World War 1 1914–1919
A Source-based Study
Part 5.2
Reasons for the Allied victory
and the German collapse
Contents
Reasons for the Allied victory and the German collapse
3
Factors throughout the war
4
Factors in 1918
9
Part 5.2 Exercise 1
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Part 5: Allied victory
1
Reasons for the Allied victory and the
German collapse
Early in 1918 the Germans were still in a position where they had a realistic
chance of winning the war. Despite this, as you have just read, they were
forced to sign the Armistice before the year ended. Let’s now examine why
this happened.
In doing this, we need to look at two issues: Why did the Germans collapse
and lose the war, and why did the Allies win? Of course the answers to
these two questions are not separate; they are inter-related, like two sides of
the same coin.
In answering these questions, we will look at two groups of reasons: some
that had operated since the beginning of the war; and others that developed
during 1918. As we examine these reasons, you will see that many of them
are things that you have learnt about during this module.
It is also important to bear in mind that the final outcome of World War I
was determined on the Western Front. In the words of the British official
history of the war, ‘The collapse of Germany began not in the Navy, not in
the Homeland, not in any of the sideshows [such as Gallipoli], but on the
Western Front in consequence of defeat in the field’ (in J Terraine, 1965,
The First World War 1914-1918, Macmillan, p.177).
Part 5: Allied victory
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Factors throughout the war
Until the end of 1917, Germany had to fight a war on two fronts, whereas
each of the Allied countries mainly fought on just one front. The Germans
fought against Russia on the Eastern Front, and against the British and the
French on the Western Front. On the other hand, the Russians fought just
on the Eastern Front against Germany and Austria-Hungary, and the British
and the French fought mainly just on the Western Front.
How did the fact that Germany fought on two fronts while the Allied
countries fought mainly just on one front help cause Germany’s collapse
and defeat? There may be more than one correct answer.
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The Germans had to split their forces in two whereas each Allied
country could mainly concentrate its forces just on one front. This
made it more difficult for Germany to break through the Allied
lines.
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It meant that Germany was fighting in more places simultaneously
which increased the number of German casualties so that it was
harder for Germany to have enough troops to resist Allied attacks.
It made it more complex and more difficult for Germany to
transport supplies to its soldiers.
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It meant that some of the more capable German generals and other
officers, along with some of the more experienced soldiers, had to
go to each front rather than all to the one front which led to a
reduction in the overall quality of German leadership and fighting
on both fronts.
Did you answer?
All of these answers are correct.
What happened towards the end of 1917 that meant the Germans no longer
had to fight on two fronts? Hint: you read about this event in Part 4.
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Did you answer?
The Russians withdrew from the war.
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The Allies were superior in manpower; in other words, they had more
soldiers than the Central Powers. Excluding the United States, the Allies
mobilised a total of 32 million men during the war (including 8.5 million
from the British Empire and 8.2 million Frenchmen) while the Central
Powers mobilised 24 million (including 13.4 million Germans). The
Americans mobilised four and a half million soldiers during the time they
participated in the war.
Fill in the space in the following sentence:
Not counting the Americans, the Allies had _____ per cent
more soldiers than the Central Powers.
Did you answer?
Not counting the Americans, the Allies had 33 per cent more soldiers than the
Central Powers.
One of the main reasons why the Allies had more soldiers was that there
were more countries on the Allied side than there were in the Central
Powers: 27 to 4.
The Allies had greater wealth and resources, both natural and especially
industrial, than the Central Powers. This was particularly because Britain
was on the Allied side.
What did Britain have that gave her great wealth and access to plentiful
resources? _______________
Did you answer?
an empire (colonies)
When the Americans entered the war in 1917, their massive wealth and
availability of resources gave the Allies an even greater advantage over the
Central Powers.
The greater wealth and resources of the Allies meant that they were able to
provide their soldiers with more of which of the following items than the
Central Powers could? There may be more than one correct answer.
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Part 5: Allied victory
ammunition
uniforms
weapons
food
5
Did you answer?
