INTER-TEMPORAL CHANGES OF CONVERSION FACTORS, EXTRACTION
RATES, PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS AND LIVESTOCK AND RELATED
MATTERS:
1963-67 TO 1993-97
INTRODUCTION
FAO classifies agricultural commodities as either primary or processed.
Primary crops are those, which come directly from the land and have not undergone any real
processing, except some cleaning to make them ready for the market and processing. Primary
livestock products are coming directly from slaughtered animals, viz., meat, offals, slaughter
fats, hides and skins; and those coming directly from live animals, viz. whole milk, eggs,
honey, beeswax, wool and hair. Any other livestock product not mentioned above is
considered processed.
At the world level, only 20-25 percent of the calories consumed by man come from
primary products and the other 75-80%, from processed products. In the United States the
ratio primary to processed is approximately 11% to 89%.
The FAO’s Food Balance Sheets, a major output of the FAO Statistics Division’s
database FAOSTAT, are based on a very detailed database containing crop and livestock
production and trade data for a great number of commodities, including both primary and
processed - about 500 products in total, of which 38% are primary and 62% processed.
Hence, there is the real necessity of having conversion factors and extraction rates to convert
primary commodities to processed ones and vice versa, in order to make meaningful
commodity aggregates. A good example is to look at potatoes. The sum of 50 tons of
potatoes, 50 tons of deep-frozen potatoes, 25 tons of potato chips and 25 tons of dehydrated
potatoes is 150 tons. But in terms of primary product equivalent the total is 400 tons.
Obviously, processed commodities are much more numerous than primary commodities.
Today processing of crops and livestock products is a necessity rather than a luxury and with
both the increasing urbanization and growing women’s participation in the work force. An
additional reason for processing are: isolation of the desired components of agricultural
products, e.g., sucrose from sugar crops, oil from oil crops, etc.; removal of harmful
substances existing in the primary products; and, particularly nowadays, conversion to forms
desired by the consumers or imposed on them.
Crops and livestock products are all perishable, some of them, like milk and fruit and
vegetables for example, are more perishable than others. The reason is that they contain
living organisms and as such undergo continuous biochemical changes. These changes are
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due partly to the action of enzymes in the food, partly to the growth of micro-organisms
contaminating them. Micro-organisms, which are important in food spoilage, are divided into
three main groups: bacteria, yeasts and moulds. It must be noted, however, that although
some micro-organisms constitute a potential hazard, commercial and/or medical, others are
of definite value in transforming primary products into processed food. Man has always
transformed cereals into alcoholic (fermented) beverages and bread, and milk into cheese by
utilizing – unconsciously at first, consciously later- microbe fermentation. Today, microorganisms are of fundamental importance in the production of substances widely used by the
food industry, such as additives, glutamine acid, lysine, etc.
Preservation through processing may be regarded as a method of interrupting the natural
cycle of life so that the normal agents, which bring about decomposition, are unable to
perform their destructive work of making the products unfit for human consumption.
Crushing, salting, curing, fermentation and drying of foods were used long before
Christian times. Many centuries ago, as attested by biblical and other ancient records, man
processed milk into butter and cheese, grapes into wine, olives into oil and cereals into flour
and bread.
Naturally processing of agricultural commodities has improved with the years. Milling of
cereals has improved through the discontinuation of hand pounding and by the adoption of
more and more sophisticated machinery; the traditional simple sun drying has been
substituted by modern techniques; mechanical crushing of oilseeds by chemical solvent
extraction supplemented by refining and hydrogenation. In recent years, progress in the food
industry has been astonishing. There are many new words associated with highly
sophisticated operations performed by the food industry which have been introduced
recently in our vocabulary: ultra-high temperature treatment, deep-freezing, lyophilization, dehydration,
defatting, homogenization, deodorization, standardization, irradiation, enriching, fortifying, reconstituting,
vitaminizing, pre-cooking, etc. In fact, these changing patterns in food consumption, which
constantly demand new and varied forms of pre-cooked or processed products, require new
technology to transform perishable agricultural production into stable finished food products
adequate in terms of efficiency, hygiene and preservation of nutrients.
An interesting question is to what extent the nutrient elements and vitamins existing in
the original products are lost in preservation procedures. It is said, generally, that losses
during processing are not more than those that inevitably occur in cooking in the home.
Processing frequently means a radical transformation in the composition of food nutrients
and losses of vitamins as compared to the original product. Two examples:
- 1 kg of soybeans, if consumed as such, would provide about 3950 k calories, 33% coming
from carbohydrates, 29% from proteins and 38% from fat. If the kg of soybeans is processed
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into oil one can get some 175 grams of oil yielding about 1550 k calories. All carbohydrates
and proteins will remain with the cake and meal used for animal feed.
- 1 kg of maize, if consumed as such, would provide about 3560 k calories, 82% coming
from carbohydrates, 8% from proteins and 10% from fat. If the kg of maize is processed
into sweeteners, with oil as a by-product, one can get some 570 grams of sweeteners and 40
gm of oil yielding about 2150 k calories. Part of carbohydrates and all proteins will remain
with gluten feed, meal and cake used for animal feed.
One needs to examine how the conversion factors evolved during the last 30 years; how the
productivity of crops and livestock altered. The analysis below is made by standard
commodity groups.
CEREALS
Evolution of seeding rates, feed and seed use and increase of area, yield and production
of main cereals crop can be seen in Table 1. Extraction rates in Table 2.
