Journal of Food Processing and Preservation ISSN 1745-4549
EVAULATION OF MINERAL PROFILE, TEXTURE,
SENSORY AND STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
OF OLD PEPPER LANDRACES
ZORAN S. ILIĆ1,4, ZARKO
KEVRESAN2, JASNA MASTILOVIĆ2, LANA ZORIĆ3, ALENA TOMSIK2,
2
MIONA BELOVIĆ , MLADENKA PESTORIĆ2, DUNJA KARANOVIĆ3 and JADRANKA LUKOVIĆ3
1
Faculty of Agriculture Pristina-Lesak, University of Pristina-Kosovska, Mitrovica, Serbia
Institute of Food Technology, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
3
Faculty of Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
2
4
Corresponding author.
TEL: 1381-638014966;
FAX: 1381-2888261;
EMAIL: [email protected]
Received for Publication February 25, 2016
Accepted for Publication June 7, 2016
doi:10.1111/jfpp.13141
ABSTRACT
Old traditional Serbian pepper landraces (Nizača, Lokosnička and Tursijara),
grown in South Serbia and produced by seed sowing or transplanting, were evaluated in this study. Besides the basic morphological properties and composition,
the features characterizing fruit color and pericarp anatomy were determined in
order to analyze and systematize the traits relevant from the aspect of traditional
end use of examined landraces. Landraces Lokosnička and Nizača, characterized
with higher force needed to puncture fruit skin, larger number of mesocarp layers,
thicker endocarp and thicker collenchyma tissue, followed with higher total soluble solids content are more suitable for intended traditional use than Tursijara.
Production from transplants should be favored in order to obtain more uniform,
darker red fruit color, ASTA value, higher TSS content as well as higher yields.
There are genetic differences of the some quality differences between the cultivars.
Lokosnička has higher mesocarp layers, thicker endocarp and collenchyma tissue.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Pepper fruits dried in traditional way slowly in a draught are used in preparation
of local ethno-gastronomic specialities, with special position in local customs
related to dietary habits during the spring Orthodox fasting period. Intact fruit
skin is also the prerequisite for successful utilization in traditional culinary
specialties-stuffed dry pepper fruits previously soaked in water that remain whole
during cooking and baking. Structure and texture of pepper fruit skin and pericarp can consequently be considered as one of the key aspects of technological
quality of pepper based on which landraces were selected for described traditional
preservation technique. The research for answers to this technological challenge
was the motivation of this study, which evaluated the impact of different predrying process (type of landraces, production methods) on qualities of pepper fruit.
The data shown would provide scientific rationales for obtaining high-quality
whole fruit pepper as material for stuffing.
INTRODUCTION
Capsicum peppers are eaten by more than one quarter of
the earth’s inhabitants every day (Smith 2015). The genus
Capsicum L. which comprises of over 30 species originates
from South America. However, only five pepper species
were domesticated and spread in production worldwide:
Capsicum annuum L., Capsicum baccatum L., Capsicum
chinense Jack., Capsicum pubescens Ruiz & Pav. and Capsicum
frutescens L. From the 15th century onward, it spread
worldwide and became the inevitable part of nutrition and
culinary specialties characterizing many diverse regions and
traditions (Ilić et al. 2013). Through the diversification process, the variability of pepper cultivars for each of these species further expanded due to numerous landraces selected
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Z.S. ILIĆ ET AL.
by the farmers (Tsaballa et al. 2015) in accordance with specific demands of regional climate, soil and preferences in
habits in pepper utilization (Portis et al. 2006). In this way,
landraces with extremely diverse phenotypic properties and
convenience for different end purpose utilizations were
developed and preserved in numerous regions worldwide
(Oh et al. 2012). Local landraces are by the farmers maintained and further selected under different environmental
conditions with farming and selection criteria invented,
adopted and applied by the farmers (Oh et al. 2012). Varieties developed under such circumstances represent valuable
genetic resources for conservation and selection of agronomical and quality traits (Occhiuto et al. 2014). Local
landraces are usually characterized with advantages related
to local growing conditions like drought tolerance but are
accompanied with a number of disadvantages like long
maturity periods and low yielding (Quartey et al. 2014). The
characterization and evaluation of domesticated Capsicum
species are particularly interesting for gene bank curators,
since a wide variability, not yet fully known and exploited, is
available for these species (Ince et al. 2009). Landraces are
also an important resource for crop breeding in respect to
specific quality traits. However, genetic and phenotypic variability needs to be carefully characterized for proper direct
and indirect use (Parisi et al. 2015).
