Chapter 5
Issues in Emerging
Adulthood
Key Terms
collectivism
duty-based moral code
gender
Chapter expectations
While reading this chapter, you will study:
●
the impact of current issues on individual development in
emerging adulthood
●
the factors that influence individual decisions about
independence in emerging adulthood
●
theories and research on gender similarities and differences
and their impact on individual roles
●
how to evaluate information using a variety of strategies
grounded theory
homelessness
individualism
Theoretical Perspectives
In this chapter, you will see how the following theoretical perspectives can be applied:
•
•
•
•
•
Arnett’s theory of emerging adulthood
conflict theory
ecological systems theory
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development
exchange theory
•
•
•
•
functionalism
Loevinger’s theory of ego development
Pearlin’s theory of psychological distress
symbolic interactionism
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reseArCH skiLLs
• analyzing demographic
statistics
• identifying and
applying theoretical
perspectives
• identifying a thesis
• identifying bias
• writing a research
essay
CHApter intrOduCtiOn
In this chapter, some issues about emerging adulthood in
Canadian society will be examined in greater detail. Current
perceptions, opinions, and demographic trends in Canada will be
studied, focusing on specific changes, challenges, and life events.
Various theoretical perspectives will be applied to each issue
in an attempt to understand the effect on individuals and their
families during emerging adulthood. How the social systems and
FiGure 5-1 Emerging
adulthood is an exciting time
in your life that is influenced
by the society in which you
live. What socio-economic
and socio-cultural factors will
influence your transition to
adulthood? What challenges
will your generation face
that your parents did not?
How will your unique path to
adulthood be determined by the
circumstances in your life?
structures of Canadian society influence each issue and provide
support for individuals will also be explored. The issues might
provide interesting opportunities for further independent study.
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Focus on Emerging Adulthood
W
E
N
S
Leonard Pearlin’s
Theory of Psychological
Distress
Emerging adulthood requires individuals to make major changes in role
behaviours as they take on the responsibilities of full participation in society.
The developmental tasks of emerging adulthood prepare the individual for
the challenges of early adulthood. Many of the challenges faced by emerging
adults can be anticipated. Leaving home, completing post-secondary education,
forming new relationships, and finding work are part of the normal pattern
of life for Canadian men and women. You have learned that these events
are happening later than they did in previous generations, but most young
Canadians look forward to developing new life structures in their 20s.
You have learned that individual development is influenced by the interaction
of individuals, their families, and the society in which they live. How individuals
develop in response to the challenges of emerging adulthood depends on several
factors. Leonard Pearlin’s Theory of Psychological Distress explained that personal
factors, such as personality, family background, and the extent of an individual’s
resiliency—his or her ability to recover from stress—will determine how an
individual faces challenges. He explained that whether an individual anticipated
a challenge, which he called “stress,” was a key factor in the ability to cope with it.
He also explained that how a society is organized to provide social support would
contribute to how well an individual adjusts (Bee, 1987).
The Ecological Systems Focus
W
E
N
S
The ecological systems theory takes a broader view than Pearlin’s theory to
explain how individuals develop. It explains the influence of several systems
within society on emerging adulthood:
Ecological systems
theory
●
●
●
Let’s discuss
What are the
predominant beliefs or
ideologies in current
Canadian society? How
has this changed over
the last 50 years?
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Unit 2
●
The transition to adulthood is motivated by the developmental needs of
emerging adults, the microsystem. The basic developmental needs are the
same for all emerging adults.
Emerging adults are socialized in unique ways by their families and
peers, the mesosystem. Therefore, individuals develop unique identities,
worldviews, and life structures.
The pace of development is determined by the educational requirements
and job opportunities of the socio-economic environment, the exosystem.
As you learned in Chapter 3, the pace of development in Canada is slower
than it was a few decades ago.
The socio-cultural environment, the macrosystem, limits development
within the beliefs of the society. The diversity of political, religious, and
economic ideologies in Canada can result in conflict as individuals form
their own identities, life structures, and worldviews. The influence of these
systems determines what identity individuals develop, what they believe,
and the kind of lives they see for themselves in the future.
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FiGure 5-2 According to Jeffrey Arnett, emerging adults explore work, love, and worldview.
What unique challenges might affect that exploration for some individuals?
In this chapter, you will focus on specific challenges of emerging adulthood
within these systems. There have been many changes in Canadian society that
have influenced the transition to adulthood for the generations that came of
age in the late 20th century. Two major changes can be examined from the
exosystem of that century. Perhaps the most pervasive is the change in gender
roles that has affected the identity and life-structure decisions of both men and
women. Economic changes influencing education and employment continue
to affect the life structures that individuals form and their chances of achieving
them. At the macrosystem level, the cultural diversity of Canada results in
many ideologies and beliefs influencing emerging adulthood. Many new
Canadians face resocialization into Canadian society at the same time as they
are attempting to develop their identities and new life structures as emerging
adults. Also, young Canadians may explore their worldviews as they experience
the culture of their immigrant peers through travel and university life.
Some individuals have difficulty making the transition to independent
adulthood due to circumstances at the microsystem and mesosystem levels.
Some who are having difficulty live at home and continue to be financially
dependent on their parents as a manageable alternative to independence.
However, some stresses reflect problems that are not being managed. In
this chapter, you will focus on the growing number of young adults in
many industrialized countries, including Canada, who are homeless. These
challenges have an impact on the development of emerging adults. In
addition, they require a response from the exosystem of Canadian society.
Chapter 5
05Holl_Chap05.indd 137
Let’s discuss
What are some
issues in Canadian
society that could affect
how your generation
will manage emerging
adulthood?
Issues in Emerging Adulthood
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In this chapter, you will select and explore topics that focus on challenges
that influence the transition to adulthood using the following research
questions:
What is the impact on individual development in emerging adulthood?
How do social systems and institutions in Canada influence emerging
adults?
How does social-science research explain the impact during emerging
adulthood?
How can we assess the validity of opinions on the topics?
The Influence of Gender
“One is not born
a woman—one
becomes one.”
—Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986),
philosopher and literary feminist
Let’s discuss
What does Simone
de Beauvoir mean by
the above quote? If you
substituted the word
“man” for “woman”
in the quotation, what
would it mean?
Gender means the social roles that a society defines as appropriate for
men and for women. Gender includes traits, attitudes, and behaviours. For
example, the ability to breastfeed an infant is a sex trait, whereas covering
the breasts for modesty is a gender trait (WHO, 2009). Although men and
women around the world have the same reproductive roles, specific gender
roles are created by each society. In most societies, men and women present
themselves differently—that is, their dress, speech, hair, and movement are
generally gender specific. However, research conducted in 26 cultures by Paul
Costa, Antonio Terracciano, and Robert McCrae (2009) found few differences
in traits (such as intelligence) and attitudes (such as ambitiousness) between
men and women. In fact, the variations among men and among women
were greater than the differences between genders. There appear to be
few differences between men and women. Gender seems to be part of the
exosystem, not the individual microsystem. Social and technological change
over the last 40 years has changed gender roles in Canada and affected how
young women and young men prepare for adulthood.
Gender and Identity
Functionalism
W
E
N
S
Symbolic interactionism
W
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N
S
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Gender is an important part of an individual’s identity. Men and women
are expected to fill different roles. Some people suggest that differences are
innate—that is, men and women are biologically programmed to think
differently (Gilligan, 1993). Functionalists explain that differences in interests
and attitudes are formed through socialization so that men and women
can perform appropriate gender roles in society (Mandell, 1993). Symbolic
interactionists explain that children are influenced by the role models they
observe in the media and in daily experience more than by the guidance
they receive from their parents and teachers. Consequently, children see
themselves in traditional gender roles even when they have been taught
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W
N
E
that they have broader options (Wilson, 1991). During adolescence, there
is an intensification of gender identification as individuals seek an identity,
so feedback from peers also contributes to narrow gender identity and the
gender-based aspirations of young men and women (Côté & Allahar, 1994).
Jane Loevinger’s Theory of Ego Development explains that individuals begin to
appreciate the wide range of appropriate role behaviours that makes each of
us unique in emerging adulthood.
Generation X was raised by a generation that challenged the traditional
roles of men and women. Their parents were emerging adults during the
turbulent 1960s and 1970s, when the women’s liberation movement inspired
political action to end gender role stereotyping and patriarchy, and the idea
that men had higher status and power than women did. Their mothers were
working in larger numbers and their fathers were encouraged to take an active
role in childcare and household work. When the role of women changed, the
role of men had to change also. Patriarchy as a policy disappeared and women
and men had equal legal rights. As Maureen Baker and Hans Bakker (1980,
p. 558) explain:
S
Jane Loevinger’s Theory
of Ego Development
Women’s liberation to some groups has meant a gain in power and
money, as well as optimizing personal choice. Men’s liberation involves
the widening of choices for men, but also requires the devaluation of
status, money, and personal power, all of which are highly valued in
capitalist society.
