Organisatorisches
Vorlesungen, die entfallen wegen
auswärtiger Termine müssen:
5.5. – 7.7. – 14.7.
Begleitende Übung von Edith Hallberg, M.A.:
English Drama from the Middle Ages to the Seventeenth Century
Ü; 2 SWS; Schein; ben. Schein; ECTS: 4; Anf; Studium
Generale; angeboten für Alps Adriatic Joint Degree in English
and American Studies; Do, 16:00 - 17:30, U9/111
The History of Drama from the
Middle Ages until
the Restoration Period
Medieval Drama
Elizabethan Drama
(and Shakespeare)
Jacobean Drama
Drama During the Civil War and
the Puritan Commonwealth
Restoration Comedy
Medieval Drama
• 1) Chronology
• 2) Alterity of Drama
• 3) Sources and Definitions of
Drama as a genre
• 4) Beginnings and Forms of
Medieval Drama
Chronology
1343-1362 Tournaments featuring disguise and
allegory held in England during the reign of Edward
III
1348 First documented Corpus Christi procession in
Valencia
c. 1350 Frankfurt Dirigierrolle prepared by Baldemar
von
Peterweil (d. 1382) Neidhartspiel, earliest known
Fastnachtspiel Vom Streit zwischen Herbst und Mai
1350-1375 Cornish Ordinalia composed
1363 Death of Ralph Higden, supposed author of the
Chester cycle
1369 Minstrel troupes attain guild status in England
Chronology, cont.
1374 First recorded use in France of the term mystère
1376 First reference to dramatic performances at York
1377 Earliest reference to dramatic performances at Beverley
Coronation of Richard II, including a royal entry into
London and a mumming at Kennington
1378 Earliest reference to dramatic performances in
London John Wyclif mentions York Pater Noster play
Entremets (= from Old French literally meaning "between
servings“) of the Conquest of Jerusalem, devised by
Philippe de Mézières, at a Paris banquet
1380 First reference to a performance of a Passion play in Paris
1392 Earliest reference to Corpus Christi pageant at Coventry
1397 Richard II witnesses a dramatic performance at York
1398 Earliest recorded use of the term farce to indicate a
dramatic type The Provost of Paris prohibits dramatic
performances
Chronology, cont.
c. 1400-1560 Bulk of German Fastnachtspiele composed
1405-1425 The Castle of Perseverance
1408 Guild of Corpus Christi founded in York
Pope Benedict XIII visits Barcelona and Valencia
Coronation of Fernando of Spain
1418 Mummings forbidden in England
1426 William Melton urges the York Council to separate the
Corpus Christi procession from the parade of pageants
1427-1435 John Lydgate's "Mummings" performed at court and
before the Mercers and Goldsmiths of London
1433 York Mercers draw up a document detailing the structure
of a pageant wagon
Illustration of an entremet, a
type of medieval meal
entertainment, staged at a
banquet given by Charles V of
France; illumination from
Grandes Chroniques.
Bibliotèque Nationale, Paris.
Ms Fr 2813 folio 473.
Chronology, cont.
c. 1440 Manuscript of York cycle prepared
1446 William Reveton bequeaths a Creed play to York, where
it is performed
1459 First recorded use in England of the term secular to refer
to a literary work
1462 Earliest reference to Chester cycle Vrbnik Missale
1479 Mummings forbidden in England
1483 Richard III witnesses Creed play at York
1485 Richard III witnesses a performance at Coventry
c. 1485-c. 1585 Period of the English or Tudor Interlude
1486 Henry VII witnesses a performance at Coventry
Entry of Henry VII into York
1493 Henry VII witnesses a performance at Coventry
2) The Alterity of
Medieval Drama
Alterität: Jauss/ Zumthor
Hans Robert Jauss and Paul Zumthor wrote about the 'alterity' of the Middle
Ages. Later scholars, new historicists and others, have agreed in stressing the
remoteness of medieval culture from our own; and flourishing Centres of
Medieval Studies have set about exploring and explaining its peculiarities.
So successful have been these schools of thought that it is becoming
necessary to recall that there are many things in medieval texts which do not
call for historical explanation.
See JA Burrow. „Opinion. 'Alterity; and Middle English literature“. In: The
Review of English Studies, Volume 50, Issue 200 (1999), pp. 483-492.
and: Hans Robert Jauss. Alterität und Modernität der mittelalterlichen Literatur:
Gesammelte Aufsätze 1956-1976. Munich: Fink, 1977.