Morphological and agronomical characteristics have been
useful to evaluate local pepper collections in many countries
like United States (Smith et al. 1987), Yugoslavia (Zewdie
and Zeven 1997), Colombia (Medina et al. 2006), Italy (Portis et al. 2006), Turkey (Bozokalfa and Eşiyok 2011), Peru
(Ortiz et al. 2010), Nigeria (Idowu-Agida et al. 2012),
Romania (Madosa et al. 2010; Sasu et al. 2013), Argentina
(Occhiuto et al. 2014), Ghana (Quartey et al. 2014), Tunisia
(Zhani et al. 2015).
Utilization of peppers worldwide includes different forms
of products with different roles in nutrition and gastronomy
from spices and condiments to different forms of fresh and
preserved vegetables (Portis et al. 2006). Consequently, the
characterization of pepper landraces cover also various studies and comparisons of diverse sensory and nutritive aspects
of peeper fruits and pepper products consumption. For
example Orobiyi et al. (2015) compared capsaicin and vitamin C content in 22 landraces from Benin; Parisi et al.
(2015) conducted comprehensive analysis of the nutritional
value regarding ascorbic acid and volatile organic compounds for Italian pepper landraces.
Contrary to numerous investigations focused at agronomical and genetic properties of pepper landrace worldwide, processing practices and end use quality accompanied
with selection and growing of local pepper landraces, with
exemption of nutritive and sensory aspects, were not frequent point of research interests. Examination of technological quality traits remained mainly at determination of fruit
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size, number of fruits per plant and pericarp thickness
(Madosa et al. 2010; Sasu et al. 2013).
However, there are notable differences regarding the technological quality properties of pepper varieties intended, for
example, for fresh consumption, pickling or paprika powder
production. For fresh consumption as the desirable properties, based on assumed consumers’ expectations, thick pericarp and thin skin might be favored, while color itself, as
well as intensity of the color, would most probably be driven
by the consumers’ preferences. Oppositely, for paprika powder production pepper varieties with thin pericarp, thick,
almost inedible skin and very intensive, dark red color, as
main attribute of pepper, despite drying and milling process
(Minguez-Mosquera et al. 1994, 2000) are convenient.
Therefore, histological characteristics and tissue composition of pepper fruits play an important role in determination of their quality and final utilization.
Contrary to America, where Capsicum originally originated from, in Balkan Peninsula, due to severe winters,
many preservation and processing techniques are used. Pepper production in Serbia is characterized with the presence
of abundance of different pepper types (Zečević et al. 2011)
of which many are intended for processing. Many pepper
growers have abandoned registered varieties and use old
landraces for traditional pepper production and processing.
In South Serbia, one of traditional processes for pepper
fruits preservation is drying of whole pepper fruits conducted under open air conditions in late summer/early
autumn. Drying conditions to which pepper fruits are
exposed during long drying time results in perfect preservation of intact fruit skin with evaporation of water from
pericarp to the moisture levels low enough to disable microbiological disruption of safety of fruits and enable long shelf
life of dry fruits (Kevresan et al. 2013).
The main aim of this study was to analyze traits relevant
from the production and processing points of view for traditional pepper landraces from South Serbia, intended for
drying and utilization of whole dried fruits for preparation
of ethno-gastronomic specialties. The landraces will be
compared on the basis of morphological and anatomical
characterization of fruits, as well as their sensory profiling,
fruit texture and color properties, in order to single out
traits which could be assigned as quality parameters of
pepper landraces intended for named purposes.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Plant Material and Cultivation
Seed of landraces intended for traditional use (drying)
was collected within the activities of notation, registration,
collecting, classification and evaluation of old landraces
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PEPPER FOR DRY WHOLE FRUITS
TABLE 1. LIST OF SENSORY ATTRIBUTES AND DEFINITIONS
Attribute
Definition
Red color intensity
Pericarp color uniformity
Shininess
Intensity of fruit red color (from light orange to dark red)
Areas of pericarp colored differently from red at the cross-section of fruit (from low to high)
Shiny appearance resulting from the tendency of a surface to reflect light energy at one
angle more than at others (from dull to shiny)
Surface textural attribute that describes the amount of wrinkles on the pepper
surface (from smooth to rough)
Degree to which a deformed material returns to its original condition after the deforming
force is removed (from plastic to elastic)
Mechanical textural attribute related to the force needed to chop the pepper into
pieces in the mouth (from low to high)
Mechanical textural attribute related to the amount of work required to masticate a solid
product into a state ready for swallowing (from low to high)
Perception of water released from pepper during mastication (from low to high)
Fundamental taste associated with a sucrose solution (from low to high)
Harshness
Elasticity
Crispness
Skin chewiness
Juiciness
Sweetness
(Tursijara, Nizača and Lokosnička) within the project
“South East European Development: Network on Plant
Genetic Resources (SEEDNet).
