Geography Education Research in the
Journal of Geography 1988–1997
Sarah Bednarz
Department of Geography, Texas A & M University, College Station,
TX 77843-3147, USA
Geography education has become a more important subfield of geography in the
United States despite its different nature from other disciplinary subfields and
observed status. It is defined as the intersection between two academic domains, geography and education. A typology of research in geography education is developed and
used to characteriseresearch that has appeared in the Journal of Geography, 1988–1997,
a key period in the development of geography education in the United States. Changes
in the scope and methodologies of geography education research are evident. Implications for its academic status are discussed.
Introduction
Geography education has grown as a subfield of geography in the United
States in the last twenty years. Membership of the Association of American
Geographers (AAG) Geography Education Specialty Group has increased to
more than 300 since it began in 1979, and the number of job listings in the AAG
newsletter Jobs in Geography which identify a specialty in geography education
has increased (Bednarz et al., under review). Although it has been possible for
many years to obtain a PhD in geography education at several universities in the
United States (Table 1), a newly created PhD programme at Southwest Texas
State University has chosen to specialise in this subfield of geography.
However, its acceptance as a field of research within the discipline is not well
established. Few professional geographers in the United States have formally
studied geography education as a specialty or pursued geography education
Table 1 PhD level education in Geography Education
PhD in Geography with emphasis in
Geographic Education
EdD or PhD in Education with emphasis in
Geography Education
Pennsylvania State University
Illinois State University
University of Colorado-Boulder
Georgia State University
Texas A&M University
Texas A&M University
Florida State University
Kansas State University
Southwest Texas State University
University of Pittsburgh
Columbia University
University of Missouri
Source: R.G. Boehm
1038-2046/00/02 0128-13 $10.00/0
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© 2000 S. Bednarz
Vol. 9, No. 2, 2000
Geography Education Research in the Journal of Geography 1988–1997
129
research. From the perspective of research geography, geography education has
been criticised as lacking direction, a research agenda, and focus (Brown, 1997).
This criticism has pointed out the need for the appraisal of geography education
in the US context. What is geography education? How can it be defined? What do
geography educators do? Where does geography education fit within the institutional structure of academic and professional geography in the United States?
The purpose of this paper is to explore aspects of these questions. First, a definition of geography education is proposed and research questions that arise
from the definition are suggested. Then, the changing nature of geography
education research in the US is discussed. Finally, articles published between
1988 and 1997 in the Journal of Geography, the premier US geography education
journal, are reviewed to identify major research interests in geography education
in the United States. The concluding section of this paper addresses these questions: ‘What kinds of research articles have geography educators published?
Have research articles in the Journal of Geography during the period 1988–1997
addressed significant research questions? What do the research articles in the
Journal suggest about the position and status of geography education as a
subfield of geography?’
Defining Geography Education
Geography education may be unique among the discipline’s subfields. It
neither appears as a separate entry in the Dictionary of Human Geography
(Johnston et al., 1994), nor does it fit neatly with the definition of systematic
specialties that appears in that volume. ‘Systematic studies in geography take
one or a few aspects of the human environment or the human population and
study their varying performance over a predefined geographical space’ (222).
The geography of education, identified in the Dictionary of Human Geography as,
‘The study of spatial variations in the provision, uptake and outputs of educational facilities and resources’ (156) does fit that definition. However, geography
education, both inside and outside the United States, is much broader and
substantially different. It is different in that it is not a geography per se but is,
instead, about geography teaching, learning, thinking, and related cognitive and
educational processes.
To elaborate on geography education as a research field, one must consider
both of the scholarly research areas that it encompasses – geography and education. Geographers have described and defined their research field. However, in
order to define geography education, it is necessary to examine geography’s
academic research. Commonly used characterisations of the discipline’s
research include the traditional systematic approach suggested by Haggett of
spatial analysis, ecological analysis, and regional complex analysis (1983) and
Pattison’s four traditions (Pattison, 1964). Johnston (1997: 355) defined geography research as, ‘what it studies, how, and why’. Other geographers divide the
discipline into theoretical and applied research or subdivide the systematic
specialties into applied and theoretical research (Abler et al., 1992). However
described, geographic research studies the complex and interrelated surface of
Earth as the space in which humans live (Haggett, 1990).
Education, on the other hand, can be divided into three rather distinct
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Table 2 Subfields of the domain of Education
Learning, teaching process
subdomain
Teacher education
subdomain
Applied
subdomain
B. Curriculum studies
K. Teaching and teacher
education
A. Administration
C. Learning and
instruction
D. Measurement and
research methodology
E. Counselling and
human development
F. History and
historiography
G. Social context of
education
H. School evaluation and
program development
I.
