BEHIND FILIAL PIETY: AN INDIGENOUS STUDY OF
INTERGENERATIONAL RELATIONSHIP AMONG COLLEGE
STUDENTS IN CHINA
By
Yang Xiao
A Thesis
Submitted to the Graduate School and College of English
In Partial Fulfillment of Requirements for
Degree of Master of Arts
Under the supervision of Professor Cooper Wakefield
Shanghai International Studies University
March 2009
1
Acknowledgements
Six months’ hard work has finally put this thesis into shape. But this paper couldn’t have
been finished without those who have helped and encouraged me.
First, I owe great gratitude to my supervisor, Professor Cooper Wakefield. Thank you for
being so patient and so supportive whenever I turn to you for help on my academic
research as well as my life. Thank your for being there for me in the 2008 intercultural
communication conference. That really means a lot to me. Your interpersonal
communication class also inspired me a lot on not only my research but also on my
communication with others.
My gratitude also goes to Professor Steve Kulich for provides me so many precious
opportunities to communicate with world-known scholars and keeps motivating me
through my study. I wouldn’t even have the courage to stand on the stage in the
intercultural communication conference if not for your encouragement.
Many thanks should go to Professor Myron Lustig who helped me on the data analysis and
Professor Cen Wei who helped me to gather the data and offered me great suggestions on
my thesis.
Next, I would like to thank my parents for bringing me to this world and giving me
strength to strive for my goals. I also want to express appreciation to my boyfriend who
comforted me when I felt frustrated during the research. This paper could not have been
completed without your understanding and support. My thanks also go to my dear
roommates. My postgraduate life would never be so memorable without you.
Finally, I should thank all the other IC professors and students. I have never had that sense
of community in my life. Thank you for letting me know the importance of cooperation
and teamwork
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Abstract
This paper explores the current interpretation of the traditional concept “filial piety” among
college students and some domains regarding the status quo of parent-child relationships in
China. This research seeks to investigate one often cited aspect of traditional
“Chineseness” in its current application. Are students still committed to some traditional
family commitments and identities, or are they constructing more individualized
conceptions? What are the main factors contributing to that?
To answer these questions, data was collected from students at a large university in
Shandong Province. The results show that the frequency of communications with their
parents has dropped, primarily due to their leaving home for college. The results also
indicate that although filial piety remains an important concept in the eyes of college
students, the current interpretation of filial piety as well as the status quo of parent-child
relationship is much different from the traditional conceptions. The paper also aims to
examine how their interpretations on filial piety might affect the careers as well as future
family life.
Filial Piety Scale is developed with good reliability and seven items are included. The
degree of acceptance of filial piety in only child is higher than that in child with siblings as
examinations of the means and the standard deviation of the two groups indicate that only
child has substantially higher levels of filial piety than child with siblings. Only child are
more committed to filial piety than child with siblings. The study also shed lights on
relationships with –in-laws.
Key words: filial piety; intergenerational relationship; reciprocity; authoritarianism;
hierarchical structure.
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CONTENTS
Acknowledgements
Abstract .................................................................................................................................. i
ù& ....................................................................................................................................... ii
CHAPTER ONE ....................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................................1
1.1 BACKGROUND ......................................................................................................1
1.2 OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS........................................................... 2
CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................................3
LITERATURE REVIEW .......................................................................................................3
2.1 POSITION OF FILIAL PIETY ................................................................................ 3
2.2 DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF FILIAL PIETY ............................. 5
2.3 PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON FILIAL PIETY.........................................................7
2.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE .................................................9
2.5 EXTENSION OF FILIAL PIETY: ti AND LOYALTY .......................................... 14
2.6 HYPOTHESES & RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...................................................... 16
CHAPTER THREE ..............................................................................................................18
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY ................................................................18
3.1 DESIGN .................................................................................................................. 18
3.1.1 PREVIOUS INSTRUMENTS ......................................................................18
3.1.2 QUESTIONNAIRE.......................................................................................20
3.2 PARTICIPANTS ..................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER FOUR ................................................................................................................24
RESEARCH RESULTS AND ANALYSIS .........................................................................24
4.1 PARENT-CHILD RELATIONSHIPS ..................................................................... 24
4.1.1 FILIAL PIETY IMPORTANCE SCALE ......................................................24
4.1.2 Hypotheses ....................................................................................................26
4.2 RELATIONSHIPS WITH –IN-LAWS ................................................................... 31
CHAPTER FIVE ..................................................................................................................33
CONCLUSION ....................................................................................................................33
5.1 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ........................................................................ 33
5.2 LIMATATIONS & FURTHER RESEARCH.......................................................... 34
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
As a great philosopher in China, Liang Shuming (1987) once wrote Chinese culture is the
culture of filial piety. For centuries, filial piety has served as a guiding principle governing
general Chinese patterns of socialization, as well as specific rules of intergenerational
conduct, applicable throughout the length of one’s life span (D. Y. F. Ho, 1987). As such an
important concept deeply rooted in the minds of Chinese people, filial piety has a
prominent position in China. In addition to the background information necessary to
understand this question, the chapter states the overall structure of the thesis.