All involved landraces were grown under the same conditions following growing methods and two techniques, used
traditionally by the local producers: production the transplants and production directly from the seed. Production
was conducted in the region where examined landraces are
traditionally grown in village Grdelica in South Serbia
(228040 E 428520 N, altitude 362 m). Pepper seeds were sown
during the second week of April (for both type of production). For transplants production, seeds were sown in seed
trays under greenhouse conditions and transplanted to soil
during the first decade of June, at the sixth true leaf stage,
with plant density of 10 plants per m2. Pepper landraces
were planted in a randomized block design, with three replications of 20 plants. Before plant transplanting 400 kg of
NPK fertilizer (15:15:15) per hectare was added to the soil.
During the growing season 100 kg of KAN fertilizer (calcium ammonium nitrate) per hectare was applied as well.
The fields were irrigated nine times, the soil was loosened
up and turned over three times. The trial was treated with
insecticides Decis (a.i. 2,5EC deltametrin) 1 Calypso 480
SC (a.i. tiakloprid) 0.2% to exclude Aphididae during vegetation. The fungicide Ridomil Gold (a.i.mefenoxam) 2.5 kg/
ha we applied as a banded spray over the row shortly after
transplanting or it can be injected through the drip irrigation system to protect against the crown rot phase of the disease (Alternaria, Phytophtora capsici). Mefenoxam needs to
be reapplied twice at 30-day intervals after the transplant
application. Sampling was performed at the technological
maturity stage of pepper fruits.
Anatomical analyses were performed on 10 fruits of each
landrace. The segments 5 3 2 cm were cut from the middle
part of each fruit and fixed and preserved in 60% ethanol.
Cross-sections were made using a hand microtome and a
razor blade. Observations and measurements were made
using light microscope and Image Analyzing System Motic
Images Plus. Relative proportions were calculated for cuticle, collenchyma, exocarp, mesocarp and endocarp, in relation to total pericarp thickness. The cross-section area of 10
exocarp, endocarp and large vesicular mesocarp cells was
measured on each cross-section. Mesocarp cells were measured in consecutive layers, the cells under the exocarp being
assigned as the first layer, and the cells above the giant cells
as the last.
Sensory profiling was performed by eight trained panellists, aged between 25 and 50 years, selected from previously
trained academic staff of the Institute of Food Technology,
Novi Sad. The sensory evaluation was carried out in the single booths under defined conditions according to ISO 8589
(2007). Sensory attributes relevant for end use purpose of
examined landraces were selected from the list of attributes
defined, described and evaluated by Pestorić et al. (2015).
Sensory profile of fresh pepper was defined based on visually
assessed color intensity and uniformity and pericarp shininess, palpatory assessed skin harshness and fruit elasticity,
while skin chewiness, crispness, juiciness and sweetness
were assessed based on mouthfeel as defined in Table 1. The
attributes were evaluated using scores (1 the weakest attribute intensity to 5 the most expressed attribute intensity).
Sensory evaluation was performed in two replicates, under
identical conditions in order to obtain reproducible results.
All samples were presented to each assessor at the same
time. The order of sample presentation was completely
randomized among assessors, identified with three random
numbers. Distilled water was provided to cleanse the palate
between samples during evaluation.
Texture properties of pepper fruits were determined by
penetration of pepper samples performed using TA.XT Plus
Texture Analyser (Stable Micro Systems, England, UK),
equipped with a 5 kg load cell. Fresh peppers were cut
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TABLE 2. YIELDS AND MORPHOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF PEPPER FRUITS OF INVESTIGATED TRADITIONAL LANDRACES, IN DEPENDENCE OF
GROWING METHOD
Landrace
Growing method
Yield (g/plant)
Fruit weight (g)
Fruit length (cm)
TSS %
Tursijara
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
480c
580b
450c
540b
550b
700a
54ab
60a
46bc
50b
52ab
60a
10c
12b
14a
15a
14a
15a
8.81d
10.64c
13.83a
14.42a
14.10a
12.07b
Nizača
Lokosnička
Different letters indicate significant differences between the values, according to Duncan test at P 0.05.
longitudinally into strips of constant width. The curved
ends of each strip as well as seed placenta and septum were
removed to obtain a sample as flat as possible. Fruit skin
puncture force was determined by penetration of each strip
at three points (two ends and middle) with a 2 mm diameter
stainless steel flat cylinder probe (P/2) to a distance of
12 mm (trigger force 5 25 g) while the strip was placed at
Heavy Duty Platform (HDP/90) with holed plate. Instrumental settings were taken from the sample project
(PEPP1_P3.PRJ) of the software package (Texture Exponent
Software TEE32, version 6,0,6,0, Stable Micro Systems, England, UK). Pretest, test and posttest speeds were 1.50, 2.00
and 10.00 mm/s, respectively. Data reported are averages of
nine strips taken from each pepper sample.