During the period under review 1963-67 TO 1993-97, for wheat, seeding rates rose 31%
and this, with other factors, contributed to a yield increase of 106%. Among main producers,
seeding rates increased significantly, in Argentina, India, Pakistan, Poland, Turkey and US.
They went down in France, UK and Australia and did not change much in Canada and
Germany. The extraction rate of wheat flour increased from 77.3% to 79.1%. Countries’
extraction rates lie between 70 and 90 percent (wheat flour- wholemeal). The percentages of
production used for seed decreased by 36.5%, while the percentage used for feed rose about
30%. Data for important reporting countries:
Seeding rates (KG/HA): US 92, India 187, Canada 95, UK 180, Germany 180, Poland 255,
Sweden 210, and European Union (EU-15) 185.
Flour extraction rate: US 74%, UK 80%, and Germany 78%.
Rice: Seeding rates increased by 27.5%, and yield per hectare 84.4%. Seeding rates were
higher in India, Indonesia and Japan, but lower in the US. The conversion factor rice paddy
to milled rice remained steady at around 66.6%. It ranges in various countries from 60 to
70%. The portion of production used for seed declined by almost 30%; that used for feed
rose by 214%. (It is noted here that rice bran is being used for oil making in several
countries.)
Barley: In the period under consideration, 1963-67 TO 1993-97, seeding rates rose 37.5%
and yield per hectare rose 46.3%. Seeding rates increased in major producing countries (those
with lower yields), but were lower in France, Germany and UK. Conversion factors of barley
to malt remained unchanged at approximately 74%. Country figures range between 70 and
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85%. The percentage of production used for seed fell slightly, but the percentage used for
feed rose more than 10%. Some figures for important reporting countries:
Seeding rates (Kg/ha): US 88 (Kg/ha), India 118 (Kg/ha), Canada 86 (Kg/ha), UK 170
(Kg/ha), Germany 150 (Kg/ha), Poland 221 (Kg/ha), Sweden 180 (Kg/ha), European
Union (EU-15) 165 (Kg/ha);
Barley, pearled extraction rate: US 63%, UK 70%, Germany 63%.
Maize: In contrast with other cereals, seeding rates decreased by 35% during the period and
probably somewhat more, as some countries do not include in the count the seed used for
crops harvested green for fodder and food. In spite of this, yield per hectare rose nearly
100%, jumping from 2.1 tons per hectare in 1961 to 4.4 tons in 1998. Introduction of hybrid
seed and other high yielding varieties in several countries explains this phenomenal
achievement. The proportion of production used for seed declined by one third but the
proportion used for feed, at 65%, was down only 2%.
The conversion factors to maize flour and meal decreased slightly from 82.5 to 81.5%.
These factors lie between 65% to 95% in the countries, depending on whether the product is
degermed or not and also on how much bran is contained in the flour. During the four
decades under review, utilization of maize for flour, meal, grits and other food products kept
pace with the increase of population and even increased a little bit more. But the utilization
for caloric non-sucrose sweeteners grew by an impressive 350% or more (see Fig.3).
Caloric sweeteners are produced from various crops, provided they contain sufficient
starch content. The most prominent source of starch in the US, and in many other countries,
is maize, but in other countries, wheat and roots and tubers are also used. The main nonsucrose caloric sweeteners are glucose, dextrose and high fructose corn (maize) syrup
(HFCS).
In the US, main producing country, HFCS accounts for more than 70% of total
sweeteners, and production of caloric sweeteners surpasses now production of sugar (see
Fig.1 and 2).
The utilization of maize for industrial starch did not increase much, while utilization for
ethanol rose sharply in recent years. See, for example, US data in Fig.1.
Conversion factors from maize to starch and sweeteners are 57% to 63%, to ethanol 35%
to 40%.
Rye/Oats: Seeding rates went up in important producing countries such as Poland,
Germany and Canada; more than 60% at world level. The yield per hectare, however, rose
43%.
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Utilization for feed climbed from 63 to 65% of production, which, at the world level,
registered a loss of 33%. This means that less and less of Rye/Oats crops are used for food.
Extraction rates to rye flour and oats (rolled) did not vary much over years - at world level.
They remained about 80% for rye and 55% for oats.
Millet/Sorghum: Seeding rates are up, during the period reviewed, in major producing
countries such as India and Sudan, and up by about 9.5% at world level. Although yield per
hectare rose considerably in Argentina and China, the increase of the world yield as a whole
was 34%. Feed use increased from 30 to 37.5% of production. In countries where these
cereals are used for food, extraction rate to flour/ meal is approximately 90 % at world level.
ROOTS and TUBERS From the 1960s to the 1990s per caput consumption of roots and
tubers fell by more than 20%, particularly in developed countries. Calories derived from
them account now for a mere 5% of the total, compared with more than 7.5% in the sixties.
Potatoes: Seeding rates increased in certain producing countries, such as US, Spain,
Netherlands, Poland, Turkey, UK and Germany, but decreased in many others, such as
Canada. All in all, at the world level, they decreased by 6.5%. The percentage of potato crops
used for seed has fallen from 16.5 to 12.1% and so also the percentage used for feed, from
29 to 17%. Yields per hectare increased only by 27.4% (see Table 1).
The seeding rates of a few important reporting countries are given as: US 2375 (Kg/ha),
India 1530 (Kg/ha), Canada 2240 (Kg/ha), UK 3096 (Kg/ha), Germany 2250 (Kg/ha),
Poland 2339 (Kg/ha), Sweden 1800 (Kg/ha), European Union (EU-15) 2170 (Kg/ha).
