LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Defining Grammar
Grammar and the study of grammar is one of the hotly debated topics in the
teaching of language arts. I would agree that some attention to "grammar" is
appropriate. However, I think we need to have a clear definition of what we mean
by the term grammar when we use it. Then, we can begin to examine the most
effective ways to teach grammar.
Basically, grammar is simply how English works, how the language fits together.
Over time, linguists have recorded the way the language fits together, and over
time, the rules have actually changed. Most teachers, however, believe that
grammar is a set of rules prescribing how one is "supposed" to speak.
When people hear the word grammar, they may really be focused on the
following (Fromkin and Rodman, 1993; Delahunty and Garvey, 1994; Piper,
1998).
Usage: These are the norms of correctness. What is considered "standard" and
"nonstandard" often falls in this category.
Actual structure of a language: This is descriptive grammar, a basic
description of how words are put together to make sentences and the ordering of
elements in a sentence.
Internalized set of rules: This subconscious knowledge enables you to produce
and understand sentences even without any formal instruction in the language.
Mechanics: This involves transcription conventions: spelling, capitalization,
punctuation. The rules of mechanics do not vary as with usage, but they are
arbitrary. Yet, mechanics can interfere with comprehension.
In general, the part of "grammar" that most individuals are most concerned about
is usage (Tchudi & Mitchell, 1999 & Andrews, 1997).
•
•
•
•
Usage is a socially significant range of choices available within grammar.
In other words, if you have standard usage in your speech and writing, you
are considered educated. If your usage is "nonstandard," then you are
often considered uneducated, unintelligent.
Usage does not interfere with comprehension. We can still understand an
individual who uses double negatives or has a subject-verb agreement
error. But, we make judgments about speakers based on their use of
language, and we tend to type a person with "nonstandard" usage as less
educated and intelligent.
Usage is relative, neither correct nor incorrect; it is a matter of custom.
Usage is based on people who are envied (for breeding, wealth), so usage
changes over time depending on who’s in and who’s out in terms of social
power.
Page 1
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Check out these thought provoking handouts on "Myths about Writing" at
http://wire.rutgers.edu/i_myth.html and
http://garbl.home.comcast.net/stylemanual/myths.htm that clearly link to the
debates on grammar instruction.
Why Do We Continue To Teach Grammar?
There is a tremendous amount of research that points to the fact that direct
instruction in grammar through drills and worksheets does not positively impact
student writing (Weaver, 1996). However, teachers continue to persist in the
teaching of grammar through drills, worksheets, and tests. Why would teachers
use their valuable instructional time in this manner? Weaver (1996) cites d’Eloia
(1981) with some very convincing reasons that teachers continue to drill on
traditional grammar. As you read through these reasons that teachers often use
to justify the teaching of grammar, consider if you have heard any of these or if
you believe these reasons!
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
They are unaware of the research and simply assume that grammar
instruction will make a positive difference.
They do not believe the research or assume that the studies are flawed.
They believe that grammar study is interesting and should be included in
the curriculum.
They assume that writers must know about grammar in order to utilize it
effectively in their compositions.
They know that some students find grammar easy and that these students
are often good readers and writers. Thus, they make the assumption that
there is a correlation between these students’ knowledge and their ability.
They teach grammar because it is objective -- with one right answer -- and
easy to grade; teaching the writing process, on the other hand, is time
consuming and messy.
They don’t believe that the study of grammar can do any real harm to
students.
They are required by their school/district to teach grammar.
They feel that if they don’t teach grammar, students will miss out on some
critical part of the curriculum.
They give into the pressure from general society that tends to feel that
grammar study is essential.
Weaver shares more about teaching grammar in context at the following website:
http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/download/nwp_file/845/Teaching_Grammer.pdf?xr=pcfile_d
Page 2
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Alternatives to Traditional Grammar Teaching
Given the continuing debate over grammar instruction, the research base we
now have on grammar, and teachers’ concerns, what is the best approach to
take? Hillocks (1986), Noguchi (1991) and Weaver (1996) present some
alternatives for teachers to consider for the presentation of grammar in the
classroom. Consider these. Which of these techniques might you use in your
own classroom? Which of these are you already using?
