Chapter 19 Integumentary Sensory Organs in Crocodilians Sarah Gabriel Portland State University 2013 Sarah Gabriel 19.1 Introduction Crocodilians, which include alligators and crocodiles, have a tough exterior with scales covering their dorsal and ventral surfaces. Living on earth before the dinosaurs, these reptilians have evolved a structure that has helped them adapt to the changing environment of earth. This structure is called an integumentary sensory organ (ISO). Integumentary is a term, which refers to the skin surface of organisms. In the case of crocodilians their skin possess many tiny ISOs that look like tiny protuberances on the crocodilian scales. The ISOs location on their skin allows them to gather information on their environment. The ISO distribution across crocodilians vary in location, but are similar in morphology and function. Historically, these tiny sense organs of crocodilians have been observed by earlier researchers but were not well understood and mainly just observed and suggested as a possible tactile sensitivity organ. Yet, they are now known to serve as a sensory organ, which includes tactile sensitivity. ISOs as a sensory organ can function for water disturbance detection (track prey or avoid predator), mating, reproduction, and osmo-regulation. ISOs have been referred to as many different terms in the past depending on the research being done and the findings from that research. Water surface dis- 213 214 CHAPTER 19. INTEGUMENTARY SENSORY ORGANS IN CROCODILIANS Figure 19.1: Distribution of integumentary sensory organs in extant crocodilians based on phylogeny.[1] ruption receptors and dome pressure receptors have been used as terms to name these organs while also functionally describing it. Since the sensory skin organ has been found to serve many different sensory functions in crocodilians, the term integumentary sense organ is the most inclusive term for describing this organ and will be referred to as such.[1] 19.2 Location Integumentary sensory organ distribution in crocodilians varies based on species phylogeny, as seen in figure 1.1. In Alligatoridae (American alligator and caimen) ISOs can be found distributed in the cranial region around the mandibular and maxillary region of the mouth, while in Crocodilidae (true crocodiles and gravials) ISOs can be seen as in the cranial region as well as their post-cranial region of the rest of their body. [1] In terms of ISO density, in alligators the greatest ISO density is found around their teeth region as well as their dorsal maxilla region, in crocodiles the is also a high density in the cranial region yet less than that of alligators. [1] In crocodylids, since their ISOs are also seen to be dispersed onto the rest of their body besides the head, it has been observed that ISO density in the rest of their integumentary regions (post-cranial region) show that ISOs are less dense in concentration, but appear to be located as one or more ISOs per scale. [1] It is currently not well known why ISOs are distributed differently in the Crocodilidae and Alligatoridae since speciesspecies research comparison on ISO distribution has not been currently conducted and divergence analysis between the two in association with ISO distribution has yet to be done. What is certain is that both species share the commonality of ISO distribution in the cranial region. 19.3 Structure of ISOs The integumentary sensory organ receptors in both alligatorids and crocodylids follow the basic structure as seen in figure 1.2.[1]They appear as dome shaped structures. The whole structure is com- 19.4. NERVE INNERVATION posed of many nerves and tissues to make up a whole ISO. There is a keratin layer on the most superficial surface at the stratum corneum layer at the epidermis, with nerve fibers , such as free nerves which are afferent nerve endings that have unspecialized capabilities, but are through the epidermis. Also, coming from the dermis towards the epidermis layer are discoid (flat shape) receptors. The deepest layer contains many nerve fibers, as well as a dermal merkel complex. The dermal merkel complex is a dermal (skin) receptor that deals with an animal’s sense of touch and object discrimination (texture). This complex acts in conjunction with afferent neurons that branch off as nerves, which can be covered in a perineural sheath (insulation of sensory nerve fibers). In the dermal layer there are encapsulated and unencapsulated lamellated corpuscles. Lamellated corpuscles serve as mechanoreceptors that allows for sensitivity to vibration and pressure. Also, according to figure 1.2, the melanocytes (melanin producing cells) are ubiquitously placed beneath receptors; giving ISOs their dark pigmentation. 