Surface color of pepper fruits was measured in CIE
L*a*b* color space with a Chroma Meter (Model CR-400,
Minolta Corp., Japan). Chromaticity coordinates were
recorded using D65 light source and Observer angle of 28
and parameters L* (lightness), a* (2 greeness to 1 redness),
b* (2blueness to 1 yellowness), chroma [C* 5 (a*2 1 b*2)
1/2] and hue angle [ho 5 tan-1 (b*/a*)] were calculated
automatically. Before measurement, the equipment was
calibrated against a standard white tile. Skin color was measured at three positions on the fruit surface, on the shoulder,
at the equator and at the base. Three readings from each
fruit were averaged prior to data analysis.
Extractable color (ASTA) was determined according to
method proposed by the American Spice Trade Association
(ASTA 1995). Fresh pericarp cubes (0.5 g) were homogenized with acetone and left in dark in 50 mL flask, topped
with acetone. After 4 h obtained absorbance of carotenoid
extract was measured at 460 nm (SPECORD M 40, Carl
Zeiss, Jena, Germany).
Total soluble solids (TSS%) were determinated in triplicates by using laboratory refractometar (ATR-ST plus,
SCHMIDT 1 HAENSCH, Germany).
Content of macro and microelements was determined by
flame AAS (Varian SPECTRAA-10), after sample digestion
in 7 mL HNO3 and 1 mL H2O2 (ETHOS 1, Milestone, Italy).
Ionosupresant (La i Cs) was added when K, Ca and Mg was
4
measured. Macro and microelement analysis was performed
in triplicate. Content of minerals were expressed in mg/
100 g fresh weight of pepper fruit.
Obtained data were statistically analyzed using STATISTICA 12 software. The examined landraces were compared
on the basis of the values obtained for the analyzed traits
using analysis of variance, followed by Duncan’s multiple
range test. The comparisons were also performed between
the two types of planting. Multivariate principal component
analysis was used for analysis the interdependences among
properties of analyzed pepper landraces.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fruits of Nizača landrace are characterized with lower
weight (45 g) and have sweet taste while Lokosinačka fruits
are heavier (70 g) and low pungent. Tursijara with medium
weight fruits (55–60 g) has also sweet (not pungent) fruits.
Similarities in investigated common ancestor, which was
later breed in landraces with different fruit properties,
although DNA analysis has to be perfomed in order to confirm or disprove mentioned suggestion. Under the agricultural conditions applied for production of investigated
landraces, direct seeding results in slow, variable and
reduced plant stands when extreme high or low temperatures, water stress, heavy rains, or the presence of soil-borne
pests and diseases occur at the time of seeding. Contrary to
direct seeding plants grown by transplanting are more uniform, can tolerate or avoid early environmental/biological
stresses, and can achieve earlier maturity than direct-seeded
plants. The choice of a planting system depends on the economics of plant establishment, plant performance after
establishment and the value of the subsequent yield and in
some cases on tradition (Leskovar and Cantliffe 1993).
In South Serbia, traditionally local landraces are produced with transplanting method. This research confirms
that application of traditional transplanting method
resulted in achievement of higher yield, fruit weight and
length (Table 2). Total soluble solids (TSS) in pericarp
depend on the landrace and growing method. The TSS
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PEPPER FOR DRY WHOLE FRUITS
TABLE 3. MINERAL CONTENT OF FRESH PEPPER FRUIT
(mg/100 g)
Landrace
Growing method
K
Ca
Mg
Mn
Zn
Fe
Cu
Tursijara
Tursijara
Nizača
Nizača
Lokosnička
Lokosnička
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
303.34b
312.33b
321.35b
316.01b
329.46b
449.34a
5.27a
6.32a
6.21a
3.66b
3.01b
1.41c
13.25b
16.14a
13.84b
15.36a
14.75a
15.90a
0.13b
0.12b
0.10c
0.15a
0.12b
0.13b
0.01a
0.01b
0.00b
0.01a
0.01a
0.01a
1.09a
0.95a
0.55b
0.77b
0.62b
0.66b
0.12a
0.11a
0.09a
0.12a
0.10a
0.11a
Different letters indicate significant differences between the values, according to Duncan test at P 0.05.
content was the highest for Lokosnička (14.1%) produced
by seed and Nizača (14.4%) from transplants. Landrace
Tursijara was characterized with the lowest total soluble solids content for both growing methods (8.8 and 10.6%,
respectively). Regardless of growing method, landrace
Nizača was characterized with fruits of lower weight, while
Tursijara differed from other two landraces due to shorter
fruits, and lower total soluble solids content (Table 2).