Education in the
professions
J.
Postsecondary
education
L. Educational policy and
politics
Source: American Educational Research Association
subdomains using categories determined by the American Educational Research
Association (Table 2). The first subdomain includes research on learning and
building theoretical understanding of the learning/teaching/education process.
The second subdomain involves research on teacher education, the process of
preparing practitioners and building a knowledge base for the preparation of
teachers (Murray, 1996). The third subdomain researches the improvement of
practice, whether it is in the classroom, in administration, or in the development
of policy related to education. This domain includes research that requires the
application of theory to specific education problems and issues. Sometimes the
theory is derived from the research in the first two subdomains, sometimes the
theory is borrowed from other disciplines including management, psychology,
sociology, history, and geography.
Geography education research is where research in geography and in education overlap (Figure 1). Imagine geography and education to be rotating
overlapping discs. The overlap may occur anywhere within the research topics
that both academic areas pursue. If the overlap occurs between learning theory
and geography, research will address fundamental questions such as, ‘What is
geographic learning? What is the nature of geographic knowledge? What skills
enhance geographic learning?’ If the overlap occurs between learning theory and
one of the systematic specialties of geography, research will focus more narrowly
on questions such as, ‘How do high school students learn to think about
human-environment relationships?’ (Gerber, 1996).
If geography intersects with education’s teacher preparation domain, research
may explore how teachers gain the specific kinds of subject matter knowledge
Geography Education Research in the Journal of Geography 1988–1997
Ecological
Synthesis
Regional
Synthesis
Learning/
Teaching
Processes
Applied
Topics
GEOGRAPHY
EDUCATION
Spatial
Synthesis
Teacher
Education
GEOGRAPHY
GEOGRAPHY
EDUCATION
131
EDUCATION
Figure 1 Geography Education defined as the overlap between Geography
and Education
Source: Author
needed to teach and the competence required to explain concepts and to teach
fundamental geographic skills. Research questions addressed within this shared
geography/education realm might include, ‘How do teachers-to-be construct
their understanding of the fundamentals of geography? What constitutes good
geography teaching and how can teachers and administrators be trained to
discern and foster quality instruction once it is identified?’
If geography intersects with education’s third domain, applied topics,
research will involve the application of what is considered educational ‘best
practice’ to geography. Much of the research in geography education that has
taken place in the United States during the period of time since the publication of
Guidelines for Geographic Education (JCGE, 1984) falls into this realm (Stoltman,
1997). The National Geographic Society sponsored Alliance movement and its
various activities (summer training institutes, curriculum development, staff
development) are examples of applying the best ideas obtained from education
research to geography. Geography education of this third kind does not necessarily include a component of research or evaluation. However, relevant
research questions might include, ‘What models of curriculum, instruction, and
assessment are most effective in teaching geography? What strategies are effective in implementing geography education reform?’
These research questions are not independent but are interrelated. One could
argue that geography education should concentrate on development of a theoretical foundation from which to structure research questions posed in the
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International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education
second and third domains. However, no one type of geography education
research should be privileged. The process of research in geography education is
recursive, and research in one domain is likely to inform research in other
domains. Consider, for example, that teaching models will also produce
students with geographic expertise (the learning/teaching/education
subdomain). Applied geography education research can help develop geographically literate students. Observation of successful teaching practice
(applied research) can help teachers develop their subject matter knowledge and
enable them to transmit it effectively to others (teacher education research).
Geography education is not a neat, systematic, research specialty. Some
observers confuse education research about geography with geography education. Geography educators in the United States are sometimes affiliated with
schools and colleges of education, and at other times significant research about
geography education has been completed by non-geographers (see for example
Gregg & Leinhardt, 1994, Rittschof et al., 1996). In this paper, geography is
viewed first, education second. Research questions proposed in this paper are
best answered by individuals with a deep and complete understanding of geography. This is knowledge not possessed by most education researchers. In
addition, only geographers are likely to be sufficiently interested in these and
related questions to pursue them in depth. The author believes it is in the best
interest of the discipline to keep geography education within the academic structure of geography.
To summarise, geography education is a hybrid, a combination of two
complex, disparate domains: education and geography. The research subfields
are three types, shaped, in part, by intersection of the subdomains of education
(learning theory, teacher education, or applied topics) with geography. Geography education offers a wide range of possible research topics. How has
geography education as portrayed in the Journal of Geography addressed the
variety of research questions suggested here? In what ways have events of the
last decade affected research in geography education?