215 Figure 19.2: Schematic diagram based on samples from A. mississippiens is and C. niloticus cranial and body receptors. Cap, capillary; Discoid, discoid receptor; En LamC, encapsulated lamellated corpuscle; FBR, free branched receptor of the connective tissue; Ker, keratin Ker, keratinocyte; LamC, lamellated corpuscle; Mel, melanocyte; PNS, perineural sheath; RAx, branched receptor axons of the ISO connective tissue; StC, stratum corneum; StL, stratum lucidum; StS, stratum spinosum.[1] 19.4 Nerve Innervation In the cranial region of both alligatorids and crocodylids there is the trigeminal ganglion that gives off three nerves, the ophthalmic nerve, maxillary nerve, and the mandibular nerve. The ISOs of the cranial region for instance are constantly innervated when initiated by a stimulus, of which has been tested and observed extensively in the trigeminal ganglion afferent cell bodies of the cranial region. Most of the receptive fields are located in the jaw region across the mandible and up towards the maxilla. Some of the largest receptive fields in the alligatorids and crocodylids 216 CHAPTER 19. INTEGUMENTARY SENSORY ORGANS IN CROCODILIANS are located within the mouth region (teeth, tongue, and upper palate). According to figure 1.3a it can be seen that in the cranial region, the mandible and maxilla have their own designated nerves, which give off to a diverse branching pattern of fibers for nerve innervations in those regions. [1] Figure 19.3: Innervation of the cranial ISOs by the trigem- inal nerve. (A) Side view of the rami of the trigeminal nerve with hypertrophied mandibular and maxillaryand maxillary branches comprising a network of finer fibers innervating regions where ISOs are present. Branching patterns were drawn from Sudan Black B preparations (see Materials and methods). The brain is shown to indicate the relative location of the trigeminal ganglion. Cb, cerebellum; gV, trigeminal ganglion; OB,olfactory bulb; OT, optic tectum; Sp, spinal cord; Tel, telencephalon. Scale bar, 1cm. (B) Example photograph of Sudan Black B preparation showing the darkly stained processes of the maxillary nerve within the cleared whole-mounted specimen. Scale bar, 750m. (C) Transverse section of a mandibular nerve from C. niloticus. More than 46,000 myelinated axonsmyelinated axons (s.d. =2700), as seen in the inset, were present within the nerve whereas fewer (3600200) were present in the ophthalmic component. Scale bar, 50m.[1] 19.5. FUNCTION OF ISOS 19.5 217 Function of ISOs With the ISOs location in important cranial and post cranial regions (crocodylids) as well as ISO connection to important nerves such as the trigeminal nerve that gives rise to three other nerves of the opthalamic, mandibular, and maxillary region, it is obvious that ISOs have great importance. The ISOs prime locations allow for tactile sensitivity as a mechanoreceptor for various functions, which have been Figure 19.4: shown to include: • Water Disturbance Detector • Mating and Reproduction • Osmo-regulation As a mechanosensory organ, ISOs in crocodilians have been seen to function as a water detection organ, allowing for the detection of water disturbances in the environment. Alligators have the ability to orient themselves to water disturbances. This has been demonstrated by covering the head region of an alligator with a plastic elastomer. When the head region of the alligator was covered, the alligators ability to detect water disturbances and to orient them to the disturbance was gone. [2] Body regions bearing ISOs are employed during courtship and reproduction: (A) two female Cuban crocodiles, Crocodylusrhombifer, engage in rubbing their ISO-bearing jaw regions on each other and the male (left), as a prelude to copulation with the male; (B) ISOs are well developed in hatchling crocodilians. Circles indicate ISOs on a hatchling West African dwarf crocodile, O. tetraspis, emerging from its egg. [3] These physical orientation behaviors in alligators can include either a head turn or a full body turn, but can vary according to location and if any obstructions are in the way. The orientation behavior is seen to only occur when alligators have their faces within the air-water interface. Yet, when they have their head submerged or completely submerged underwater, their water detection ability drops, and they rely on other detection capabilities. [2] 218 CHAPTER 19. INTEGUMENTARY SENSORY ORGANS IN CROCODILIANS It has been found that the ISO can also serve in the mating and reproductive behaviors of crocodilians. Also, observational research on the behavior of crocodilians shows them using their ISOs specifically during courtship. As seen on figure 1.4A, tactile stimulation of the ISOs can be seen in crocodylids during courtship. This rubbing of the ISOs between crocodylids is proposed to be a precopulatory behavior, which can occur between females and females and males and females. Crocodylids exhibiting reproductive behavior have been seen to use their ISOs as an aid in nest site locating; which is only seen in crocodilian females. The females can utilize their cranial snout, which is covered in a high concentration of ISOs when digging holes and testing the substrate