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Teach grammar as an elective class or unit and teach it more as language
study not so much a focus on the constructions of grammar.
Use a "book flood" program. By reading to students and exposing them to
many good books for self selected silent reading, students encounter a
variety of writing styles and language use that helps them to become
aware of the way English works. They acquire an understanding of syntax,
grammar, and a broader vocabulary. Indeed, many excellent books serve
as wonderful models of writing techniques and styles.
Teach grammar within the context of students’ own writing practice.
Focus on producing effective sentences, not analyzing their structure.
Examine punctuation in the context of published texts and students’ own
work rather than on worksheets.
Discuss issues of usage with students rather than completing drills on
worksheets.
Engage students in a study of dialects in both spoken language in the
media and written language in literature.
Provide opportunities for talking in the classroom. This is critical for
English language learners, in particular, who need to practice their oral
communication skills.
Cut up a paragraph into its sentences or a story or an essay into its
paragraphs and have students work together in groups to put the
sentences/paragraphs together in what they think is a coherent structure.
Have a discussion about the differences that may come up between the
way the group ordered the sentences/paragraphs and the way the author
has. Teachers might also try this with poems (see poetry collage idea in
Module 2). The structure of poetry violates many of the traditional
grammar notions and is a nice comparison to over types of text.
Spend a considerable amount of time writing. Practice makes perfect
should be our motto here. In addition to the time spent writing, students
need the guided input of teachers in sentence combining, manipulation of
syntax and mechanics relevant to their own pieces.
Present good pieces of writing as models for student writing. Models of
strong writing are more effective than studying grammar as a means to
improve writing. Best results are shown when valuable models are used in
conjunction with other writing strategies.
Page 3
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
•
•
Supply students with specific questions or criteria for evaluating writing. It
is difficult to write for a moving target. Specifying the criteria in advance or
having students help to build those criteria for various assignments and
then, systematically applying these criteria to their own work helps
students internalize the mechanics of writing more effectively.
Engage students in inquiry based activities. Inquiry writing with its
questioning process and research techniques to find answers to those
questions helps to activate their critical thinking skills and helps students
to engage more actively in the writing process. In addition, inquiry writing
hones strategies to deal with complex sets of data and enables students
the opportunity to transfer their intuitive oral language skills to their writing.
Vocabulary Knowledge
Beyond grammar, vocabulary is another essential component to master to be an
articulate language user. We all possess only a small fraction of the possible
vocabulary items within the English language, and we know those words to
varying extents. Nagy (1988) notes that all individuals have two types of
vocabulary knowledge, receptive and expressive.
•
•
Our receptive vocabulary or "taking in" vocabulary is our largest word
store, and this includes words that we are familiar with while listening and
reading but that we might not use on any type of regular basis. So, we
may recognize a word in our reading but not really ever use that term. This
is an important skill when taking standardized tests. So, talking about our
receptive vocabulary and modeling how we put this into play in reading
and test taking is a great demonstration for class.
On the other hand, expressive vocabulary or our "putting out"
vocabulary would include the words we use when we are speaking and
writing, with our writing vocabulary being the smallest. Teachers need to
work to increase the vocabulary choices that students use in their writing
by engaging in more prewriting activities (e.g., brainstorming, discussions,
etc.).
In addition to receptive and expressive vocabulary, students can have definitional
and/or contextual knowledge of a word.
•
•
Definitional knowledge is knowing the specific dictionary or glossary
definition of a word. However, often student encounters with new terms
require more than a mere definitional knowledge of the word.
Contextual knowledge is a broader understanding of a term based on
the complex set of relationships associated with a term. Contextual
knowledge is critical for a deeper reading of literature where authors often
engage in word play and words have many meanings. So, deciphering the
Page 4
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
text is impossible without some awareness of the multiple meanings
created by the author’s use of figurative language.