Trends in Geography Education and Research in the United
States
Conventional wisdom holds that US school geography has languished for
much of the second part of the 20th century, despite a brief resurgence of vigour
precipitated by the High School Geography Project in the 1960s (Winston, 1986;
Boehm, 1997; Stoltman, 1997). Geography, subsumed by the social studies early
in the century, received little attention from teachers or educational policy
makers (Libbee & Stoltman, 1988). Geographic illiteracy was widespread (Grosvenor, 1995). Writing in 1988, Cirrincione & Farrell described the role of
geography education in middle and secondary schools as, ‘…poorly defined and
of limited educational value’ (Cirrincione & Farrell, 1988: 11).
Since the publication of Guidelines for Geographic Education (1984), advocacy of
geography teaching has become a major geography education initiative. Enthusiasm and interest in geography education has increased, attributable to a variety
of factors. These include the National Geographic Society’s Alliance network, the
inclusion of geography in the National Education Goals, consequent
Geography Education Research in the Journal of Geography 1988–1997
133
development of national geography standards, and societal recognition of the
relevance and importance of geographic knowledge and skills (Bednarz &
Petersen, 1994; Grosvenor, 1995; Bednarz, 1997).
The role of advocacy
The initial advocacy effort was based on the Guidelines’ five themes of geography. Advocates for geography education were teachers, university faculty,
professional geographers and general citizens. The advocacy was motivated by a
variety of personal, professional, and sentimental reasons. As agents of change,
this group instituted summer workshops to train teachers, developed curriculum materials, and organised political action on behalf of geography.
In the decade between the publication of the Guidelines in 1984 and the release
of Geography for Life: National Geography Standards 1994 (Geography Education
Standards Project, 1994), geography educators and K–12 geography teachers
increased the attention on geography but did so largely without developing a
research focus. The emphasis was on action, not reflection and research. The
primary research interests and intellectual attention of the university-based
‘geo-advocates’ was focused on the traditional systematic subfields of geography. These geographers were not concerned with basic questions of geography
learning as much as with helping teachers, parents, administrators, and politicians understand the importance of geography as a school subject.
The role of research
Research in geography education in the United States has mirrored general
trends and changes in interest in the subfield that have occurred in the last fifty
years. In general, there has been little research in geography education compared
with research in other areas of education. The focus has been on teaching and
curriculum issues more than cognition and most research has been presented in
dissertations (Stoltman, 1991). The research conducted has generally been
descriptive, not theoretical or experimentally-based (see Stoltman, 1997 for an
extensive review of research in geography curriculum and instruction).
The renewed attention to classroom geography created a renewed interest in
geography education research. In recent years, Downs has argued for more
research, particularly research producing empirical data (Downs, 1994a, Downs,
1994b) and set an ambitious agenda (Table 3). In 1997 the National Research
Council released its assessment of geography’s disciplinary status, Rediscovering
Geography, which identified research challenges for geography. With reference to
geographic learning:
Geography needs empirical data to address questions about education
standards, curriculum design, materials development, teaching strategies, and assessment procedures. More broadly, the discipline needs (1)
baseline studies of the current state of geographic education, (2) an agenda
to shape a systematic program of research in geographic learning and
geographic education, and (3) a support system to ensure this program is
carried out and that the results are disseminated (National Research
Council, 1997: 147).
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Table 3 Research questions for Geography Education
Properties of the domain of geographic expertise
Character
What is the essential character of geographic expertise?
Genesis
What is the origin of geographic expertise?
Nature
What are the essential components of geographic expertise?
The fostering of expertise in the domain of geography
Ontogenesis
How does geographic expertise develop?
Identification
What are the procedures for identifying geographic aptitude
and assessing geographic performance?
Nurturing
What models of teaching might work and why?
Source: Downs (1994a)
The report recommended increased emphasis on ‘… research that improves our
understanding of geographic literacy, learning, and problem solving and the
roles of geographic information in education and decision making, including
interactive learning strategies and spatial decision support systems’ (National
Research Council, 1997: 169).
A number of efforts have been initiated to increase the quantity and quality of
geography education research. In 1994 the National Council for Geographic
Education (NCGE) formed the Task Force on Geographic Research under the
leadership of Judith Meyer. The task force commissioned an annotated bibliography to address the ‘…lack of a solid theoretical foundation and sense of where
we are now that permits concerted forward movement in a sensible direction’ in
geography education research (Forsyth, 1995: 1). A series of research conferences
were held at Southwest Texas State University to focus attention on geography
education research and to develop research agendas (Bednarz & Petersen, 1994;
Boehm & Petersen, 1997).