FiGure 5-3 Status of Women Canada (SWC) is a federal government organization that
promotes the full participation of women in the economic, social, and democratic life of Canada.
How have the roles of women changed in Canada?
Chapter 5
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In the 21st century, young women and men have more freedom to define
who they are and what they want to do during emerging adulthood. At first,
girls were encouraged to abandon traditional female choices and pursuits,
but the development of a “home-making industry” has revived homemaking
as a rewarding interest for both genders. On the other hand, young men are
still more likely than young women to conform to traditional gender roles
(Sullivan & Mainiero, 2007). However, when Joanna Everitt (1998) studied
the attitudes of Canadian men and women using Gallup Poll surveys, she
discovered that the gender gap was almost closed on political issues of
feminism and equality. In conclusion, although there are some differences in
gender roles, there is no evidence that being male or female hinders identity
formation in emerging adulthood (Schwartz & Montgomery, 2002).
Opinions About Women and Work by Gender, 1994
Men
Women
Percent of respondents who agree that:
%
%
Working women should receive paid maternity leave when they have a baby.
77
86
A working mother can establish just as warm and secure a relationship with her children as a
mother who does not work.
65
78
A preschool child is likely to suffer if his or her mother works.
38
27
All in all, family life suffers when the woman has a full-time job.
28
24
A job is all right, but what most women really want is a home and children.
20
16
Being a housewife is just as fulfilling as working for pay.
39
46
Having a job is the best way for a woman to be an independent person.
42
49
Most women have to work these days to support their families.
74
84
Both the man and woman should contribute to the household income.
58
59
A man’s job is to earn money; a woman’s job is to look after the home and family.
13
9
It is not good if the man stays at home and cares for the children and the woman goes out to work.
16
10
Family life often suffers because men concentrate too much on their work.
59
59
Note: The original response categories were: Strongly Agree, Agree, Neither Agree nor Disagree, Disagree, and Strongly Disagree. The percentages
shown in the table combine the first two response categories.
Note: N = 1440; information from between 16 and 92 respondents was not ascertained.
Source: 1994 ISSP (Canadian sample only).
Figure 5-4
1. Sort and rank the statements into two columns: Most Agree and Most Disagree.
2. Which statements about women and work did the subjects agree with the most?
3. Which statements did they disagree with the most?
4. What appears to be the strongest opinion about why women work?
5. What do you think the answers would be today?
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Research | Abstract
Gender and Values
by Ann M. Beutel and Margaret Mooney Marini
We examine gender differences in the fundamental value
orientations of U.S. adolescents. We focus on concern
with finding purpose and meaning in life and the basis
on which meaning is derived, including connection
to others and contributions to their well-being, and
economic success that involves embracing the market
values of materialism and competition. We develop three
measures of value orientation: (1) compassion, which
reflects concern and responsibility for the well-being
of others; (2) materialism, which reflects emphasis on
material benefit and competition; and (3) meaning, which
reflects philosophical concern with finding purpose and
meaning in life. We find substantial gender differences
on all three measures. Females in our sample are more
likely than males to express concern and responsibility
for the well-being of others, less likely than males to
accept materialism and competition, and more likely
than males to indicate that finding purpose and meaning
in life is extremely important. These differences are
observed throughout the period from the mid-1970s to
the early 1990s and show little sign of decreasing. They
are evident across social class subgroups and cannot
be explained by gender differences in religiosity or the
perceived availability of social support. ●
Source: Betal, Ann M., & Marini, M.M. (June 1995). Gender and values.
American Sociological Review, 60(3).
1. What was the purpose of this study?
2. Who were the subjects of this study?
3. What were the results of this study?
4. What impact would the gender differences have
on competence at work?
5. How might the gender differences influence
occupational choices?
Gender and Life Structure
Chapter 5
05Holl_Chap05.indd 141
Let’s discuss
Was your parents’
experience different
from that described in
this paragraph? If so,
how?
Exchange theory
W
N
E
Women now work at paid employment at almost the same rate as men.
This role change requires that young women be socialized for employment
just as young men have been. It also suggests that a young woman’s
Dream might incorporate her occupational role in addition to family
and community roles (Levinson, 1996). As a result, work and family roles
have changed for both women and men (Ghalam, 1997). As you see in
Figure 5-4, a 1994 survey found that Canadians agreed with the opinions
that women had to work to help support their families, and that children
would not suffer if she did (HRSDC, 1999). The 1995 General Social Survey
found that 86 percent of men and 64 percent of women responded that paid
work was important to their personal happiness. Ten years later, Reginald
Bibby discovered that 83 percent of both men and women rated family life
as very important, but only 51 percent of both rated a rewarding career as
very important (Bibby, 2006). Today, men are less likely than in the past to
sacrifice family time for promotion (Sullivan & Mainiero, 2007). Weighing
the costs and benefits of occupational choices, such as whether to accept a
promotion that involves moving, reflects the exchange theory. It appears that
today’s emerging adults, both male and female, seek to balance family and
work as they build their life structure.
S
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CHEC
FiGure 5-5 More men and women are choosing to work in jobs traditionally associated
with the other gender. From an exchange theory perspective, what might be the costs and
benefits for individuals who make this choice?
AC
KB K
You have read
about education in
Chapter 3.
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Unit 2
Occupations are no longer identified as male or female jobs, yet men
and women continue to choose different occupations. A hundred years ago,
any jobs that required the use of machines were men’s jobs, including those
requiring the use of the typewriter! By the 1950s, job classification reflected
the roles of men and women as defined by functionalists. As a result, women
worked in the so-called helping jobs, such as clerical, nursing, and teaching
occupations. In the 1960s, equal pay laws were enacted so men and women
doing the same job received the same pay. Since the 1970s, the curriculum in
schools has encouraged young women to study math and science to enter the
so-called non-traditional but better-paying occupations. Equity laws prohibit
discrimination in hiring. Some organizations developed affirmative action
plans to increase the participation of women in non-traditional roles. As you
learned in Chapter 3, women now graduate from high school, and from most
programs at college and university, at higher rates than men do. Nevertheless,
in 2003, women earned only 71 percent of what men made (Statistics Canada,
March 7, 2006). Part of the pay gap occurs because women are twice as likely
as men to work part-time and women continue to choose lower paying
occupations. Men outnumber women in all of the highly paid occupations
and women dominate the poorly paid occupations.
There are few differences between men and women to affect their
productivity at work (Côté & Allahar, 1994). However, research does
indicate that men and women have different expectations of work. When
social scientists measure sample groups of men and of women, they
Emerging Adulthood
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CHEC
observe and measure certain differences. As you learned in Chapter 2, the
patterns they observe do not describe individual variations, nor do they
prescribe how individuals should behave. Both men and women place great
importance on their jobs being interesting. However, women place more
value on the implicit rewards of competence and people-oriented goals. On
the other hand, men place higher value on extrinsic rewards such as high
pay and status (Bibby, 2001; Morgan, Isaac, & Sansone, 2001). These results
might explain why fewer women choose high-paying math and science jobs
than careers in education and social services, despite doing well in those
subjects in secondary school. Similar differences were found by Beutel and
Marini in 1995. Carol Gilligan’s research on female development suggests
that women are more likely to form an identity through their relationships
with others rather than through their individual accomplishments (1993).
The flexibility of gender roles in the 21st century allows most emerging
adults greater freedom to choose who they will be, what they will do, and
what they will believe in the adult world.
AC
KB K
You have read about
social-science
research in Chapter 2.
Let’s discuss
What characteristics
would you identify as
important for your longterm job satisfaction?
CHArACteristiCs OF A “GOOd JOb”
Percent Indicating
“Very Important”
Nationally
Males
Females
The work is interesting.
86%
84%
87%
It gives me a feeling of
accomplishment.
76
70
81
There is a chance for
advancement.
68
70
66
It pays well.
66
72
60
Other people are friendly and
helpful.
63
59
67
It adds something to other
people’s lives.
59
53
64
There is little chance of being
laid off.
57
60
55
It allows me to make most of
the decisions myself.
49
53
45
Source: From Canada’s Teens: Today, Yesterday, and Tomorrow. Copyright © 2001 by Reginald W. Bibby.
Reproduced by permission of Stoddart Publishing Co. Limited.