Potatoes have always been processed into flour, starch and alcohol. More recently, in several
countries, such as US, Netherlands and Germany, more and more potatoes are being
processed into deep-frozen products, cooked or not, particularly “French fries” and also into
potato chips. (See Fig. 3 and 4). The conversion factors currently used are the following:
deep-frozen 48-52%; chips 26-30%; dehydrated, flour, starch, alcohol 12-22%; canned 6585%.
Cassava: Cassava has always been processed into flour, meal, paste, dough, granules, tapioca
and similar products by producers with traditional methods. Very little quantities are
processed by the industry into starch and tapioca: conversion factor, 20% to 28%. More
recently large amounts of cassava are being dried by the industry, in a few countries,
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particularly Thailand, for exports, mainly to European countries where the product is used
for feed. Conversion factors are as high as 40%.
OIL BEARING CROPS: Seeding rates and trend of area, yield and production of main
crops can be seen in Table 1; extraction rates and conversation factors in Table 2;
geographical distribution in Fig. 10 to 14, and other information in Fig. 15 to 19.
Soybeans: Seeding rates decreased by 16%, but yield per hectare was up by more than 78%.
A small portion of the crop, about 7%, is used for processing into food products other than
oil: fermented, such as soy sauce, paste and curd; and non-fermented, such as soymilk and
soy curd. Flour and flakes are also made from soybeans, either full fat, conversion factor
(c.f.) 83%, or low fat, c.f. 60% or defatted, c.f. 56%. The bulk of production is processed into
oil. Extraction rates to oil moved from 17.7 to 18.0%. Country figures range from 15 to 21%.
Groundnuts Shelled: Groundnuts in shell are converted at 70% into shelled groundnuts
and as such enter in all utilization data, except seeding rates, which increased about 5.5%, and
production whose increase was nearly 93%. In China, from around 1967 to around 1997 the
increase was almost 400%. China produces now about one third of the world total.
More than half of the production is processed into oil. Today’s extraction rate is 43%,
slightly over the 42% of 30 years ago. Country figures range between 36 and 50%. More than
one third of production is consumed as such or salted and roasted or processed into
groundnuts butter and similar products. These products contain from 45 to 50% fat as well
as protein and carbohydrate of the original product.
Sunflower: Seed rates are down by more than 50% during the reviewed period. Evidently
the new varieties require lower seeding rates, although they have higher oil content. Yields
per hectare increased little - by only 11%.
Average yields in the former USSR were, in the 1960s, 1.2 tons; in recent years less than 1
ton e.g., 0.85 in Russia and 1.2 in Ukraine. Sunflower crop is used almost exclusively for oil
making. The extraction rate climbed from 38.7 to 40.6%. Country figures range between
30% and 46%.
Rapeseed: During the period reviewed, seeding rates declined from 18 to 17 kg per hectare
(ha), but yield per hectare rose by a remarkable 126%. The introduction of new varieties,
yielding higher crops, with little toxicity at all and richer in oil content, explain the increase.
The world production registered a spectacular increase of almost 700%. China, the main
producer today, had an increase of 860%. In recent years, rapeseed crops have been used for
industrial purposes. The bulk is processed into oil with an extraction rate of 38.2%. In a few
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countries the extraction rate now reaches 43%, but there are still countries where the
extraction rate is below 35%.
The seeding rates for important reporting countries are: US 7 (Kg/ha), India 7 (Kg/ha),
Canada 7 (Kg/ha), UK 13 (Kg/ha), Germany 4.5 (Kg/ha);
Oil extraction rate: US 38%, Canada 42%, UK 41%, Germany 41%.
Cottonseed: Oil extraction rate decreased from 16.7% to 15.7%, during the reviewed period.
Country figures range between 12% and 19%.
Olives: Extraction rates to virgin oil moved up from 18.5% to 19.5%. It varies widely from
country to country, from 13% to 25%. About 13% of the crop is consumed fresh or
preserved in various forms.
Copra and copra oil: Husked coconuts yield, today, about 21.5 % of copra, which is
historically high. But the conversion factor (c.f.) of copra to copra oil remained practically
unchanged over the years, at 61.5%. Country conversion factor of coconuts to copra range
from 15% to 25%, and copra gives 55% to 65% of oil.
About 40 % of coconuts are consumed as fresh or desiccated.
Palm fruit, palm oil and palm kernels: The extraction rate from the oil palm bunches is
today 5.5% for palm kernels and nearly 18.5% for palm oil. Some forty years ago the rates
were 8%, kernels and 11.3%, palm oil. The geographical distribution of the oil palm explains
these changes, (see Fig. 10). In fact, 80% of world production in 1955 of palm oil and palm
kernels, in oil equivalent came from West Central Africa and 14.5% from South East Asia.
In the Seventies, 43.5% from Africa and 45.5% from Asia. Today, only 12.5% from
Africa and nearly 80% from Asia. In the past, in African countries, the palm oil extraction
efficiency was very low as it was performed with traditional methods, which permitted the
extraction of about 50% of the total palm oil content. In Nigeria, the largest producer some
time ago, a large portion of the bunches were processed by hand and less with hydraulic or
screw pressing, with a degree of efficiency of 65 to 85%. Palm kernels were largely gathered
from the ground and exported, mainly to European countries. Today the extraction rates of
various countries range from 3 to 12%, kernels, and 7 to 28%, palm oil.
Production in Asia and Latin America is highly industrialized today. The average yield per
hectare in the four main producing countries, excluding Nigeria, is 18.7 tons of bunches, all
harvested in regular plantations, equivalent to 4 tons of palm oil and palm kernel oil.