It has been suggested that geography education and geography education
research have responded to the successful (and ongoing) campaign to improve
geography education in elementary and secondary schools in the United States
as well as calls for more research from leading geography education scholars.
The next section of this paper examines the nature of the changes in research in
geography education and the kinds of research topics and methodologies that
are appearing in the leading US periodical in geographic education, the Journal of
Geography.
Geography Education Research in the Journal of Geography
Issues of the Journal of Geography that appeared between 1988 and 1997 were
reviewed to identify major initiatives in geography education research in the
United States. The analysis focuses on the Journal of Geography because its articles
mirror geography education research in the United States. The Journal is the
publication with the greatest interest in US geography education. The mission of
the Journal is to print the best articles submitted to it, primarily in geography
education. This time period was chosen for two reasons: (1) it represented the
Geography Education Research in the Journal of Geography 1988–1997
135
work of one editor, Robert S. Bednarz, and focusing on one editor controlled for
variations in editorial styles and preferences; and (2) the decade between 1988
and 1997 has been characterised as a period of renaissance in geography education (Hill & LaPrairie, 1989; Grosvenor, 1995; Boehm, 1997).
Methodology
The search for research articles in the Journal used the grounded theory
method and followed three stages. In this type of research, variables or categories are derived during the process of research (Glaser & Strauss, 1967;
Tilbury & Walford, 1996). Grounded theory research involves subjective and
interpretive decision making and the author selected and categorised the articles with ever-evolving criteria. The method was appropriate for this study
because it gave the author the flexibility to develop a categorisation framework derived from the articles and not imposed from an external source. The
first step entailed examining each issue of the Journal beginning with January
1988 and ending with December 1997. Articles not directly related to geography education comprised 18% of the total articles in the Journal of Geography
and were eliminated from the analysis. Articles that featured research in
geography education were selected and coded. An article was considered
research based if it contained any of the syntax or procedures of research,
particularly these features: (1) a literature review linking the article to other
research; (2) a description of a research methodology employed in the study;
(3) a conscious application of scholarship, defined, after Schon (1995), as work
generating new and useful knowledge. Book reviews and straightforward
descriptions of teaching strategies without a research focus were excluded
from consideration.
These issues contained 347 research-based articles. The articles were classified
according to common themes, categories, and methodologies. A typology
emerged from the analysis of the research articles and was refined by the
researcher based on the definition of geography education discussed earlier in
this paper. This typology was applied and research articles were again classified
into one of the three categories. The articles and categories were re-examined and
recoded to check the validity of the first categorisation.
Beyond the typology for classification, this paper does not judge the content,
significance, and quality of the research articles. The articles are not critiqued for
appropriate research methodologies or conceptual frameworks. The purpose
was to develop a snapshot of geography education research in the US during the
period 1988–1997 classified within a typology.
Findings: The typology of research
The typology developed by the author has three categories: (1) Geography
Teaching Strategies and Methods; (2) Geography Learning and Thinking
Research; and (3) Institutional Geography Education Research. Each of the categories is discussed next.
Geography Teaching Strategies and Methods
This category includes research articles that combine geography and education. These studies examine practice and often suggest teaching strategies which
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International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education
can be used to improve teaching, learning, and student performance. Such
studies are almost always the result of thoughtful and reflective teaching and
describe the findings obtained in the educational context of a university or
school. There is generally no information regarding the measured effect of the
suggested strategy or proposed activity. The research reported in these articles
usually employs empirical research methodologies. However, more often than
not, scant attention is paid to the constraints of research of that type, such as reliability, generalisability, and random assignment of students to groups. These
articles often are helpful and instructive, but do not link constructively to prior
research in education, geography, or geography education.
Geography Learning and Thinking Research
The research articles in this category focus on processes of learning and
thinking in geography and combine learning theory and geography. They
present a clear, well-explained methodology to collect and analyse data. The articles in this category seek to explain geography learning and thinking phenomena
using educational theory. This research applies either positivist (empirical,
quantitative) or postpositivist (qualitative) methodologies to analyse
information.
Institutional Geography Education Research
Articles in this category study geography education as an institution. They
include policy development, programme description, and articles analysing the
role of geography within the educational system. Many of these studies are
descriptive, explaining the form and process of various geography education
issues. A variety of methodologies are used, but these studies are seldom experimental or empirical.