One example of cultural alterity:
Laughter in medieval drama
• Now: „... our acculturation tells us that in many situations
we must not laugh. Laughter about obscene, racist, or sexist
jokes is disapproved of in our culture. Laughter about
somebody else's misfortunes [...] is also objectionable. [...]
The point is one for which the Middle Ages are difficult for
modern men and women who flatter themselves that they
have undergone what Norbert Elias has called the
"civilization process“.
• Then: The religious literature of the Middle Ages especially
is full of the terrible fate that awaits the damned but which
apparently is not meant to call forth sympathy; on the
contrary, Schadenfreude, even triumphant derision, seems
to be the intended reaction. The modern critic who catches
himself or herself enjoying such texts has a guilty
conscience.“
•
(Hans-Jürgen Diller. „Laughter in Medieval English Drama: A Critique of Modernizing
and Historical Analyses.” Comparative Drama, 2002, p. 1ff.)
Alterity:
Ancient Period vs. Middle Ages
… medievals recognized and used "tragedy" and "comedy" to refer to certain
kinds of content or style (as Chaucer's monk does). However, the terms were
not used to denote liturgical representationes or vernacular dramas.
Averroes wrote a commentary on Aristotle's Poetics, which was transmitted to
the West through Herman the German's Latin translation (1256).
Averroes encountered a big problem: “his culture did not have a theatrical
tradition, as a consequence of which it was not clear to what literary forms
Aristotle was referring when he used the words "tragedy" and "comedy."
Cf. Jorge Luis Borges "Averroes' Search“ [Farach concludes that twenty persons are
unnecessary to relate such a story since one single speaker is capable of telling all that
is necessary no matter how complicated the tale might be.]
3) Sources and Definitions
of Drama as a genre
Or: Evolution Theory and Literary History
How literary History is conceptualised and why we
have to be careful to adopt concepts of history which
are not supported by available sources
Where does medieval drama begin?
What was Medieval Drama?
"Throughout this study of staging we are searching through
original records of liturgical observance to discover rare
bits of evidence of the drama: the glimmering of what we
might call play instead of rite, ludus instead of ordo or
officium, Spiel instead of Feier, jeu instead of rituel"
(Dunbar Ogden. The Staging of Drama in the Medieval
Church. Newark, NJ: University of Delaware Press, 2002, p.
179).
“A dancer before the Ark of the
Lord"
Bernard of Clairvaux
once thought to be a representation of
the descendants of the ancient mimes, it
is now understood as the representation
of a liturgical dancer
-The theatrical metaphor presents the
joculatores et saltatores as a spectacle of
the world turned upside down; they are
stigmatized by their effeminate and
in-decent movements.
- allusion to Michal's reproach of David
for leaping and dancing before the ark of
the Lord (2 Sam. 6:14-23).
- In contrast to that: the joyous, decent,
grave, and admirable ludus of Bernard
of Clairvaux; indeed, David would seem
to be more like the joculatores et
saltatores whom Bernard ridicules.
(Clopper 2001, p. 54)
Pope Innocent III (1160-1216) was condemning
Theatre plays (ludi theatrales ) as pagan rituals
Interdum ludi fiunt in eisdem ecclesiis theatrales, et non solum ad ludibrioum spectacula
introducuntur in eis monstra larvarum, verum etiam in aliquibus anni festivitatibus, quae
continue natalem Christi sequuntur, dia-coni, presbyteri ac subdiaconi vicissim insaniae suae
ludibria exercere prae-sumunt, per gesticulationum suarum debacchationes obscoenas in
conspectu populi decus faciunt clericale vilescere, quem potius illo tempore verbi Dei deberent
praedicatione mulcere.
[From time to time public spectacles are made in certain churches,
and not only are masks of monsters introduced in derisive
spectacle, but in truth during other feast days of the year which
follow immediately after the birth of Christ, deacons, presbyters
and subdeacons in turn presume to exercise their insane mockeries
(and) by the gestures of their obscene rages demean their
clerical office in the sight of the people when it would be more
prof-itable during that time to soothe (the populace) by teaching
the word of God. ]
Drama in the Ancient Period
Drama since the 16th century
vs. Drama in the Middle Ages
Textually and formally, the liturgy is a drama in the
medieval Sense; it is not a drama in our or the ancient
one. When we see the word "drama" in a medieval text,
therefore, we ought not to think of a script for enactment
by persons assuming roles; rather, we should think of it
as a formal and visual presentation of responding voices.