Some Principles of Learning Applied to Vocabulary Study
Word knowledge is directly related to reading comprehension. So, language arts
teachers should be focused on engaging students with language and creating a
broader base of word knowledge for their students. But, how do teachers help
students with the study of new terms? Dupuis, Lee, Badiali, and Askov (1989, p.
67) and Simpson and Dwyer (1991) note several principles of learning which
have a direct impact on vocabulary instruction. Teachers should consider these
principles as they plan any lesson highlighting vocabulary words.
1. The more frequently we use words, the easier it is to recall and use them
again. Therefore, as teachers we need to use the terms we are going to
hold students responsible for. Saturate the classroom environment, using
the terms that students are studying over and over again in your
instructional routine. Simpson and Dwyer (1991) call this "intensity of
instruction."
2. The more ways we have used words and seen them used, the easier it is
to remember them. Multiple instructional methods help students to see
new terms and to work with them many times. Coupled with the multiple
methods add active student involvement to enhance the learning
experience.
3. The more important or interesting words are to us, the easier it is to
remember them. Interest serves to motivate any learner and helps the
learner to persist in the task at hand. As teachers, it helps to consider how
the content and the new terminology might be related to students’ lives
and interests. We should always try to capitalize on those factors that
facilitate learning.
4. The more we know about a whole subject, the easier it is to remember
specific words that are related to that subject. This principle relates directly
back to a students’ prior knowledge. As we have read previously,
background knowledge has a direct link to reading comprehension. So,
when students have a general framework or context where they can hang
their new learning and new vocabulary, their chances of success are
greater. This is an important consideration in the study of literature from
another era or culture. Teachers must build some background to assist
students in their comprehension of this literature.
Vocabulary Instructional Techniques
Following are some vocabulary techniques that will actively involve students in
their learning and can also tap into students’ prior knowledge.
Page 5
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Structural Analysis: This is a simple technique that encourages students to use
word parts (e.g., prefixes and suffixes) to determine meaning. This strategy is
one that leads to independent word analysis skills by students and contributes to
test taking skills as well.
Semantic Feature Analysis (Anders & Bos, 1986; Anders, Bos, & Wilde,
1986; Toms-Bronowski, 1983): This technique helps students categorize and
recognize the relationship of interrelated terms. To utilize this technique, follow
the directions below.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Create a grid of rows and columns.
Place the topic/concept above the grid, (e.g., dwellings).
Down the first column on the left, place members of your topic/concept
(e.g., shack, house, palace etc.).
Across the top row, place features or attributes of the members of the
topic/concept (e.g., large, small, expensive, cheap, etc.).
Then students check which characteristics belong to each member of the
concepts under study.
Follow up with a discussion and encourage students to add any other
members of the concept to the grid.
Example: Types Of Dwellings
shack
house
palace
large
no
maybe
yes
small
yes
maybe
no
expensive
no
maybe
yes
inexpensive
yes
maybe
no
Mapping the meaning through a semantic feature analysis we see that a shack
and a house are opposites but a house could have characteristics of either a
shack or a palace. Therefore, a house could be described as a shack or a palace
in students’ writing. A great extension to this is to take the dwelling types and
map these on a continuum. Obviously a shack or a hovel would be at one end of
the continuum in terms of size and cost and a palace or a mansion would be at
the opposite end based on again size and cost. These vocabulary activities help
students to make better choices when they use the thesaurus realizing that not
all terms provided under any one entry are synonymous. For more information on
semantic feature analysis, go to: http://edweb.sdsu.edu/triton/guides/SFA.html.
Page 6
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Semantic Mapping/Webbing (Johnson & Pearson, 1984): This is an example
of a graphic organizer that links groups of interrelated terms and ideas. Teachers
may construct a semantic map (convergent map) or students may create more
open ended maps (divergent maps). Constructing and using a semantic map is
simple.
