Cultural Profile: The Inca Civilization
By: Julio Federico Camperio Ciani
Word Count: 14.805
Table of Contents
Prior to Reading ……………………………………………………………… 1
The Empire of the Inca: Tawantinsuyu ………………………………………. 1
Record Keeping: the quipu …………………………………………………… 2
The Inca ………………………………………………………………………. 3
Pre- Inca ………………………………………………………………………. 4
Conquest and Expansion ……………………………………………………… 6
Fall of the Empire …………………………………………………………….. 8
Manco II ………………………………………………………………………. 11
Sayri Tupac and Tuti Cusi …………………………………………………….. 13
Tupac Amaru, the Last Sapa Inca …………………………………………….. 14
Spanish Dominion ……………………………………………………………. 15
Historical Misinterpretation and Alteration …………………………………. 16
Language …………………………………………………………………….. 19
Religion and Law …………………………………………………………….. 21
Ceremonial Burials and Sacrifices …………………………………………… 21
Taxation System through Mit’a ……………………………………………… 23
Decimal Organization ………………………………………………………. 24
Agriculture …………………………………………………………………… 24
Coca Leaf …………………………………………………………………….. 26
Astronomy …………………………………………………………………… 27
Diet ………………………………………………………………………….. 29
Llamas ……………………………………………………………………….. 32
Wealth ………………………………………………………………………. 33
Architecture …………………………………………………………………. . 34
Machu Picchu ……………………………………………………………….. 35
Food Storage ………………………………………………………………….. 39
Highway System, Bridges and Couriers ……………………………………… 39
Forced Resettlement ………………………………………………………….. 41
Textiles ……………………………………………………………………….. 41
Pottery ………………………………………………………………………. . 43
Jewelry ……………………………………………………………………….. 43
Music …………………………………………………………………………. 44
Warfare and Weaponry ……………………………………………………... 46
Inca Culture in Contemporary Peru ………………………………………….. 49
Bibliography ………………………………………………………………… 52
Prior to reading
It is critical to understand that much of the Inca history has been either
destroyed by the conquistadors and gravediggers, or simply lost in time. The Inca
people had no written language so no actual records have survived. Dates and number
of troops will vary from source to source, and spelling and pronunciation will also
change due to Spanish translation and misinterpretation. Even though this civilization
lacked the wheel, steel and iron, and written language, it was able to achieve
remarkable expansion and technological advances. Still today there are many Inca
techniques, such as architecture, astrology and agriculture that keep raising questions
on how such an ancient civilization was able to accomplish so much.
The Empire of the Inca: Tawantinsuyu
The meaning of Tawantinsuyu is “Four Quarters” or “Land of the Four
Quarters”. In Quechua, the official Inca and Andean language, Tawa means “four”, –
ntin means “group of” and suyu means “region”, thus the four regions together. The
reason the Inca Empire acquired such name is due to the fact that from Cuzco, the
Inca capital at its time, there were four main roads that travelled in four different
directions, crossing and connecting the whole empire. This state was consolidated
and created in 1438 by Inca Pachacuti, which translates in Quechua as “Earth
shaker”. The roads were named after the region that they travelled through. The road
that span northward from Cuzco was called Chinchansuyu, this region was comprised
of all tribes and land up to Rumichaca. The road to the east was called Antisuyu, and
it crossed the mountain chains and the jungle. To the south there was the Collasuyu
1 road that extended the furthest of the four. It travelled by Lake Titicaca to regions of
Bolivia, Chile and Argentina. The last road that travelled westward was called
Cuntisuyu. It connected all coastal areas, from Chan-Chan to Rimac, and is now
know as the Lima Valley. Each quarter of the Empire was administered and overseen
by an apo, who was always a relative or descendant of the Inca, and answered only to
the Inca. It is important to note that “Inca” is the actual term for the emperor, and not
that of the people. At its peak, Twantin-suyu covered about 300,000 square miles,
and it extended north to south for about 2,500 miles following the high elevation
mountains of the Andes from Colombia and Chile, and from east to west it extended
from the humid Amazonian rain forest to the arid Atacama Desert. Estimates of
population size range from six to twelve million, making Twantin-suyu the biggest
nation-empire to have ever existed on Earth, surpassing empires such as that of the
Romans and of the Greeks. The Inca Empire is estimated to have taken about 200
years to fully develop, starting from the early 1400s up until the arrival of the Spanish
conquistadores. However, the Inca Empire did not develop only in 200 years; it took
much longer to form such an expansive and dominant empire that started from the
city of Cuzco. 1 2 3 4 5
Record Keeping: The quipu
History, events, names, dates, myths and legends were all recorded and
preserved with the use of the quipu, an apparatus made of a main string or rope from
1
D'Altroy, Terence. “Rise of the Inca”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
3
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
4
Clark, Liesl. “The Lost Inca Empire”
5
D'Altroy, Terence. “Rise of the Inca”
2
2 where other smaller strings or cords of different colors are attached. In Quechua
quipu means simply “knot”. The Inca adopted this technology because they lacked
any sort of written language. Depending on the length, color, number of divergent
rope, number of knots, distance between knots, and colors of knots, each quipu
symbolized something different and specific to the Inca people. As a quipu is passed
to a messenger, a word or quick phrase is associated with such quipu. This ensures
the message is delivered to the reader while being safeguarded from others decrypting
it. If the verbal comment is not transferred, mispronounced or lost in translation, the
quipu loses all its use. Quipucamayocs were the members of the Inca society that
dealt with and knew the recurring themes of all the quipu. Each apo (governor of a
region) had several quipucamayocs that closely followed such apo, and recorded
population size, received tribute, number of soldiers, amount of food in storage and
so on. 6 7
The Inca
It was the responsibility of a council of advisors to chose the new emperor,
known as the Inca from the royal lineage. The Inca Empire did not follow the usual
primogeniture rule, where the eldest son takes the throne. In this Empire and culture,
it was the most competent and able-to-rule person that became Inca. It was usually a
legitimate son of the Inca wife, coya, who was chosen to rule, but exceptions have
been made. There would either be sons or brothers of the dead emperor who had to
compete between one and another, usually politically but even militarily to see who
6
7
Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of the Inca”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
3 sit on the gold throne. This proved to be a very effective method in making sure that
there is a true ruler over an empire that was trying to expand its influence and power.
The Inca followed a polygamistic lifestyle, where he had one legitimate wife but also
had various royal concubines. Having the possibility to have numerous concubines
and sons allowed the Inca to form his own royal ayllu, or social group. It is from this
ayllu where the Inca selected his most important and close counselors and
administrators. The Inca Empire is also one of the few theocracies, where the ruler
was considered to be both head of state and of religion, to the point where the citizens
of the Empire believed that he was a demigod.
History of the Inca Empire
Pre Inca
The Inca culture and population was one of hundreds of tribes and cultures
that lived in Peru. Records show of the Chavin culture that started between the 1200800BC and ended in 400BC. The discovery of this culture arose thanks to the
archeological uncovering of the stone city of Chavin de Huantar, a center hub for
such culture. There was also the Mochica culture located in the north coast of Peru
that is dated between 400BC-400AD. The Mochica culture was known for its
advanced craftsmanship in textiles, buildings and ceramics. The Paracas culture was
located in the southern coast and was greatly influenced by the Nazca culture further
down the coast. The Tiahuanaco culture developed around 800AD in the Titicaca
Basin, this was the culture that built the ceremonial and capital center just south of
Lake Titicaca; it was built with massive stone boulders that were held together by
4 tenons, which were bronze projections. The Tiahuanaco culture built the famous Sun
Gate, which is a massive stone gate or portal that portrays their religious beliefs. This
culture believed in the Sun God, evidence of this is the figure of such god weeping
tears that formed many different animals. This figure has been found all over the
Andean and coastal cultures. The figure of the weeping God has also been found up
north at Huari, near Ayacucho. The Tiahuanaco Empire, between 1000-1300AD,
presumably invaded regions south towards the Pisco Valley, to the point where they
controlled most of the coastal areas and people. The figure of the weeping God is
present in areas that they conquered. Every empire has its rivals, and before the Inca
Empire was at its greatest force, its rival was the kingdom of Chimus-Chimor (13001463AD), with capital at Chan-Chan, which is located near present Trujillo. This
empire had already innovated with the use of gardens, stone reservoirs, great step
pyramids and large-scale pottery and weaving industries. It is important to keep in
mind that the Inca people inherited, learnt, innovated and progressed thanks to what
they acquired by invading, conquering and annexing all surrounding cultures. They
considered them selves the originators of the Peruvian culture, but thanks to
archeological discoveries, we know that there were simply heirs to all technology and
knowledge. They just fused all obtained discoveries under one culture and empire.8 9
10
8
Crystal, Ellie. “Inca Civilization”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
10
Manuel, Jose, dir. "The Precursors of the Inca"
9
5 Conquest and Expansion
Manco Capac established the city of Cuzco, or rather the City-state Kingdom
of Cuzco, in the early 1200s. The people of Cuzco began expanding their territory to
the surrounding areas within the Valley of Cuzco. It was relatively easy for the Inca
to expand due to the fact that there was as a lot of local conflicts between tribes and
regions, and when approached by the Inca force, there was usually little resistance to
annexation. These local conflicts made it extremely hard for tribes and cultures to
join forces and stop the Inca progress, so many joined to avoid destruction. Conflict,
militarism and victory were indispensible for Inca leadership; these pillars were built
into the Inca culture. An Inca lacking these talents or any similar ones will never
become the Sapa Inca, known as “the only Inca” or better defined as the Emperor.