(Clopper 2001, 9)
Myths about Medieval Drama
E. K. Chambers: „...it [viz. Liturgical drama] is of the
highest interest as an object lesson in literary evolution.“
In 1965, O. B. Hardison Jr. was the first to show that E. K.
Chambers's monumental work The Mediaeval Stage (1903) and
the works of other early scholars were culturally conditioned by
Darwinian theories of evolution; as a consequence, scholars now
deliberately avoid speaking of the evolution of dramatic forms.
Nor do we any longer subscribe to Chambers's thesis of
"secularization": that drama was born in the liturgy and gradually
moved out of the church into the streets where the drama fell into
the hands of the laity with the consequence that pure liturgical
forms were contaminated by vulgarities that resulted in the mixed
styles of the English Renaissance theater.
No single linear developments in
the history of drama!
In addition, early drama courses and texts have
traditionally treated the field as if it had a single
chronology and linearity that is historically incorrect:
we begin with liturgical dramas and move on to the
northern biblical cycles and then to morality plays and
finally to the development of secular, commercial drama.
Although no one would argue the point, the implication is
often that biblical plays replace liturgical dramas,
moralities replace biblical plays, and the commercial
theatre replaces all the preceding. (Clopper 2001, 19)
Is there continuity ...
... from the classical theatre to medieval liturgical drama? –
No!!
... from liturgical to fully vernacular (= modern) drama? –
No!!
BUT THERE ARE OVERLAPPINGS: “A clear overlap between
church and vernacular drama appears in what is known as the
Shrewsbury Fragments (fifteenth-century manuscript), an
actor's part for three liturgical plays: The Shepherds, The
Visit to the Sepulchre, and The Pilgrims to Emmaus. Each
consists of sung sections in Latin and spoken sections in
English (one stanza of the first play having been adapted from
the York Shepherds' pageant). Such mixed texts appear also
in other parts of Europe. They are no doubt parallel to the
vernacular plays in their didactic purpose, but are not to be
seen as part of a development from liturgical to fully
vernacular drama.” (Vince p. 41)
How the modern drama came into being
To account for the appearance of drama in the later Middle Ages by positing the
transmission of the ancient tradition over six to ten centuries by mimes is to
construct an overly elaborate and unnecessary sequence of causes. There is a
simpler answer to the two questions posed: Christian Europe in the later
Middle Ages was able to develop a drama - an enacted and staged
script - because most persons did not associate such dramas with the
theatrum either in mode or in content.
I believe we have misrepresented Western stage history because we have assumed
that theatrum designated what we moderns mean by "theater," a place for
dramas. But though the Middle Ages retained the idea that the theatrum was a
place for spectacle, it was also a place of obscenities: the commonest words
connected with theatrum in the Middle Ages are impudicitia, spurcitia,
impuritas, turpitudo, licentia, luxuria, foeditas, obscenitas. Second, we have
come to recognize that liturgical representations not only differ from drama in
most, perhaps all, ways but that liturgical and vernacular traditions developed
separately; indeed, I would argue that not only did most clerics fail to conceive
of what they were doing as theatrical but that, insofar as they were enjoined not
to attend upon spectacula, they were not particularly involved in establishing or
encouraging a vernacular dramatic tradition (Clopper 2001)
The „Origins“ of Drama
dramatic action could take place anywhere in a given
church: choir, organ loft, crypt, nave, in front of
the facade.
Ogden: "the [historical] process from this kind of
theatre to that of the Renaissance is largely a
process of confinement, of separation between
actor and audience, of formal physical restrictions
on distinct playing space versus distinct viewing
space" (p. 40).
4) Beginnings and Forms
of Medieval Drama
Beginnings
Problem: there are no reliable sources or evidence to give us an idea about
the forms of drama before the 14th century (reference to a performance
of a Resurrection play at Beverley (c 1220); earliest surviving text is the
York Mystery Cycle
The main function of drama in the Middle Ages was to teach, but also
entertain
The earlierst (recorded) drama is the liturgical drama of the church (middle
of 10th cent.)
