation of these elements in the food chain, the starting
point being the contamination of the soil. Plants have the best absorbing
capability for extracting heavy metals. In submerged plants capacity of
absorbtion is even extended. The plant having high biomass have lower metal
accumulation and the plant having lower biomass absorb high quality of metal
accumulation (Smilde 1992 dushenkov 1995).
1.2.2 Effects of Heavy metals
Metals play an integral role in the life processes of microorganisms. Some
metals, such as calcium, cobalt, chromium, copper, iron, potassium,
magnesium, manganese, sodium, nickel and zinc, are essential, serve as
micronutrients and are used for redox-processes; to stabilize molecules
through electrostatic interactions; as components of various enzymes; and for
regulation of osmotic pressure (Rolli et al., 2010). Many other metals have no
biological role (e.g. silver, aluminium, cadmium, gold, lead and mercury)
(J.Pandey 2009 ), and are nonessential (Rolli et al., 2010) and potentially toxic
to microorganisms. Toxicity of nonessential metals occurs through the
displacement of essential metals from their native binding sites or through
ligand interactions (Nies, 1999; Bruins et al., 2000). For example, Hg2+, Cd2+
and Ag2+ tend to bind to SH groups, and thus inhibit the activity of sensitive
15
enzymes (Nies, 1999). In addition, at high levels, both essential and
nonessential metals can damage cell membranes; alter enzyme specificity;
disrupt cellular functions; and damage the structure of DNA (Bruins et al.,
2000). To have a physiological or toxic effect, most metal ions have to enter
the microbial cell. Many divalent metal cations (e.g. Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+,
Cu2+ and Zn2+) are structurally very similar. Also, the structure of oxy anions
such as chromate resembles that of sulphate, and the same is true for arsenate
and phosphate. Thus, to be able to differentiate between structurally very
similar metal ions, the microbial uptake systems have to be tightly regulated
(Moffett 2003).
Effect of Zinc
Zinc is a heavy metal found in drinking water as well as food it is a
micronutrient which required human and plant in small amount. It is necessary
for human being but excessive concentration of Zinc Causes many problems
for Human being.
Zinc (Zn) Essential for Human Health
Zinc is an essential trace element for humans, animals and plants. It is vital for
many biological functions and plays a crucial role in more than 300 enzymes
in the human body. The adult body contains about 2-3 grams of zinc. Zinc is
found in all parts of the body: it is in organs, tissues, bones, fluids and cells.
Muscles and bones contain most of the body’s zinc (90%) (Hammer et. al.,
2003). Particularly high concentrations of zinc are in the prostate gland and
semen.
Zinc - vital for growth and cell division
Zinc is especially important during pregnancy, for the growing foetus whose
cells are rapidly dividing. Zinc also helps to avoid congenital abnormalities
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and pre-term delivery (Kayser et. al., 2000). Zinc is vital in activating growth height, weight and bone development - in infants, children and teenagers.
Zinc – vital for fertility
Zinc plays a vital role in fertility. In males, zinc protects the prostate gland
from infection (prostates) and ultimately from enlargement (prostatic
hypertrophy). Zinc helps maintain sperm count and mobility and normal levels
of serum testosterone.
In females, zinc can help treat menstrual problems and alleviate symptoms
associated with premenstrual syndrome (PMS).
Zinc – vital for the immune system
Among all the vitamins and minerals, zinc shows the strongest effect on our
all-important immune system. Zinc plays a unique role in the T-cells. Low
zinc levels lead to reduced and weakened T-cells which are not able to
recognize and fight off certain infections (Kayse et. al., 2000). An increase of
the zinc level has proven effective in fighting pneumonia and diarrhoea and
other infections. Zinc can also reduce the duration and severity of a common
cold (Lasat 2000).
Zinc – vital for taste, smell and appetite
Zinc activates areas of the brain that receive and process information from
taste and smell sensors. Levels of zinc in plasma and zinc’s effect on other
nutrients, like copper and manganese, influence appetite and taste preference.
Zinc is also used in the treatment of anorexia (Delorme et. al., 2001).
Zinc – vital for skin, hair and nails
Zinc accelerates the renewal of the skin cells. Zinc creams are used for babies
to soothe diaper rash and to heal cuts and wounds. Zinc has also proven
effective in treating acne, a problem that affects especially adolescents, and
17
zinc has been reported to have a positive effect on psoriasis and neuro dermitis
(Delorme et. al., 2001).