This study dealt with the chemical heterogeneity of three
pepper landraces which have been analyzed for the contents
of potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, manganese, copper and zinc in fruit. The highest accumulation values were
obtained with potassium, then, calcium and magnesium,
whereas the lowest with zink. While the potassium, calcium
and magnesium content varied among the landraces and
growing methods, the contents of Mn, Zn, Fe, Cu, did not
vary much among the landraces. K content in fresh fruit
ranged from 449.3 mg % (Lokosnička by transplant
method) to 303.3 mg % (Tursijara by seed method). The
results obtained clearly demonstrate the chemical heterogeneity of pepper landraces (Table 3).
The absolute amount of potassium in fruit showed low variations beetween the growing method exept in landrace
Lokosnička where the differences in K content between growing method quite different. Zaki et al. (2013) in Marrocos and
Tepić et al. (2008) in Serbian paprika, obtained similar results.
Paprika samples were rich in potassium, calcium and magne-
sium, and relatively poor in sodium, while heavy metals (Pb,
Cd) where not detected (Krstic et al. 2010). The general order
of the mineral content is K > Mg > Ca > Fe > Mn > Cu > Zn.
A similar trend is observed in studies Ogunlade et al. (2012)
were mineral content moves in the following order
K > Na > Ca > Mg > Mn > Fe > Zn. All the pepper varieties
recorded higher content of K than other mineral elements. Its
values ranged from 49.57 (sweet pepper) to 144.52 mg/100 g
(bird pepper), Ogunlade et al. (2012). The daily adequate dietary intake of K is 4700 mg. Therefore, 100 g of peppers in this
study would supply about 5–9% of the K required by an average adult.
One of the very important properties desirable for traditional use of investigated pepper landraces is dark red color.
Pigments responsible for this property are preserved and
probably additionally synthesized through long lasting drying under mild conditions (Minguez-Mosquera et al. 2000;
Kevresan et al. 2013; Topuz et al. 2011). Regardless of the
landrace, lower lightness (L*), less expressed red (lower a*)
and yellow (b*) tone as well as higher DWL (dominant wave
length, nm) were obtained when transplant growing method
was applied, in comparison to direct seed growing method
(Table 4). These values resulted consequently with lower C*
and h8 values for fruits produced from transplants. In spite
of existence of some differences regarding color properties
among landraces, it is not likely that conclusions pointing
out at differences in individual color properties among
TABLE 4. CHARACTERIZATION OF COLOR OF PEPPER FRUITS OF TRADITIONAL SOUTH SERBIAN LANDRACES, IN DEPENDENCE OF GROWING
METHOD IN CIEL*a*b* COLOR SPACE
Landrace
Growing method
L*
a*
b*
C*
h8
DWL (nm)
Tursijara
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
37.05b
33.45d
39.19a
33.84cd
34.99c
33.54d
34.51b
30.41c
37.05a
33.47b
32.62bc
33.79b
20.13b
13.78e
22.72a
16.53cd
18.35bc
15.48de
40.13b
33.41c
43.54a
37.35b
37.57b
37.20b
30.10a
24.18b
31.33a
26.23b
30.36a
24.49b
608.34c
614.26ab
606.71c
612.25b
607.88c
615.45a
Nizača
Lokosnička
L* (lightness), a* (2 greeness to 1 redness), b* (2 blueness to 1 yellowness), chroma [C* 5 (a*2 1 b*2) 1/2] and hue angle [ho 5 tan-1 (b*/a*)].
DWL (dominant wave length, nm).
Different letters indicate significant differences between the values, according to Duncan test at P 0.05.
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TABLE 5. COLOR PROPERTIES OF PEPPER FRUITS OF INVESTIGATED TRADITIONAL LANDRACES IN DEPENDENCE OF GROWING METHOD
Landrace
Growing method
ASTA
Red color intensity
Pericarp color uniformity
Shininess
Tursijara
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
172.9a
159.0b
117.5d
136.9c
93.3e
176.3a
2.50b
3.70a
2.10b
3.80a
2.25b
4.25a
3.20ab
4.20a
2.60b
3.30ab
2.00b
2.63b
3.10bc
2.90c
4.20a
4.00ab
4.38a
3.25bc
Nizača
Lokosnička
Different letters indicate significant differences between the values, according to Duncan test at P 0.05.
investigated landraces can be stated. There was significant
difference regarding the L* and C* values among fruits of
different origin and growing method.
Emphasized trends of darker fruits with more expressed
both red and yellow tones in fruits produced from transplants is confirmed also by sensory assessment of red color
intensity accompanied with better uniformity of the color
(Table 5). On the other hand, fruits produced from transplant are, based on the sensory assessments, less shiny.