The Inca adopted as its main expansion strategy an unusual tactic, that of marriage.
The Inca Empire started around Cuzco with the intermarriage of local leaders. The
Sapa (“the only one” or the “one”) would first marry one the daughters of his
neighboring leader, after that he would allow one of his daughters to marry the local
leader. This allowed the Inca Empire to expand without the loss of an army and
resources. This also allowed local leaders to gain status and reputation for being
related to the Sapa, creating a closely tied community that would create the Great
Empire. With the first five emperors (Manco Cápac I, Sinchi Roca, Lloque
Yunpanqui, Mayta Càpac and Càpac Yupanqui) until Inca Roca in the 1350s, the
Inca Empire expanded up to all regions around the south of Lake Titicaca and all
areas within the Valley of Cuzco. Within a short time, even the regions to the north
and east of the upper Urubamba River fell under their control, with the following
6 expansion to the west. With the expansion to the west, the Inca army made contact
with the resilient tribes of Soras and Rucanas, but both stood no chance against the
Inca. Under the rule of Inca Roca, the expanding people built an enormous bridge
that crossed over the Apurimac River. This bridge, called Huacachaca (“holy
bridge”) and 184 feet long, created a straight path from Cuzco to Andahuaylas. With
such a construction, the Inca army was violently greeted by the Chanca, a powerful
and aggressive tribe with which the Inca disputed the control and use of the Apurimac
Bridge. Around 1437, close to the death of Sapa Viracocha, the Chanca tribe carried
out a surprise attack on Cuzco. As the Chanca forces invaded the city, Inca
Viracocha abandoned his city and took refuge by the Urubamba River. Viracocha’s
son, Pachacuti, took control of the Inca army; he organized and led the defense of
Cuzco eliminating all Chanca forces. After this brave and noble action, Pachacuti
was named Sapa Inca, he ruled from 1438 to 1463. Under his control and guidance,
the Inca Empire began expanding to the north until Lake Junin and to the south until
all areas around Lake Titicaca were under his control. Between 1463 and 1493 the
son of Pachacuti, Topa Inca, became the new emperor. The new Inca demigod
expanded his empire all the way into Chile, Bolivia and Argentina and to the north
until Quito in Ecuador. In 1493, the last year of his rule, his army attacked, flanked
and destroyed the rival Kingdom of Chimor. The leaders of such kingdom where
captured and delivered to Cuzco to become military and royal prisoners. The last
emperor before the arrival of the Spanish conquistadors was Huayna Capac, who
became Sapa in 1493. He is known to be the emperor that launched the last Inca
expansion. He was able to conquer lands until Chachapoyas on the right bank of the
7 Rio Marañon located in north Peru, where his army destroyed all settlements and
tribes that were located on the Isle of Puna off of Ecuador and in the surrounding
areas of Guayaquil on the opposite bank. It is important to recall that the Inca Empire
used, adopted and innovated all infrastructure and technologies that they cam across,
bettering everything that prior cultures had developed. 11 12 13 14
Fall of the Empire
There are several reasons to why the Inca Empire was destroyed in such little
time by a small Spanish army of conquistadores, but such events are still under
questions and hard to pinpoint. Before the arrival of any Spanish forces in Peru, the
Indians in Central Mexico had already surrendered to Hernán Cortez, who invaded
such lands in 1519. Aztecs, Maya and Inca had no communication between them,
meaning that the Inca Emperor was totally unaware of the invasion of Cortez. With
the arrival of Cortez in Mexico, there was also the arrival of small pox, flue, colds
and measles, to which the Indians had not immunity. Such diseases spread from
Mexico to Panama and down the Andes. It is estimated that the population of the
New World was reduced by 2/3 due to the spread of disease. The first but minor
contact with “the white man” was between 1523 and 1525, when Alejo Garcia, a
Portuguese explorer and conquistador, attacked a small Inca base in the Gran Chaco,
in the southeastern Inca Empire. There are records that Francisco Pizarro, whom
destroyed the Inca Empire, landed at Tubes briefly and then sailed off leaving two of
11
D'Altroy, Terence. “Rise of the Inca”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
13
Rediscover Machu Picchu. “Timeline of the Inca Emperors”
14
King, Rick, prod. "Lost City of the Incas"
12
8 him men (some sources say these two men where his sons). In 1527 Sapa Inca
Huayna Capac dies believing that the empire had grown too large to be ruled and
managed only from Cuzco. As there is not direct succession to the throne, the
“incanship” was disputed right away by brothers Huascar in Cuzco and Atahualpa in
Ecuador. The latter was the favorite of Hayna Capac amongst his 500 or so sons. The
dispute between these brothers brought the Inca Empire into 5 years of civil war that
greatly crippled the empire. Atahualpa won over his brother two weeks prior to the
arrival of Francisco Pizarro. Due to this, the to-be Sapa was resting outside of Cuzco
with his 40,000 soldiers, planning his next attack and march to Cuzco. On May 13th
1532, Pizarro arrived at Tumbes, and made his way towards Cajamarca. The forces of
Pizarro vary greatly from source to source, some say 168 men, 1 cannon and 27
horse, other say 180 men and 27 horses and others 102 men, 67 horses and 4 cannons.
It is believed that thanks to Inca intelligence reports Atahualpa knew about Pizarro’s
numbers and movements, but due to Inca understanding and misinterpretation he did
not take action. Inca believed that the horses could not see at night, that the horse and
the rider where one entity and if separated they both became useless, guns where
believed to release thunderbolts only twice, after that they also became useless and
the long steel or iron weapons were just as useful as the Inca weaving tools. Once the
Spanish conquistadores took control of Cajamarca, they sent a “peaceful” invitation
to Atahualpa to join them in the city to talk about peace agreements. It is still
unknown why the Sapa accepted such invitation because ambushing was a very
common warfare tactic adopted by the Incas. On November 16th 1532 Atahualpa
enters the city of Cajamarca, displaying all levels of Inca wealth. There are several
9 versions on how the following event occurred, which will be presented later, but
Atahualpa and his troops were attacked and eliminated. According to sources, the
only “real” casualty was Pizarro, where a Spanish blade slashed his hand in attempt
to save the Emperor; he wanted him alive and unhurt. He did this because Cortez was
doing it in Mexico with the Aztecs. After this event, the Inca Empire trembled under
the invasion of Pizarro, and no military resistance occurred until 1536. Atahualpa was
captured and imprisoned. He promised to Pizarro that if he let him free, he would fill
the room in which he was captured in with gold and twice as much in silver, Pizarro
and his conquistadores were intrigued with this effort. Once he received the gold and
silver, he did not free the Sapa because he believed that the prisoner was planning an
attack once the Spanish had loaded the precious loot. Atahualpa was charged with
“crimes against the Spanish state”, and on August 29th 1533 he was tried and
executed by garroting in the main square. His head was placed on a pike and
displayed in the main square for all to see. Interestingly, according to legend, with
every minute that passes, his head gets more beautiful, even in the centuries to come.
He is then converted to a Christ-like figure of worldly innocence. Many uprisings
since then have his image, from the 18th century Tupak Amaru to the urban guerillas.
With the constant spread of disease and the death of Sapa Inca, Pizarro was able to
gather more gold to finance his invasion, and soon more troops came to his aid and he
successfully consolidated his power. The Spanish army marched down the Inca
highway straight to Cuzco, which was captured on November 15th 1533, with this
event, the Spanish conquest because the Spanish domination. 15 16 17 18 19
15
16
Wise, Terence. “The Conquistadores”
Clark, Liesl. “The Lost Inca Empire”
10 The Neo-Inca State
Manco II
After Pizarro took control over of the Inca Cuzco, he made that same city the
capital and trading hub of the new Spanish colony. He selected Manco II, the
grandson of Huayna Capac, to be the new Inca Emperor who had to “take royal
fringe as Inca”. Even if he was emperor, Manco II had no real power and control over
the empire, he was being manipulated and overseen by the Spanish forces. Despite
this situation, he endured the Spanish oppression for a few years whilst he was
secretly planning a revolt. In 1536 Diego de Almagro, a conquistador general, and his
army, who were in charge of keeping an eye on Manco II, traveled to Chile for an
exploration voyage. Manco II seized this opportunity and ignited a revolt by saying
that he was delivering more gold and silver to the Spanish forces. The Inca forces met
and joined forces outside Cuzco, away from Spanish vision. The revolt by the Inca
Emperor happened at a very opportunistic time. Pizarro and Almagro were disputing
the division and possession of Inca spoils that have been proclaimed to that point, and
Almagro’s incursion into Chile only made the dispute amongst the Spanish
conquistadores worst. All natives under the reign of Spain knew about the greed and
obsession these people had for their gold, silver, labor and land, and their oppressed
situation would have been permanent if drastic plans where not undertaken. On April
19th 1536, Inca forces attacked a small Spanish battalion in a remote district of
Cuzco; once the Spanish forced were eliminated the Inca army marched to Cuzco.
17
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of the Inca”
19
King, Rick, prod. "Lost City of the Incas"
18
11 The siege of Cuzco lasted for ten months, with the attacking Manco II and the
defending Hernando Pizarro (Francisco’s half brother and experienced soldier). The
Inca were able to secure the city for only a couple of days, but the 130
conquistadores and the 10,000 renegade Indians were victorious. Manco II decided to
split his army in two: half gathered followers, nobles, priests, ancestral mummies and
gold to the remote mountainous fortress of Vilcabamba, the other half marched to
Lima, which was made capital of Peru by Pizarro in 1535, to carry out the last Inca
siege. Sadly, the Inca army was easily decimated by the use of Spanish cavalry on the
flat ground of Lima, those who survived where either captured or fled to Vilcabamba.