Other spectacles like folk drama must have existed: mimes, jugglers,
acrobats, illusionists and dancers (evidence dates from the 12th cent.)
Summary: Theatre
A. Liturgical drama –
plays on religious themes began to be produced
in association with religious holidays, such as
Easter. Performed as part of church service.
B. Cycle plays –
Performed in vernacular and sponsored by trade
guilds.
Staging practices:
a. mansions – portable stages
b. fixed stages with simultaneous depiction of
Heaven, Earth, and Hell.
C. Dramatic forms
1. Mystery plays – stories from the Bible
2. Miracle plays – lives of the saints
3. Morality plays –
example – Everyman – anonymous author,
allegorical characters
Liturgical Drama
Liturgical drama is taken from liturgy books which did not publish drama
separately.
 Social context of these plays
Liturgical drama is sung (by monks) not spoken; Liturgical drama is a communal
activity just like modern plays
Liturgical drama was mainly associated with Easter, e.g. Visitation Sepulchri,
Barking Easter ceremony of the later 14th century by Katherine de Sutton, abbess at
the nunnery of Barking, consisted of an Easter ceremony, including a Harrowing
of Hell, which was performed by the priests.
Dramatic activities took also place at Christmas (Quem queritis around Sheperds‘
visit; the visit of the Magi. The Slaughter of the Innocents, the Play of the
Prophets = Ordo Prophetarum)
The Quem Quaeritis? (Whom seek ye?) trope: the conversation between the angel
and the three Marys at the sepulchre on Easter morning; short series of questions
and answers; ends with the Marys proclaiming the Resurrection. There is no
doubt that this is a monastic "play."
Quem Quaeritis
From a tenth-century manuscript found in the monastery of St. Gall.
Reproduced in Medieval and Tudor Drama, ed. John Gassner (1963: New
York: Applause Theatre Book Publishers, 1987), 35.
Interrogation. Quem quaeritis in sepulchro, o Christicolae?
Responsio. Jesum Nazarenum crucifixum, o caelicolae.
Angeli. Non est hic; surrexit, sicut praedixerat. Ite, nuntiate quia
surrexit de sepulchro
Question [by the Angels]. Whom do ye seek in the sepulcher, O followers of
Christ?
Answer [ by the Marys] Jesus of Nazareth, who was crucified, just as he
foretold.
The Angels: He is not here: he is risen, just as he foretold. Go, announce that
he is risen from the sepulcher
http://artemis.austincollege.edu/acad/hwc22/Medieval/quem_quaeritis.html
Mode of Performance
“All the parts are performed by monks, and it is sung, in
Latin, as an integral part of the liturgy. Details of the
description, however, show that it is also a
performance. The angel is told to enter to take up its
position at the tomb "as if with some other purpose"
and "secretly." The Marys are told to move toward the
sepulchre "hesitantly," "in the manner of those seeking
something." Marys and angel are distinguished by
"costume," though this remains liturgical: alb for the
angel, copes for the Marys.” (Vince 1989;p. 40)
Stories from the Old Testament were also performed (Daniel, Isaac and
Rebecca)
Ceremonial and ritual plays are stopped being performed during the
Reformation
Miracle or saints' plays
(and similar secular plays)
guild, church or town celebration.
saints' plays were performed all over England
St Katharine at Dunstable (from early 12th-century to 15th-century)
England: two extant texts survive: Mary Magdalen (2,139 lines), and The
Conversion of St Paul (662) (15th or early 16th centuries from East
Anglia).
Cornwall: a full-scale saint play, The Life of Meriasek, and The Creacion of
the World
Wales: some biblical and morality plays and fragments of the late fifteenth
and early sixteenth centuries, and a late sixteenth-century play of Troelus
a Chresyd.
Interlude
any short play, especially of the early 16th century; its medieval use is vague
The earliest surviving interlude is The Clerk and the Girl (Interludium de Clenco
et Puella, early 14th-century manuscript; similar to French farce, allusions to
minstrel’s repertoire)
The word 'interlude' is used in the 14th and 15th centuries for indoor or outdoor
performances, in church, churchyard or hall, or more often in an unspecified
location. What it actually was, is unclear!