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Margarine: At present, margarine, including Indian Vanaspati and the US portion of
shortening made from vegetable oils, is manufactured almost entirely from vegetable oils. At
world level the conversion factor (c.f.) oil to margarine is about 114%. Country values
fluctuate from 105% to 125%, depending on how much foreign material (additives to
improve the texture or to impart a better flavour or colour) is used, and also on the fat
content of the final product. There are margarines with only 40% of fat content. World
production of margarine from 1950s to 1990s rose 168%, from 4.4 to 11.8 million tons, (see
Fig.15, 17, 18 and 19).
A century ago, when the margarine was being developed, the percent composition of the
ingredients of margarine was in favour of animal fats. In the 1950s, significant amounts of
animal fats and marine oils were still used. The vegetable oils entering in the manufacture of
margarine varies from country to country, depending on the use of home produced and
imported oilseeds and oils. In the United States, for example, the share of various fats and
oils used in the manufacture of margarine and shortening changed as follows in the last 50
years:
Around 1955, animal 15%, vegetable 85%: Soya 62%, cotton 30%
Around 1980, animal 18%, vegetable 82%: Soya 82%, cotton 4%
Around 1997, animal 8%, vegetable 92%: Soya 91%, cotton 3%
For many years cottonseed oil was the first in the list of oils used for making margarine
and shortening, followed, at distance, by coconut oil and palm oil. Then, in the thirties came
on the stage soybean oil and soon became the most important one.
Vegetable oils: Production of vegetable oils in 1995 reached almost 78 million tons, six
times more than in 1950 (see Fig. 15). Today nearly 30% are used for industrial purposes
(per caput food use increased “only” by 77%). Calories from vegetable oils cover now 8.3%
of all calories consumed; the percentage 30 years ago was 5.4%. The percentages of various
vegetables oils, used mainly for food, on the world total production changed as follows from
1950 to 1998-99:
8
Percent share
1950
1998-99
% Change of
world production
1950-98/99
Coconut oil
Groundnut oil
Palm+palm kernel
oil
Soybean oil
Cottonseed oil
Olive oil
Rapeseed oil
13.9
12.9
12.2
3.6
5.8
25.4
73
200
1300
11.6
11.0
8.9
7.0
26.9
4.6
2.8
14.2
1465
180
110
1265
Sunflower seed oil
Sesame seed oil
Maize oil
All
6.4
4.9
2.0
100
10.6
0.8
2.2
100
1020
10
660
575
Information on utilization of vegetables oils in oil–containing manufactured products,
such as mayonnaise, mustard, potato chips, French fries, salad dressing, sandwich spread,
canned fish and all baked foods is very scanty. Also scanty are the production figures of these
products. Fat content of those products can be as low as 3% and as high as 80%.
VEGETABLES AND MELONS: It is difficult to estimate how much of these crops are
processed and how much is consumed raw; particularly considering that the main producers,
China and India, accounting for almost half of the world total production do not publish any
figure on this particular topic. Assuming that developed countries process about 35% of their
production and only 10% for developing, the world average would be 16%. In the U.S., one
of the few countries for which information is fairly complete, the share of fresh to processed
is now equal. In the 1930s the shares were 72% and 28%, and in the 1960s they were 58%
and 42% (see Fig. 5 and 6).
Certain vegetables, for example, tomatoes, green beans and green peas, sweet maize,
artichokes and asparagus, have always been preserved in various forms, whole, pieces, juice,
paste, etc., and then canned and bottled. The vegetables mentioned above, except tomatoes,
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plus many others, such as broccoli, carrots, spinach and onions more recently have been
deep-frozen. A few of them are dehydrated, viz., onions, garlic, peppers and mushrooms.
The conversion factors of primary (farm weight) to processed products depend on many
circumstances:
a) Amount of preserving materials and additives, natural or chemical, used (salt, sugar, oil,
vinegar, water solutions, peptic acid, etc.);
b) The method and degree of processing;
c) How much of the primary product is rejected before processing, i.e. the so-called refuse,
which, in any case is also discarded at home. The refuse varies widely from product to
product. It is very high, for example, in green beans and green peas in the shell, medium in
cabbages and peppers, low and very low in tomatoes, carrots and gherkins. For example, the
conversion factors (cf) for tomatoes are: whole and peeled, 65%-85%; juice: natural 65%80%; concentrate: 20%; paste 16%-25%; ketchup 40%; puree 30%; dried 5%. In general,
conversion factors from primary to processed vegetables are as follows: canned 35% to
100%; frozen and deep-frozen 45% to 85%; dehydrated 4% to 20%.
FRUITS and BERRIES: Information on production of fruit processed products and
corresponding conversion factors is very limited. The main producing country, China, and
other important producers, such as India, do not publish any figure on that. So assuming that
developed countries process about 55% of their production and developing some 22%, it can
be estimated that the world figure comes to about 30%. As for vegetables, United States is a
good reporting country. They process now 67% of their production. It was already 51% in
1950 (see Fig. 3, 7 and 8). As regards consumption, fresh fruit represents now 38% of the
total fresh and processed fruits. It was 64% in 1960. At present, the distribution of processed
products consumed is as follows, frozen 2% (2% in 1960), dried 7% (6% in 1960), canned
13% (46% in 1960). juice 78% (46% in 1960). These are given in farm weight basis.
Countless products come from the processing of fruit crops - canned, dried, frozen and
deep-frozen, juice, wine and cider. Citrus fruit and pineapples are used mainly for canning
and juice; deciduous fruit and figs, for canning and drying; grapes for wine and raisins; apples
for cider. Frozen products include mainly juice, but also other products made principally
from berries and tart cherries but also from peaches, apples and few other fruit crops. Drying
and wine making are two of the oldest processing procedures.