All of these answers are correct.
In 1929, Erich Maria Remarque, a former German soldier, wrote a book
called All Quiet on the Western Front. Although it is a novel, it is a highly
accurate account of what the fighting was like for the Germans on the
Western Front. The following is a passage from the book about what was
happening in 1918:
For every one German plane there come at least five English and
American. For one hungry, wretched German soldier come five of the
enemy, fresh and fit. For one German army loaf there are fifty tins of
canned beef over there. We are not beaten, for as soldiers we are better
and more experienced; we are simply crushed and driven back by
overwhelming superior forces.
Source:
a
Erich Maria Remarque, 1929, All Quiet on the Western Front
According to Remarque, why were the Germans driven back?
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b
What three things did Remarque say the Allies had more of?
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c
Give one reason why All Quiet on the Western Front is a reliable
account of what things were like for Germans soldiers on the
Western Front? Hint: think about who wrote it.
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d
Give one reason why you might have doubts about the reliability of the
passage from All Quiet on the Western Front that you have just read.
Hint: think about what Remarque’s purpose might have been in this
passage.
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World War 1 1914–1919 A Source-based study
Did you answer?
a
The Allies had overwhelming superior forces. (Note that in this source, the word
‘superior’ means ‘more’, not ‘better’.)
planes, soldiers and food
Remarque was a German soldier who fought on the Western Front.
Remarque wanted to persuade people that the German defeat was not the result
of the weakness or failings of the German soldiers but that it was due to the fact
that the Allies had a lot more men and supplies than the Germans did. He might
therefore have exaggerated the Allied superiority in soldiers and supplies, and
might also have exaggerated the ability and experience of the German soldiers.
b
c
d
The difficulties faced by the Central Powers in getting enough supplies were
made worse by the Allied, in particular the British, control of the seas which
enabled them to blockade the German coast. At the time of the blockade,
the British had 572 warships compared to the Germans’ 256.
Why did the British blockade the German coast?
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Did you answer?
To prevent natural resources and other goods getting to Germany.
What effects do you think the British blockade would have had that helped
cause Germany to collapse and the Allies to win the war? There may be
more than one correct answer.
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German civilians weren’t able to get many consumer goods.
The morale of both German soldiers and civilians declined.
There was less variety of food available in Germany.
The German soldiers didn’t have as many supplies as the Allies.
Did you answer?
The morale of both German soldiers and civilians declined.
The German soldiers didn’t have as many supplies as the Allies.
Note that all four of the statements are correct but these two are the ones
that help explain the final outcome of the war.
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The decline in German morale had several important effects: soldiers went
into battle with less determination to defeat the enemy; male civilians tried
to avoid being sent to fight; workers were less prepared to make an extra
effort to produce military supplies; and people began to openly express their
desire for an end to the war. It is almost impossible for a country to win a
war when its soldiers and civilians lack confidence and the desire to fight,
and are no longer willing to make the sacrifices that are required for victory.
Remember, however, that the Germans were not the only ones to suffer a
decline in morale (there was, for example, a mutiny in the French army in
1917) but theirs was more severe, especially in Germany itself where the
civilians suffered terribly. The decline in German morale exacerbated
(made worse) the other disadvantages that Germany faced.
Another factor throughout World War I that helps explain why Germany
lost the war was the weakness of its allies, especially Austria-Hungary and
Turkey. One of the reasons for this weakness was that both these countries
were not united as they consisted of so many different nationalities, some of
which saw World War I as an opportunity to gain their independence.
The weakness of us allies caused Germany several difficulties, including:
•
Germany had to provide support to its allies. While this support was
generally relatively small in terms of soldiers and resources, it did
weaken Germany’s position where the war was always going to be
decided – on the Western Front. Towards the end of the war, when the
situation was becoming desperate for the Germans on the Western
Front, they had to send seven divisions of soldiers from there to
Bulgaria in a vain attempt to prevent Bulgaria from being defeated by
the Allies
•
Germany’s allies were not strong enough to send any troops to the
Western Front to help Germany. This meant that, whereas the British
and the French, and later the Americans, were able to share the fighting
on the Western Front, for example by each country occupying the
trench lines in different sectors of the Front, the Germans had to do all
the fighting there on their own; and
•
If Austria-Hungary had been stronger, it may have been able to
undertake more of the fighting against Russia on the Eastern Front.