After the turn of the century the word 'interlude' embraces all the variety of the
short plays of the early Tudor period
Henry Medwall's play,
Fulgens and Lucres,
. . . is the first "purely secular play that has survived" and is the first dramatic
presentation to focus on the disputation of nobility.
• This issue was especially relevant to King Henry VII's court where the majority
of government men were appointed on the basis of merit rather than bloodline.
• Medwall was chaplain to Cardinal Morton who had risen through the ranks
from a humble beginning as a lawyer. The play was performed before an
aristocratic audience, placing Medwall in the tenuous position of politically
supporting his master, while not offending the 'old' aristocracy. Therefore the
political message was veiled by an "elaborate comic context" (235), while
setting and characters served to distance the dramatic theme from the audience.
• Two comic characters known as A & B function as the presenters, disclaimers
and players. The characters deny all responsibility for the play and the players.
Norland, Howard B. "Medwall's Fulgens and Lucres." 233-43 in Drama in
Early Tudor Britain, 1485-1558. Lincoln, NB: U of Nebraska P, 1995.
Beginning of Fulgens
and Lucres
• Intrat A dicen:
• A
• A, for Goddis will,
What meane ye, syrs, to stond so still?
Have not ye etyn and your fill
And payd no thinge therfore?
Iwys, syrs, thus dare I say,
He that shall for the shott pay
Vouch saveth that ye largely assay
I trowe your disshes be not bare,
Suche mete as he hath in store.
Nor yet ye do the wyne spare, [1.10]
Therfore be mery as ye fare.
Ye ar welcom eche oon
Unto this house withoute faynynge.
But I mervayle moche of one thinge,
That after this mery drynkynge
And good recreacyon
Morality Plays (secular, closest to cycle plays)
St Paul, Mary Play (from like the N.town), The
Killing of the Children
expositor (e.g. Poeta) introduces the play.
Bible is the main source, but devil scenes and dances
can also be found.
Saints' plays and moralities show a variety of forms
and topics. Both sub genres have certain features
in common: allegorical figures, struggle of good
and evil for the soul of man.
Examples: The Castle of Perseverance (3,700 lines;
15th-century manuscript). Entire salvation
history; allegorical characters (the seven deadly
sins, the seven virtues, the three enemies of
mankind - the World, the Flesh and the Devil).
Each of these alegories has its his own scaffold.
Stage plan shows the scaffolds of the three
enemies, Covetousness and God which circle the
castle at the centre.
THE BANNS
1 HERALD
Glorious God, in all degrees Lord most of might,
That heaven and earth made of nought, both sea and land -The angels in heaven to serve him bright,
And Mankind in middle-earth he made with his hand -And our lovely Lady, that is a lantern of light, 5
Save our liege lord the king, the leader of this land,
And all the nobles of this realm, teach them the right,
And all the good commoners of this town that before us stand
In this place.
In all good faith we gather you, 10
Your generous hearts we crave of you,
From every harm Christ save you,
That will know of our case!
WORLD
Therefore, my sport and my glee grow full
glad;
Is there is any one in this world to refuse my
word?
Every rich ruler runs as if he were mad,
In lust and liking that my laws may be heard.
30
With fair folk in the field freshly am I fed;
I dance down like a doe in the darkling dell.
Whoever bids to do battle or debate with a
blade,
Him were better to be hanged high in a corner
of hell
Or burnt with bright lightning! 35
Whoso speaks against the World,
In prison he shall be hurled;
My commands are held and heard
Unto high heaven!
THE PLAY
BELIAL
(Sitting on his scaffold, with Pride, Wrath, and
Envy in attendance)
Now sit I, Satan, steadfast in my sin, 40
As devil doughty, like a dragon on my sack.
I champ and I chew and I thrust out my chin;
I am boisterous and bold as Belial the black!
The folk that I grasp they gasp and they groan
[…]
My delight is in woe!
In care I am cloyed,
And foully annoyed 50
Unless Man be destroyed,
And in ditch laid right low.
Pride is my prince in pearls bedecked;
Wrath, this wretch, with me shall go;
Envy into war with me shall I fetch; 55
With these traitors I am fed …
Morality Plays
Dance of Death => Everyman (first printed
c 1510-25; transl. from the Dutch)
Brudl Johannes; Ebelsberger Simone
"Everyman" und "Jedermann": Die Wirkungsgeschichte
eines mittelenglischen Morality Plays.