Wide distribution of extractable color values (ASTA) was
observed from 93.3–172.9 to 136.9–176.3 for direct seeding
and transplant production method, respectively (Table 5).
However, it seems that extractable color is not landrace or
production method dependent, contrary to results of CIEL*a*b* color (Table 4). Both, the highest and the lowest values were determined for landrace Lakosnička, produced
from transplants and by direct seeding, respectively. Similar
range of extractable color values (79.22–139.09) were
reported for Corean red pepper (Ku et al. 2012) while much
higher (163–370) were obtained for Spanish pepper
intended for paprika production (G
omez-Ladr
on de Guevara et al. 1996).
Extractable color values do not correlate with neither
instrument color measurements nor sensory evaluation of
color properties. Having in mind that culinary preparation
of specialities from dried pepper fruits involve step of soaking in water, during which pigments and/or pieces of tissue
are partly resolved in water and play role in coloring of pepper stuffing and surrounding sauce, this quality parameter
has to be taken separately into consideration when pepper
landraces for this traditional end purpose are evaluated.
Complete and comprehensive insight into interdependences among color properties in dependence of growing
method and landrace is obtained on the basis of principal
component analysis of color properties (Fig. 1). First two
principal components explain over 87% of color variability,
almost 69% by the first and over 18% by the second principal component. Based on the first, dominant, principal
component (69%) examined samples are clearly separated
into two groups (Fig. 1b) with fruits produced from transplants being in one and fruits produced by direct seeding
being in the second group. The main parameters meritorious for differentiation based on the first principal component (Fig. 1a) are color uniformity that is inversely related
FIG. 1. RELATION AMONG COLOR PROPERTIES, LANDRACE AND GROWING METHOD, REVEALED BY PCA
(A) RCI-red color intensity, CU-color uniformity, ASTA-extractable color, SH-shininess, L*, a*, b*, C* and ho-CIEL*a*b* color properties.
(B) TT-Tursijara from transplants; TS-Tursijara from seed; NT-Nizača from transplants; NS-Nizača from seed; LT-Lokosnička from transplants;
LS-Lokosnička from seed.
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TABLE 6. TEXTURE AND SENSORY PROPERTIES OF FRUITS OF TRADITIONAL SOUTH SERBIAN PEPPER LANDRACES, IN DEPENDENCE OF GROWING
METHOD
Landrace
Growing method
The force needed to
puncture the skin (g)
Harsness
Elasticity
Crispness
Skin chewiness
Juiciness
Sweetness
Tursijara
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
485.13c
477.22c
794.13a
845.36a
782.60b
814.89ab
2.20a
2.10ab
1.40b
2.10ab
1.88ab
2.25a
2.30ab
2.50a
1.90abc
1.70bc
1.50c
2.13abc
2.60c
2.70c
3.90ab
3.20bc
4.50a
2.50c
2.40b
2.20b
3.20ab
4.20a
3.50a
4.25a
3.80a
3.90a
3.50a
1.70b
3.00a
2.00b
1.80b
1.90b
3.20a
2.50ab
2.25ab
2.50ab
Nizača
Lokosnička
Different letters indicate significant differences between the values, according to Duncan test at P 0.05.
FIG. 2. CROSS-SECTION OF THE
PEPPER PERICARP (LANDRACE
LOKOSNICKA)
C – CUTICLE,
EX-EXOCAP, CO-COLLENCHYMA, M-MESOCARP,
VB-VASCULAR BUNDLE,
VC-VESICULAR CELLS,
EN-ENDOCARP
to lightness (L*) and intensity of yellow tone (b*). Based on
this observation it can be concluded that production from
transplants should be favored in order to obtain more uniform red color with less involved yellow tones. The second
principal component (18%), expressed primarily among
peppers produced from seed, is influenced slightly by DWL,
extractable color and related to them red color intensity but
even these parameters are dominantly influenced by the first
principal component, separating fruits produced from
transplants and by direct seeding.
According to Knapp (2002), pepper fruits in the conventional sense are classified as berries, that is, simple indehiscent fruit with pericarp that contains many seeds embedded
in a solid mass and fleshy, with epicarp less than 2 mm in
thickness and with air space between the seeds and pericarp.
Preservation of intact skin during drying and traditional
dishes preparation is the second desired attribute for examined landraces. Based on obtained results, investigated landraces exhibited marked differences in skin properties. The
force needed to puncture the skin was in the case of Nizača
and Lokosnička almost double in comparison to Tursijara,
pointing out at much higher skin firmness. Lokosnička and
Nizača exhibited also significantly higher ratings for skin
chewiness, fruit sweetness and lower assessment of fruit
juiciness by sensory assessors. However, there are no regularities noticed neither regarding skin harshness, fruit elasticity and crispiness nor in regard to examined landraces,
neither in regard to production method. Nevertheless,
firmer and more chewy skin, less juicy and sweeter fruits
qualify Lokosnička and Nizača as more convenient raw
materials for described traditional drying process and traditional way of utilization in culinary specialities (Table 6).