FiGure 5-6
1. Compare the expectations of males and females.
2. This survey gathered the opinions of Canadians aged 15 to 19 years. How might the results
differ for those aged 19 to 24 years?
Chapter 5
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Point of View
Feminist by Day, Housewife by Night
by Riva Soucie
A few years ago, a good friend revealed that
several educated women she knew were seeking
employment with the federal government strictly for
the maternity leave top-up benefit.
I was incredulous. What were these women
thinking? That all that mattered in life was getting
full pay for a year while suffering sleepless nights,
endless diaper changes, and leaky breasts?
These were women with post-secondary
educations—even graduate degrees, in some cases.
Surely they had taken a couple of gender studies courses,
I mused. How could they throw away their ideals and
career aspirations for a standard-issue desk job, stretchy
slacks, and a few days of annual family leave?
I began to form a picture in my mind of what I
smugly referred to as Mat Leave Woman. The kind of
woman, I assumed, who would talk about the quality
of her husband’s sperm over appetizers and diet soda,
the type of woman who shopped for mix-and-match
basics at American outlet malls. These were women,
I meanly believed, who settled for $30 haircuts and
watched first-run blockbusters on two-for-one nights.
Meanwhile, throughout my 20s, I continued to work
on my Ph.D. in sociology while building my writing
portfolio, co-editing an online journal, and living in
an overpriced loft with two purebred cats and a man
whose income is only pennies above my own.
Over time, I gained a reputation for being a
proponent of voluntary childlessness, writing
a paper on the subject as part of my degree
requirements, and planning my moneyed, leisurely
future with a sparkling kitchen, Sunday morning
sleep-ins, and plenty of time to write.
“I’m not a walking uterus,” I would complain to
my partner when hopeful in-laws openly questioned
us about possible progeny. He was in agreement.
Only totally unimaginative people breed, we naively
told ourselves.
But recently, I realized, I’ve been leading a kind
of double life. By day, I work studiously on campus,
surreptitiously rubbing off my lipstick with a tissue
whenever I spot a serious academic coming my way.
I have debates with colleagues about whether boy
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FiGure 5-7 Recently, I’ve stocked my living-room
cupboard with puzzles, stuffed animals, and tiny trucks....
babies should wear dresses, and I listen to lectures
on the confusion over contemporary masculinity
in auditoriums filled with other like minds. My
shelves are lined with influential books on atheism,
gender equality, and reproductive choice. I speak up
when someone cracks a sexist joke at a party and
sold my sewing machine to buy a new laptop. In
short, I strive to be the model genderless, odourless,
politically correct, and critical feminist.
But at night, when I come home, I admit my life
is a slightly different story. There, I scrub the toilet
every other day, scoop cat litter, and plan endless
iterations of the wedding my partner and I don’t
know if we want to have. I find myself dusting the
top of the closet and running the lint roller over
the couch cushions while, in the background, Dr.
Phil drones on about potty training. My partner,
meanwhile, stomps around the house grumbling
about the Lakers and ignores the 50 percent of the
housework for which he is responsible.
In some ways, our arrangement horrifies
me. We’ve worked hard to leave behind rural,
working-class roots and the drudgery of traditional
North American family life, and still here we are
seemingly reproducing the narrow roles we’ve
sought to avoid.
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But I have to admit, I also kind of like it. I like
that he is the kind of man who can get airline tickets
changed without paying the fee. I like that he doesn’t
bore me or weigh me down with gooey talk about his
feelings. He handles our investments, kills spiders,
books rental cars, and calls the building manager.
In fact, he does all the kinds of things that I imagine
George Bush-loving, SUV-driving fathers of two do.
And frankly, I’m not much better at sticking to a
progressive gender role. Lately, I have become the kind
of woman who derives immense satisfaction from
washing the household’s entire collection of rubber
flip-flops. I admit to becoming teary eyed over the
simple, bucolic pleasure of slicing vegetables for dinner.
I’ve stocked my living-room cupboard with puzzles,
stuffed animals, and tiny trucks—for our friends’
children, I explain—and I find myself considering all
manner of cringe-inducing beauty treatments.
Worst of all, I have pushed aside all but the most
lucrative of freelance writing opportunities in favour
of a full-time job with the federal government. We’re
thinking of having a baby, you see, and, well, the
maternity benefits are really great. ●
Source: Soucie, R. (2009, October 6). Feminist by day, housewife by
night. The Globe and Mail.
1. List the stereotypical feminine behaviours
identified by Riva Soucie.
2. What is the purpose of this essay and how does
the author achieve that purpose?
3. Jane Loevinger (p. 139) explains that emerging
adults develop an autonomous self in three
steps. Using evidence from this essay, identify
behaviour at:
• the conformist stage
• the transitional self-aware stage
• the conscientious stage
4. If Soucie continued to reject marriage and
motherhood for herself, how could she develop
an autonomous self?
Cultural Diversity
The major challenges of emerging adulthood identified in life-course theories
are to form an identity, a tentative life structure, and supportive relationships.
You have seen that for Canadians and Americans, an identity is an image
of self as an independent adult. The development of individual identity is
influenced by the macrosystem, the socio-cultural environment in which
the individual is living. Emerging adults expect to live out their Dream by
pursuing their occupational goals, leaving home, and possibly finding a
romantic partner. Perhaps this should be called the North American Dream,
because young adults in other cultures might not have the same expectations.
Emerging adults in First Nations, small or isolated communities, and
immigrant families may experience the transition to adulthood differently
than their Canadian peers.
Opposing Worldviews
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E
N
Identity, as defined in Erik Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development, is
founded on individualism, a social theory that emphasizes independence
and self-reliance and that favours the free action of individuals. Individualism
is a prime motivation for competition in a free-market economy. The
development of individualism during the second half of the 20th century
S
Erik Erikson’s Theory
of Psychosocial
Development
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changed the way that people perceived their lifestyles and their roles in the
family and in society (Glossop, 1999). In many Eastern cultures, the social
theory of collectivism emphasizes the interdependence of individuals.
In collectivist societies, family and societal needs take priority over the
individual’s needs. Collectivism encourages co-operation more than
competition. In cultures such as the Middle-Eastern Islamic and the Sri
Lankan Tamil cultures, identity is based on duty and obligation, first to
family and then to society. A duty-based moral code encourages individuals
to consider the expectations of family and society, more than personal
considerations, when making important decisions. These social theories
demonstrate the diversity of socio-cultural environments in which emerging
adults are preparing for their adult lives. However, some people question
whether the individualism that has become the dominant philosophy in
North America is beneficial to individuals, their families, or Canadian society
(Glossop, 1999).
Culture and Identity
Immigrants are motivated to migrate by a desire to make a better life for
their families. Their reasons for coming to Canada—whether escaping the
violence of war, or political or religious oppression, or the lack of economic
prospects—influence their expectations of their children. Some families
retain their traditional culture and expect their children to do the same.
Others leave their culture behind when
they come to Canada and think it better
for children to adopt Canadian culture.
Financial sacrifices made by immigrant
parents could cause major upheavals in
family roles. Underemployed immigrant
men experience the most stress of all
immigrants in Canada. Immigrant men
have been socialized to be the provider,
and when they can’t, they feel shame or
a sense of failure. Women may have to
work even if they did not in their home
country. In addition, children gain an
unusual status within the family if parents
depend on their children as translators
when dealing with authorities, school, and
businesses (Tyyskä, 2008). The traditional
Figure 5-8 When children attend school, they are socialized into
power structure of the family becomes
Canadian culture. Why is the influence of school on identity so strong?
unstable when women and children gain
What other cultural experiences will influence the individual’s identity
power and men lose theirs. Conflict may
formation?
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arise as parents attempt to maintain family as they know it. It can be difficult
for young adults to explore identity and work options in a family system
struggling to achieve a stable life in a new culture. For immigrant families,
this upheaval is the price they must pay in order to meet immediate needs
and to attain a better life.
The children of immigrants respect their parents for the sacrifices
they are making and most contribute to the well-being of their families
(Tyyskä, 2008). The emphasis on duty and obligation to the family of origin
is found in many cultures in Canada. This emphasis could result in some
Research | Study
Parents and Teens in Immigrant Families
by Vappu Tyyskä, Ph.D., Ryerson University
Research Question
What are the patterns of both conflict and cohesion in
parent-teen relationships in immigrant families?
Hypothesis
There was no hypothesis because grounded theory
was used. Grounded theory is an approach used
when the researcher cannot anticipate the results
of the study and will analyze the results without
a specific theoretical perspective. The answer is
grounded—that is, based on the data.