Findings: trends in research
In the decade 1988–1997, research articles in the category ‘geography teaching
strategies and methods’ dominated the Journal of Geography. Fifty-five per cent of
the 347 articles, or 192 papers, were in this category. The second largest number
of articles, 64 or 18% of the total, were articles of general interest to geographers
and not part of this analysis. The category of ‘institutional geography education
research’ included 55 articles, or 16%. Geography education research articles
categorised as ‘geography learning and thinking research’ were the fewest, 36, or
10% (Table 4).
The researcher thought it would be interesting to study changes in the period
1988–1997. Such an analysis might reveal transitions underway in the research.
The study period was divided into two five-year segments. The research articles
were classified into the appropriate time periods according to publication date.
Geography teaching strategies and methods research articles constituted about
two-thirds (69%) of the articles in the period 1988–1993, but declined to 38% in
the period 1994–1997. Geography learning and thinking research articles
doubled during the same two periods, from 7.5% during 1988–1993 to 14.5%
during 1994–1997. A dramatic increase in the number of institutional geography
education research articles also occurred. From 1988 to 1993, 6% of all the articles
focused on institutional geography education research. That percentage
increased to 28% from 1994–1997 (Figure 6).
Geography Education Research in the Journal of Geography 1988–1997
137
Table 4 Trends in types of articles, Journal of Geography, 1988–1997
Year
Research
articles
Teaching
methods/
strategies (%)
Geography
learning/thinking
(%)
Institutional General interest
studies
geography
(%)
(%)
1988
25
20 (80)
1 (4)
–
4
1989
29
25 (86)
–
–
4
1990
36
19 (53)
4 (11)
1 (3)
12
1991
46
33 (72)
2 (4)
4 (9)
7
1992
36
20 (56)
4 (11)
3 (8)
9
1993
33
22 (67)
5 (15)
6 (18)
–
1994
39
12 (31)
3 (8)
19 (49)
5
1995
34
8 (24)
6 (18)
13 (38)
7
1996
33
17 (52)
5 (15)
6 (18)
5
1997
36
16 (44)
6 (17)
3 (8)
11
Total
347
192 (55)
36 (10)
55 (16)
64 (18)
80
Percent of All Research Articles
70
69
Teaching Methods/Strategies
Learning/Thinking
Institutional Studies
60
50
37.5
40
28
30
20
10
14.5
7.5
6.3
0
1988-1993
1994-1997
Time Periods
Figure 6 Comparison of types of research articles by time period
Discussion and Conclusions
The study suggests that geography education research has changed in the last
decade. The following discussion addresses three questions posed at the beginning of this study.
What kinds of research articles have geography educators published in
the Journal of Geography?
Geography education research published in the Journal of Geography has
consisted largely of geography teaching strategies and methods articles. They
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International Research in Geographical and Environmental Education
often deal with significant research questions but their lack of connection to
existing geography education research limits their usefulness in developing
cumulative knowledge and understanding of geography within the learning
process.
Research articles about geography learning and thinking have, until recently,
been rare in the Journal of Geography. Similarly, research articles on institutional
issues increased during the second half of the period reviewed. The increase in
those two categories began in the mid-1990s and suggests a growing interest in
geography education research. The efforts to increase research in geography
education described previously have produced a small, but discernible, increase
in this type of research. Increases in research in learning and thinking and institutional geography education perhaps also reflect the growing significance of these
topics to both young and established scholars in geographic education.
Have research articles in the Journal of Geography during the period
1988–1997 addressed significant research questions?
The author believes the record of addressing significant and fundamental
research in articles in the Journal of Geography has been poor, based on the present
typology and frequency counts. Downs (1994b) believed this was the case and
the present discussion confirms that belief. A handful of articles addressed the
fundamental geography education questions raised by Downs (1994a). These
results confirm previous assessments of geography education research as
focused on classroom practice and not on baseline theoretical and cognitive
issues (Stoltman, 1997; Forsyth, 1995). However, progress seems evident in the
upward trend in tallies of research articles and their classifications.
What do the research articles in the Journal of Geography from 1988–
1997 suggest about the position and status of geography education as
a subfield of geography?
The research articles in the Journal of Geography suggest that geography education is a unique subfield of US geography. It is slowly expanding a research
tradition that was more prominent in the past by identifying new questions and
refocusing on old ones. The number of research articles also suggests that geography educators must produce more research on geography learning and
thinking. They must also devise and test models that effectively institutionalise
geography within the US education system, as well as to gain status with
colleagues in other subfields of academic geography.
Acknowledgement
I wish to thank the two anonymous reviewers who contributed very careful
and useful comments regarding this work.
Correspondence
Any correspondence should be directed to Dr Sarah Bednarz, Department of
Geography, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 7784-3147, USA.
Geography Education Research in the Journal of Geography 1988–1997
139
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