TABLE 7. PERICARP ANATOMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TRADITIONAL SOUTH SERBIAN PEPPER LANDRACES
Landrace
Tursijara
Nizača
Lokosnička
Growing
method
Perikarp
thickness (lm)
Cuticle
thickness %
Exocarp
thickness %
Collenchyma
thickness %
Endocarp
thickness %
Mesocarp
thickness %
Seed
Transplant
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
3319ab
3709a
3017b
2673b
3364ab
2941b
0.45ab
0.32b
0.49a
0.52a
0.38ab
0.43ab
1.02a
0.86a
1.20a
1.20a
0.95a
1.00a
0.55c
0.57c
1.60a
1.20ab
1.04b
1.09b
0.69c
0.80c
1.10ab
1.30a
0.85bc
1.09ab
97.8a
97.8a
96.2c
96.3bc
97.2ab
96.8bc
Different letters indicate significant differences between the values, according to Duncan test at P 0.05.
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Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
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PEPPER FOR DRY WHOLE FRUITS
Z.S. ILIĆ ET AL.
FIG. 3. EXOCARP, COLLENCHYMA AND OUTER PARENCHYMA CELLS OF PERICARP OF LANDRACES
Nizača (a), Tursijara (b) and Lokosnička (c). c – cuticle, ex-exocap, co-collenchyma.
In order to reveal possible relation with texture properties
the characterization of anatomical structure of pericarp of
examined landraces was conducted. The following tissues
were observed on cross-sections of pepper pericarp: outer
epidermis, collenchyma, parenchyma, vascular bundles and
inner epidermis surrounding the seed chambers (Fig. 2). A
characteristic feature of the protoplasts of pericarp cells,
especially of those in outer layers, was the occurrence of
numerous, differently colored chromoplasts. The outer epidermis (exocarp) was composed of a single layer of cells
with a very thick outer wall that exhibited a yellowish color
(Weryszko-Chmielewska and Michałojć 2011). Collenchyma, parenchyma and vascular bundles formed the mesocarp. The collenchyma, located subepidermally, consisted of
1–4 layers and represented the tangential collenchyma type.
Fruits with a thick pericarp usually had more than 10 layers
(Dias et al. 2013). The parenchyma cells were arranged in
21–26 layers, had thin cellulose walls and increasing dimen-
FIG. 4. THE CROSS-SECTION AREA OF MESOCARP PARENCHYMA
CELLS, IN RELATION TO MESOCARP LAYER. TT-TUR
SIJARA FROM
FROM
TRANSPLANTS; TS-TUR
SIJARA FROM SEED; NT-NIZACA
TRANSPLANTS; NS-NIZACA FROM SEED; LT-LOKOSNICKA
FROM
TRANSPLANTS; LS-LOKO
SNICKA
FROM SEED
8
sions toward the center of the pericarp. The last, inner layer
of mesocarp was composed of huge parenchymatic, vesicular cells. The inner epidermis (endocarp) consisted of one
layer of cells, with strongly thickened cell walls. In ripe fruits,
chloroplasts disappear and the cells become compressed.
The collenchyma is always present, with the number of
layers and degree of lignification varying according to the
species (Chiarini and Barboza 2008). The results of anatomical measurements point out at quantitative differences in
pericarp parameters of the tested landraces, which determine their quality and consumption value. Pericarp thickness of tested landraces varied from 2673 lm (Nizača from
transplants) to 3709 lm (Tursijara from transplants) (Table
7). Proportions of cuticle and exocarp were similar in all
landraces, but the highest in Nizača (Fig. 3). This variety
also had significantly the highest proportion of collenchyma
and endocarp and at the same time the lowest proportion of
mesocarp. Mesocarp was best developed in Tursijara, which
was followed by the low proportion of mechanical tissue
and endocarp in this variety. At the same time Tursijara had
significantly the lowest number of cell layers in mesocarp,
because it was composed of large mesocarp cells (Fig. 4 and
Table 8). Thick mesocarp, composed of large parenchyma
cells, forms softer pericarp, which contains lower amount of
cell walls, but higher proportion of cell solubles. These were
the characteristics of variety Tursijara, which is traditionally
used for pickling. On the other hand, the variety traditionally intended for drying, Nizača, had stronger peripheral tissues, better developed cuticle and collenchyma, and smaller
exocarp cells, which induced higher mechanical strength of
the fruit and higher resistance to force needed to puncture
the fruit skin. It is a well-known fact that the collenchyma is
followed by a thick-walled parenchyma and that it is also
difficult to draw a line between the two tissue types (Chiarini and Barboza 2008). Drying conditions are usually
adjusted in a way to prevent the disruption of the fruit skin,
which is important for preparation of traditional Serbian
culinary specialities. Pepper fruit skin lacks stomata, and
therefore gas diffusion is mostly through the cuticle, while
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Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
Z.S. ILIĆ ET AL.