How would it have assisted Germany if Austria-Hungary had been able to
do more of the fighting against Russia?
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Did you answer?
It would have enabled Germany to transfer some or all of its troops from the
Eastern Front to the Western Front. This would have increased Germany’s
chance of achieving a victory on the Western Front.
In other words, in many ways, Germany’s allies were more a liability than a
help.
The Allied propaganda – in particular, that theirs was a moral cause fighting
for ‘Right’ against ‘Might’ – was able to sustain the morale of their soldiers
and civilians more successfully than the Germans were able to. As we have
seen, this does not of course mean that everyone in the Allied countries
remained positive and enthusiastic about the war, but as we have also seen,
German morale declined much more dramatically than did that of the Allies
– and German propaganda was not able to prevent this happening.
Factors in 1918
As we have seen, despite the difficulties faced by the Germans throughout
the war, they went close to gaining a victory in their Spring Offensive which
began in March 1918.
However, during 1918 a number of new factors arose which strengthened
the Allied position and weakened that of the Germans. These new factors,
along with those that had operated throughout the war, enabled the Allies to
defeat the Germans.
These new factors are explained in the rest of this section.
The Allies finally created a unified military command with the French
Marshal Foch appointed as their Commander-in-Chief on 14 April 1918.
Remember that the Germans had a unified military command through
most of the war.
Why do you think the appointment of Marshal Foch as Commander-inChief strengthened the position of the Allies? There may be more than
one correct answer.
Part 5: Allied victory
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It reduced the chances that the Allies would make strategic or
tactical errors as a result of Britain, France and the United States
each having their own military commander and making
contradictory decisions.
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It meant that the Allies could focus all their energies on developing
strategies and tactics to defeat Germany and reduced the amount of
time they had to spend liaising with, and in many cases arguing
with, each other.
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It meant that there was only one person in charge of military
ceremonies so they were better organised and more colourful.
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It enabled the Allies to make more bold military decisions because
there was less need for compromise between the military leaders of
the different countries – instead Marshal Foch could take advice
from these leaders (who disagreed with each other on occasions)
but ultimately he had the authority to make what he considered to
be the best decision.
Did you answer?
It reduced the chance that the Allies would make strategic or tactical errors as a
result of Britain, France and the United States each having their own military
commander and making contradictory decisions.
It meant that the Allies could focus all their energies on developing strategies
and tactics to defeat Germany and reduced the amount of time they had to
spend liaising with, and in many cases arguing with, each other.
It enabled the Allies to make more bold military decisions because there was
less need for compromise between the military leaders of the different
countries – instead Marshal Foch could take advice from these leaders but
ultimately he had the authority to make what he considered to be the best
decision.
The creation of a unified Allied military command under Marshal Foch
played a significant role in the Allies being able to stop the German Spring
Offensive and then in carrying out the successful counter-offensive which
finally brought them victory in November 1918.
In addition to creating a unified military command, the Allies also coordinated
joint policies on shipping, food and munition resources.
The failure of the Spring Offensive dealt a crushing blow to Central Power
morale, not only in Germany but also in its allies. It seemed that Germany
had attempted one last throw of the dice and had failed. Most people,
including in Germany itself, assumed that Germany would not have another
chance to win the war. The disappointment felt at the failure of the
Offensive was made worse by the fact that initially it was very successful
and expectations began to develop in the Central Powers that they were on
the brink of ultimate victory. When it became clear that this was not going
to happen, morale plummeted.
