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ssential
Grammar &
Punctuation
Rules
20
Useful Word List
Linking Words
Comparison Words
shows
Whereas
Consequently,
represents
In comparison,
Therefore,
reiterates
Comparatively,
Because of,
supports
In contrast,
As a result of,
demonstrates
However,
Rather
establishes
Although,
Furthermore
echoes
On the other
hand,
In addition to,
suggests
Similarly,
Transition
First, Second,
Third
signifies
For example,
2
19
Rule 14
Academic Vs. Social Writing
Table of Contents
rule
page
1 - The Comma
4-5
Social
Academic
“en”; “n”; “&”; “+”
and
“b/c”; “cause”; “cuz”
because
2 - Quotation Marks
6
gonna
going to
3 - Apostrophe
7
“ima”; “imma”
I will; I’m going to
4 - Semicolon
8
“lol”; “rofl”;
I am laughing
5 - Colon
9
“luv”
love
6 - Parenthesis
10
“2”
to; too
“u”
you
7 - Their, There, They’re
11
“wit”
with
8 - Capitalization
12
“y”
why
9 - Sentence Structure Basics
13
feelin, doin,
feeling, doing
10 - Coordinating Conjunctions
14
ain’t
will not, am not
11 - Verb Consistency
15
12 - Subject Verb Agreement
16
13 - Run-On (fuzed sentences)
17
14 - Academic Vs. Social Language
18
Useful Words for Writing
19
The statements in the ‘Social’ column are not an issue if they are part of dialogue
and appear in a story within quotes.
18
Rule 14
3
Rule 13
Rule 1
The Comma,
Run-On Sentences
13
Commas are used to signal a pause, separate thoughts, or add rhythm/flow to a
sentence.
Run-ons, comma splices, and fused sentences are all names given to compound
sentences that are not punctuated correctly. The best way to avoid such errors is to
punctuate compound sentences correctly by using one or the other of these rules.
1a
Two or more main ideas—each of which could be a sentence itself are separated
by a comma when the last main idea begins with: and, but, while,
Murray takes the train to school Mom rides the bus.
Subject=Murray AND Mom
He bought a new car, and she bought an education.
She wants to go to the movies, but he wants to play baseball.
He thought about shopping, while she thought about sports.
She unloaded the dishwasher, so she could drink water.
Verb=takes AND rides
Is it a complete idea? It is TWO complete ideas.
1b
This example is a run-on sentence: Two complete sentences (ideas)
incorrectly combined. This sentence lacks signal words which tell the
reader when to stop or pause. A part of a sentence that can be a sentence
by itself is called an independent clause. This last example has TWO
independent clauses.
No comma is used before “and” or “but” when either is used to join two words/
phrases or when there are only two items in a list.
He thought about spots and shopping.
He was having a nice day but couldn’t stop thinking about war.
1c
* To fix a run on see rules 1, 4, and 5
No matter how short or long an introductory phrase/element is, a comma is used
after the introductory phrase/element.
While they were walking, she ate potato chips.
As we ate, he looked down the street.
Obviously, she was not aware of the assignment.
Feeling happy about the game, Jack was proud.
4
17
Rule 13
Rule 12
1d
Subject-Verb Agreement
A word or a group of words is set off by commas when the word or group of
words adds meaning or describes it, but is not important to the basic meaning of
the sentence.
Sally, my neighbor, is a teacher.
Aunt Mattie, concerned about Jane’s trip, put on her nice shoes.
My feet, blistered and bleeding, could not go on.
Subjects and verbs must AGREE with one another in number (singular or
plural). Thus, if a subject is singular, its verb must also be singular; if a
subject is plural, its verb must also be plural.
1e
In present tenses, nouns and verbs form plurals in opposite ways:
Connecting adverbs of more than one syllable (Ex: furthermore, however, in
addition, in contrast, in other words, nevertheless, on the other hand, otherwise,
instead) that do not connect two independent clauses (two separate thoughts)
are set off with commas.
nouns ADD an s to the singular form,
BUT
verbs REMOVE an s from the singular form.
In addition, he continued to try his best.
Bill, however, continued to argue with the group.
Tom, in contrast, never felt scared.
1f
A comma is used to separate words or groups of words in a series of 3 or more.
A comma is preferred after the next to last item so that the reader does not think
the last two items go together. If the series occurs in the middle of a sentence,
dashes ( -- ) are used to separate the series.
I have a hammer, a screwdriver, and a tape measure.
At the grocery store, I need to buy cereal, milk, tomatoes, and Jell-O.
Four students—Mike, Sean, James, and Sally—passed the course.
16
Rule 12
5
Rule 1
Rule 2
Rule 11
Verb Consistency
“Quotation Marks”
11
2a
Keep the same verb tense throughout a sentence or paragraph. Don’t change from
one tense to the other unless the timing of the action requires you to do so.
Use quotation marks when you use someone else’s words in your own writing.
This sentence is incorrect. During the movie Sam stood up and then drops his
popcornThe sentence should be: During the movie Sam stood up and then dropped
his popcorn. OR During the movie Sam stands up and then drops his popcorn.
According to Yankee legend Derek Jeter, “There may be people who have more talent
than you, but there's no excuse for anyone to work harder than you do - and I believe
that.”
The two actions happen during the same time so they should either be written in the
present tense or in the past tense.
In the film John said, “I hate dogs.”
Willis states that, “Putting quotation marks is key to not plagiarizing another’s
work” (Willis, p.324).
Generally, establish a primary tense and keep tenses consistent from sentence to
sentence. Do not shift tenses between sentences unless there is a time change that
must be shown.
2b
Use quotation marks when you use dialogue in a narrative
It was 8:29 a.m. on Monday morning. Stacy walked into the hallway, expecting
to see students rushing to class, but saw no one. “Anyone there?” she called.