Zinc is also used as an anti-inflammatory agent and can help smooth the skin
tissue, particularly in cases of poison, sunburn, blisters and certain gum
diseases (Kayse et. al., 2000). Zinc is important for healthy hair. Insufficient
zinc levels may result in loss of hair, hair that looks thin and dull and that goes
grey early. There are also a number of shampoos which contain zinc to help
prevent dandruff.
Zinc – vital for vision
High concentrations of zinc are found in the retina. With age the retinal zinc
declines which seem to play a role in the development of age-related macular
degeneration (AMD), which leads to partial or complete loss of vision. Zinc
may also protect from night blindness and prevent the development of
cataracts.
Side Effects of Zinc
However Zinc is essential for Human Health but high concentration of this
also causes problem for most adults when applied to the skin, or when taken
by mouth in amounts not larger than 40 mg per day (Whiting et. al., 2001).
Routine zinc supplementation is not recommended without the advice of a
healthcare professional (Kayse et. al., 2000). In some people, zinc might cause
nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, metallic taste, kidney and stomach damage, and
other side effects (Shen et. al., 1997). Using zinc on broken skin may cause
burning, stinging, itching, and tingling (Delorme et. al., 2001).
Taking high amounts of zinc is likely unsafe. High doses above the
recommended amounts might cause fever, coughing, stomach pain, fatigue,
and many other problems.
Taking more than 100 mg of supplemental zinc daily or taking supplemental
zinc for 10 or more years doubles the risk of developing prostate cancer. There
18
is also concern that taking large amounts of a multivitamin plus a separate zinc
supplement increases the chance of dying from prostate cancer. Taking 450
mg or more of zinc daily can cause problems with blood iron. Single doses of
10-30 grams of zinc can be fatal.
Effect of Cadmium
Cadmium (Cd), a by-product of zinc production, is one of the most toxic
elements to which man can be exposed at work or in the environment. Once
absorbed, Cd is efficiently retained in the human body, in which it
accumulates throughout life (Brown et. al., 1995). Cd is primarily toxic to the
kidney, especially to the proximal tubular cells, the main site of accumulation.
Cd can also cause bone demineralization, either through direct bone damage or
indirectly as a result of renal dysfunction. In the industry, excessive exposures
to airborne Cd may impair lung function and increase the risk of lung cancer
(Hammer et. al., 2003). All these effects have been described in populations
with relatively high exposures to Cd in the industrial or in heavily polluted
environments. Recent studies, however, suggest that the chronic low
environmental exposure to Cd now prevailing in industrialized countries can
adversely affect the kidneys and bones of the general population (Knight et.
al., 1997). These studies show consistent associations between various renal
and bone biomarkers and the urinary excretion of Cd used to assess Cd body
burden (kayser, 2000). The public health impact of these findings are still
unknown. Further research is needed to ascertain that these associations are
truly causal and not secondary to parallel changes in Cd metabolism and in the
bone or kidney function occurring because of ageing or diseases unrelated to
Cd exposure (Smile et. al., 1992).
Effects of Copper
Copper is a trace element present in all tissues and is required for cellular
respiration, peptide amidation, neurotransmitter biosynthesis, pigment
19
formation, and connective tissue strength. Copper is a cofactor for numerous
enzymes and plays an important role in central nervous system development;
low concentrations of copper may result in incomplete development (Kayser et
al., 2000), whereas excess copper maybe injurious. Copper may be involved in
free radical production, via the Haber-Weiss reaction, that results in
mitochondrial damage, DNA breakage, and neuronal injury. Evidence of
abnormal copper transport and aberrant copper-protein interactions in
numerous human neurological disorders supports the critical importance of
this trace metal for proper neurodevelopment and neurological function
(Padmapriya et. al., 2012). The biochemical phenotypes of human disorders
that involve copper homeostasis suggest possible biomarkers of copper status
that may be applicable to general populations (Sauve et. al., 1999). An
increased concentration of copper in cerebrospinal fluid with normal plasma
copper concentrations has been noted in some patients with Alzheimer disease
neuronal damage leads to loss of muscle strength and respiratory problems,
with an eventual fatal outcome (Cavet et. al., 2003).
Effect of Lead
Lead poisoning (also known as plumbism, colica Pictonum, saturnism) is a
medical condition in humans and other vertebrates caused by increased levels
of the heavy metal lead in the body (Padmapriya 2012). Lead interferes with a
variety of body processes and is toxic to many organs and tissues including the
heart, bones, intestines, kidneys, and reproductive and nervous systems. It
interferes with the development of the nervous system and is therefore
particularly toxic to children, causing potentially permanent learning and
behaviour disorders (Voijant et. al., 2011). Symptoms include abdominal pain,
confusion, headache, anaemia, irritability, and in severe cases seizures, coma,
and death (Sauve et. al., 1999).