temperature for potential egg laying sites. The ISO being used in nest site tracking by a female crocodylids has been linked to temperature dependent sex determination in certain species of crocodylids; the varying substrate temperature sense by a female crocylids ISOs can determine the sex of their offspring. [3] There have been numerous studies done to test if crocodilians utilize their ISOs Figure 19.5: ISO flattens in response to exposure to a hyper-osmotic sea water solution (full-strength sea). [4] to determine water salinity, thus functioning as osmoreceptors. Two studies noted have produced contradictory claims regarding crocodilians ability to use ISOs are osmoreceptors. One study concluded that the integumentary sensory organ itself would mechanically flatten upon being exposed to a hyper-osmotic solution, such as salt water (figure 1.5). [4] This ability allows for osmo-regulation of crocodylids, so that in hypo-osmotic water it will sense that the water environment is hypo-osmotic to its own body and will drink the water opportunistically for hydration, verses when it is in a hyperosmotic water environment it will avoid drinking too much of the water. Yet, this study was done on Crocodylus porous, a known estuarian crocodile. Since this was an estuarian crocodile, it is important for its body to sense the osmolarity of its environment through its ISOs. [4] 19.6. CONCLUSIONS In contrast to the work on Crocodylus porous, studies done on the Nile crocodile show no response to osmotic changes in the environment. In the latter study, there was no afferent nerve responses detected from the post-cranial ISOs upon exposure to a hyperosmotic solution, thus they do not function as osmoreceptors. It is also seen that in alligatorid have no afferent nerve responses upon exposure to a hyperosmotic solution also well. [1] Possibly further research into other species of crocodilians would allow for more definitive evidence on ISOs role as an osmoreceptor. 19.6 Conclusions The integumentary sensory organs of crocodilians are now considered after years of speculative research to be sensory organs. These sensory organs are differentially distributed in crocodylids and alligatorids, yet have similar functions in prey detection (water disturbances), mating/reproduction, and osmo-regulation. Further research on crocodylids shows that ISOs also function in mating and reproduction, which is important in an environment with many chemical cues that 219 need to be distinguished and mating is vital for fitness. As for osmo-regulation, it is currently debatable whether or not ISOs can function as osmoreceptors since there are contradicting findings. Possible future research could be done on ISOs across crocodilian species which live in different environments, such as freshwater verses salt water living crocodilians. Osmoregulation between different species most definitely can be possible and should be taken into account in research conclusions across different species. Besides ISOs being seen in crocodilians, ISOs could have existed in pre-historic extinct crocodilians as seen in fossil findings. It is speculated that ISOs could have been around since prehistoric times. Cranial fossils of semi-aquatic crocodilians show foramina where ISO nerves would have gone through. Foramina are holes in the fossilized skull where cranial nerves, arteries etc would have passed through. Strictly, terrestrial crocodilians do not have such foramina. [2] Current day crocodilians that live semiaquatically have such foramina, thus ISOs could have evolved early in Jurassic times. It has been noted that special- 220 CHAPTER 19. INTEGUMENTARY SENSORY ORGANS IN CROCODILIANS ized cutaneous organs (skin related organ) with sensitivity such as ISOs are present in lizard families of Inguania, Gekkota, Scinocamorphs and Anguimorpha, yet their skulls lack the foramina (holes in fossilized skulls where cranial nerves etc passed) seen in extant crocodilians. [2] Overall, sensory organs specialized for tactile sensitivity etc have evolved in reptilians, which shows that it serves a evolutionary advantage especially in the dangerous ever changing freshwater and ocean environments. Bibliography [1] Leitch, Duncan, Catania K., Structure, Innervation and Response Properties of Integumentary Sensory Organs in Crocodilians..Journal of experimental biology, 2012, p. 4217-4230 [2] Soares D., Neurology: An Ancient Sensory Organ in Crocodilians.. Nature 417.6886, 2002, p. 241-242 [3] Peter, Watanabe M., Crocodilian Behavior: A Window to Dinosaur Behavior?.Historical Biology 23.1, 2011, p. 73-90 [4] Jackson K., Brooks D., Do Crocodiles Co-opt Their Sense of ”touch” to ”taste”? A Possible New Type of Vertebrate Sensory Organ.. AmphibiaReptilia 28.2, 2007, p. 277-285 [5] von During M., The Ultrastructure of the Cutaneous Receptors In the Skin of Caiman crocodilus.. Abhandlugen Rhein. Westfa. Akad 53, 1974, p. 123134 221 222 BIBLIOGRAPHY
© Copyright 2024 Paperzz