This fortress allowed Manco II to establish and create the Neo-Inca state, where
rulers reigned for the next 36 years. This new Inca stronghold was where numerous
attacks on Spanish bases and forces were organized. Waves of Inca warriors
undertook continuous expeditions to spy, harass and attack Spanish troops. For this
reason Pizarro converted Ayacucho into a defensive base for Spanish troops, where
they would resist and counterattack Inca waves. The dispute between Pizarro and
Almagro’s “men of Chile” persisted until it escalated to full civil conflict, which
ended in 1538 with the capture and execution of Almagro. Later in 1542, Almagro’s
“men of Chile” were successful in killing Pizarro for vengeance. Spain sent new
overseers to Peru. In the same year, at the battle of Chupas (in the vicinity of
Ayacucho), the “men of Chile” allied with Inca forces to attack the newly arrived
Spanish troops. This attack was unsuccessful for the natives, and a small number of
the “men of Chile” retreated also to Vilcabamba and joined the Neo-Inca state. The
“men of Chile” trained the Inca on how to operate, clean and repair guns and
12 firearms, how to operate hand forges, how to ride horses, how to produce new clothes
and pikes and they introduced the concept and use of money. Firearms, horses and
clothes where all collected by fallen Spanish troops and brought to Vilcabamba to
build a new Inca army. In an attempt to keep the Inca on his side, the Spanish Kind
sent the Viceroy Blasco Nuñez Vela to begin negotiations with the Indians. Manco II
sent out Gomez Perez, a Spanish fugitive in Vilcabamba, to discuss terms with Vela.
Unfortunately due to previous quarrels between Vela and the Spanish state, he was
removed from his position as negotiator before any successful terms could have been
decided. Gomez Perez returned to Vilcabamba, and due to his extreme rudeness and
lack of respect, he fell into an argument with the Sapa Inca, who had been patient
long enough with such personality and lack of respect. Gomez struck him on the head
with an Inca game-bowl killing him instantly. All Inca warriors that were present in
the room attacked and killed Gomez and any other Spanish fugitive. 20 21
Sayri Tupac and Titu Cusi
The new Sapa Inca was Sayri Tupac, Manco II’s son. To the Inca
domesticated grazing animals he added sheep, cattle and pigs, all introduced by the
Spanish. By 1555, 20 years after the emergence of the Neo-Inca state, the Empire was
comprised of 80,000 people. Sayri Tupac was able to incorporate members of the
Antis tribe living in the upper Amazon. Thus enlarging his army. Unfortunately the
Sapa Inca desired the warmer climate of the Yucay Valley, so he left Vilcabamba and
partnered with the Spanish. Considering it betrayal and weakness, Sayri Tupac was
20
21
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
Minster, Christopher. “Biography of Manco Inca”
13 poisoned by his own people. In 1563 Titu Cusi was crowed the new Inca of what was
left of the great empire. Titu Cusi kept attempting to invade and reclaim the regions in
the mountains, but all failed. Several missionary and Viceroys were sent to
Vilcabamba to reach peace or surrender agreements, but all failed and eliminated by
the Inca. But the negotiations of 1568 between the Sapa and Viceroy Francisco de
Toledo on the abandonment of Vilcabamba and the acceptance of a Crown “stipend”
ended with the baptism of Tuti Cusi under the Roman Catholic Church. In 1571, as
the Inca was being visited by Martin de Pando and Friar Diego Ortiz, he took ill and
died. The Indians blamed the two Spaniards for poisoning their Inca, and both were
brutally killed. 22 23
Tupac Amaru, the Last Sapa Inca
Using the excuse that the Inca broke the universal law of ambassadors (by
killing them), Francisco de Toledo, the new Viceroy, went on the mission to attack,
invade, conquer and destroy Vilcabamba. In April 1527 the Spanish troops secured
the control over an essential bridge and began enlarging their army. Every attempt of
the Inca army to disperse the Spaniards failed, and with every attack they were forced
to retreat closer and closer to the fortress. The Spanish forces focused all their attack
power on three known entry points to Vilcabamba, but, on June 24th, when they
entered the city, people and Sapa were nowhere to be found; they had all escaped to
the jungle. The fleeing Inca people broke up in smaller groups, but one by one they
were all captured by the conquistadors. The son and wife of Titu Cusi, the bothers of
22
23
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
Pueblos Originarios. “Biografia de Sayri Tupac”
14 Tupac Amaru, relatives and generals were slowly all captured. The Spanish forces
were gaining on the Sapa Inca who was fleeing with his pregnant wife. Discovered
around a warm fire, Tupac Amaru and his wife were captured unharmed. All
prisoners where brought to Cuzco for trial. To send a message across all remaining
Inca and possible uprising, the conquistadors brought to Cuzco the remains of Manco
Capac, Titu Cusi and a gold statue of Punchao (symbol of Inca lineage and heritage,
it contained the remains of the hearts of preceding Sapas). All three artifacts, sacred
to the Inca people, were destroyed. Tupac Amaru was sentenced to beheading. The
Sapa was guided on a mule through the streets of Cuzco up to the central square; he
had his hands tied behind his back and a rope around his neck. From records by
Baltasar de Ocampa and Friar Garbiel de Oviedo, the Inca walked on the scaffold,
raised his hand and silenced the crow, either weeping or joyed by the execution. His
last words to his people were “Mother Earth, witness how my enemies shed by
blood”. He was kneeled and decapitated by a Cañari Indian. The Neo-Inca state was
now destroyed; it persisted from 1636 to 1572.
24 25
Spanish Dominion
After the Inca Empire was officially over, the Spanish colonial areas and reign
decided to maintain many Inca state-institutions, and adapt them to current and
changing Spanish needs. The Spanish ruling method was very indirect.
Administrators and landowners passed their demands to the curacas, local chieftains.
This was done to limit as much as possible the interference and disturbance of the
24
25
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
Minster, Christopher. “Biography of Tupac Amaru”
15 Indian daily life and routine. To organize and keep under control the Indians, Spain
decided to also carry out massive village resettlements; it pertained the common
work-tax system (but harsher) and created separate social class for servants and
artisans. The Spanish demand for gold and silver was of course exploitive and neverending, and the greed and vast corruption of administrators and landowners caused
continuous Indian uprisings and revolts. As Spain invested more resources in Peru,
the Spanish language, religion and culture quickly replaced that of the Inca. 26
Historical Misinterpretation and Alteration
As mentioned at the beginning of this paper, Inca history has been forgotten,
replaced or manipulated by its Spanish aggressors. Allies to the Spanish crown were
under-appreciated in the difference that they made, making the Spanish
conquistadores stronger than what they were, outcomes of peace treaties had
numerous points of view and interpretations, some defending the Inca while others
not so much. Following are some example on how historical events were altered,
purposefully or not, to suite the oppressors. In 1535 Manco Capac II carried out a
siege on Lima. In the vicinity of the city the Purucocho Cemetery was uncovered. A
few thousand bodies were dug out from the soil. But what was most interesting was
that the bodies located in the first few feet of soil did not follow any Inca ceremonial
burial procedures. These bodies were not facing the rising sun, were not in a crouched
position and were not adorned with fine cloths and items for the afterlife. It seemed
that they where simply thrown in the ground, some laying straight facing the ground,
some upwards, others in un-common positions and all lacking afterlife objects. As
26
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
16 more bodies were uncovered, those deeper into the group did follow Inca burial
procedures. This means that the people that were buried last were buried in a hasty
way, where no time was put in special procedures, as if they were quickly thrown in,
buried and left. Discovered records identified this cemetery as the battlefield of the
Siege of Lima. Numerous Indian skulls were identified with severe blunt injuries,
typical injury caused by Inca stone clubs and maces and rock slingshots. The first
colonial gun shot wound in the Americas was found in this cemetery, and traces of
led proved this. The blunt wounds on Indian skulls mean that the battlefield was
comprised of Indians fighting along side of the Spanish against the Inca forces. The
Spanish army was aware that there were many tribes that distanced them selves from
the Inca, and it was these tribes that the Spanish looked to receive help from. The
conquistadors used this at their advantage. They promoted their campaign as a
mission to liberate these Indians from the oppressions of the Inca, and many joined.
As mentioned earlier in the paper, most of the records we have originated from the
minds and literature of the Spanish scribes and chroniclers. Form the Spanish point of
view, the Siege of Lima was launched by tens of thousand of Inca, but from scientific
evidence this was greatly exaggerated: there were only a few thousand Indians, from
both sides. It is true that Inca forces did not stand a chance against the Spanish horses,
but not one horse skeleton was found. This is believed to be so because all horses
were “massively supported by Indians”, and all Spanish troops, even infantry, were
accompanied and defended by the allied Indians. Before the siege of Lima, the
governor made Jispesisa (daughter of very wealthy noble family of Uailas) his
concubine. As the Inca army marched onto Lima, Jispesisa, who was now on the side
17 of Spain, sent a message to her mother requesting reinforcements for the upcoming
invasion. Luckily for her, as the Inca army entered the city, the forces of Uailas
entered the city in her defense, and the Inca army retreated to the outskirts of Lima. It
is then concluded that Indians forces fighting with Spain against the oppression of the
Inca lifted the Siege of Lima and destroyed such invasive army. Another example of
language barrier and poor cultural interpretation was the capture of Atahualpa. One
version of the event says that the city (Cajamarca) was completely deserted. Once the
Sapa reached the main square he was approached by a Christian priest, who presented
the Bible and began lecturing him about his God and why the Inca should convert.