Research Method
Using qualitative analysis, the researcher, Vappu Tyyskä,
analyzed the results of interviews with 16 IranianCanadian youth and 20 Sri Lankan Tamil youth.
Results
• There is a continuum of parent-adolescent
relationships from traditional to non-traditional in
the Iranian-Canadian community.
• Iranian-Canadian youth in non-traditional families
reported fewer problems than those in traditional
families.
• Tamil families have a more traditional culture based
on obedience and family loyalty. Children are
expected to support parents in times of need.
• Children born to immigrant parents in Canada report
more conflict than children who arrived as immigrants
with some memory of life in their homeland.
• Conflict is mostly about values, cultural
expectations, and educational expectations.
• Tamil and Iranian youth report generally positive
relationships with their parents and respect for
what their parents have done to contribute to a
better life for their children.
Conclusion
It is important to recognize that there is tremendous
variation among immigrant families. Youth make a
significant contribution to their families’ survival and
well-being as they cope with financial stress and
shifts in family roles. More research should focus on
the views of youth, consistent gender analysis, and
differences between cohorts of immigrants. ●
Source: Adapted from Tyyskä, V. (Spring 2008). Parents and teens in
immigrant families. Canadian Diversity, 6 (2), 79.
1. Why might immigrant youth born in Canada
experience more conflict than those who came
as immigrants themselves?
• Tamil youth are expected to work and contribute
money for family upkeep.
2. Why does Tyyskä recommend using interviews
with youth rather than with parents to research
parent-adolescent conflict?
• There is greater control over the lives of girls than
boys in both cultures.
3. Suggest why some Iranian-Canadian families
are less traditional than others.
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W
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Leonard Pearlin’s
Theory of Psychological
Distress
difficulty for young adults attempting to develop an individualistic identity.
The children of families in collectivist religious communities, such as the
Mennonites and the Hutterites, face similar conflicts. Leonard Pearlin’s Theory
of Psychological Distress suggests that specific characteristics, such as race
and family background, influence the direction that individuals take in life.
He also suggested that the availability of social support networks, such as
school, could assist youth in making the transition (Bee, 1987). Immigrant
families and their adult children face additional challenges in the transition to
adulthood. Emerging adults who explore a variety of cultural values, beliefs,
and role expectations form unique identities reflecting their backgrounds.
Culture and Life Structure
Symbolic interactionism
W
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Unit 2
Immigrant youth are more likely to become assimilated into Canadian
culture than their parents are because they go to school. Canadian-born
and immigrant children participate in the same reflective activities and
observe the same role models as they form their individual identities and
acquire their values. Canadian schools emphasize independence, individual
accomplishment, co-operation, the expression of personal opinions, and
responsible decision-making for their students. In addition, immigrant
youth are exposed to media and immersed in a Canadian community.
Most importantly, immigrant youth learn to prepare for an occupation
through educational choice. Canadian culture has far more influence than
the culture they experience within the family and events in their immigrant
culture (Tyyskä, 2008). The values and expectations of Canadian culture
influence the formation of identity and an adult life structure as expected in
Canada, but this might not be reflective of the expectations of families who
immigrate to Canada.
Romola Dugsin’s (2001) study of young adults living in immigrant
East-Indian families found that conflict arose when children approached
adulthood. Using a symbolic interactionist perspective, she asked the
participants to describe their experience. Both men and women felt pressure
from their parents to excel at school and in an occupation, but they were
expected to assume traditional gender roles within the family. They perceived
their families as closely intertwined, with an emphasis on duty and obligation
to parents, family, and extended family. The expectation that they would
respect the wishes of their elders limited their ability to communicate openly
about their individual goals concerning occupation or relationships. Dugsin
concluded that these East-Indian immigrants were most likely to develop
a life structure that was consistent with their East-Indian values if they
were first able to develop self-esteem inside the family by feeling accepted,
nurtured, and respected as an individual.
Emerging Adulthood
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Point of View
If You’re a New Canadian, “You Go to University”
by Elizabeth Church
Patricia Jura’s journey to university was long and
complicated, but her destination was never in doubt.
Born in Zimbabwe, Ms. Jura arrived in Canada at
age 11, living in Toronto’s Rexdale neighbourhood
while her parents gained Canadian training, then
moving to Steinbach, Manitoba, where her mother,
a chemist, got a job. Now in her second year at the
University of Toronto’s Scarborough campus, Ms.
Jura, 18, says higher education was always the goal.
“In my family you go to university,” she explained. “I
guess it was a choice, but it didn’t feel like that.”
Ms. Jura’s story is a common one. First- and
second-generation Canadians are arriving on
Canadian university campuses at a rate that far
exceeds that of non-immigrant children. It’s a trend
that offers some important clues to the importance
of social factors in decisions about education. Getting
more young Canadians to go to university may be
as much about making it a goal early in life and
supporting them to get there as it is about removing
barriers such as cost or even marks, researchers say.
“They just go,” said Ross Finnie, a University of
Ottawa economics professor who has crunched the
numbers. “There is something going on here that
goes beyond all we can measure. It may be about the
desire to go and getting that desire in a person early
enough so that they are prepared to go.”
For anyone who has visited a campus in recent
years, the growing presence of new Canadians will
come as no surprise. Canada is becoming increasingly
diverse and nowhere is that diversity more evident
than in the youngest members of the population,
a rising number of whom are drawn to higher
education. Still, even researchers such as Professor
Finnie, who have studied trends in enrolment and
access to post-secondary education for some time, say
new figures reveal some unexpected trends.
Researchers have long known, for example, that
there are several factors that influence a young
person’s decision about higher education. How far
their parents went in school, family income, where
they live, and academic achievement are key. But
even when all these factors are taken into account,
new research, based on numbers collected by
Statistics Canada over several years, shows young
people who came to Canada as children or are the
offspring of immigrants are still far more likely than
other Canadians to enroll in university.
This gap is even greater when students are divided
by country of origin. A study, conducted by Professor
Finnie and Richard Mueller from the University of
Lethbridge, shows that while roughly 38 percent of
non-immigrant Canadians go to university, those
who came as children or have parents who came
from China, Africa, or other Asian countries such as
India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka have participation rates
that in some cases approach 90 percent. The study is
based on numbers from StatsCan’s Youth in Transition
project, which has been tracking a group of young
Canadians since 2000.
“These numbers point to groups in our society
who absolutely have no problem in attending
university,” Professor Finnie said. “They also point to
the importance of background factors such as family
and cultural factors in determining who goes and
who doesn’t.”
Only one group of immigrants, those from
the Americas, excluding the United States, go to
university at lower rates than all other Canadians.
All this is not news to Tom Nowers, Dean of
Student Affairs for more than a decade at U of T’s
Scarborough campus. He’s all too familiar with the
family and cultural ties that exist for many of the
students on his campus who are first- or secondgeneration Canadians. “They have very strong family
bonds,” he said. “It keeps them on track.” He also has
seen the downside. “Some struggle to navigate their
own way; others go to extraordinary lengths to live up
to expectations,” he said.
Beyond family, Mr. Nowers also sees students
from various backgrounds supporting each other
and forming communities and clubs on campus.
That network, he believes, helps students deal with
pressures to achieve.
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For Ms. Jura, who once dreamed of a singing career,
going to university was something she did for her
parents, but now feels was the right choice. She’d like
to go into pharmacy and perhaps later get a business
degree. “My mom said, ‘Do whatever you want, just
make sure you bring a degree home,’” she remembers.
“I came for my mom; I’m here now for me.”
number OF First- And seCOnd-GenerAtiOn
CAnAdiAns AttendinG uniVersity by AGe 23,
by reGiOn OF pArents’ OriGin
88.32
81.46
China
Southern Asia
and Mideast
68.66
67.62
64.62
Africa
82.44
Southern and
Eastern Europe
FiGure 5-9
1. What is the thesis of Ms. Church’s article?
2. What evidence does she provide to support her thesis?
3. How does Ross Finnie know that immigrants are more
likely to go to university than other Canadians?
4. Why are immigrants more likely to go to university,
according to Tom Nowers?
5. How could the results of this study be used by families,
educators, and policy makers to change behaviour
concerning post-secondary education?
52.95
43.20
47.64
41.73
Anglosphere*
Western and
Northern Europe
46.64
56.89
East and
Southeast Asia
41.33
57.35
37.71
37.71
Non-Immigrants
Americas
(except U.S.)
First generation
22.81
35.68
Second generation
*Australia, New Zealand, Ireland, United Kingdom, and U.S.
Source: Church, E. (2009, October 13). If you’re a new Canadian, “you
go to university.” The Globe and Mail, p. A4.