"Everyman" and "Jedermann": The History of the
Transformations of a Morality Play. Diss Salzburg 2002
See also John Skelton's Magnyfycence
showing traces of a new genre of polemical
moralities of religious controversy
Everyman
16: Here shall you se how Felawshyp/and Iolyte,
17: Bothe/Strengthe/Pleasure/and Beaute,
18: Wyll fade from the as floure in Maye;
19: For ye shall here how our Heuen Kynge
20: Calleth Eueryman to a generall rekenynge.
21: Gyue audyence, and here what he doth saye.
[God speketh.]
God.
Here begynneth a treatyse how the hye
Fader of heuen sendeth Dethe to
somon euery creature to come and
gyue a-counte of theyr lyues in
this worlde/and is in maner
of a morall playe.
22: I perceyue, here in my maieste,
23: How that all creatures be to me vnkynde,
Messenger.
24: Lyuynge without drede in worldly prosperyte.
1: I pray you all gyue your audyence,
2: And here this mater with reuerence,
25: Of ghostly syght the people be so blynde,
26: Drowned in synne, they know me not for theyr
3: By fygure a morall playe.
4: The Somonynge of Eueryman called it is, God.
27: In worldely ryches is all theyr mynde;
5: That of our lyues and endynge shewes
28: They fere not my ryghtwysnes, the sharpe rod.
6: How transytory we be all daye.
29: My lawe that I shewed, whan I for them dyed,
7: This mater is wonders precyous;
30: They forget clene/and shedynge of my blode
8: But the entent of it is more gracyous,
rede.
9: And swete to bere awaye.
10: The story sayth: Man, in the begynnynge
11: Loke well, and take good heed to the endynge,
Everyman, edited by: A. C. Cawley
12: Be you neuer so gay!
xxxviii, 47 p. : facsim. 20 cm. :
13: Ye thynke synne in the begynnynge full swete,
Manchester University Press
14: Whiche in the ende causeth the soule to wepe,
Manchester, Eng. 1961 Old and Middle
15: Whan the body lyeth in claye.
English texts; 1 Published: 1485
A Christmas Mumming:
The Play of Saint George
This adaptation is included in Medieval and Tudor
Drama, edited by John Gassner (1963: New York:
Applause Theatre Books, 1987), 30-32.
(In the midst of much singing, dancing and feasting,
enter some mummers or performers, led by Father
Christmas, who is swinging a mighty club.)
Father Christmas:
Here come I, old Father Christmas,
Welcome , or welcome not.
I hope old Father Christmas
Will never be forgot.
I have not come here to laugh or to jeer,
But for a pocketful of money and a skinful of
beer
To show some sport or pastime,
Gentlemen and Ladies, in the Christmas-time.
If you will not believe what I now say,
Come in the Turkish Knight! Clear the way.
(Enter the Turkish Knight.)
Turkish Knight:
Open the doors and let me in!
I hope your favors now to win;
Whether I rise, or whether I fall,
I'll do my best to please you all.
Prince George is here, and swears he will
come in;
And if he does, I know he'll pierce my skin.
If he does not believe what I now say,
Come in the King of Egypt!--Clear the Way!
(Enter the King of Egypt)
King of Egypt:
Here I, the King of Egypt, boldly do appear.
Prince George, Prince George, walk in, my
son and heir!
Walk in , my son, Prince George, and boldly
play thy part.
That all the people her may see thy wondrous
art.
(Enter Prince George.)
Prince George: Here come I, Saint George; from
Britain have I sprung. I'll fight the Dragon bold, for
my wonders have begun.
Bibliography
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
E.K.Chambers: The Mediaeval Stage (1903)
Karl Youngs The Drama of the Medieval Church (1933)
Hardin Craigs English Religious Drama in the Middle Ages (1955)
Hardison, O. B., Jr. Christian Rite and Christian Drama m the Middle
Ages: Essays in the Origin and Early History of Modern Drama (1965)
Beadle, Richard, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Medieval English
Theatre (1994).
Cox, John D., and David Scott Kastan, eds. A New History of Early
English Drama (1997).
Clopper, Larence M. Drama, Play and Game. English Festive Culture in
the Medieval and Early Modern Period (2001).
Vince, Ronald W., ed. A Companion to the Medieval Theatre. New York,
Westport, CT, 1989.