•
•
•
•
•
First, identify a key topic, word, or concept and place this in the center of
the board, overhead, chart paper.
Identify at least 3-4 subcategories of subordinate information about the
identified concept and place these on spokes radiating from the center
topic.
As a prereading technique, factstorm with students asking them to
contribute any prior knowledge relating to any of the spoke subheadings
before their reading.
For during reading, use this graphic organizer as an outline for notetaking
to record further ideas.
After reading, add any new information or correct any misinformation that
was volunteered in the prereading stage.
Example: Semantic Map for a literature selection
In the study of literature, students can map a poem or story beginning with the
title as the central focus. Then students can then branch out with subcategories
such as: characters, setting, major events, etc. Mapping a reading selection in
this way is a great organizer for eventually summarizing the text.
Finally, here is an assortment of familiar techniques that you might try to
emphasize word knowledge and to actively involve students in a study of new
and unfamiliar terms.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mime/Charades
Role Play (e.g., act out a scene from a play)
Games (e.g., Password, Scrabble, Pictionary)
Projects (e.g., mobiles, scrapbooks)
Student Artwork (e.g., posters, collages)
Word Bank (one possible format is to write the word on one side with the
definition and/or illustration on the other)
Crossword Puzzles
A Closer Look at the Dictionary
"Dictionary, n. A malevolent literary device for cramping the
growth of a language and making it hard and inelastic."
Ambrose Bierce, The Devil’s Dictionary
Page 7
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
An important part of word study is an understanding of the dictionary. Too often,
students see the dictionary as a rule book filled with what is right and wrong.
However, the dictionary is merely a description of the language as it is currently
being used. In addition, a dictionary provides historical notes about how a word
entered our language.
It is important to remember, however, that dictionaries are not created equal
(Andrews, 1998; Fromkin & Rodman, 1993). Generally, all dictionaries provide
the following information.
•
•
•
•
Spelling
Pronunciation
Definitions
Parts of speech
This is just the beginning of information, however, that a dictionary can provide
about a word. Most student dictionaries are paperback and smaller versions of a
more comprehensive dictionary. Thus, they have the required items of
information as noted previously. I would encourage you to have at least one
more comprehensive dictionary in your class that includes other types of
information about the entries: the etymology or history of the word, labels of
convenience or usage, illustrative quotes that provide clues to the word’s
definition. An interesting activity would be to bring several different dictionaries
into the classroom and have students work in groups to compare and contrast
these considering the features that each uses. Students, and teachers, need to
understand that picking up the first dictionary available may not provide the most
complete information for their needs. The same way that picking up the first book
or reference tool may not be the best source of information when one is doing
research. An important consideration!
Andrews (1998) provides more information on the common features of
comprehensive dictionaries.
1. Head words or main entries (lemmata): These are printed in boldface
and arranged in alphabetical order. The head words provide the
conventional spelling of a word and any variant spellings, if appropriate.
2. Guide to the entry's pronunciation(s): This is usually a respelling
system based on the International Phonetic Alphabet. The entry may
include an optional or regional variant pronunciation. It is important to
remember that the first pronunciation is not the preferred one or even
necessarily, more accurate. The first pronunciation listed is simply more
frequent in the publisher's judgment.
3. Etymology or history of the word: This may appear at the beginning of
an entry or at the end. The etymology explains how the word came into
English.
Page 8
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
4. Each head word is also given several definitions or senses
according to publisher's policies: Sometimes definitions are listed in
the chronological order that they entered the language. At other times,
they are listed by the frequency of use. You must read the front matter in
the dictionary for the rationale on this. Remember, again, that the first
definition or sense listed is not the preferred one!
5. Labels of convenience or usage notes: These are often provided in
more comprehensive dictionaries and are input from the editors regarding
the entry in terms of its pronunciation or definition "archaic," "obsolete,"
"slang," or representative of a particular geographic region.