Manufacture of fruit syrups and juices, candied and crystallized fruits, jams, jellies,
marmalade, chutneys and sauces have been practiced from old days, also in the households.
Safe canning, freezing, deep or quick-freezing and dehydration require modern
techniques.
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Quick, deep-freezing method of processing is very popular today. In the case of frozen
concentrate fruit juice, it consists in the concentration of the juice, which for that purpose is
heated at very high temperatures so that water evaporates, after which the product is frozen
or deep-frozen. Concentrate juice may have various degrees of concentration. They are
measured with the Brix scale: a hydrometer scale for sugar solutions, which shows
percentages by weight of sugar in the solution. Brazil is today, the main producer of frozen
concentrate orange juice, 65° Brix, followed by the United States, 42° Brix (see Fig. 3 and 8).
Brazil exports practically the whole production, mainly to the U.S.
In contrast with production of most other products, wine production, in the European
Union countries as a whole, slowed down in the seventies and eighties, and more and more
wine was used for distillation. In particular, annual per caput consumption in France went
down from about 135 lt. around 1910 to 115 lt. in the sixties and to about 60 lt. today. And
in Italy, during the same period, from 130 and 105, to about 55. At the world level, from
1965 to 1995 wine production was down by 10%, while production of beer was up by 127%
(see Fig. 9).
A few conversion factors to convert farm weight products to terms of processed products
can be seen in Table 2. Conversion factors vary widely from product to product, depending
on the various circumstances mentioned above under vegetables. For example, refuse is high
in mangoes, pineapples and other tropical fruits, medium or low in deciduous fruits, very low
for berries. The following are the conversion factors generally used by FAO: canned fruit
(drained product) 45% to 65%; frozen fruit 60% to 95%; fruit dried 23% to 37%; dehydrated
8% to 20%; fruit juice: single strength 35% to 75%, concentrate 10% to 18%, wine 65 to
75%.
SUGAR CROPS: The world average conversion factor of sugar cane to raw centrifugal
sugar is 10.8%, with countries figures ranging from 8.1% to 14.0%. Raw sugar extraction rate
for sugar beets is 14.2% as world average, with country figures moving from 10% to 18%
(see Table 2). Sugar cane and molasses are used also for alcohol making, food and non-food.
In Brazil, the main producer, huge amounts are also used for ethanol.
SLAUGHTERINGS and MEAT - PRODUCTIVITY of LIVESTOCK: The world
figures for livestock population, slaughterings, meat production and related indicators could
be influenced by Chinese data in the 1990s, which are being questioned by some experts. The
country itself made some downward revisions to the data which have been published in the
past, in Chinese official publications. For example, meat production for 1996, previously
reported at 59.2 million tons, was cut down to 46 million, without, apparently, making any
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change of 1995 production figures, reported at 52.6 million tons, 26% of world production.
FAO has adjusted official figures for 1994 and 1995. Recently, China has increased meat
production of 1997 by 2.3% to reach 52.7 million tons.
A few words about take-off rate and productivity rate. Take-off rate is the percentage of
animals slaughtered and exported alive on total population enumerated generally at the
beginning of the year. Productivity rate takes also into account the increase or decrease of
population in the following year. Take-off and productivity are identical if the increase is
zero.
An increase in population corresponds to an increase of productivity, similarly a decrease
in population corresponds to a decrease in productivity. Evolution of livestock population,
slaughterings, carcass weight, take-off rates and productivity can be seen in Tables 4.1 to 4.3.
Other information is shown in Tables 2 and 3 and Fig. 15 to 20.
Cattle and buffaloes: Decreases of population in developed regions, except Oceania, were,
compensated with general increases in developing regions, particularly China and Latin
America. The same trend occurred with slaughterings. Eventually, world population was up
by 34% and slaughterings by 40%. Buffaloes alone increased much more than cattle, but they
represent less than 10% of the total.
The average carcass weight went up in all regions, except Africa. At the world level it was
up by 20.5%. The increase was particularly vigorous in China, Asia and in all developed
regions.
The reasons for the increase was more and better feed in many countries and drastic
reduction of the number of calves slaughtered in developed countries. For example, the
percentage of calves on total slaughterings in 1955 and 1997 changed as follows in the
following countries: US 33% to 4%, Germany 50% to 11%, UK 27% to 1%, Australia 42%
to 14%.
Perhaps the definition of calves changed also somewhat over the years.
At the end, meat production rose by nearly 70%. Apart from the astronomical increase of
Chinese figures, strong increases were recorded in Asia (145%), Latin America (110%),
Oceania (93%) and Africa (69%). Much lower increases were recorded in Europe+Russia
(31%) and North America (27%).
Take-off rate increased in all developing regions, particularly China and Asia; increased
slightly in Europe+Russia (Russia increases compensated decreases of other Europe) and
Oceania, but decreased a little in North America. The increase for the world as a whole was
slightly less than 4.5%. It should be noted, however, that in the sixties developing regions
registered low or very low rates as compared with developed regions. Even now they are
relatively low.
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There are still a lot of draught animals in developing regions.
In the 1960s productivity rate exceeded take-off rate in all regions, particularly in the
developing ones, which were low in Latin America, or very low in all other regions,
particularly in China. In the 1990s, productivity rates were above take-off values in all regions
except Europe+Russia. They were slightly lower in EU-15 but considerably lower in Russia.