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1.2.3 Origin of Heavy Metals into Water
Mineral rock weathering and anthropogenic sources provide two of the main
types of metal inputs to soils. the anthropogenic sources of metal
contamination can be divided to five main groups:
1. Metalliferous mining and smelting (arsenic,cadmium, lead and
mercury).
2. Industry (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, cobolt, copper,mercury, nickel,
zinc) (Singh et. al., 2003).
3. Atmospheric deposition (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead,
mercury, uranium) (Pandey et. al., 2009).
4. Agriculture (arsenic, cadmium, copper, lead, selenium, uranium, zinc)
(Lombi et. al., 2000).
5. Waste disposal (arsenic, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
zinc).
1.3 REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES
There are many Technologies introduced for the waste removal in water and
soil such as Phytoremediation in which waste degrades by the help of plant,
Zoo remediation in which animals degrade waste.
Another technology which is adopted for remediation is Chemical
Remediation in which many types of chemicals and methods are used for
waste degradation such as Chlorine used for water treatment, Ozonation and
UV disinfectant is also another chemical treatment for waste disposal.
1.3.1 Bioremediation
Bioremediation is the use of micro-organism metabolism to remove pollutants.
Technologies can be generally classified as in-situ or ex-situ. In situ
bioremediation involves treating the contaminated material at the site, while ex
situ involves the removal of the contaminated material to be treated elsewhere
(Espinoza1995). Some examples of bioremediation related technologies are
21
phytoremediation,
bioventing,
bioleaching,
landfarming,
bioreactor,
composting, bioaugmentation, rhizofiltration, and biostimulation (Melvani et.
al. 2006).
Bioremediation can occur on its own (natural attenuation or intrinsic
bioremediation) (Dojka et. al., 1998) or can be spurred on via the addition of
fertilizers to increase the bioavailability within the medium (biostimulation).
Recent advancements have also proven successful via the addition of matched
microbe strains to the medium to enhance the resident microbe population's
ability to break down contaminants (Kunito et. al., 1998, Shubhashish et. al.,
2010). Microorganisms used to perform the function of bioremediation are
known as bioremediators.
1.3.2 In-situ and ex- situ approaches
Ex -Situ: Physical containment is the least expensive approach but this leaves
the contaminant in place without treatment. As ex situ techniques are
expensive, environmentally invasive and labour intensive, in situ approaches
are generally preferred.
In -Situ: Depending on the extension, depth and kind of the contamination,
different remediation approaches have been proposed (Mulligan et al., 2001).
In general, three strategies are possible the containment of the contaminants
(vangronsveld et. al., 1998), their removal from the environment or their in
situ stabilisation (Guanlin et. al 2006, Kupper et. al 1998).
One of these in situ techniques, phytoremediation, uses plants to remove
pollutants from the environment or to render them harmless (Salt et al., 1995;
Flathman & Lanza, 1998). This in situ technology can be applied to both
organic and inorganic pollutants present in soil or water and is quite
competitive as it costs only 10$-40$ per ton soil (Mulligan et al., 2001).
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 Phytostimulation Plants secrete roots exudates that may be utilised by
bacteria and promote their growth and activity. This microbial stimulation
in the plant rhizosphere modifies the bioaccumulation, biological
oxidation/reduction and biomethylation of heavy metals.
 Phytostabilisation The use of plants to reduce the bioavailability of
pollutants in the environment either with or without non toxic-metalimmobilizing or fertilizing soil amendments. Revegetation stabilize
pollutants in soils, thus rendering them harmless and reducing the risk of
further environmental pollution by leaching of pollutants into the
groundwater or by airborne spread (Escarre et. al., 2011).
 Phytoextraction The use of plants to remove metals or organics from soil
by concentrating them in the harvestable parts (Reeves et. al., 2000). The
metals are recovered by incinerating or composting the plant biomass
(Cheng Shuiping et. al., 1999). If plants are incinerated, the metals are
recovered through suitable air filters (Garbisu et. al., 2001).
 Phytovolatilization The use of plants to volatilize pollutants. Plants
extract volatile pollutants (e.g arsenic, selenium, mercury) from soil and
volatilize them from the foliage. If the process takes place in the
rhizosphere, it is microbially assisted.