Curious to learn more, Atahualpa took the Bible, but unable to read the writings and
confused with the whole religion, he tossed the Holy Book on the floor as sign of
disproval. The priest looses his temper and begins to shout, this being the signal to
Spanish forces to ambush the Incas. Other version says that Spanish and Inca forces
met in the square, but when the Sapa kept enquiring about the Christian faith and
their God the Spanish priests and ambassadors grew frustrated and insulted, and thus
attacked the Inca. The last example to be presented is the execution of Tupac Amaru.
According to some sources, Viceroy Toledo exceeded his colonial responsibilities
and duties in killing the Sapa Inca, and that King Phillip II greatly disapproved of
such execution. The Inca was to be simply captured and imprisoned. Other sources
begged the differ: the Inca was indeed a rebel who refused to reach any peace
agreements with Toledo and killed several ambassadors and Viceroys, and deserved
to be executed. 27 28 29 30
27
28
Townsley, Graham. “The Great Inca Rebellion”
Minster, Christopher. “Biography of Atahualpa, Last King of the Inca”
18 The Inca Empire and its Culture
Language
It is known that the Inca people originated from the areas surrounding Lake
Titicaca, whose tribes spoke the Aymará language. In 1438 Inca Pachacuti made
Quechua the official language of the Inca Empire. Before such date it is unknown
what language was spoken by this civilization. Due to the conquest and expansion,
the system of population relocation and the advanced road system, the whole empire
adopted Quechua. Still now, Peruvians living in the Andes speak Quechua.
Religion and Law
The Inca Empire was based on the mutual bond between religion and state.
Viracocha was the creator God, creator of all that existed and source of all power and
energy. Numerous servant Gods assisted Viracocha, the most important being Inti
(Sun God), followed by Pachamama (Earth Goddess) and Mama Kilya (Moon
Goddess). All of the servant Gods were associated with a different natural
phenomena, like the Rain God (Apu Illapu) and the Goddess of Lightning and
Thunder (Illapa). The most common religious cult was that of the Huaca, where an
object such as a lake, a mountain, a temple, or a stone is transformed into a holy and
magical object or spirit. All Inca believed in reincarnation. If an individual followed
the only three laws present in the Inca state, he or she will be granted access to the
afterlife, a place similar to what Christianity defines as heaven. The only laws,
grouped into one saying, that people had to follow was “ama sua, ama llulla, ama
29
30
Scott Murphy, Melissa. “Grave Analysis”
Ritsko, Alan, dir. "Spanish Conquest of the Inca"
19 chella”, which mean “do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy”. This is how the Inca
Empire was so great and successful, all individuals followed such law. Their law was
religion, and religion was their way of life. All nobles, no matter their moral
standpoint, were granted access to the afterlife, next to the warmth of the Sun and
having their bellies always full. The common men were obliged to follow such law, if
they didn’t they would have ended up in okopaca, hell, forever cold and hungry. Due
to religion and law being one entity, a Spanish record from Don Mancio Serra de
Leguisamo explains the kind of people that were present in the Inca Empire.
“There was not a thief, nor a vicious man, nor an adulteress, nor was a bad
woman admitted among them, nor were there immoral people. The men had
honest and useful occupations. - Each one knew his property without any
other person seizing it or occupying it. - They were so free from the
committal of crimes or excesses, as well men as women, that the Indian who
had 100,000 pesos worth of gold or silver in his house, left it open merely
placing a small stick against the door, as a sign that its master was out. With
that, according to their custom, no one could enter or take anything that was
there. So that when they found that we had thieves among us, and men who
sought to make their daughters commit sin, they despised us.” 31
With religion being law, and life being religion, the Inca people went to great
extent to please the Gods for harvest, rain, fertility and victory. They took great
care and planning for God worshipping and ceremonial burial, all to please Inti
and Viracocha. 32
31
32
Clements, Markham. “The Incas of Peru”
Crystal, Ellie. “Inca Civilization”
20 Ceremonial Burials and Sacrifices
Sacrifices were carried out when specific events such as earthquakes, eclipses,
droughts, epidemics or the death of an Emperor occurred. The only way that the Inca
people could get as close as possible to their Gods was by climbing on top of the
freezing and dangerous mountains peaks of the Andes. The mountain Gods where
seen as the rulers and controllers of all natural forces, and by worshiping such Gods
they would secure fertile crops and women, abundant rain, protection from rival
tribes and illnesses and overall order for the people of the empire. Archeological
discoveries show that sacrifices were made close to the Inca highway, indicating that
such sacrifices were carried out throughout the Empire’s expansion. This is believed
to have occurred to assure future passage in the new lands, and protection in case of
conflict. On the peak of the Ampato Mountain, archeologists have found evidence of
wooden posts for tents, stones used as platforms and vast amounts of dried grass as
walkway and insulation for the cold. These extremely heavy materials, and essential
supplies such as water, food and religious artifacts must have been transported
hundreds if not thousands of miles by llamas and porters. As mentioned in an earlier
section, the bodies were buried in a crouching position and facing the east, the rising
sun, symbol of rebirth. From cemeteries like Purucucho, archeologists were able to
identify ceremonial objects. Inside the cloth in which the body was wrapped in, gourd
containers, textiles, foodstuff and weaving baskets were found. Around the bodies
there was the presence of Spondylus shell, ceramics, wooden canes and weaving
tools. Depending on the social status of the buried person, items will have varied
21 from gold, silver, children and wife for the emperor, to simple artisan tools and
textiles for common men. Spanish chroniclers are one of few sources that we have on
the Inca, and one source was present for a ceremonial sacrifice. Young, beautiful,
innocent and pure children were given to the Sapa as sacrifice, for they had the power
to securely guide the emperor to Inti. The source was present for the sacrifice of
Tanta Carhua, a ten-year old girl that was offered by her father, a local chieftain, to
the Emperor for the Capacocha ritual. The source describes this young girl as
“beautiful beyond exaggeration”. The child is first offered to the emperor, the
selected priests travel to the village to assess such child. After that, the girl, priests,
family members and chieftain march to Cuzco to meet the Sapa. Once in Cuzco an
enormous feast is held in her honor. She is then returned to her village before brought
to the chosen peak. According to legends and records she told her village: “you can
finish with me now because I could not be more honored that by the feast which they
celebrated for me in Cuzco”. After that began the long voyage to the peak, with
resting station at intervals for the child and priest. During the voyage to the peak the
sacrificial platform was already being built in advance (the highest ritual location to
have been found is Llullaillaco, a 22,057 foot peak located in Chile). Once they
reached the peak the child would be adorned with noble cloths, textiles and
surrounded by religious artifact that would accompany her in the afterlife. Once
adorned and prepared the child was fed chicha, a maze alcohol, to reduce pain of the
cold, altitude sickness or the fear of death. She was then struck on the back of the
head (to minimize long-term suffering), and buried alive in a stone structure. Chicha
was to be fed before the sacrifice and after on a continuous basis by priests, with also
22 coca leaves and the addition of dirt. The best and most affective way for the Inca to
please the Gods was to sacrifice their child in the highest place that people could have
reached. With this sacrifice, the child becomes a Goddess, speaking to her people as a
prophet from the height of the Andean peak that was consecrated with her name,
forever present in the world. According to archeologist Juan Schobinger, Inca
sacrifices were carried out to “ensure a tie between the chief and the Inca Emperor,
who was considered a descendant of the Sun God. The Sacrifice also bestowed an
elevated status on the chief’s family and descendants”. 33 34 35
Taxation System through Mit’a
All able-bodied men, puric, were expected to pay a tax to the state. This tax
was not a monetary tax, but a tax that was paid through manual labor. This system
was known as mit’a. Towns, villages and cities were comprised of small social
groups called ayllu, and each of these groups maintained and cultivated a communal
crop field for the Inca and for Inti, meaning for the state and for their God. Religious
figures, such as priests, and state officials, such as generals, were obviously exempted
from such tax; their tax was to serve the Inca directly. There was always work to be
done in the Inca Empire. If a crop field was already being attended, a puric can pay
his tax by building, fixing and upgrading fortresses, royal buildings, crop terraces,
irrigation canals, bridges, mining, houses and temples. All purics were members of a
militia that was consisted of farmers and builders, who were obliged to join sides
with the Inca army when summoned by the Sapa. If a stretch of land or construction
33
Clark, Liesl. “Ice Mummies of the Inca”
Clark, Liesl. “The Sacrificial Ceremony”
35
Ritsko, Alan, dir. "Spanish Conquest of the Inca"
34
23 site was abandoned due to the summoning of this farmer-based militia, available
puric would replace their neighbors and the task would continue. 36 37
Decimal Organization
The Inca Empire was very systematic in its record keeping. Having adopted
the quipu as their main tool of record keeping, any numerical aspect of the empire
was divided in tens. As mentioned earlier, the most basic source of labor was the
puric, an Indian that could carry out basic farmer and builder tasks. Above the
puric was the coñakamayoc, known as “straw boss”, who oversaw ten puric. Ten
of these groups where overseen by s pachakoraka, known as the foreman. Ten
pachakoraka were overseen by a mallcu, known as the headman of large village or
establishment. Ten thousand people of a specific district or sector were governed
by a homokoraka, known as the local governor. Ten districts or sectors were in
turn were controlled by an apo, generally known as the governor of a quarter
(remember that the State of Tawantinsuyu was divided into four quarters). 38 39
Agriculture
Many crops that we eat today originated in the fields of the Inca Empire. This
empire became the trading center for numerous domesticated crops. The Inca
cultivated 20 types of corn and 240 of potatoes, a variety of beans, peppers, squash,
quinoa and peanuts. One of the crops that they focused the most on was the potato,
36
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
Crystal, Ellie. “Inca Civilization”
38
Schwartz, Stuart B. “World of the Incas”
39
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
37
24 which has been found to grow up to 15,000 feet. The Inca discovered that they can
transform the potato into a floury substance by first freezing and dehydrating it
during the cold night, then allowing it thaw during the day. This continuous process
will remove all available water until it becomes chuño, simply powered flower. The
other crop that they focused on was sara, corn, which has been found to grow up to
13,500 feet. It could be consumed raw, choclo, perched and popped, kollo, cooked
into hominy, mote, and also made into an alcoholic beverage, chicha. It is important
to understand that the Inca Empire developed equally throughout its whole territory,
all areas had the same level of technology and innovation, and seeing that work,
especially that of the field, was a communal routine, all villages progressed at the
same level. A very useful tool that the Inca created was the hand-operated plow, the
teclla. It was simply two pieces of wood attached to each other at 90 degrees with
rope. It was inserted in the ground and pulled, creating seeding areas in the ground.