All actions in the above paragraph happen in the present except for the future
possibility dependent upon a present action taking place: " If a cat sees the bird, the
cat will kill it."
EX: Past tense paragraph
2c
Quotations are including the titles of short works of writing, including short stories
and songs.
Out of all of the Eminem songs, “Stan” is my favorite. Quotation marks are used
to quote, word for word, another writer’s words or to signal dialogue in a
narrative.
All of the actions in the above paragraph happen in the past except for the possibility
dependent upon one action taking place: "If a cat saw the bird, the cat would kill it."
6
Rule 2
15
Rule 11
Rule 10
Coordinating Conjunctions
Rule 3
Apostrophes’
10
3a
Avoid starting sentences with coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS)
Apostrophes showing possession (ownership)
You use an apostrophe to show that a thing or person belongs to someone or
something: instead of saying the party of Ben or the weather of yesterday, you
can write Ben’s party and yesterday’s weather.
For
And
Nor
But
Or
Yet
So
Jeremy’s phone is broken. Let’s go to Mark’s house. Yo, we got Ethan’s class.
3b
Apostrophes showing omission
An apostrophe can be used to show that letters or numbers have been omitted.
Here are some examples of apostrophes that indicate missing letters:
Don’t use FANBOYS like this:
It’s or its?
1) “So another reason I am against the death penalty is because innocent
inmates can be executed before new evidence proves their innocence.”
I’m - short for I am
he’ll - short for he will
didn’t - short for did not
Let’s - let us
Use FANBOYS like this:
3c
1) The bowl of squid eyeball stew is hot and delicious.
2) Tomothy skipped school, so his mother sold his X-Box on Ebay.
3) John likes breakfast, but he refuses to eat cereal that is high in fiber.
Its (without an apostrophe) means ‘belonging to it’:
The dog wagged its tail.
Each case is judged on its own merits.
3d
14
Rule 10
It’s (with an apostrophe) means ‘it is’ or ‘it has’:
It’s been a long day
It’s cold outside.
It’s a comfortable car and it’s got some great gadgets.
7
Rule 3
Rule 4
Rule 9
Sentence Structure Basics
Semicolon;
9
All sentences need two basic sections: a subject and a predicate.
4a
A subject is who or what the sentence is about.
A predicate indicates what action the subject is doing or a way the subject is
described.
The semicolon is used to join two main ideas (or sentences) that are very similar
when the second main idea does not begin with and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet,
while, and whereas.
The team (subject) played very hard (predicate).
Some people enjoy staying home during vacations; others prefer to spend this
time as far away from home as possible.
Tom is a very peaceful person; he never gets very angry.
The days were hot and dry; the nights were extremely cold.
The game (subject) was extremely exciting (predicate).
4b
If you are missing one of these then your sentence is incomplete and will be
labeled as a fragment.
The semicolon is used to join two main ideas (each of which alone could be a
sentence in itself) joined by a conjunctive (connecting) adverb (Ex: furthermore,
however, in addition, in contrast, in other words, nevertheless, on the other hand,
otherwise, instead). A comma follows the conjunctive adverb when it has more
than one syllable.
Fragment examples:
Working out for hours. (subject missing)
The best team in the league. (predicate missing)
Your homework is acceptable; however, there is cereal on the pages.
This paper is interesting; in addition, it has a lot of humor.
We have visited New York City several times; however, we have never seen the
Statue of Liberty.
8
Rule 4
13
Rule 9
Rule 5
Rule 8
CAPITALIZATION
The Colon:
8a
A colon is used to signal a definition or a list.
5a
Capitalize names of people, days, months, holidays, deities, religions,
organizations, buildings, states, name brand products, courses of study.
Frank, Tuesday, December, Christmas, Jesus, Buddhism, Bronx
Compass, Empire State Building, New Jersey, Pepsi, Communications &
Media Studies.
I am going to the store. (“I” is always capitalized)
8b
The colon can be used at the end of a sentence to define what has come before
it.
This paper has only one strength: It is in English.
The reason I was so successful with my paper can be summarized in one word:
intelligence.
5b
Capitalize the first word of a sentence or of a quoted sentence.
A Colon introduces a list (often the words following indicate that a list will occur,
and a colon should be used.
He said, "Treat her as you would your own daughter."
He went to the store.
"Look out!" she screamed. "You almost ran into my child."
For school you will need the following: pencil, pen, and ink.
Things I hate about Mark are: his snoring, his anger, and his breath.
12
Rule 8
9
Rule 5
Rule 6
Rule 7
There, Their, and They’re
(Parentheses)
7a - There
Parentheses are used to set off side information within a sentence.
Use there when referring to a place, whether concrete (over there by the
building) or abstract (I don’t know what’s going on in there). Also use there with
the verb BE (is, am, are, was, were) to indicate the existence of something, or to
mention something for the first time.
6
There are too many fish in the sea.
When will we go there?
There aren’t enough cookies in my mouth.
My glasses are over there.
There is a picnic area over here.
Parentheses are used to set off information that the writer feels important enough
to mention but not directly related to the idea. This includes side remarks and
cross-references.
The dash (a mark so overworked by the beginning writer) impresses the reader
when it has been expertly used.
Harper Lee, in her book To Kill A Mockingbird considers members of Alabama to
be innately racist (see page 43).
7b - Their
Use their to indicate possession or ownership and it indicates that a particular
noun belongs to them.
Their shoes were tied.
It was their business.
Their agenda was to fight.
17c - They’re
They’re is used as a contraction of the words they and are.
10
Rule 6
They’re over there having a great time.
I’m at the theater but they’re not.
11
Rule 7