The ratio of carcass weight to live weight decreased slightly for cattle and some more for
buffaloes. In general, it moved from 46 to 58%, depending also on the definition of dressed
carcass weight adopted by the countries.
Sheep and goats: During the review period, world sheep and goat population grew by about
25.5% at world level; only 7% for sheep, but 78% for goats, which now account for 37% of
the total. Increases were recorded in all developing regions, except Latin America. There was
a general decrease in all developed regions, particularly North America (62%).
World slaughterings rose by 65%: sheep by 39% and goats by 147%. Increases above the
world average were recorded in China, Africa and Asia. Modest increases were reported in
Latin America and Europe+Russia. Practically there was no change for Oceania and severe
decrease for North America (65%).
The average carcass weight rose significantly in North America and China; little in other
regions except Latin America where there was a fall of almost 7%. At the world level the
increase was less than 3%.
At the end of the review period, meat production of sheep and goats was up 70%; 960%
in China, 112% in Africa, 88% in Asia, 13% in Europe+Russia and 5% in Oceania. It did not
vary much in Latin America while it decreased by 56% in North America. Sheep meat
increased by 43%, while goat meat by 180%.
Take-off rate rose sharply in China, which started with very low figures. The increase in
other regions ranged from 14% to 30%, except in North America, where there was a decline
of 8%. The take-off rate for the world, as a whole, was 31% up on 30 years earlier, somewhat
more for goats than for sheep.
Productivity rate in the sixties was generally higher than take-off rate with the exception
of North America and Europe+Russia. In the1990s, it was higher in Africa and China; while
it did not change much in Asia and it was lower in other regions. At the world level the
increase was less than 1%.
The ratio carcass weight to live weight increased a little for goats and some more for
sheep.
The average increase for the whole world is 49.5%. Country values range between 44%
and 56%.
13
Pigs: Pig numbers recorded a growth of 77.5%, for the whole world. Increases for the main
producing regions were as follows: China: 163%, Asia: 108%, Latin America: 33%,
Europe+Russia: 27%, in spite of a reduction of Russian numbers of 10%, North America:
9.6.
Slaughterings increased even more, 113% at world level - China: 269% and Asia: 185%.
Lower increases in other regions: Latin America: 100%, Europe+Russia: 48% and North
America: 21.5%.
Average carcass weight went up in all regions except Africa. The increase was particularly
significant in China, 72.7%. At the world level carcass weight went up by 20%, from 63.8 to
76.6 kilograms. Some countries changed their concept of dressed carcass weight.
With both slaughterings and carcass weight increasing everywhere, world meat production
rose by 155%. The increases of main producing regions were as follows: China: 537%,
Europe+Russia: 60%, North America: 52%, Asia: 246% and Latin America: 116%.
For the world during the period reviewed the take-off rate rose by 20%, to reach 118%.
Higher percentage increases were recorded in Latin America (50%), China (40%) and Asia
(37%). Lower increases were reported in Europe+Russia (16%) and North America (10.5%).
In the 1990s take-off rate for Europe+Russia was 138%, of which Russia 103% and
European Union (EU-15) 164%. There are various countries with take-off rates reaching
190% and even more, while many others are still moving between 50% and 100%.
Productivity rate in the 1960s exceeded take-off rate in all regions, with the exception of
North America and Europe+Russia, where both rates were practically identical.
In the 1990s productivity rates were a little higher in Africa, Asia, China, North America
and Oceania.
Somewhat lower than takeoff rates in Latin America and Europe+Russia. The two were
almost identical at world level.
Productivity rate for Europe+Russia was 136%, of which Russia amounted to 93% and
European Union to 166%.
The ratio carcass weight to live weight increased from 73% to 79-80%. Country figures
move between 65% and 85%, depending also on the definition of carcass weight.
Chickens and turkeys: The information available does not permit any sound estimate of
total numbers, slaughterings and related indicators. Evolution of carcass weight can be seen
in Table 3, with the warning that it is seldom clear whether meat production data, and carcass
weight figures, include or exclude giblets, or whether they are reported in eviscerated weight,
dressed weight or ready-to-cook weight.
It is difficult to estimate the ratio carcass weight to live weight (see Table 2). Figures
for the United States, which report on a ready-to-cook basis, are 72.5 for chickens and 79 for
14
turkeys. Take-off rates can go up to 500% and even more. At the world level chicken meat
production rose by 392% from 1965 to 1995 and turkey meat by 368%. The increase of
North America for chicken meat was 277% and 217% respectively in Europe+Russia, 157%
and 1200%.
PROCESSED PRODUCTS FROM SLAUGHTERED ANIMALS:
Lard and tallow: These two are obtained by melting slaughtered and butchering fats from
pigs, lard, and from cattle and other animals, tallow (see Table 15 to 18). Tallow is rarely used
for food in developed countries. Main use is for feed and industrial purposes. Extraction
rates range from 78 to 82%.
Meat processed products: These can be divided into six main groups: bacon and ham, c.f.
60-85%; other dried, salted and cured meat, c.f. 30-60%; sausages and similar products, c.f.
60-85%; canned meat other than products mentioned above, c.f. 55 to 65%; deep-frozen
meat, particularly poultry, c.f. 90-95%; meat extracts, c.f. 12-20%. The conversion factors
change in relation to the characteristics of the products: low or high water content, more or
less free of bones and fat, with little or much foreign material added, etc.
Meat dried, salted and cured is not so popular as used to be in the past; it has been
substituted by deep-frozen products.