1.1 BACKGROUND
Liu Dezhong (2001) summarizes “firstly, filial piety can enhance the morality, ensure a life
full of benevolence and conscience as well as the conception of respect towards elders and
love towards children. Also, it will bring a harmonious relationship into the family which is
the foundation for social civilization. Besides, it strengthens the cohesions between the
Chinese” Filial piety has attracted many scholars’ eyes for its encompassing nature and its
unique cultural connotation. However, as China is going through great economic and social
reforms in recent years, filial piety, the important Chinese value also undergoes domestic
and foreign impacts. Evidence abounds that traditional families with several generations
become nuclear families, children don’t perform absolute obedience to their parents,
raising children is not just for being taken care of in one’s old age. Some sociologists even
argue that some of Chinese traditional values are on the verge of extinction.
1
The paper intends to figure out to what extent filial piety has been changed and what
aspects of this concept have changed in the context of modern Chinese life. This research
seeks to investigate one often cited aspect of traditional “Chineseness” in its current
application. Are students still committed to some traditional family commitments and
identities, or are they constructing more individualized conceptions? What are the main
factors contributing to that?
As filial piety is a highly indigenous concept and there is no cultural equivalence with
other cultures, it seems impossible to do a cross-cultural research on this topic. However,
some components of filial piety are worthy of being examined. Samples were gathered
from Shandong Province, not only because it is more convenient but also that Shandong
has long been considered as the root of the Chinese traditional value as Confucius was
born there and the culture in Shandong is particularly influenced by him, too. Actually,
Shanghai is a city where all kinds of thoughts and values melt together, which is not
actually the case in most part of China. So the author considers this a very important factor
that may affect the results.
1.2 OVERALL STRUCTURE OF THE THESIS
After the introductory chapter clarifying the background and the need for the study, chapter
2 is devoted to literature review of the definition of filial piety and the previous research,
as well as its historical development and extension to lay a theoretical foundation for the
rest of the paper. Based on that, research questions and hypotheses are stated. After the
discussion of previous instruments on filial piety used in both China and abroad, the author
elaborates on the self-designed questionnaire and the basic information of the participants
in chapter 3. Research results are analyzed and discussed in chapter 4, followed by
concluding remarks of chapter 5.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
As a prominent psychological as well as cultural phenomenon, filial piety has attracted
many scholars’ eyes for its encompassing nature. In this chapter, we turn first to a
discussion of the important position as well as the definition of filial piety followed by the
summary of previous research on filial piety. At the end of the chapter, research questions
and hypotheses are stated.
2.1 POSITION OF FILIAL PIETY
Filial piety is an ethical concept that has a long history and deep social foundation in China.
It has been in existence for 2000 years and has exerted an immeasurable influence on
Chinese society. Although some of its component ideas (obedience, for example) are
shared by other cultures, filial piety surpasses all other ethics in its historical continuity, the
proportion of humanity under its governance, and the encompassing and imperative nature
of its precepts. Confucians regarded the maintenance of harmony within the family as a
basis for attaining wider social harmony. The principle of filial piety is the most important
and fundamental principle guiding parent-child/intergenerational relationships.