Following the failure of the German Spring Offensive and the decline in
Central Power morale which resulted, the Allied propaganda which was
directed at the soldiers and civilians of the Central Powers (including by
dropping leaflets from planes) began to have more and more impact. In
particular, Allied promises that they would support the racial minorities in
the empires of Austria-Hungary and Turkey in their desire to achieve
independence not only reduced the determination of members of these
minorities to keep fighting but in fact encouraged them to lay down their
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World War 1 1914–1919 A Source-based study
arms because they saw an Allied victory as desirable in order to gain their
freedom from the empires that many regarded as oppressive.
The determination of the Germans was also weakened by US President
Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points which he announced on 8 January
1918.
The Fourteen Points were designed to be the basis of the peace settlement
following the Allied victory that Wilson believed was close now that the
Americans had entered the war. In fact of course, it was another ten months
before the war actually ended. If you can’t remember what the Fourteen
Points were, read about them again in Part 5.1.
The Fourteen Points were generally regarded at the time, and since then, as
being generous towards the Germans, although Wilson himself thought that
they were fair to both sides involved in the war.
Why do you think the Fourteen Points might have weakened the
determination of the Germans to keep fighting?
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Did you answer?
The Germans might have thought that they could end the war and all their suffering, if
necessary by surrendering to the Allies, and still not be treated too harshly according to
the Fourteen Points. If they kept fighting, they couldn’t be sure what would happen.
They might end up being completely defeated and forced to sign a much harsher peace
treaty.
In the next section you will learn about the Versailles Treaty that the Allies
forced the Germans to sign at the end of World War I. Many Germans
expected that the treaty would be based on the Fourteen Points and felt that
it was much harsher than what they had been expecting.
On the battlefield, the Allies had more tanks than the Germans and also used
them more effectively. This proved to be decisive, especially in their
counter-offensive of 1918. As you learnt, tanks were first used in the Battle
of the Somme in 1916 but did not have any real success until the Battle of
Cambrai in November 1917. At first, tanks were not very useful because
they tended to break down and the generals had not devised effective
strategies for using them. However, by the time of the Allied counter-
Part 5: Allied victory
11
offensive of 1918, the tanks were much better mechanically and appropriate
strategies had been developed by the Allies, including how to use them
effectively in conjunction with the infantry and the artillery. The Australian
General Sir John Monash was particularly involved in developing these
improved tactics. Tanks gave the Allied forces greater mobility than the
Germans had, and could also strike terror into the hearts of the German
soldiers, especially if they suddenly appeared out of fog and smoke as they
did on 8 August 1918.
The German General Ludendorff later wrote about the events of that
day:
August 8th was the black day of the German Army in the history of
this war.
Early on August 8th, in a dense fog, rendered still thicker by
artificial means, the English, mainly with Australian and Canadian
divisions, and the French attacked between Albert and Moreuil with
strong squadrons of tanks, but otherwise in no great superiority.
Between the Somme and the Luce [Rivers] they penetrated deep into
our positions. The divisions in line at that point allowed themselves
to be completely overwhelmed…
Source: In G A Cranfield et al, 1966, Select Documents A Modern History
Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, Sydney, p 97
Ludendorff says that some of the German divisions ‘allowed themselves to
be completely overwhelmed’. Underline or highlight the words in this
extract that indicate that Ludendorff thought that the Allied tanks were the
main reason why this happened.
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Did you answer?
with strong squadrons of tanks, but otherwise in no great superiority
The Allies used 456 tanks at the time and in the area that Ludendorff was
writing about. Contrast that with the total of only 50 tanks that the Germans
had at the end of the war.
Read again an extract from a speech by Major von dem Bussche of the
German General Staff to the leaders of the political parties in the Reichstag
on 2 October 1918. In it he spoke about the significant role played by the
tanks in the success of the Allied counter-offensive.
… Supreme Army Command is forced to make the extremely grave
decision to state that as far as can be foreseen there exists no further
prospect of forcing peace on the enemy.
Two factors above all are decisive for this development: Tanks.