There Is Not Just One Dictionary
Many dictionaries are created each year. Some of these new dictionaries
chronicle the addition of new words into the language. Others are phrase books
explaining the history behind words and expressions. These are my particular
favorite! Following is a reference list of dictionaries that you might bring into your
class. It can be very enlightening for students to spend time skimming and
scanning these resources. One fun activity is to have students work individually
or in groups to peruse the dictionary and then to share one word or phrase that
they found interesting! Try to encourage students to pick up the dictionary and to
find out what an exciting source of information it can be.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Ammer, C. (1992). Southpaws and Sunday punches and other
sporting expressions. New York: Dutton.
Bayan, R. (1994). The cynic’s dictionary. New York: Hearst Books.
Benthul, H. F. (1981). Wording your way through Texas. Burnet, TX:
Eakin Press.
Berg, P. (1953). A dictionary of new words in English. New York:
Thomas Y. Crowell.
Brown, I. (1974). Words in our time. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Colcord, J. C. (1977). Sea language comes ashore. New York: Arno
Press.
Chapman, R. L. (1986). New dictionary of American slang. New York:
Harper & Row.
Funk, C. E. (1985). A hog on ice. New York: Harper and Row.
Funk, C. E. (1985). Thereby hangs a tale: Stories of curious word
origins. New York: Harper and Row.
Hargrave, B. (1968). Origins and meanings of popular phrases and
names. Detroit, MI: Gale Research Company.
Lerner, S., & Belkin, G. S. (1993). A dictionary of new words. New York:
Barnes and Noble.
Mackay, C. (1987). Lost beauties of the English language. London:
Bibliophile Books.
Page 9
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Mayberry, G. (1961). A concise dictionary of abbreviations. New York:
Tudor Publishing.
Morris, W., & Morris, M. (1962). Dictionary of word and phrase origins.
New York: Harper and Row.
Partridge, E. (1977). A dictionary of catch phrases: British and
American from the sixteenth century to the present day. New York:
Stein and Day.
Partridge, E. (1978). A dictionary of clichés. London: Routledge &
Kegan Paul.
Radford, E. (1946). Unusual words and how they came about. New
York: Philosophical Library.
Reifer, M. (1955). Dictionary of new words. New York: Philosophical
Library.
Room, A. (1986). Dictionary of changes in meaning. London: Routledge
& Kegan Paul.
Schur, N. W. (1987). British English: A to Zed. New York: HarperCollins.
Sullivan, George. (1979). The complete sports dictionary. New York:
Scholastic.
Train, J. (1980). Remarkable words with astonishing origins. New
York: Clarkson N. Potter.
Vanoni, M. (1989). Great expressions: How our favorite words and
phrases have come to mean what they mean. New York: William
Morrow.
Why do we say it? (1985). Edison, NJ: Castle Books.
Page 10
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Page 11
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Funk’s Heavens To Betsy! And Other Curious Sayings and Sarnoff and
Ruffin’s Words: A books about the origins of everyday words and phrases
provide great browsing opportunities and a chance to learn more about our
language.
Words and How They Enter Our Language: (Andrews, 1998;
Fromkin & Rodman, 1993)
Things change! Our language is not static. Indeed, the history of a people can be
traced by the history of its language and the changes that have taken place over
time -- wars and invasion, exploration and contact with other people, etc.
Page 12
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
Over time, we add words, lose words, and change the meanings of words in our
language. For any language to remain vital, this is a necessary process. Think
about the impact that technology has had on the English language. Indeed,
English technology terms are being adopted wholesale into languages around
the world!
There are a number of ways to add words to the language. Following is a
description of these methods:
Borrowing
This is a common way to add words or morphemes from one language to
another. Since most languages engage in this borrowing process, we can divide
our lexicon into native and nonnative, or loan, words. A native word can be
traced back to the earliest stages of the language.
The six top sources of borrowing into English are: French, Greek, Latin, Spanish,
Italian, German. Our French borrowings generally relate to art and food while our
Greek and Latin borrowings relate to science and technical terms.