Confucius said that “It is upon the trunk that a gentleman works. When that is firmly set up,
the Way grows. And surely proper behavior towards parents and elder brothers is the trunk
of Goodness.” According to Confucius, being good as a son and obedient as a young man
is the root of a man’s character. As an important component of Confucianism, filial piety
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contributes to the moral standard system of Confucius, the core of which is ren
(9) and
li ú:û.
Filial piety is the presupposition of all moral standards. “The Master said, a young man’s
duty is to behave well to his parents at home and to his elders abroad, to be cautious in
giving promises and punctual in keeping them, to have kindly feeling towards everyone,
but seek the intimacy of the Good. If, when all that is done, he has any energy to spare,
then let him study the polite arts.” (Analects,} ü)According to the Analects, behaving well
to his parents is the presupposition of studying.
It is said in The Classic of Filial Piety () that filial piety is the basis of all virtues.
Mencius also said that there is no one who is “ren” but abandons his parents. According to
the laws in the Qin Dynasty, disobedient sons should be killed. In the Han Dynasty, The
Classic of Filial Piety must be studied in the schools and filial piety was even an important
way to select the public officials. The government was ruled by filial piety then as it was
considered as a standard of moral character. If a man was a good son, he was qualified to
be recommended to be a candidate. If he was disobedient, he would be sentenced to
extreme penalty. Children who physically attacked their parents were beheaded, and even
swearing at parents could result in death by hanging. In the Eastern Han Dynasty, The
Classic of Filial Piety became the Seven Classics. Tan (2001) noted that The Tang Dynasty
attached great importance to piety, which was displayed by people’s practicing filial piety
and the society giving awards to dutiful sons and daughters. In advocating filial piety, both
imperial and local governments had a complete set of mechanism of praise and honor.
Liang (1993) simplified the moral philosophy of Confucianism into a gentle psychological
thinking with people’s non-self-interest attachment to society derived from a strong
collective conscience. First, people use it to make themselves gentle, and then the family.
Finally, the whole society is filled with the gentle thinking. That is the whole philosophy of
filial piety as well as Confucianism. As a matter of fact, the Way is one of the realization of
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group aims to be attained in the individual’s altruistic activities. Liu, D. Z. (2001) suggests
that “firstly, filial piety can enhance the morality, ensure a life full of benevolence and
conscience as well as the conception of respect towards elders and love towards children.
Also, it will bring a harmonious relationship into the family which is the foundation for
social civilization. Besides, it strengthens the cohesion between the Chinese”
2.2 DEFINITIONS AND CLASSIFICATIONS OF FILIAL PIETY
In Shuo Wen Jie Zi (Origin of Chinese Character), Xu Shen in the Eastern Han Dynasty
analyzed the word xiao () as the combination of the old and the son with the old on top
of the son. Thus the word meant that a son should perform good deeds to his parents.
The innate connotation of filial piety refers to the respect paid to one's parents with
benignity, for everybody is given birth to and bought up by his parents. The parents should
therefore be redounded upon.
In the West Zhou Dynasty, filial piety means materially supporting your parents. However,
Confucius emphasized that children should also respect their parents, comfort their parents
spiritually and maintain their core position in the family—namely, spiritually support
parents. Also, compared with the “unconditional obedience” to parents, Confucius
encouraged children to offer suggestions and ideas to parents. Thirdly, filial duty contains
not only the filial piety to one’s parents and love and respect to one’s elders, but also the
children’s proper behaviors and performing the meritorious deeds. They should cherish
their own life and speak and act cautiously and achieve accomplishments. Besides,
Confucius extended filial piety in two aspects. He suggested that parents should be kind to
their childrenúýûand people should love siblingsúþû. In addition, Confucius didn’t
contain the filial piety within one family but advocated that people should love other’s
parents and siblings, which lay the foundation of the conception that family and country
5
are integrated (/*?).
Due to its encompassing characteristic, there are many different standards of classification
of filial piety. Wu Feng and Zhao Liping (2001) and Zhang Mingyi (2008) classified filial
piety into two parts: filial piety as a virtuous tradition and politically cultivated foolish
filial piety. We should highlight the former and eliminate the latter. Yeh (2003) extracted
two fundamental values underlying the filial piety concept, namely reciprocity and
authoritarianism. Each includes different subfactors and follows distinctive principles.