Later the teclla was innovated with a third stick that was used by the puric as a footpowered plow. Due to the inconsistent rains, the Inca engineers developed an intricate
system of canals that would deliver water across the fields, surprisingly all canals
across the empire had a gradient of 3%. Furthermore, to reduce the amount of runoff
water, the same engineers developed the terracing system, where flat terraces were
cut and built into the side of hills and mountains to allow water to safely seep into the
ground. This technique is still being used today. These last two innovations were
actually already in use by the populations prior to the Inca, they simply took these
technologies, upgraded them and implemented them on a large scale. For these
reasons the Inca population became a sedentary population, setting up canals and
25 terraces and using them over and over. The use of fertilizer changed depending on the
region: coastal areas utilized guano as plant fertilizer, and mountainous areas utilized
taqui, llama organs and guts. Having large numbers of grazing llamas allowed many
years of excrement’s to accumulate in the high Andean peaks and continually fertilize
the soil. 40 41
Coca Leaf
The coca leaf plays a crucial role in the Andean culture and in its history. The
peoples of Peru have been chewing or drinking the coca leaf as a means to keep their
body active, fit and keep their energy up. It is considered a divine plant, because no
other plant in Peru will give out so many beneficial effects. When walking up the
Andean mountains it is the coca leaf that will stabilize your breathing, make you
focus on your path, and allow you to walk or run incredible distances. When couriers
were required to run from one station to another to deliver an important message,
they would consume the coca leaf to minimize any kind of fatigue or physical strain.
According to Jesuit Father Blas Valera, Indians that consume the coca leaves will
“become stronger and much more satisfied, and work all day without eating”. Indians
would carry with them a small woven bag called guambis, in here there would be dry
coca leaves for personal consumption. People also carried a smaller woven pouch
called mombi, in here they carried lime. Coca leaves and lime were mixed together
and placed in the inner cheek. This mix was never chewed or swallowed, the user lets
his or her saliva to dissolve and mix the chemicals of the coca leaves. After a few
40
41
Franco, Michael. “Top 5 Ancient Incan Inventions”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
26 hours, the mix is spat out. The overall benefits of the coca leaves are to minimize and
possibly eliminate hunger, thirst, pain, fatigue, altitude sickness, headaches,
rheumatism, wounds, sores, broken bones, childbirth, slowdown bleeding, malaria,
ulcers, asthma and improve digestion. The coca leave played a very important role in
the building of the Inca Empire, it was this plant that warriors and couriers could run
for tremendous distances, and builders could travel with weights up to 100 lbs on
their back. On my travels to the Andes, the men whom I was walking with would
gladly share they coca leaves with me, and show me how to prepare and chew such
important plant. In the mornings they would prepare a chair for myself and a chair for
my guide, and in between the chairs there would be a huge bowl with dried coca
leaves, and as me would drink or tea and eat our breakfast, we would chew the
leaves. 42 43
Astronomy
Astronomy and agriculture are, for the Inca, extremely related and a main
reason to why they were able to feed such a growing population. By studying the
movements of the stars and planets they were able to predict the seasons. An example
lies in the city of Cuzco. It is built as a radian plain that mimics the sky and highlights
specific and important astronomical occurrences displayed on the horizon. The most
important occurrence for the Inca was the rising and setting of the sun, the moon and
the stars. The Inca year began with the rising of the Pleiades star cluster, which was
made up of 13 starts (normally made up of 7 starts, but due to high altitude and clear
42
43
Uri Loyd, John, and John Thomas Uri Loyd. "Coca- The Divine Plant of the Inca"
Aboutcocaleaf. "About Coca (Erythroxylum coca)"
27 skies, the Inca were able to see 13). In the city of Cuzco there were eight pillars that
oversaw the sacred city, when the sun rose or set in between specific pillars, it meant
that it was time to plant a specific crop at a specific altitude. The Inca astronomers
learnt that Venus was the same during the morning and in the evening; this made
them believe that this star was a servant to the sun, because it always preceded or
followed the sun. The Inca also built observatories where they would “collect” the
first and last rays of the sun with the use of sacred windows. The main observatory in
Cuzco is called Coricancha, and it was covered in gold in its totality. The sacred
Temple of the sun in Machu Picchu has a stone called Intiwatana that is built on top a
platform. The four sides of this stone are perfectly aligned with the navigational
direction, those being north, east, south and west. This specific stone casts precise
shadows during the equinoxes and solstices. The constellations also served an
important role in Inca religion and heavenly-belief. Each animal had its own
constellation, and this force protected that animal. On my travels to Lake Titicaca,
communities were still able too see such constellation, and also able to distinguish
them and recall their names. The Inca saw two types of constellations, those with
stars to which they would link each one and create an image of a God or animal, and
those in the absence of stars, present only in the dark spaces of the Milky Way, which
considered to be a river. One of the most important constellations of the latter kind is
Mac’acuay, the Serpent. Interesting fact of this constellation is the fact that it appears
on August and vanishes in February, and this is the same behavior of actual snakes,
they are more active from December to February, this being the Andean rainy season.
There are more dark constellations, such at Hanp’atu, the toad, Urcuhillay, the llama
28 and Atoq, the fox. According to Gary Urton, writer of “Animals and Astronomy in
the Quechua Universe”, the Inca universe is “not composed of a series of discrete
phenomena and events, but rather there is a powerful synthetic principle underlying
the perception and ordering of object and events in the physical environment. 44 45
Diet
The Inca Empire domesticated few large animals for meat and milk, the
most common being llamas and alpacas. This meant that they also lacked a
continuous and plentiful source if meat, eggs and milk. From what has been
mentioned so far about this civilization, all people from every corner of the empire
were fed thanks to their agricultural techniques and proactive and innovative
administration skills. The peasantry lived mostly off of a vegetarian based diet,
and this was also due to the fact that “they borrowed seeds and roots from their
conquered neighbors and forcibly spread a wealth of food crop throughout their
empire, even into regions where the were previously unknown”. A widely used
ingredient was the kiwicha, which translated is the amaranth grain. This grain was
essential in the Andean diet because from one plant there could be harvested
100,000 grains. The pepper was the primal seasoning spice for Inca gastronomy,
and it is still widely used in Peruvian cuisine. Maize was also one of the most
common crops, and it was prepared and eaten in a variety of different ways: from
the cob, fermented and non-fermented beverages (chicha) and grounded and
compressed (tamales). Manioc, known as yucca, was also widely cultivated for the
44
45
Minster, Christopher. “Inca Star Worsphip and Constellations”
Aveni, Anthony. “Stairways to the Stars: Skywatching in Three Great Ancient Cultures”
29 purpose of converting the root into flour. Another important root that could
withstand the high elevation and harsh winter was the oca root, considered just as
valuable as the potato. The potato is probably the most important crop to the Inca
civilization. It is believed that the Inca cultivated more than 200 types of potatoes,
and made chuño, a frozen-dried potato that could last for several months without
going bad. This was essential for the expansion the empire, for warriors and for
couriers, who always carried a small knapsack/ bag with coca laves and frozendried potatoes. Chuño is still widely produced by Andean people. Quinoa, high in
protein, was essential for feeding large moving armies. This grain was called
chisiya mama, or “mother grain”. Maca, with energy and mood enhancing
properties, was also widely consumed by the empire, and has also begun gaining
global attention for its overall beneficial properties. The last common crop was the
zapallo, also known as quash. Further developed crops where the numerous fruits
such as passion fruit, pepino, lucuma, papaya, tunas (cactus fruit), cherimoya,
tamarillo (tree tomato), pacay (ice-cream beans), tomato and a variety of berries.
Other than fruits the Inca also harvested various nuts such as peanuts, walnuts and
nut of the Quito palm. It is important to keep in mind that in a culture with the
presence of nobility and peasants, it is always the nobility that claims any hunted
meat, meaning that the diets of these two classes varied. The only domesticated
and large animals were the alpacas and the llamas, but these were mostly utilized
for their wool and less for their meat. The alpaca, domesticated by pre-Inca
civilizations, were used for the production of fiber and meat. Both of these
commodities were usually meant for nobility and the Sapa Inca. The animal’s
30 wool and meat was too valuable to be distributed amongst peasants, and the size of
an individual animal was not enough to feed such high numbers. In modern day,
the wool of the alpaca is more expensive and desired than its meat, but in Peru,
alpaca steaks are still considered a high-class cuisine. Llamas were extremely
essential for wool and meat, but mostly used as transportation animals due to the
lack of horses. Llama meat would be cut in strips and dried; something called
charqui (also considered the ancestor of jerky). Deer hunting was an activity that
was carried out only by the nobility. Due to the organization and management of
the empire and the controlled hunting practices, poaching, or illegal hunting, was
considered a crime with elevated punishment. Another large mammal that was
hunted only by the nobility was the guanaco, a relative to the alpaca and llama.