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World War 1 1914–1919 A Source-based study
The enemy is using these in unexpectedly large numbers. When they
appeared unexpectedly, especially after our positions were blanketed by
smoke screen, they often broke the morale of our people … to the success
of the tanks is due the large number of prisoners, which has reduced our
strength so markedly and led to the exhaustion of our reserves.
We are not able to oppose the enemy with an equal number of German
tanks. To produce them was beyond the capacity of an already fully
extended industry without cutting back on other important things.
Source: In G A Cranfield et al, 1966, Select Documents A Modern History
Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, Sydney, p 98.
As we saw, the arrival of large numbers of American troops on the Western
Front was a particularly important factor in the final victory of the Allies. It
gave them an overwhelming superiority in manpower, although it is
important to remember that the Americans only really made a significant
contribution to the Allied cause in the last months of the war.
In his speech to the leaders of the political parties in the Reichstag, Major
von dem Bussche also spoke about the impact of the American soldiers:
The losses of the currently raging battle are … unexpectedly great,
especially of officers. This is decisive … The enemy is in a position to
make good his losses with American help. The American troops as such
are not of special value, let alone superior to ours. Where they achieved
initial successes through mass attacks, they were repulsed despite numerical
superiority. Their importance lies in the fact that they were able to take
over lengthy stretches of the front, thereby enabling the English and the
French to disengage their own battle-tried divisions and to provide almost
inexhaustible reserves for themselves.
Source:
In G A Cranfield et al, 1966, Select Documents A Modern History
Sourcebook, McGraw-Hill, Sydney, pp.. 98-9.
a
Did Major von dem Bussche have a positive view of the quality of
the American troops? Yes / No
b
Underline or highlight the two sentences in the above extract that tell
you this.
c
According to von dem Bussche, what were the two main benefits that
the American troops brought to the Allies?
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Part 5: Allied victory
13
Did you answer?
a No
b The American troops as such are not of special value, let alone superior to ours. Where they
achieved initial successes through mass attacks, they were repulsed despite numerical
superiority.
c The arrival of the American troops meant that the Allies could give their troops a break from
the fighting, and also that the Allies had an ‘almost inexhaustible’ supply of reserves.
No matter how many casualties the Allies suffered as the fighting in 1918
continued, especially during the Allied counter-offensive, the large number
of American troops meant that they had virtually endless reinforcements.
This was certainly a luxury that the Germans did not have. Moreover,
whereas the British, French and German troops were exhausted and in many
cases disillusioned with the war, the American soldiers arrived fresh and
enthusiastic. These two factors gave the Allies a massive advantage over
the Germans at a critical time in the war.
We have just looked at some of the main reasons why the Allies won World
War I and the Germans lost. However it is important to remember that
things seldom happen logically and according to plan in war. This was
certainly true of World War I where both sides stumbled along, not really
knowing what to do, and often learning by trial and error, especially on the
Western Front. Eventually the Allies staggered across the finishing line,
slightly ahead of the Germans, and a bit fresher than their opponents, mainly
because of the arrival of the Americans.
General Sir John Monash reminds us of the essentially chaotic nature of
World War I:
Much eulogistic writing has been devoted to an attempted analysis of the
comprehensive and far-reaching plans which resulted in the delivery of
blow upon blow in a prescribed order of time and for the achievement of
definite strategical and tactical ends. All who played any part in these
great events will know that it was nothing of the kind.
Now would be an appropriate time to do Exercise 1.
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World War 1 1914–1919 A Source-based study
Part 5.2 Exercise 1
Name:
Reasons for the Allied victory and the German collapse
Reasons for the Allied victory and the German collapse
1
World War I quickly developed into a war of attrition which means that
both sides were trying to exhaust the other so that it ran out of sufficient
soldiers and resources before they did.
Using the information that you have read in this section, list the
advantages that the Allies had that help explain why they won this type
of war in World War I.
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2
What do you think were the two main reasons why the Allies won
World War I and the Germans lost? Explain why you think these two
reasons were the most important ones.
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