Case Study
Sanjay’s Quest for Independence
Sanjay Wadhera is a 26-year-old
Canadian whose family migrated to
Canada from India the year before he
was born. He has an older brother,
Sunil, who was five when the family
arrived in Canada. His father, a professional engineer, and his mother,
a secondary-school teacher, both
left good jobs with secure futures to
move to Canada, where they felt their
children would have more opportunities and more freedom. His family
settled originally in Winnipeg, where
an uncle and his family were already
living. Sanjay’s father soon started a
research job with a large international FiGure 5-10 Sanjay and his
electronics firm. Sanjay was born the parents had conflicting values
and goals.
next year.
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Unit 2
When Sanjay was four, his father
was transferred to the Toronto area,
a move that pleased his parents
because of the much larger Hindu
community that lived there and
because of the less extreme winters of
southern Ontario. The family settled
in Markham, where houses were
affordable and within easy commuting distance to his father’s job.
Things went very well for the
Wadhera family, and they were able
to purchase a larger home in a new
subdivision. To help pay for the
home, and because the children were
now much older and less dependent,
Sanjay’s mother opened a small day
care, which she operated out of the
Emerging Adulthood
4/18/10 9:57:47 PM
basement of her home. Unfortunately, Sanjay’s father
lost his engineering job in 1990 when his firm downsized during an economic recession. After spending
18 months looking for jobs in his field, Sanjay’s father
eventually decided to become an independent businessman. He bought his own business, a convenience
store in a new plaza. Sanjay and his brother worked in
the family store on weekends and during the summers to save the family from having to hire part-time
employees. The store has provided the Wadheras with
a steady family income.
Sanjay is very proud of his parents’ accomplishments and hard work, and he particularly respects the
strength and commitment that they have shown for
the family. However, he has found himself in continual conflict with them over the past few years about
his future career and the kind of life that he wants to
live as an adult. This conflict started while he was in
high school. He played football and baseball for the
school teams, but his parents wanted him to work at
the store after school.
In his final year of high school, Sanjay argued with
his parents over his choice of university. Sunil attended
York University and continued to live in his parents’
home and work part-time in the family business. Most
of Sanjay’s friends were applying to Queen’s, Western,
and Waterloo universities and were anticipating the
next year of living in residence and being “out on their
own.” Sanjay’s choice of majoring in economics at
Queen’s University did not make his parents happy,
since they could not understand why he would want to
be so far away from home.
Paying for university was a source of conflict
for Sanjay and his parents. Because most of the
Wadheras’ financial resources were tied up in the convenience store, Sanjay was dependent on government
assistance. He knew that he would have a substantial
student debt at the end of his undergraduate program, but saw his degree as a sound investment for
the future. He wanted to work at a summer job that
would reduce the size of his student loan each year.
However, his parents needed him to work in the store
in the summers and argued that if he was so concerned about his debt, then he could move home and
transfer to a closer university.
Another problem between Sanjay and his parents was his choice of friends. The family’s social life
revolved around the activities of the temple and the
large Hindu community to which they belonged. They
expected Sanjay to participate in these activities, just
as Sunil had done. Sanjay preferred the company and
activities of his more culturally diverse high-school
friends. When Sanjay met Emma Johnson during
his first year at Queen’s, she was welcomed into his
parents’ home. However, when his parents realized that
Sanjay and Emma’s relationship went beyond friendship, they told him that he was no longer allowed to
see her. Sanjay continued to date Emma, against his
parents’ wishes, often with the help of Sunil.
During his third year at Queen’s, Sanjay began
to realize that his chances of employment at graduation would be greater if he acquired some related
summer work experience. When a number of
Toronto companies visited Queen’s to interview for
summer positions, Sanjay and many of his classmates applied. He was interviewed by several companies and was offered positions with two of them.
However, he was unable to accept either position
because his father was planning to travel to India in
the spring to visit family and to help expedite the
move of Sanjay’s grandmother to Canada. By this
time Sunil had graduated from York and had started
a full-time job in the accounting department of a
small company in Unionville, so Sanjay was needed
to run the store while his father was away. ●
1. What factors in Sanjay’s family background are
influencing his individuation?
2. Suggest how Sanjay’s socialization has resulted
in a conflict between Canadian and East-Indian
values.
3. Compare Sanjay’s transition to adulthood with
Caitlin’s in Chapter 3, page 90, and Sean’s in
Chapter 4, page 130.
4. What life structure does Sanjay appear to be
building for himself?
5. Using exchange theory, assess the costs and
benefits of the decisions that Sanjay faced. What
choices do you think he should have made?
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The High Cost of Education
Ecological systems theory
W
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Let’s discuss
What economic
factors affect the
decision to attend
college or university
for students in you
community?
Graduating from college or university is viewed as important preparation for
a career. Students make their decisions concerning post-secondary education
when they choose their program early in high school. However, for many
high-school students, attending college or university is the immediate goal, not
acquiring qualifications, because their occupational plans are not yet formed.
As you learned in Chapter 3, post-secondary education experience can be
valuable, but it is expensive. According to the ecological systems theory, individual
and family expectations, the mesosystem, are supported by the ideologies and
policies of the macrosystem, but they are constrained by the resources of the
exosystem. Therefore, in Canada, most families expect that post-secondary
education is necessary for success in life. According to social policy, postsecondary education is government-funded, like primary and secondary
education in Canada, but it is not free. Students must pay tuition, purchase
books, pay an activity fee, and, unless they live near a college or university, pay
for room, board, and transportation. Nevertheless, at the beginning of the 21st
century, there is concern that students from families with low to middle incomes
may have fewer resources for post-secondary education (Ouelette, 2006).
Tuition Costs
FiGure 5-11 Many parents have high expectations
that their children will attend post-secondary education
when they finish high school. How much does it really
cost? How can families plan for the financial costs?
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Unit 2
Post-secondary tuition costs vary according to program
and province, but they are all increasing. Tuition fees at
Canadian universities doubled between 1990 and 2005,
increasing faster than the cost of living, as you can see
in Figure 5-13. The tuition costs at college are lower
for some programs but they also increased during this
time (Barr-Telford, Cartwright, Prasil & Shimmons,
2003). What impact has the increase had on access to
post-secondary education? A possible hypothesis is
that higher tuition costs discourage some young people
from pursuing the education they need to achieve their
goals. Indeed, a 2001 survey of high-school graduates
in Alberta revealed that 70 percent agreed that the total
cost could serve as a barrier to pursuing post-secondary
education, and 66 percent thought that the tuition cost,
specifically, would be a barrier (Holubitsky, 2001). With
increasing costs, and a changing economic climate,
students and their parents wonder whether postsecondary education makes sense financially. Yet college
and university classes are becoming more crowded as
enrolment increases (Tamburri, 2009).
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Point of View
How to Avoid the Two Biggest Costs of University
by Kathy Dobson
When my two oldest started at the
after a year or two. Maybe more than
University of Waterloo last year, it
once. I have a friend whose son decided
was assumed they would be living
to switch degrees, after spending two
at home. With McMaster, Toronto,
years in his program. I think it’s great
Waterloo, Wilfrid Laurier, and several
that he was able to change his career
other universities within driving
path before it was too late—before he
distance of our home, spending
had completed his degree, or invested
thousands of extra dollars every
several years in a job that he didn’t like.
year (for each kid) just wouldn’t
And self-exploration is great. If you can
have made sense. Residence might
afford it. In my family’s case, there’s no
FiGure 5-12 Kathy Dobson
teach important life lessons, such
wiggle room. With student loans and
as independence and responsibility. But those life
part-time jobs, my children need to make a straight
lessons cost you. Big time.
path through university.
According to a special report released by TD Bank
Switching degrees isn’t necessarily a mistake. But
Financial Group last week, the total cost of a four-year
it’s an expensive decision. Of course, it’s always an
undergraduate degree for a student living away from
option to do a general year before declaring a major
home is $80 498. Living at home saves almost $30 000,
and investing (or wasting) a year in any particular
with a four-year cost of $53 356. And the cost is only
program. But that’s still a year’s worth of tuition,
going to go up. In 18 years, the projected cost of a fourtextbooks, and other student fees.
year undergraduate degree is $137 013 for those students
The most cost-effective way to tackle university:
living away from home, and $101 426 for those who stay
tons and tons of research. It might sound obvious,
at home. To be honest, I thought it would be more.
but knowing what you want—or don’t want—could
Never mind worrying about partying, drinking, a
save you tens of thousands of dollars.
poor diet, or those other negative stereotypes often
For some students, it might be as simple as
associated with living in residence. Living away
acknowledging that they just aren’t ready yet. They
from home is a huge expense, and the larger student
need to go out into the real world for a year or more
loans required could follow your child for years.
before committing the time and money to a path in
For parents who plan to pay their children’s way
university that still isn’t clear in their mind. And for
through university, they had better start saving up in
some, the road might never lead them back to school,
advance. Way in advance. Heck, once your child is in
and that’s okay, too. As parents, we need to recognize
high school, it may already be too late. The best time
the fact that for a lot of reasons, university isn’t for
to start saving might be even before they’re born.
everyone. ●
Especially if, like me, you have more than one. Or
two. Three, four, and well, you get the picture.