1.3.3 Phytoextraction
The success of the phytoextraction process depends on three factors: the
degree of metal contamination, the metal bioavailability and the capacity of
the higher plants to accumulate the metal in the shoots (Glass et. al., 2000,
Pandey et. al., 2009). Soils with a high degree of metal pollution can be
revegetated by metal resistant plants, but their decontamination capacity is
restricted by their low biomass production so that decontamination of the soil
23
cannot be achieved in a reasonable time (Garbisu et. al., 2001). However, the
revegetation of these soils avoids further dispersal of metals by water or wind
erosion (phytostabilisation) (Kousar et. al., 2009). To overcome the limitations
due to plant characteristics, different strategies have been suggested to
improve the phytoextraction process. (Brown et. al., 1995) proposed to
transfer the metal-removal properties of hyper accumulator plants to highbiomass producing species (Kupper et. al., 1996).
However, this approach is limited by the lack of information on the genetics of
metal hyper accumulation in plants (Raskin et. al., 1997). Particularly, the
heredity of relevant plant mechanisms, such as metal transport and storage
(Lasat et al., 2000) and metal tolerance (Ortiz et. al., 1995) must be better
understood (Khellaf et. al., 2008).
1.4 PLANTS AND HEAVY METALS
The rhizosphere is defined as the soil part directly in contact with plant roots
(Miretzky et. al., 2004). This region is physically and chemically modified due
to the root processes induced by the plant for its nutrition (Brown et. al.,
1994). As metals remain absorbed to soil particles, plants have evolved several
strategies for increasing their bioavailability (Bareen et. al., 2008).
1.4.1 Role of Plants in heavy Metal Extraction
1.
Reduction of ion activity in soil solution, desorption of contaminants from
surfaces, convective flow of solution to the root (Brooks et. al., 1998).
2.
Changes in solution chemistry (pH, ionic strength, macronutrients cation
concentrations (e.g., Ca) affecting sorption (Anuar et. al., 2011).
3.
Excretion of organic ligands (root exudates) increasing or decreasing the
total concentration of contaminant ions in solution.
4.
Living or dead plant material acting as new sorbing surfaces for
contaminants.
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5.
Stimulation of the microbial activity in the rhizosphere.
However, the mechanisms involved in the changes of metal mobility at the
root interface and in the acquisition of these elements can vary wide among
plant species. The sensitivity or tolerance of plants towards metals is
influenced by plant species and genotypes. According to Salt et. al., (1998),
plants can be grouped into three categories: excluders, indicators and
accumulators. Excluders survive through restriction mechanisms and are
sensitive to metals over a wide range of soil concentrations (Kunito et. al.,
1998). Members of the grass family (e.g., sudangrass, bromegrass, fescue,
etc.) belong to this group of plants. Indicators show poor control over metal
uptake and transport processes and correspondingly respond to metal
concentrations in soils . This group includes the grain and cereal crops (e.g.
corn, soybean, wheat, oats, etc.). As accumulators do not prevent metals from
entering the roots, they have evolved specific mechanisms for detoxifying
high metal levels accumulated in the cells (Flathman et. al., 1998).
1.4.2 Eichornea
Water hyacinth is more suitable for the extraction of heavy metal into water.
EDTA (Kari et. al., 1996) is a chelating agent which increase the rate of
reaction of absorption of heavy metals from the plant
 Eichornea crassipes (water hyacinth) is a vascular aquatic plant which is
suitable for wastewater treatment (Gaherwar et. al., 2012).
 Water hyacinth in particular high in productivity especially when grown
in wastewater (Padmapriya et. al., 2012).
 The plant grows luxuriantly in wastewater and has an extensive root
system that allows it to absorb nutrients directly from wastewater.
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1.4.3 Lotus
Lotus is a flower and always used for the decoration but because of its bushy
characters also helps in absorption. It shows a great efficiency of absorption
of Pb material from the water.
1.5 SCOPE OF RESEARCH WORK
The main objective of this research is to remove heavy metals in Ganga water
released from the different sources of city by the method having low cost. The
plants used in this experiment give a great look to the industries and chemical
accelerate the rate of reaction of absorption of the plant. Identification and
comparison of sources of pollution in Ganga water of different area of Kanpur.
 Collection and analyzation of data for improvement of water quality of
Ganga River in Kanpur.
 Analyze available data and experimental data to find the present status of
river.
 Possible impacts of different heavy metals present in river.
 Possible mitigation of heavy metals from the river.
 Role of chemical for heavy metal extraction.
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