Root Creation or Coinage
Using a brand new base is the least common formation process, it represents an
entirely new, previously nonexistent word usually a product name that carries no
association, i.e., Kleenex, Xerox.
Grammatical Word Formation Processes
Beyond borrowing from other languages and coinage, we can take the existing
lexicon and form new words. The process of adding words in this way is called
grammatical word formation. Following are methods of grammatical word
formation to add to our preexisting stock of words in English:
1. Compounding
• Results when two free bases are combined, e.g., bookcase
• In combining two words the second one often has a derivational
affix e.g., baby + sitter = babysitter
• Babysitter then underwent backformation to become baby sit
• Amalgamated compounds (e.g., day's + eye = daisy) are
compounds that become so reduced that you no longer recognize
the two components, no morpheme is lost rather it undergoes
phonetic reduction
• You can have reduplicatives, e.g., tic toc (usually onomatopoeia)
2. Affixation or Derivation
• We create new words by adding an affix, e.g., un/kind, un/cola
• Base + affix is the most common type of word formation in English
Page 13
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
•
Affixation includes prefixation (divided according to meaning, e.g.,
negative prefixes, preservative prefixes, pejorative prefixes, etc.)
and suffixation (divided according to part of speech)
3. Functional Shift or Conversion
• Involves a change in the part of speech without an overt change in
form, e.g., table (as noun) to table (as verb) an amendment
4. Back Formation
• This is the opposite of affixation, affixed word comes first and then
the affix is deleted, e.g., Weedeater to weedeat or beggar which
came first with beg coming later (this involved the deletion of a
derivational suffix)
• You can also create new singulars through backformation through
the deletion of inflectional suffix (e.g., pease to pea, a
reinterpretation of the form)
5. Clipping
• Involves cutting off syllable(s) to create a new word, e.g.,
tele/phone, auto/car, exam/ination
6. Blending
• Results when the elements of two free bases are merged together
to get a new base, e.g., smog from smoke + fog, brunch from
breakfast + lunch, motel from motor + hotel
7. Acronyms
• Results when we form a new base by using initials of a series of
words, e.g., NATO, NASA, radar, laser
Semantic Word Change Processes
In addition to grammatical word formation processes, the meaning or semantic
representation of words may change over time. Words may become broader or
narrower in meaning or they may shift in meaning. Following are the terms for
semantic change in words (Fromkin & Rodman, 1993).
•
Generalization/Broadening
In this process, a term becomes more generalized in meaning. In other
words, it means what it originally did and even more. For instance, the
word ‘barn’ originally meant a place for storing barley. Now, a barn can be
a place for storing anything or nothing.
•
Specialization/Narrowing
In this process, a term becomes more specialized and narrow in meaning.
Page 14
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.
LIST 5326 – Teaching Language Arts in the Secondary Schools
Lesson 7: Language Issues: Grammar and Vocabulary Study
For instance, the word ‘corn’ originally referred to any type of grain. Now,
corn is a specific type of grain. The same process happened with the word
‘deer’ which used to refer to any animal on four legs. Now, it is more
specific.
•
Amelioration
In this process, term moves to a better sense or meaning. The word ‘fond’
previously meant foolish which has a rather negative connotation. Now,
fond is a positive term. Another example, is the word ‘nice’ which
previously meant ignorant.
•
Pejoration
In this process, a term worsens in meaning over time. For instance, hussy
used to mean housewife and wench referred to any woman. Other
examples are: awful (previously awe full), silly (previously happy or
unsophisticated).
You have now completed Lesson Seven, Grammar and Vocabulary Study.
In this lesson we examined the debate surrounding grammar study and some
alternatives to traditional grammar instruction. In addition, we discussed ideas for
building word knowledge. In the next lesson, we will look at language and its use
in the media.
Page 15
Copyright © 2003-2009 Nancy L. Hadaway and the Center for
Distance Education at The University of Texas at Arlington.