Only the Sapa Inca and his immediate counselors or ayllu consumed duck meat,
considered to be rare and prestigious. The cuy, also known as guinea pig, was
consumed mainly for special events and occasion. Cuy is still a very common dish
to eat at Peruvian restaurants. Seeing that the peasantry lacked a source of protein,
they would occasionally consume frog meat. This ingredient has been totally
removed from the Peruvian cuisine. It is not only frogs that substituted the lack of
protein, but Incas also consumed insects such as caterpillars, beetles, grubs and
ants. For fishing and coastal animals, the Inca Empire depended on rivers, lakes
and eventually the ocean. As the empire expanded and annexed coastal territories,
it also absorbed all knowledge of technique to harvest such animals. Prior to the
Inca, coastal tribes utilized a raft called caballitos de tortora, a canoe/boat made of
reeds. With this floating device, they were able to use net and line to harvest many
31 varieties of marine animals. These fish ranged from bonito, dolphins, sharks, rays
and skates. Similar to llama meat, fish meat was dried and transported by marching
armies or couriers. The coastline also provided the empire with mussels, seaweed,
limpets, seabirds, penguins and sea lions.46 47
Llamas
The domestication of the llama was a key factor in the domination of the Inca.
This was one of the key reasons why the Inca became such a prominent sedentary
civilization. It was domesticated from the wild Guanaco thousands of year before the
Inca, so it is important to not praise purely the Inca for the domestication of this
valuable animal. This animal could withstand many different environments, from the
hot desert to the cold mountains. It was also used a source of transportation power,
carrying hundreds of pounds of stone, grass and supplies for the construction of
roads, rest camps, sacrificial platforms and cities. It was also used as a source of
meat, usually made into charqui, which is sun dried llama meat. The wool of llama
was used for clothing, transportation sacks and ropes. The dung and internal organs
where used as fertilizer across the whole Inca Empire. 48
46
Dunnell, Tony. “Inca Food, Past and Present”
National Research Council. “Lost Crops of the Incas”
48
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
47
32 Wealth
Even though the Inca Empire had incredible amounts of gold and silver, this
was not their currency or basis of wealth. The reason to this mentality is the fact that
they believed that gold was the sweat of Inti (the sun) and that silver was the tears of
Mama Killa (the moon). Overall wealth and political power were based on how much
manual labor you were able to command. This could have been the chieftain of a
village who controlled several ayllu, or the Sapa Inca who controlled millions of
people, including warriors and professionals. As mentioned earlier, the Inca were
sedentary, and this was also due to the fact they realized the value of llama and alpaca
herds. This is considered one of the reasons why the Inca invaded and conquered
tribes around Lake Titicaca. Wealth was also displayed by the amount of fertile and
arable land, again supporting the sedentary mentality the Inca had. Finally wealth was
displayed by the amount and splendor of textiles, cloths, pottery and jewelry that
human labor could produce. These factors of wealth of extremely interrelated, but the
basis is human labor, which farmed the land and grazed the cattle, harvested the crops
and wool, stored the food and made objects all to be displayed. An interesting aspect
of the Inca Empire was the fact that the superiors and overseers of the farmers and
builders would provide such their working men with all the food and beverages that
would be needed during their labor; this being said, all that was provided was of
course harvested by those same working men. Another source of wealth was
displayed by the gifts that were given by superiors. Cloths made of cumbi cloth,
vicuña wool, hummingbird feathers and small shells were considered to be the most
valuable gifts, and were always displayed by the receiver. As the great feasts that
33 were hosted for the sacrificing child, the Inca had regular feasts to please and
reinforce the relationship that the Sapa had with the people he oversaw. According to
Spanish records, Cuzco, which was considered the richest city in the New World, was
comprised of 10 million people. A record from the point of view of Spanish Jesuit
priest Father Barnabe Cobo says that:
“The riches that were gathered in the city of Cuzco alone, as capital and court of
the Empire, were incredible for therein were many palaces of dead kings with
all the treasure that each amassed in life; and he who began to reign did not
touch the estate and wealth of his predecessor but [...] built a new palace and
acquired for himself silver and gold and all the rest.” 49
Gold and silver were used purely for an aesthetic purpose, and kings and nobles
collected huge amounts of these minerals to ease their journey into the afterlife.
Sadly, grave robbers that sell priceless items to the black market for miniscule
amounts of money are destroying Inca burial tombs and sacred sites. 50
Architecture
The Inca architecture has been boggling and astonishing researchers and
archeologists since the arrival of the white man in Peru. The handling of massive
rocks, the construction of magnificent and large cities and the use of abundant and
complex ornaments are what characterize Inca architecture. Some Inca techniques
were the outcrops of rock that were cut out of the mountain side for underground
stability, or the lack of any type of mortar to seal one rock to another. They would
49
50
Father Bernabe Cobo. “Inca Religion and Customs”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
34 either precisely cut stones to fit with one another, shape massive boulders and
build sunbaked bricks with pre-made molds. An example of Inca architecture is
Sacsahuaman, a fortress that oversaw and protected Cuzco. It is 15,000 feet long
and made up of 3 tiers of immense stonewalls. Some stones have been estimated to
be 30 tons in weight, whereas other are considered to be 100 tons ore more, all of
irregular polygonal shapes, but all interlock perfectly. A usual phrase to be linked
to Inca architecture is the fact that you “cannot slip a knife or needle in between
any two boulder”. Nearly all Inca buildings have been built to withstand
earthquakes and forced dislodging. Sacsahuman is comprised of water distribution
system, underground passages, fighting towers and habitations. This stone fortress
was constructed from 1438 to 1508; it took 70 years to build and 300,000 men, all
paying mit’a to the state and to the Sapa Inca. 51 52 53 54
Machu Picchu
Machu Picchu, located at 8,000 feet above sea level, in between two Andean
peaks and above the Urubamba River, was build between 1450 and 1540; all
construction was designed and carried out by the minds of its engineers. Even
though the Spanish conquistadors located and plundered all possible gold and
silver, they were never able to find Machu Picchu. It was discovered by accident
by retired US senator and later explorer Hiram Bingham in 1911. The ability and
strength of the Inca people, who simply wore sandals, to be able to transport grass,
51
Franco, Michael. “Top 5 Ancient Incan Inventions”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
53
Pratt, David. “Lost Civilizations of the Andes”
54
Corliss R., Williams. “How the Inca Worked Stone”
52
35 rocks and soil to such heights still perplexes scientist and people alike. According
to engineers, it would have been nearly impossible to have built such a city with
the tools available at that time. Peaks were considered sacred, they allowed priests
and people to get closer to their Gods and worship them. In fact, Machu Picchu is
located in between four holy peaks: Huayna Picchu to the north, Machu Picchu to
the south, mountain Yanantin to the west and the triangular peak Putucusi to the
east. It is believed that the Inca engineers spent anywhere from one to two years
studying the water supply and table prior to cutting any trees and stone. This was
done to assess if the location had enough water flow for the crops and people that
the city would have hosted. Engineers estimated that they must have spent between
50-60% of their overall resources and time in building the foundation and site
preparation for the ever-lasting city. This was due to the fact that mountainsides
have a high risk of earthquakes and landslides. The underground construction went
down for about nine feet: the first three were rich topsoil, the next three was sandy
or gravel-like soil, and the last three was comprised of rock waste removed
collected from the cutting of stone for the actual city. It is also important to
understand that the gravel the Inca used was white, and only with time did it
become grey. With the high rainfall, Machu Picchu was made up of 700 or so crop
terraces, with high permeability and seepage of water. This allowed the city to
remain intact because the water would not accumulate and soften the soil, it would
simply drain down the valley. All roofs where hatched roofs, meaning more runoff
within the city, this is why they built a state of the art drainage system. The city
has 130 draining holes that were clearly designed prior to construction. The city
36 also has 16 water fountains connected with 2,500 feet of canal system built to a
3% slope. It is remarkable to think that the Inca thought about and successfully
built working drainage system without the use of writing, steel, iron and the wheel.
The buildings in Machu Picchu are still present thanks to their foundation, tight
joints and interconnected stones. It is important to understand that this city was not
planned as they were building it, all its elements fit together and work perfectly,
indicating that these master engineers knew exactly what they were building. For
the Inca, water is sacred, both the actual liquid and the sound. In fact, there is a
rock outside of the city walls that catches the sound of the Urubamba River, which
is 1,600 feet below, and it amplifies it; the sound is clear and crisp. Gates and
windows are also considered sacred, and almost always have breath-taking views
of rivers and mountain peaks. The only gate in Machu Picchu is the main one, and
as view it has the peak of Huayna Picchu, sacred to the Inca. The Sapa Inca was
the first person to use the freshest water available, thus his living quarters have
been identified to be in close proximity of fountain number one. There have been
identifies 16 fountains, and each can hold up to 25 gallons per minute. In the event
of drastic precipitation, the Inca engineers have developed two safety valves. The
first valve is located in the middle of the agricultural sector, and if opened, the
water would pour into the terraces, seep into the ground, and move down the
valley without any damages. The second valve was located at the main drain. This
is another example of how the engineers designed the city prior to construction.