1. What are the two ways of saving on university
Of course, who knows how many of my children
costs, according to Kathy Dobson?
will actually attend university in the end. At least one
2. Explain how Ms. Dobson is using exchange
of them might decide to attend college and go into
theory in her analysis of university costs.
the trades. Or start [his or her] own business. Just as
3. Does Ms. Dobson share Jeffrey Arnett’s view of
long as none of them decide to become a professional
emerging adulthood? How does post-secondary
student, I’m ready to support their decision.
education contribute to development, in her
Residence is expensive enough. But there’s an even
opinion?
bigger expense parents might need to watch out for.
4. Suggest how Ms. Dobson’s “two oldest” would
Your child spending a few years “finding [himself or
respond to her opinion.
herself]” in university. Or deciding to switch majors
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rAtes OF inCreAse in underGrAduAte tuitiOn Fees Versus inFLAtiOn
Percent increase
18
16
Tuition fees
14
Consumer Price Index
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
199091
199293
199495
199697
199899
200001
200203
200405
Note: Consumer Price Index annualized by taking averages from September to August.
Source: Adapted from Statistics Canada, The Daily, Thursday, September 2, 2004.
FiGure 5-13
1. According to this chart, how does the rise in tuition fees from 1990 to 2004-05 compare to
the change in the Consumer Price Index over that time?
2. In addition to increased tuition fees, what other expenses do students have?
Paying the Costs of Post-Secondary Education
Emerging adults use funding from a variety of sources to pay for their postsecondary education. The most common sources are personal savings,
employment income, and non-repayable money from family, partners, or friends.
Many students receive scholarships and grants, but in Canada, these are seldom
enough to cover much of the expenses. Saving their earnings from part-time work
during high school and during the summers, and working while attending college
or university, also provides only partial funding (Ouelette, 2006).
The results of Canada’s discontinued Survey of Approaches to Educational
Planning found that 41 percent of families were saving for their children’s
education (2001). However, the amount of money saved at that time, a
median total amount of $3000 for all children under 18, fell very short of the
actual costs of tuition at that time. Perhaps government-sponsored plans are
encouraging more families to save for post-secondary education now. A 2009
study by the TD Bank Financial Group suggests that families would need to
invest up to $2900 each year for 18 years to be able to fund one child’s postsecondary education (Greenaway, 2009). Savings, wages, scholarships, and
family money cover the total costs for half of Canadian students.
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According to the National Graduates Survey at Statistics Canada, nearly
half of post-secondary students will borrow money from government and
from non-government sources to pay for their education. Figure 5-14 shows
that they will graduate with debts to repay. One in four graduates in 2005
with student loans reported having difficulty paying them back two years
later. However, those who had difficulty were also earning less than those who
had paid off their debt—23 percent less for university graduates and 7 percent
less for college graduates (Bayard & Greenlee, 2009).
On the other hand, according to the C.D. Howe Institute, the investment
in university has an annual rate of return in after-tax earnings of 11.4 percent
for men and 14.1 percent for women (Greenaway, 2009). Although the debt
might be unsettling for graduates just starting out in their occupation, as the
wage gap between high-school graduates and college and university graduates
widens, the cost of education becomes a better investment.
50
50 000
40
40 000
30
30 000
20
20 000
10
10 000
Dollars
Percent
inCidenCe And AVerAGe AmOunt OF debt OF GrAduAtes OWinG tO bOtH
GOVernment And nOn-GOVernment sOurCes At time OF GrAduAtiOn,
by LeVeL OF study
0
0
College
Bachelor
Master
Doctorate
Percentage of graduates with both government and non-government debt
Average debt at graduation
Note: Please note that the scale on which estimated debt was plotted differed from previous figures because of
the sheer size of average debts of those owing to both government and non-government sources.
Source: Adapted from the Statistics Canada publication, Graduating in Canada: Profile, Labour Market
Outcomes, and Student Debt of the Class of 2005, Catalogue no. 81-595-M, No. 074, 2009, p. 30.
FiGure 5-14
1. What percentage of students had debt when they graduated with a college diploma and
with a bachelor degree?
2. Why do graduates with a bachelor degree have more average debt than college graduates?
3. How do the average debt levels compare to the earnings distribution of 2005 graduates
shown on page 80 in Chapter 3?
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Family Influences on Participation
Although students identify similar career aspirations regardless of gender,
race, or family background, family income can affect whether students
expect to achieve their goals. In 2003, 31 percent of low-income youth and
50 percent of high-income youth attended university. The research in Canada
suggests that cost is less important than family income, parental education,
gender, and distance from a post-secondary institution in influencing
participation (Frenette, 2002).
Canadian sociologist Marc Frenette found that low family income was
associated with lower parental education, as you would expect. However,
lower-income students also had lower educational expectations and
lower academic performance. Students whose parents attended postsecondary education had higher marks and were more likely to attend
themselves (The Daily, February 8, 2007). Perhaps the idea that postsecondary education is expensive discourages lower-income families
long before the time to apply for admission. The effects of lower family
income and parental education are multiplied when there is no postsecondary institution nearby. The additional costs of room, board, and
transportation may increase the balance of expenses beyond the potential
earnings for some lower-income families.
Point of View
Students Chart Zigzag Routes, Study Finds
by Elizabeth Church, Education Reporter
New research into the way young
Canadians approach higher education
shows that today’s students are a mobile
bunch, just as likely to take a zigzag
course through college and university as
they are to follow a straight line.
The findings, part of a groundbreaking study that uses numbers
gathered over several years by
Statistics Canada, paints a picture of a
group that moves between programs
and schools or takes a breather from
the books for a year or more. It’s a
behaviour that could test traditional
notions of education, with its
structure of two, three, or four-year
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Unit 2
FiGure 5-15 Almost half of university and college students change their
course of study, their school, or take time off to reconsider their options
before they graduate. What reasons might they have for doing this? What
repercussions might this have on their lives?
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4/18/10 9:57:56 PM
programs, and raises many questions about how
best to help teens settle on the type of education
that suits them.
The study, made available to The Globe and Mail
before its release, finds that just more than half of
college and university students graduate from the
program where they begin. About one quarter of
college students take time off, take more than five
years to graduate, or change their minds about
their school or area of study. Almost one in five
college students do not finish. For those who go
to university, the tendency to switch or interrupt
their studies is even higher. More than one third
of students are still on campus after five years or
graduate in another discipline or at another place
than where they started, the research shows. About
10 percent leave school without graduating.
“These numbers open the door to a lot of
questions,” said Ross Finnie, a University of Ottawa
economist and the lead researcher on the work. “It’s
very exciting stuff.”
The new research shows for the first time that
many students who leave the program or school
that they chose are not dropping out. Some are
“stopping out,” Professor Finnie said, taking a break
before they return to campus. Others are trying
another school or a different program and a small
percentage—about 2.8 percent—are moving from
university to college. Likewise, about 1.4 percent
switch to university from college.
The findings, Professor Finnie said, in many
respects confirm what most educators have
suspected, but had no way of knowing for certain,
since individual schools keep track only of the
number of students who leave their programs and
not whether they enroll somewhere else.
The study, released in late July 2009, was cowritten with Theresa Qiu of Statistics Canada. It
gets its numbers from StatsCan’s Youth in Transition
project, which has been tracking a group of young
Canadians since 2000.
The downside of the findings, Professor Finnie
said, is that the numbers show that many students
are not content with the choices they make out
of high school. (The StatsCan numbers do not
take into account enrolment patterns of mature
students.) Some switching is probably healthy,
Professor Finnie figures, but so much movement
suggests that a portion of students are either turned
off by their campus experience, don’t have enough
information going in, or are unprepared.
Andrew Parkin, Associate Executive Director of
the Canada Millennium Scholarship Foundation,
which sponsored the research, said so much
movement by students suggests they might need
more help navigating the system—before they
enter post-secondary institutions and after they
arrive. It also shows how important it is that
provinces and individual schools have credit
transfer systems, he said.