Reciprocal filial piety consists of respecting and loving parents as well as supporting and
memorializing parents while authoritarian filial piety consists of oppressing oneself and
glorifying one’s parents. D.Y. H. Ho (1994) believed that two constructs, authoritarian
moralism and cognitive conservatism, served as linkages between filial piety as a
Confucian value external to the individual and the corresponding psychological
functioning internal to the individual. Wu Xiaoming noted that there were four levels of
filial piety, namely family level, ethical level, social level and political level. As Yang
(1998) noted, from a social psychological view, filial piety is a systematic combination of
specific social attitudes and social behaviors with parents as the main object. Thus the
analysis of filial piety is a combination of the analysis of filial attitudes and filial
behaviors.
As Yang (1998) noted, from a social psychological view, filial piety is a systematic
combination of specific social attitudes and social behaviors with parents as the main
object. Thus the analysis of filial piety is a combination of the analysis of filial attitudes
and filial behaviors.
Based on extensive content analysis of relevant quotations from various Confucian classics
and other reference materials on filial piety, Yang (1988) suggested there were fifteen
subcategories of meaning included in the concept of filial piety. Examples of these
subcategories include tender-heartedness toward parents, obedience to parents, and
protection of parents. Through factor analysis of a fifty-two item scale developed from the
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fifteen subcategories of meaning, Yang, Yeh, and Huang (1989) extracted four common
factors: Respecting and Loving parents, Supporting and memorializing parents, oppressing
oneself and glorifying parents.
2.3 PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON FILIAL PIETY
As filial piety is such an important principle, there are a great number of papers illustrating
the concept. Filial piety is an encompassing ethic. The concept means much more than
what it expresses. As a cornerstone of Confucianism, filial piety is far beyond the
requirement of that one obey and honor one’s parents as the phrase means in English.
Most of the papers in the Mainland China dig into Chinese traditional masterpieces like
The Analects or The Classic of Filial Piety and try to figure out the meaning of filial piety.
No psychological studies have yet been conducted focusing exclusively on filial piety.
Most of the articles are historical discussions, moral polemics and social commentaries.
However, there is not a systematic and widely accepted analysis of filial piety yet. On the
other hand, scholars from Hong Kong, Taiwan and overseas prefer empirical studies from a
psychological or sociological point of view. One disadvantage of this method is that there
is no clear definition of filial piety.
Deng Ling (2004) pointed out that the new characteristics showed nowadays is that filial
piety based on a equal position is now more popular and spiritual support is more
cherished. In her study in Chongqing, absolute obedience as well as showing no respect for
parents is among the most unfavorable filial behavior. However, the most favorable filial
behaviors almost correspond with the filial behaviors advocated in the classics.
Zhang Guoliang and Sun Dehou (1999) noted that there are seven aspects of filial piety
according to The Analects. Ma Jinglun and Zhao Yingli (1996) illustrate the concept using
The Analects and The Classics of Filial Piety and said that filial piety is the reward of
7
parents’ constant love when bringing a child up. Filial piety means that the behavior of
children should in accordance with “Li”. When the parents are alive, we should treat them
with “Li”. When the parents die, we should bury them in a way required by “Li”. After the
parents die, we should mourn them according to “Li”. Those are the most fundamental
standard of filial piety in Confucianism.
Guo Changhua (2002) noted a very important moral concept in the ethics of Confucianism
is filial duty which contains not only the filial piety to one’s parents and love and respect to
one’s elders , but also the children’s proper behaviors and performing the meritorious
deeds. Children cherishing their own life were also an expression of filial piety as it was
stated in The Classic of Filial Piety that the body, hair and skin were all received from the
parents. Taking good care of them was the beginning of filial piety. The same was also true
with speaking and acting cautiously and performing meritorious deeds.
According to the statistics gathered by Yang Bojun (1980), Confucius mentioned ren ú9û
for 109 times, li ú:û 75 times, dao úû 60 times and de ú!û38 times. But “xiao”
was only mentioned for 19 times. Generally, the time mentioned showed the importance of
concept. Obviously, ren (9) and li (:) were more important than xiao () and xiao ()
was conditioned by ren (9) and li (:). Just as Confucius stated, the behavior of children
should in accordance with li (:). When the parents are alive, we should treat them with li
(:). When the parents die, we should bury them in a way required by li (:). After the
parents die, we should mourn them according to li (:).