Little is known about the Inca hygiene, but it is obvious that the fountains and
canal system is isolated from the drainage holes and from possible pollution.
37 Another remarkable innovation, or discovery, was the use of quartz to slow down
the flow of water. On my travel to this marvel city, there was a water canal, about
3-4 inches wide, which then became a fountain with a water-drop of 4 feet; the
water then poured into a small reservoir and into the next canal. What is
astonishing is that the Inca were able to place, 2 inches before the lip of the
fountain, a thin strip of quartz. When one would pass their finger on this strip, it
was possible to see and hear the reduction of water flow. One could observe that
the water would accumulate exactly on the strip of quartz, and after that strip, it
would slow down. If you passed a finger for a second time, the water would return
to its normal flow. This can be done repeatedly. Little is known if the Inca did this
on purpose and for what reason, but it definitely adds to the intricacy and
sophistication of Machu Picchu. From the record of Cieza de Leon, conquistador
and Inca chronicler, the living quarter of the Sapa Inca
“Which was the richest, there was the figure of the sun, very large and
made of gold, very ingeniously worked, and enriched with many precious
stones. They had also a garden, the clods of which were made of pieces
of fine gold; and it was artificially sown with golden maize, the stalks, as
well as the leaves and cobs, being of that metal [...] Besides all this, they
had more than twenty golden (llamas) with their lambs, and the
shepherds with their slings and crooks to watch them, all made of the
same metal. There was a great quantity of jars of gold and silver, set with
emeralds; vases, pots, and all sorts of utensils, all of fine gold”. 55 56 57
55
56
de Leon, Pedro de Cieza. “The Second Part of the Chronicle of Peru”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
38 Food Storage
The Inca also developed remarkable storage systems from items such as bird
feathers, to sandals for warriors to clothing and food. According to some reports,
there were between 20,000 and 50,000 people that were regularly provided with
stored supplies. These same records show that Cuzco would receive stored goods
from the empire every four days, or on a daily basis. In locations such as Huànaco
Pampa and the upper Montaro Valley in Peru and Cochabamba in Bolivia,
archeological discoveries lead to believe that was between 1,000 and 2,500 storage
buildings for all different purposes. 58
Highway System, Bridges and Couriers
Roads, bridges and couriers are one of factors that allowed the Inca Empire
to expand and to persist through time. The expanding Inca Empire would take
control of already completed roads and would expand them to reach more than
10,000 miles of “weather-proof” highways, known as capac nan. Seeing that the
wheel did not exist, such highways were built for marching men and llamas. There
was clear distinction between coastal and mountainous roads. Those in the coastal
regions were 24 feet wide and 2,520 miles long, extending from Tumbes at the
northern border all the way down to Purumuaca by the Manuel River in Chile. The
mountainous roads, due to narrow valley and steep slopes, where 15-25 feet wide
and 3,250 miles long. From the documentation of the early Inca chronicler Cieza
de Leon, the roads ran
57
58
Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of the Inca”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
39 “Through deep valleys and over mountains, through piles of snow,
quagmires, living rock, along turbulent rivers; in some places it ran smooth
and paved, carefully laid out; in others over sierras, cut through the rock,
with walls skirting the rivers, and steps and rests through the snow;
everywhere it was clean swept and kept free of rubbish, with lodgings,
storehouses, temples to the sun, and posts along the way.” 59
The Inca also build bridges made of stone, wood or fiber cables, but records show
that less than 100 bridges were built. The Inca were also systematic in their
travelling, where every 41 and half miles there would be a marker to demarcate
such travelled distance. Between 12 and 18 miles of road there would be resting
station for travellers, either for priests, merchants or couriers. Along with these
stations, it seemed that the Inca built around 2,000 small infrastructures that were
meant to be production or administrative centers or provincial stations, all joined
by this massive web of roads, highways and bridges. The mode of communication
was the chasqui, commonly known as a courier. Each courier would wait and rest
at a rest station, and all ran in relays covering 1 mile and half. According to record
it is believed that in five days, these chasqui were able to travel up to 1,250 miles.
60 61 62
59
Salomon, Frank, and Bruce G. Trigger. “The Cambridge History of the Native People of the
Americas”
60
Gascoigne, Bamber. “History of the Inca”
61
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
62
Franco, Michael. “Top 5 Ancient Incan Inventions”
40 Forced Resettlement
The Inca were well aware of possible uprising and revolts, this is why they
relocated between 3 and 5 million people. In the high peaks of the Andean
mountains, villages were built on land that was not fertile and arable. The Inca
relocated these populations and moved them to areas with fertile and arable land.
This allowed the Inca people to live more closely together and have access to each
others resources. This also bettered the diets of mothers and decreased infant
mortality, but also allowed the people to be less exposed to the harsh winds and
snows of the mountains. If the Inca sensed that a community could have caused
some king of social or political problem, then they would have been relocated
somewhere else. This also greatly reduced the amount of local conflicts between
communities, securing more control over the whole population. 63
Art
Textiles
Lacking science to explain natural phenomena, the Inca associate such
events with Gods, and the only way to please such Gods was to create sacred
artifact depicting the God. Seeing that gold was the mineral that resembled the
most the shining sun, it was used to create plates, vases, jewelry and knifes (used
in sacrifices) as offerings to Inti. Many artifacts depict snakes, jaguars and
condors, which symbolize respectively death, life, and afterlife (the snake borrows
under the ground, the jaguars runs on the plains and the condor soars the skies).
The Inca also had no trouble covering temples, holy buildings, altars and more all
63
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
41 in solid gold, the more gold that reflected the sun, the more Inti was pleased. As
mentioned earlier, the Inca society was broken up into ayllus, all worked with the
state. There were of course ayllus that were specifically geared towards the
crafting of jewelry and clothing strictly for the nobility and the Sapa Inca, such
groups were called acllas. Inca history, culture and daily life has been passed on
thanks to what artifacts remain, which depict puric, religious and social activities.
Textiles were woven from alpaca, llama, vicuña and guanaco wool; the latter two
being the rarest and most valuable, again reserved for nobility and the Sapa Inca.
Textiles were made of bright colors and adopting geometric designs,
anthropomorphous and animal designs such birds and felines. The use of textiles
was essential in the Inca expansion. When a village or region was conquered, the
Inca would present the finest and rarest textile to the chief, and the acceptance of
such gift symbolized the acceptance of the Inca as its supreme ruler. There were
mainly two types of textiles: cumbi and abasca. The cumbi textiles were made
from vicuña and guanaco wool, they were colored with bright natural dyes and
adorned with gold and silver. Selected warriors wore such textiles that were
embroidered with feathers and shells from the Peruvian coast. Nobles and Sapas
were buried with these kind of textiles, clear evidence of social class. The general
population wore abasca textiles, usually made from llama wool, but in the coastal
region they were made from cotton. It is important to understand that it was the
type of textile, either abasca or cumbi, with the addition of ornaments that defined
the social class. Other factors that differentiate social class were llautu, hairstyle,
and type of cranial formation (babies born in the noble ayllu would have wood
42 planks placed on each side of the cranium and wrapped in tight cloths, this forced
the head to grow in an elongated fashion). 64 65
Pottery
Pottery also depicted geometrical patterns and figures of animals that they
worshipped. The highest quality of pottery was known as huaco, and it was meant
for ceremonial, ritual and burial purposes. They usually contained drinks and food
which where offered to the Gods, most specifically Inti, but were meant also as a
necessity for the journey of the dead. Common pottery was made with thicker
material and with less elaborate designs. Usually casted from a mold for mass
production and its main sue was to hold liquids. 66
Jewelry
As for metalwork, most specifically that of the gold, it is believed that the
Inca were not as highly skilled as we thought they were. What they did though was
conquer many civilization that were experts in metalwork, such as the Chimus who
created earrings, bracelets, necklaces, rings, ritual tumis (knife) and ceremonial
artifacts. Such conquered experts, according to Cieza de Leon, located in coastal
Lambayeque, where transferred to Cuzco and placed in special sectors to do their
work. These individuals were exempted from the mit’a tax system, they just had to
keep making jewelry for the Inca and for Inti. The goldsmiths used many materials
to create jewelry, the most common being gold, silver, copper, wood, seeds,
64
Discover Peru. “Inca Art Forms”
Von Hagen, Victor W. “The Incas”
66
Discover Peru. “Inca Art Forms”
65
43 feathers, seashells, gemstones and fine textiles. Elongate lobes indicated nobility
because the gold earrings would, with time, extend the skin. The nose ring was
also made of gold and wore only by the Sapa Inca during special and religious
ceremonies. The amount of gold that was worn by Inca warriors, either as shin or
chest protection symbolized the status of such warrior. 67
Music
The Inca music reflected a major aspect of the Inca culture, that of
cooperation and support. There was no single musician that would play alone;
instruments and vocals were always accompanied by other musical elements. This
can be explained by the fact that singing, music and dancing were all referenced by
the word taqui. These three musical elements were so interlocked that one word
was used to talk about the three. The primary purpose of this kind of music was for
religious, spiritual, combat, and agricultural events and support. A specific type of
dance and music was adopted for religious reason, like increasing rainfall or
stopping heavy snow, or to energize the warriors on a battlefield. With religious
dances, the musicians would also wear clothing and carry out movements that
resembled worshipped animals, like the condor or jaguar. The Inca Empire used
only wind and percussion instruments to guide their music. In the category of wind