The fact that students are not finishing where they
start or are taking so long also has a cost, he points
out, both to them personally and to the system as a
whole. For that same reason, Professor Finnie said the
research should be of interest not just to students and
schools, but to governments and policy makers, too.
“Post-secondary education is key to the economy and
to the nation and to individuals’ lives.” ●
Source: Church, E. (2008, July 14). Students chart zigzag routes,
study finds. The Globe and Mail, p. A7.
1. Who is Ross Finnie? What would his
perspective be?
2. How was this study conducted?
3. What did Professor Finnie and Ms. Qiu learn
about the behaviour of students?
4. How does the movement of students reflect what
you have learned about emerging adulthood?
5. What are the costs of this behaviour
• for students?
• for schools?
• for governments?
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Homelessness and Youth
Youth homelessness is defined as youth having no fixed place to sleep at
night. The homeless include people staying in motels until their money
runs out, those staying with friends, those living in overcrowded or unsafe
conditions, those staying in shelters, and those sleeping outside or in
whatever space they can find to protect them from the weather (Evanson &
Barr, 2009). There have always been homeless people, but the number has
been growing in industrialized nations to an extent that Youth Homelessness:
The Road to Solutions calls youth homelessness “an unacknowledged
national disaster” (2009, p. 1).
It is difficult to determine the number of people who are homeless.
Estimates are based on the number of people who stay in shelters and
who use soup kitchens. The Mayor’s Homelessness Action Task Force
determined that almost 26 000 people used the shelter system in Toronto
in 1996, and estimated that the number of homeless youth had increased
by 80 percent between 1992 and 1998, so that they were 28 percent of
hostel users (Mayor’s, 1999). The Montréal Public Health Department
estimated that there were 4000 to 5000 homeless youth in Montréal (Ward,
1999). Authorities estimated that there were 100 homeless youth in Halifax
(McLaughlin, 2001). Homeless people migrate to larger cities—47 percent
of shelter-users in Toronto came from outside the city (City of Toronto,
2001). In 2009, Youth Homelessness: The Road to Solutions reported that
there could be as many as 200 000 to 300 000 individuals who are homeless
in Canada, of whom 65 000 are youth. In addition, there are 75 000 children
in care, and 24 000 youth in detention centres and youth justice facilities
(Evanson & Barr, 2009). Clearly, homeless young adults who beg for change
on street corners are the tip of the iceberg.
The Causes of Homelessness
The causes of homelessness fall into three broad categories (NCH, 1999).
The first category for youth leaving home stems from disruptive family
conditions that make living on the street seem like a better alternative. These
conditions may range from physical, psychological, or sexual abuse to neglect
or abandonment. Youth Homelessness: The Road to Solutions (2009), a study
of youth who are homeless in three Canadian cities, found that 24 percent
of youth who were homeless had experienced some form of abuse, and
42 percent came from a disrupted home environment. Many reported a
family history of substance abuse or criminal activity. Some youths leave to
escape parental restrictions that they think are too harsh (Deziel, 1999).
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Research | Abstract
Stereotypes of Homeless Youth and University Students
by B.E. Munro, P. LaBoucane-Benson, L. Ruttan, and G.B. Munro
Homeless youth as part of urban communities is a
phenomenon that Canadians have experienced in
common with not only North American and other
Western countries, but also worldwide. Viewed by the
larger society in many ways, these young people are
often stigmatized and judged. At the same time, in
recent years we see greater understanding, societal
empathy, and also identification as a population
segment with specific service needs.
In order to accomplish the objectives of this
study, the program design was based primarily on
data collected from key stakeholders (i.e., homeless
youth and university students), but also incorporates
relevant literature and theory. Stereotypes that
homeless youth and university students hold of the
other group have not been explored in the literature.
Differences were observable between these groups
in several areas. Students did not overtly stereotype
homeless youth, admitting, however, knowing the
politically correct answers. Objective feelings and
thoughts about homeless youth were difficult to
obtain. They seemed very careful in the language that
they used when speaking about the homeless and
did not talk about homelessness as a personal fault
or issue. On the other hand, most of the homeless
youth spoke of students in a stereotypical manner,
making assumptions about extreme wealth and good
relationships with parents. Much of the information
that the homeless youth presented was from
television. While university youth denied stereotyping,
many of the homeless youth expressed poor treatment
by the general public because of stereotypes. They
felt that others have looked down on them and treated
them like they were nothing because of the way that
they look. These areas will be expanded upon and
implications will be discussed. ●
Source: The Sixth International Conference on New Directions in the
Humanities, Faith University, Istanbul, Turkey, July 15-18, 2008.
1. Why does it matter how these two groups view
each other?
2. What idea did the university students have of the
youth who were homeless in this study? How do
you think they formed their impressions?
3. What impressions did the youth who were
homeless have of university students? How did
they develop these ideas?
4. If you attended this conference, what questions
would you ask the researchers?
5. What might be the implications of these results
for solutions to youth homelessness?
The second category for homelessness is residential instability. Youth
Homelessness: The Road to Solutions found that 63 percent came from families
that found it difficult to maintain housing, and that 43 percent of homeless
youth had been involved in Child Protection Services before they moved to the
streets. Some leave home when neither parent wants custody of them after a
marriage breakdown.
The third category of homeless youth are those who leave home to work
and live independently but become homeless when they are unable to move
back home after suffering a financial crisis. Although some return home
temporarily, for most homeless youth, returning to their parents is not a
realistic option.
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Homelessness and Identity
W
W
E
N
E
N
The consequences of homelessness for
those who should be making a transition to
adulthood are extreme. Most homeless youth
left a family life that was disrupted. Some
of them were moved by child-protection
authorities to live in foster care, but most chose
to leave abusive home environments themselves.
Their education has been disrupted, and the
prospects of returning to school while they
live on the streets are negligible (Casavant,
1999). Youth Homelessness: The Road to
Solutions found that 73 percent of youth who
FiGure 5-16 The homeless are those who sleep in
are homeless are unemployed and survive by
shelters, doorways, and stairwells, but also include those
“developing street money-making economies”
who stay with friends and in motels because they have
(2009, p. 3). Most homeless youth have limited
nowhere else to go. Where do youth who are homeless
eat and sleep in your community?
knowledge and skills and report low selfesteem. In terms of Erik Erikson’s Theory of
Psychosocial Development, the lack of competence and control over their
life circumstances probably results in role confusion because they have
not formed an identity. Jeffrey Arnett’s Theory of Emerging Adulthood
Erik Erikson’s Theory
S of Psychosocial
suggests that these youth are exploring work and worldview in a way
Development
that is not adapted to life in the adult world. Although many street
youth describe lofty goals of getting good jobs and leading happy family
lives rather than the hopelessness of their real lives, their dreams do not
Jeffrey Arnett’s Theory
of
Emerging
Adulthood
reflect their limited resources.
S
Homelessness and Life Structure
“The mark of a great
society is how well they
care for their most
disadvantaged.”
—Samuel Johnson (1709-1784),
essayist
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Being homeless presents so many challenges for youth that they generally
live day-to-day, unable to develop plans for forming a productive life
structure. Although some homeless youth are employed, most depend
on begging or illegal means, such as selling drugs or sex, to earn enough
money to cover their basic needs. The health of homeless youth is
compromised by their high-risk lifestyle. They are more likely to
suffer from infections, malnutrition, and sexually transmitted diseases
(Casavant, 1999). Since an estimated 40 percent of homeless youth are
users of intravenous drugs, and many are working in the sex trade, the
rate of HIV-related health problems is higher. The rates of psychological
and psychiatric disorders in homeless youth are also very high. Doctors in
Montréal reported that street youth have a mortality rate 13 times higher
than other youth, and that the high rate of drug use is a coping strategy
for dealing with the pain in their lives (Ward, 1999).
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Point of View
Notion of Homeless Youth Raises Some Questions
by Ross Nightingale, “Letters to the Editor” Contributor, The London Free Press
I suffer from a generation gap when I read the word
“homeless.” I picture elderly people who haven’t
the education or health to hold a job. The men are
unshaven, poorly dressed, sleep on the street, or live
in wooded areas. The women are poorly dressed and
push all their belongings in a shopping cart.
The pictures I see today depict the homeless as
well-educated, well-dressed, articulate young people
between the ages of 19 and 25. This brings many
questions to mind:
• Do these homeless not have parents or relatives
who would gladly supply accommodation? Or
would there be rules and regulations to such an
arrangement?