MILKING ANIMALS and MILK: Table 3 shows the evolution of milk yields for cows,
buffaloes, sheep and goats. Production per cow increased only 11% at world level. Much
more than that was the increase in North America, 100% and in Europe+Russia, 50%. The
yield per cow in Europe+Russia is 3540 kg year, but in Russia it is only 2115, while in EU-15
reaches 5350 per year.
From 1965 to 1995 the number of milking cows increased by 28% at world level, but fell
by 40% in North America and by 21% in Europe+Russia. In the US, during the last 50 years,
milking cows decreased by 60%, but production went up 35% as yield per cow rose by
220%.
Cow milk production was up 40%, at world level; 21% in North America; and 12%
in Europe+Russia.
The yield per cow buffalo rose 36%, that per ewe only 3% and the yield per she goat
apparently fell by 6%. The average yield is now only 85 kg, although it reaches almost 600 kg
in a few European countries (European goats are less than 3% of the world total).
15
LAYING HENS and EGGS: World and regional figures of egg production per hen are
shown in Table 3. The world average is 9.6 kg per year, some 32% above that of 30 years
ago.
Yield per hen in four main producing regions are as follows, with - in brackets – the
percentage increase on the period 1963-67: China 10.1 kg (216%), Europe+Russia 12.9 kg
(65%), Asia 8.8 kg (11%), North America 15.1 kg (18%). At present, yield per hen of Russia
is 12.8 kg, in EU-15, 14.7 kg.
In the United States, during the last 50 years, laying hens numbers dropped by 8%, but
production gained 35%, since yield was up by 47%, from 174 to 256 eggs per hen per year.
PROCESSED PRODUCTS FROM LIVE ANIMALS:
Dairy products: In most developed countries, the quantities of raw, crude, whole milk used
as such for human consumption is very small, perhaps only 5 to 10%. The bulk undergoes
more or less complex processes to obtain either products which are still liquid milk
(standardized milk, pasteurised milk, partly skimmed milk, etc.) or products, which are not
anymore liquid milk (cream, butter, cheese, evaporated and condensed milk, milk powder,
casein, yoghurt, ice cream, etc.).
In the processing of whole milk into dairy products, a certain number of by-products are
also obtained, such as skim milk, butter milk and whey, which in turn are either sent back to
farms for feed or are used in the manufacture of dairy products, particularly dry skim milk,
dry butter milk, dry whey and low fat cheese.
Extraction rates for the main dairy products are shown in Table 2, other details in Fig. 15,
17 to 20.
Those figures represent only world averages of various products involved. This is why
some details are given here below.
Butter: Figures include ghee, a liquid butter clarified by boiling, produced chiefly in countries
of the Far East. Conversion factor of various countries from milk range from 3.5 to nearly
6%.
Average fat content 80%.
Cream: There are different kinds of cream with different fat content. So the conversion
factor ranges from 9 to 35%, with 15 as average.
Cheese: Factors reported in Table 2 are an average of the many kinds of cheese produced,
from full fat cheese to low fat cheese, hard and soft cheese, ripe and fresh cheese, including
cottage cheese and curd. The fat content can be under 5% or over 45%. The moisture
content can go from 30 to 80%. Little wonder if cheese made principally from whole milk
has extraction rates ranging from 10 to 18%, with an average of 12%, and cheese made
16
principally from skim milk has an extraction rate ranging from 5 to 25%, with an average of
19.
Evaporated and condensed milk: These products result from a modest or a medium
reduction of water, with or without sugar added. Fat content of products made from whole
milk ranges from 8 to 15%; and protein content, from 7 to 8.5%.
Conversion factors of evaporated and condensed products made principally from whole
milk range from 20 to 50%, with an average of 40-45%. Products made principally from
skim milk, range 23-45%, with an average of about 37-40%.
Dry milk or milk powder: These are products resulting from an almost complete dehydration
of milk. Their moisture content is only 3 or 4%, and the fat content depends on the
originating fresh products: it can be as low as 0.5% (dry whey) and as high as 30% (dry whole
milk). Conversion factors: dry, whole from 12 to 26%, average 13; dry, skim 8 to 13, average
9.5.
Production changes over the years of those products can be seen in Fig. 15 and 20.
Butter production, from 1965 to 1995, went up 14%, cheese 132%, condensed and
evaporated milk nil, dry milk (from whole and skim milk only) 97%.
In the last 40 years, in the United States, butter production decreased by 24%, condensed
and evaporated milk by 45% and dry whole and skim milk by 42%. In contrast with these
figures cheese production rose by 184%, and production of dry whey by 259%. Evolution of
consumption of butter and cheese in selected countries: kg per caput/year:
Butter
Australia
Canada
Denmark
Germany
Netherlands
UK
US
1935
14.1
14.0
9.4
7.5
6.3
11.4
7.8
1995
3.0
2.9
2.1
7.1
1.8
3.3
2.0
17
Denmark
France
Germany
Netherlands
Switzerland
UK
US
Cheese
1930
5.5
5.4
5.5
5.7
9.2
4.2
2.1
1995
16.8
22.0
17.6
19.4
14.8
8.3
13.6
Egg products: There are only two: liquid eggs and eggs dried. They can be whole or split
into white (albumen) and yolk, plain or blends. Conversion factors to liquid products as
follows: whole 84%, white 50 and yolk 34. To dried products: whole 22%, white 6.5 and yolk
15.5.