As the core value of Chinese familism, filial piety is the key to understand Chinese family
values. In the study by the Chinese Culture Connection (1987), filial piety was included as
1 of 40 items, and was presented as: “filial piety (obedience to parents, respect for parents,
honoring of ancestors, and financial support of parents).”
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Contemporary researchers point out that with the process of industrialization and
modernization of Chinese societies, beliefs in filial piety are decreasing (Yeh, 1997). The
same effect has been noted among overseas Chinese (Liu, Ng, Weatherall, & Loong, 2000).
People have adjusted their lifestyles and value systems in order to adapt to the changes in
social, cultural, and economic structures. Consequently, some attributes of filial piety are
gradually eroding at a conceptual level, although other attributes are still crucial to people’s
everyday lives (Yang, 1988; Yeh, 1997). People now embrace a new type of filial piety that
is adapted to societal changes (Hwang, 1977 ; H. Lee, 1983; Yang, Yeh, & Huang, 1989).
Sung (1990, 1995) predicted that these changes would occur due to the trend toward
smaller families, the expansion of the female labor market, the geographic mobility of
villagers, and the tendency of the young toward a more individualistic lifestyle.
Undoubtedly, filial beliefs and actions among contemporary Chinese differ from those of
their forebears. Nevertheless, the significance of filial piety, so deeply rooted in Chinese
society, remains evident. Some study suggest that filial piety, although not unchallenged or
unchanged, remains a durable ethic in Taiwan (Hwang, 1977; E.S. H. Yu, 1974), in
Singapore(Thomas, 1989), and among Chinese immigrants in the United States(Lin, 1985).
However, there is evidence that filial piety is on the decline and no longer commands the
same degree of absolute observance it once did (Ho, 1993; Ho, Hong, & Chiu, 1989; D.Y.
F. Ho & Kang, 1984). Some core filial obligations (for example, ancestral worship and
repaying one’s indebtedness to parents) continue to be affirmed. Other filial demands (such
as absolute obedience and subjugation of individual needs and interests to those of parents)
tend to be negated.
2.4 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT AND CHANGE
Kuang-Hui Yeh (2003) divided the development of filial piety into three main stages: the
pre-Chin era, the Han to Ch’ing dynasties and the early period of the Republic of China to
9
the present. It was not until the pre-Chin era and Confucius’s time that filial piety was
construed as a virtue of parent-child interaction. The practice of filial piety became the
practice and the cultivation of the virtue of “ren”.
According to Wang, W. D. (2006), Confucius was the first to introduce great humanistic
concerns into the ethics of filial piety, where he emphasized the unity of piety and kindness.
It was not until Confucius time that filial piety was construed as a virtue of parent-child
relationships. His ethics of piety was mainly on individual and family relationships.
Mencius extended filial piety to the social domain, where it became a social virtue of
respect for the seniors. But the basis of both filial pieties is still patriarchy, the respect for
the authority of the father, so these two pieties complement each other and the ethics
developed from respect and good care for the father to the greater piety of respect for all
the others in the community.
The nature and the connotation of Confucian filial piety are natural and deep love.
Confucius worshipped the rites of the West Zhou Dynasty. However, at that time when the
society was in riot, it was impossible for rites to maintain its stand. Therefore, Confucius
turned to “humanity” (9) and infused the new thought that “ humanity means love” ú9
ûinto it . Furthermore, “filial piety, for Confucius, was the beginning of ‘humanity’
and rites. These three factors were integrated and interconnected.” said by Lu Binghui in
On Confucius’s “Filial Piety” (78)
Huang Kaiguo (2003) divided the school of thoughts related to filial piety after the
Confucius into two groups. One is characterized by its ethic theory, the other, however, is
more on the political side.
Before the Han dynasty, the line distinguishing service to parents and treatment of
superiors was very clear. However, with the appearance of the Apocryphal Filial Book (
) and other historical events, filial piety began to acquire more authoritarian
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