PEPPER FOR DRY WHOLE FRUITS
TABLE 8. NUMBER OF MESOCARP LAYERS AND CROSS-SECTION AREA OF PERICARP CELLS
Cell cross-section area (mm2)
Landrace
Growing method
Number of mesocarp layers
Exocarp
Vesicular
Endocarp
Tursijara
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
Seed
Transplants
19.0b
18.1b
21.7a
22.3a
23.8a
22.4a
714a
693ab
541ab
498b
543ab
553ab
59993b
226335a
159381ab
156354ab
121001b
129384b
500a
492a
505a
589a
496a
474a
Nizača
Lokosnička
Different letters indicate significant differences between the values, according to Duncan test at P 0.05.
the contribution of the calyx remnants to whole fruit transpiration is still not precisely determined (Diaz-Perez et al.
2007). Thick cuticle induces slower transpiration and slower
drying of the pepper fruit, but also contributes to higher
resistance to diseases and rot. Observed anatomical characteristics, such as thick cuticle and thick collenchyma, are
determined as desirable traits in breeding pepper landraces
for drying, because they help in preservation of the fruit
skin. The values obtained for Lokosnička were between the
values obtained for the other two landraces. High values
measured for the force needed to puncture the fruit skin for
this variety could be explained by its relatively high proportion of mechanical, collenchyma tissue, small exocarp cells,
as well as the smallest mesocarp cells, which, with their
higher density of cell walls, give additional strength to the
fruit.
In order to get the insight into interrelations of pericarp
firmness, anatomical structure and sensory properties and
their relations to landraces and growing methods principal
component analysis of these properties was performed (Fig.
5). First two principal component explain over 85% of variability (F1 5 65.62%, F2 5 19.73%). Based on the first principal component (65.62%) examined pepper landraces are
clearly separated in three distinctive groups (Fig. 5b). For
landraces Nizača and Lokosinačka, samples produced from
seeds and transplants are clearly separated based on the second principal component (19.73%), while for Tursijara this
differentiation was not noted.
The first principal component is influenced by the force
needed to puncture fruit skin, proportion of endocarp, exocarp and cuticle separating with higher values Nizača and
Lokosnička (Fig. 5a) from Tursijara that is characterized
with higher values for elasticity and proportion of mesocarp. The second factor is not clearly influenced by any of
examined parameters but sensory properties (harshness,
juiciness, chewiness and crispness) and colenchyma proportion seem to be the parameters with most expressed relation
to the second principal component separating Nizača and
Lokosinačka produced from seeds from the same landraces
produced from transplants.
FIG. 5. RELATION AMONG TEXTURE PROPERTIES, LANDRACE AND GROWING METHOD, REVEALED BY PCA
(A) JU-juiciness; EL-elasticity; HS-harshness; CH-chewiness; CR-crispness; MES-mesocarp proportion; COS-collenchyma proportion; EXS-exocarp
proportion; ENS-endocarp proportion; CUS-cuticle proportion; FPC- force for puncture of skin. (B) TT-Tursijara from transplants; TS-Tursijara from
seed; NT-Nizača from transplants; NS-Nizača from seed; LT-Lokosnička from transplants; LS-Lokosnička from seed.
C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Journal of Food Processing and Preservation 00 (2016) 00–00 V
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PEPPER FOR DRY WHOLE FRUITS
Z.S. ILIĆ ET AL.
CONCLUSIONS
Pepper landraces from South Serbia traditionally used for
drying of whole fruits under open air conditions after harvest are characterized with technological quality properties
justifying their convenience for this end purpose: dark red
color with high extractability and firm skin supporting its
resistance to breaking during processing. However, there are
differences among investigated landraces. Landraces
Lokosnička and Nizača characterized with higher force
needed to puncture fruit skin, larger number of mesocarp
layers, thicker endocarp and thicker collenchyma tissue, followed with higher TSS values are more suitable for intended
traditional use than Tursijara. The color properties of examined landraces were mainly influenced by production
method and point out that production from transplants
should be favored in order to obtain more uniform, darker
red color with less involved yellow tones. Application of traditional transplanting method resulted also in achievement
of higher yield, fruit weight and fruit length.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study, which was part of the TR-31027 project, was
financially supported by the Ministry of Science and Technological Development, Republic of Serbia.
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