If unemployment is the problem, I suggest activists
and civic bodies spend their time placing these
young people in jobs, instead of concentrating on
government subsidies. I also suggest the activists,
civic bodies, and the newspaper profile the people
involved to provide answers to these questions so we
“oldies” can get hip to the modern thinking. ●
• Where do they obtain money? They cannot draw
welfare as they have no address. Do they work, but
don’t have a starting salary to afford the lifestyle to
which they would like to be accustomed? Are they
lobbying for subsidized housing so they will have
an address and be able to apply for welfare?
Source: Nightingale, R. (2001, October 6). Notion of homeless youth
raises some questions. London Free Press, p. H2.
1. What seems to be Ross Nightingale’s point of
view concerning youth homelessness?
• Why can’t they use existing facilities we provide?
Is it that they do not like the surroundings or the
rules and regulations?
2. This letter could be labelled biased. How does
he use rhetoric to develop his point of view in
this letter?
• My generation started on small salaries (34 cents
an hour) and improved our standard of living over
the years as our income increased. Do the homeless
regard this as foolish and suggest we should have
been lobbying for government assistance?
3. What further information would you require
to determine whether Nightingale’s opinion is
accurate? How could you acquire that information?
4. Based on what you have learned, write a response to
one or two of the points made by Ross Nightingale.
Homelessness and the Social System
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Functionalism
W
N
E
S
CHEC
The problem of homelessness is as difficult to solve as it is to define. The longterm solution is more challenging because there is no consensus on the social
conditions that allow homelessness to increase. Some people accuse the homeless
of creating their own problems by abusing drugs or alcohol and consequently
squandering their money so they cannot afford housing. Others assume that
homeless youth have chosen street life because they are unable to conform to
the rules of their families or other accommodations. These arguments reflect a
functionalist perspective, because they suggest that homelessness is a failure of
socialization. As you learned in Chapter 3, Margaret Mead suggested that a society
should provide two things for successful socialization to occur: a set of consistent
beliefs about the behaviour of adults, and opportunities for young people to
participate in clear adult roles. The experience of youth who are homeless
suggests that Canada does not provide these for all emerging adults.
AC
KB K
You have read about
socialization in
Chapter 3.
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Conflict theory
W
E
N
S
Social activists use a conflict theory perspective to argue that a decline
in stable employment opportunities for those with few skills has reduced
the ability of many people to afford housing. They also suggest that the
increasing cost of housing forces people down the housing chain into cheaper
housing, so that those with the lowest incomes are squeezed out onto the
streets. They propose that homelessness is an indicator of the growing gap
between rich and poor in Canada. In 2009, the Mental Health Commission
of Canada invested $110 million in research to find effective solutions to
homelessness, especially as it affects those with mental health and addiction
issues. Isabelle Leduc, executive director of a housing project for the homeless
Research | Skills
Detecting and Managing Bias
Discussion of issues related to individual lives, family,
and intimate relationships, and the role of social
policy, religion, and law in human lives often elicits
strong feelings that are often based on personal
experiences. Scholars and researchers conducting
investigations into these issues attempt to deal with
them objectively by focusing on facts and theories
and setting aside their emotions. However, individuals
may present their ideas in a more subjective way,
allowing their personal beliefs, emotions, and opinions
to affect their interpretation of the issues. Others
present a biased viewpoint in an attempt to influence
the behaviour of others.
The Academic Skills Centre at Trent University
recommends that you identify bias by asking whether
the author uses the following errors in reasoning:
• Does the author avoid the question by arguing around
the issue without ever actually dealing with it?
• Do the arguments beg the question by assuming
the thesis is true rather than providing evidence to
prove it?
• Does the author assume something is true because
there is no evidence to prove it false?
• Does the author resort to name-calling and
stereotypes to discredit an argument?
• Does the author present black-and-white thinking
and ignore possibilities between the extremes?
• Does the author present superstitious thinking by
suggesting a cause-and-effect relationship when
there is no evidence to support it?
• Does the author use non sequiturs by making
conclusions that do not follow logically from the
evidence?
Biased sources may be useful for your research if you
are careful to gather those that present alternative
viewpoints. Understanding individuals’ biases
concerning issues that affect their personal lives
can provide insight into the decisions that people
make about their own lives and those concerning
social policies and legal rights and responsibilities as
citizens of a democratic country. ●
Source: Thinking it through: a practical guide to academic essay
writing. (1989). Peterborough, ON: Academic Skills Centre, Trent
University, 66-68.
• Does the author use special pleading to apply the
evidence to some cases but not others?
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in Montréal, counters, “We
don’t need to demonstrate that
housing makes a difference in
people’s lives. We know that.
We need to invest in housing”
(Picard, November 7, 2009,
p. F2). Programs that respond
to any of these theories need
to be established to prevent
homelessness. Until that
happens, many governmental
and non-profit organizations
will have to continue working
to alleviate the immediate needs
of the homeless, especially for
youth, so that they can begin to
become self-reliant.
Research | Skills
FiGure 5-17 Services such as food and emergency medical treatment are available
to help individuals cope with the immediate symptoms of homelessness. What longterm assistance is needed to help youth who are homeless enter mainstream life?
Writing a Research Essay
A research essay is a paper that presents an
argument using research in the social sciences. You
will read them frequently in the media and as part
of your studies. You will write them after conducting
your own investigations. In a research essay, the
results of an investigation are presented in a thesis
that proposes the key understanding of the topic
from a theoretical perspective. The thesis would then
be supported with selected arguments that relate the
evidence to the thesis.
Title
In the title, identify the main idea of your paper and
suggest your theoretical perspective. For example,
“Homeless Youth: The Victims of a Competitive
Housing Market.”
Introduction
In the introduction of your essay, state your thesis,
define your terms and your theoretical perspective,
and introduce your supporting arguments.
Discussion
In the body of the essay, the discussion, present the
arguments derived from analyzing the results of your
research from your theoretical perspective, and outline
the implications of the results.
Conclusion
In the conclusion, briefly restate your thesis and your
strongest arguments.
References
In a research essay, include citations to inform the
reader where you found the information. In a formal
essay, use in-text citations, like those used in this
textbook, to refer the reader to the references at the
end of the paper. The reference list acknowledges
all the sources. Use the American Psychological
Association (APA) style in the social sciences.
However, when writing a personal research
essay—for example, for publication in magazines or
newspapers—omit formal citations and consider using
quotations instead.
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Chapter 5
Review and Apply
Knowledge and Understanding/Thinking
1. Trace the sociological and economic changes that have occurred in the roles
of men and women in Canada. Explain how changes have affected the choices
available to emerging adults in Canada.
2. Assess whether the changing roles of men and women have improved the
opportunities of emerging adults in Canada. Do you think Canadians would
benefit from maintaining any inequality between men and women; for example,
should we allow only men to serve in the infantry? Why or why not?
3. a) Which characteristics of Canadian culture acquired through schooling in Canada
might cause conflict for emerging adults in families from other cultures?
b) Identify ways of resolving the conflict with their families.
4. Distinguish between individualism and collectivism. Suggest how each social
theory would influence the major steps taken by emerging adults: finishing
school, leaving home, starting work. Explain which social theory most resembles
the expectations in your culture.
5. a) According to the research, how do Canadians pay the costs of post-secondary
education?
b) Compare the data on the average debt-load of graduates with the average
cost of post-secondary education provided in this chapter.
c) What factors might influence an individual’s willingness to borrow money
for education?
6. Students from lower-income families are less likely to attend post-secondary schools
than students from higher-income families. Research has shown that 31 percent of
students from lower-income families do attend post-secondary schools. Identify and
explain the other factors that influence the decision of this group.
Thinking/Communication
7. List the major causes of homelessness and suggest how each would affect the
formation of an identity for an emerging adult.
8. Explain how programs to support youth who are homeless benefit individuals,
families, and Canadian society.
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Communication/Application
9. Analyze one issue from this chapter using ecological systems theory (see
Chapter 2, p. 46 and p. 152 in this chapter). Develop a diagram depicting the
factors influencing the emerging adult at each system level.
10. Select one of the Point of View features from this chapter and write a brief
personal essay in which you respond to the author. Identify the theoretical
perspective you have chosen, and state your response as a thesis. Include
additional information from the text to support your arguments.
11. Select a Point of View feature from this chapter and write a response in the
form of a letter to the editor, using a different point of view than in the original.
Becoming a Social Scientist
In this chapter, you have learned to:
•
•
•
•
analyze a topic using a theoretical perspective.
identify the theoretical perspective or point of view used in an article.
identify bias in a letter to the editor.
write an essay supporting a thesis from a theoretical perspective.
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