instruments there is the siku, which was made of wooded pipes assembled in two
rows next to each other and tied together with string. Each pipe had one open hole,
where the user would blow air in, and the other side of the pipe was closed. There
are specific names for the different sizes of the siku, going from very small to very
67
Discover Peru. “Inca Art Forms”
44 large. Next instrument is the antara; it is very similar to the siku but is made of
only one row of pipes. The main difference is that these pipes were mostly made
of clay. Another instrument is the rondador, similar to the antara due to its single
row construction but the row is made of pentagonically arranged pipes. The quena
resembles the flute, but these were made out of clay, stone or bone. The quena has
an opening hole, where the air is blown into, and an open exit hole, and in between
such holes there are seven more finger holes to make different tones of sound. The
ocarina is a closed flute usually made of clay or bones, it is disk shaped and has
anywhere from four to twelve holes at disposal. Another flute is the pinkillo, made
of cane, bones or tree branches. It can measure up to one meter and twenty inches,
and is made up from two to six finger holes. This instrument is particularly
interesting because it is usually played with one hand, allowing the musician to
play a drum instrument along. The last wind instrument is the pututu, not so much
for music; it was made from either a hollow cow horn or a large conch seashell. It
was mainly used for religious ceremonies and for the arrival of nobles or important
figures. For the categorization of the percussion instruments there was the bombo,
a wooden drum made from hollow tree trunk; it was covered with llama or sheep
skin at one end and with cow skin at the other end. The next instrument is the
wancara, another drum that was larger than the bombo and fully covered in
animals skin to create a deep base. The tynya is a smaller version of the wancara,
but this is thought to have been used mainly by women. The last percussion
instrument is the chajchas, a rattle made from dried goat hooves, seashells, beads,
45 stones, hard wood and seeds, and always made into a ribbon. The sound of such
instrument invoked that of rain and wind. 68
Warfare and Weaponry
The initial strategy of the Inca was focused on diplomacy and negotiating
relationships with neighboring tribes or with communities that were targeted for
annexation into their empire. This led the Inca to pursue first friendly relationships
with gifts, marital agreements or political alliance. If this first strategy was not
successful they would begin to threaten these targeted people with forced invasion
and conquest, if this did not deter the chief, the final plan was to actually invade
and forcibly take over such region. The Inca adopted strategies from diplomacy,
bribery, coercion and finally militarism, all of these bundled in a plan of action
that lead to the inevitable conquest of the targeted region. The most preferred
military tactic was that of guerilla and outflanking, where they would engage with
a one battalion, and then flank the enemy from both sides with other, hidden
forces. Another used strategy was the deployment of three groups of warriors that
were specialized in using a specific type of weapon, these being slingshots,
boleadoras and axes/ truncheons. Each man was required to serve in the military
that started at age sixteen. The service lasted for three or four years, and all
soldiers were trained in all types of weapons. At the end of their service they had
the chance to choose which type of weapon they wanted to use for the rest of their
life, increasing skill and experience for each warrior. Those men that demonstrated
over-the-top combat skills were chosen to continue their training and become
68
Discover Peru. “Inca Art Forms”
46 officers. Weaponry ranged from the type of terrain and environment the warrior
lived in. Coastal regions adopted spears tipped with cooper or razor sharp bone.
Indians in the forest became skilled archers, and all Inca forces had trained slingers
who threw egg-seized stones at distances that reached up to 200 feet with deadly
accuracy, such weapon known as warak’a. At the Siege of Cuzco, slingers used
flaming rocks that were encased in woolen cloth or cotton-like maguey. Slingers
would train for years until they could hit a moving target on the head at great
distances. Other long-range weapons were known as the elastica, a small elastic
wand that was thrown, similar to a spear but shorter, and boleadoras /ayllos, which
were a series of stones that were tied together at each ends of ropes and thrown at
enemies, slowing them down or incapacitating them. Close range weapons were
bronze or chonta-wood daggers, swords, axes and heavy stone or bronze clubs to
crush the enemy’s skulls. Such blunt weapons, known as macana, were made into
star-shaped objects for optimum bone (ideally skull) damage. Soldiers that were
not descendants from the Inca chieftains wore sleeveless fleece tunics called
onkas, always painted with specific symbols of their battalion. On top of the onka
they would wear cloaks that were made of coarse, greasy llama wool tied at the
shoulder or chest. Each close-ranged warrior used two shields. The first one was
made from particularly hard chonta wood, and it was worn around the neck to
protect the soldiers back and neck. The second shield was smaller, and it was made
of wood, wicker, or toughened deer hide and adorned with a verity of decorations.
Hanging from this shield was a cloth that protected the warrior’s legs from
projectiles such as arrows and rocks, but this proved to be defenseless against the
47 Spanish rifles and cannons. All Inca warriors used a type of head protection made
from wood or sugar cane, and occasionally hats made of thick wool or cotton.
Leather sandals were worn by warriors that could afford them, otherwise they
would march and fight barefoot. These sandals were made from llama rawhide,
laced around the ankle. The soft material was very good in the Andean terrain, but
it was useless when heavy rains occurred and caused such material to rot. Warriors
wore bright red fringes under their knees, above their ankles and on their biceps.
They believed that by wearing such fringe, the Gods would invigorate and increase
the speed and power of the warrior, possibly changing the tides of war. Any Inca
warrior or high-ranking officials that won combat awards had the opportunity to
wear such honors around their neck. Usual awards, depending on the ranking of
the wearer, were made of bronze, silver or gold disks. Direct descendants from
Quechua chieftains had the honor to call them selves Inca and wear restricted and
noble Inca attire. Such warriors and generals would wear different amounts of gold
depending on status and lineage. Such individuals could wear earplugs that
reached a diameter of two inches and wear ceremonial helmets adorned with a
feather crest (symbolizing Inti) or shaped like the head of a puma. A typical Inca
attack began with the boleadoras. These rocks were swung over the warrior’s head
and thrown at the enemy, slowing them down for easier target by the slingshots.
After this first attack, which hopefully slowed down the attackers, arrived the
slingshots. These projectiles were shot in waves, and when one group ran out of
stones, the second group took its place, leaving no gap time for the enemy. When
the enemy was too close for successful projectiles, melee warriors would throw
48 their one spear, and then enter into one-on-one combat, using axes and truncheons.
69 70
Inca Culture in Contemporary Peru
The most obvious indicators that Inca culture is still present in
contemporary Peru are the language and clothing. Quechua is the predominant
language in the communities that populate the Andean mountains and the clothing
these people wear still resemble that of the Inca, with woven textiles, bright colors
and geometric or animal patterns. It is also possible to eat in a tourist restaurant
with waitresses wearing the local attire, and is not rare to find a local band playing
Inca music mixed with some Spanish instruments. Even though horses and
donkeys have been introduced since the arrival of the Spanish, Andean
communities still rely on the llama as main source of transportation and wool. On
my travels in the Andean mountains, a homeowner would be waiting on a hill with
his llama to carry his and my bags. The ancient festival Inti Raymi is still practiced
today in the main plaza of Cuzco; participants in the ceremony wear Inca jewelry,
clothing and weaponry, mainly for a touristic point of view, but also to conserve
the Inca traditions. The Inca road system is still very well maintained and utilized.
The Pan-American Highway, which connects the north and south of South
America, was built as an extension and upgrade to the road system that the Inca
initially built, this known as the Inca Trail. As we know, the roads where so
meticulously built, that the Peruvian government just had to extend and pave the
69
70
Bah, Hawa. “Inca Weaponry”
Chaddah, Rima. “Outfitting for Inca Battles”
49 needed roads. Thanks to the Inca and their agricultural innovation, which
cultivated 2,300 varieties of potatoes and corn, the world has been able to acquire
many types of these crops and adopt them in their own cuisine. It is estimated, that
out of the 4,000 types of potatoes, Peru cultivates about 2,300 of them. Andean
communities still use the technique of terracing when farming on steep
mountainsides, increasing crop size and minimizing the chance of landslides. The
practice of shamanism is still very prevalent. Shamanic rituals involve the use of
mummy heads and hallucinogenic substances, such as the San Pedro cactus and
the Ayahuasca vine. The mummy heads are still considered holy, and maintain a
position of power and energy on the table of the sorcerer. It is also possible, for a
tourist, known as gringo, to pay a shaman and explore these hallucinogenic
journeys accompanied with music and other Inca artifacts. Jewelry is also being
modernized. Jewelry makers are now adding “modern” stones and minerals, such
as diamonds, onto crafted Inca artifacts, such as pendants, earrings and bracelets.
Clothing and the weaving of alpaca and vicuña wool are also becoming more
modern, with the adoption of new patterns and colors. Bed sheets, pillows, shoes,
coats, scarfs, gloves, socks, hats, bags, beer holders, key chains are all being
created using Inca materials, patterns and colors. The cuisine in Cuzco still holds
tight its origins, with plates of cuy, maize, potatoes and rice. But Peruvian cuisine
has also modernized with the adoption of ingredients such as chocolate, pistachios,
cookies, whipped cream, luguma, apple jelly and raspberries. Peru was actually the
gastronomic capital of the Americas in 2006. It is possible to see the evidence of
Inca culture on the bottle of Cusqueña, the national Peruvian beer. Around the
50 bottle you can observe Inca stone masonry and architecture, with the famous 12corner boulder present in Cuzco. Another famous bottled beverage is Inca Kola, a
sweet and fruity soda. Its color resembles that of gold, and its main ingredient is a
Peruvian lemon known as Hierba Luisa. 71
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Crystal, Ellie. “Inca Civilization”
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