18
Table 1. Progress of principal crops from early sixties (60s) to late nineties (90s)
World figures
Seeding rates
Kg/ha
Seed as % of
Feed as % of
production
production
% Increase 60s to 90s
60s
90s
60s
90s
60s
90s
Area
Wheat
126
165
10.4
6.6
12.5
16.1
5.4
106
117
Rice, Paddy
90
115
4.5
3.1
0.7
2.2
21.8
84.4
125
Barley
136
187
9.0
8.5
63.3
70.0
9.8
46.3
60.6
Maize
52
34
2.7
0.9
66
65
29.4
99.6
158
Rye+Oats
148
230
11.7
13.5
63
65
-52
43.3
-33
Millet+Sorghum
19.3
21.1
2.5
2.0
29.9
37.3
-10.3
34.2
21.0
Potatoes
2066
1933
16.5
12.1
29
17
-15.6
27.4
7.5
Dry Beans
47
44
9.6
6.5
1.6
5.6
5.2
36.7
43.5
Soybeans
86
72
7.2
3.4
1.7
3.2
157
78.5
358
Groundnuts
71
75
8.5
5.6
-
-
20.3
58.8
92.4
Sunflower
62
30
5.8
2.5
0.4
3.8
176
11.0
207
Rapeseed
18
17
2.9
1.2
3.8
6.1
253
126
692
19
Yield
Production
Table 2. Evolution of extraction rates and conversion factors from early 60s to late 90s
World figures for selected commodities
%
60s
90s
60s
90s
Wheat flour
77.3
79.1
Palm kernels
8.0
5.5
Milled rice
66.6
66.7
Palm oil
11.3
18.4
Barley malt
73.6
73.4
Cottonseed oil
16.7
15.7
Maize flour/ meal
82.5
81.5
Cottonseed/seed cotton
54.7
62.8
Plums dried
33.1
34.1
Cotton lint/seed cotton
34.3
34.9
Raisins
24.3
24.0
Butter
5.3
4.7
Wine
69.7
72.8
Cond+Ev milk (whole+skimmed)
39.4
40.5
Figs, dried
33.5
33.6
Dry milk (whole+skimmed)
9.8
10.8
Soybean oil
17.7
18.0
Cheese
from
cow
milk 11.7
12.8
(whole+skimmed)
Groundnut oil
42.1
43.0
Raw sugar from cane
10.8
10.7
Sunflower seed oil
38.7
40.6
Raw sugar from beet
14.2
14.0
Rapeseed oil
35.9
38.3
Margarine
115
114
Olive oil
18.8
19.5
Copra
21.1
21.5
Copra oil
61.1
61.3
60s
90s
Dressed carcass weight as % of live weight:
60s
90s
Cattle
53.4
53.1
Pigs
72.9
78.9
Buffaloes
49.1
46.7
Chickens
70.5
75.5
Sheep
46.2
49.2
Turkeys
78.8
75.8
Goats
49.1
49.8
20
Table 3. Productivity of slaughtered and live animals
Kg per head/animal
A 1963-67
World Total
Africa
L America
Asia-China
China
N America
Europe+Russia
Oceania
B 1993-97
Chickens
Turkeys
Cows
Buffaloes
Sheep
Goats
Hens
(Meat)
(meat)
(milk)
(milk)
(milk)
(milk)
(eggs)
A
1165
6400
1830
940
44
90
7300
B
1350
7200
2035
1275
45
85
9600
A
905
4500
440
1130
37
62
3250
B
1010
4400
470
1120
30
55
3900
A
1160
3600
1030
-
26
62
6130
B
1445
5500
1160
-
26
50
7180
A
1070
3000
660
1090
43
70
7900
B
1155
4700
1100
1360
43
93
8800
A
1015
4000
1110
350
22
90
3200
B
1350
4000
1510
470
35
183
10100
A
1180
7100
3635
-
-
-
12800
B
1530
8100
7280
-
-
-
15100
A
1230
5000
2360
730
55
220
7800
B
1340
6600
3540
1250
85
200
12900
A
1215
4300
2545
-
-
-
10550
B
1410
3600
3695
-
-
-
13080
21
Table 4.1. Livestock population and productivity
Annual averages: A 1963-67 B 1993-97
Cattle and Buffaloes
Population
Slaughtered
Av.
Carcass
Take-off
Productivity
%
%
weight
Millions
World Total
Africa
L America
Asia-China
China
N America
Europe+Russia
Oceania
Millions
Kg/head
A
1104.3
204.3
165
18.5
20.5
B
1477.4
285.3
199
19.3
19.8
A
134.4
14.8
146
11.0
13.5
B
207.4
25.6
142
12.4
15.1
A
194.6
30.9
192
15.9
19.3
B
339.6
58.9
211
17.3
18.1
A
371.8
29.2
115
7.9
8.9
B
485.5
56.4
146
11.5
12.1
A
63.5
1.6
89.2
2.5
7.5
B
115.7
24.0
140
20.7
23.1
A
119.5
43.7
223
36.5
37.5
B
114.3
40.2
307
35.1
35.5
A
194.6
72.5
151
37.3
38.4
B
179.6
68.4
209
38.1
33.8
A
25.9
8.8
143
34.7
36.5
B
35.4
11.8
205
35.6
37.3
22
Table 4.2. Livestock population and productivity
Annual averages: A 1963-67 B 1993-97
Sheep and Goats
Population
Slaughtered
Av.
Carcass
Take-off
Productivity
%
%
weight
Millions
World Total
Africa
L America
Asia-China
China
N America
Europe+Russia
Oceania
Millions
Kg/head
A
1396.2
456.8
13.7
32.7
33.9
B
1754.8
753.3
14.1
42.9
43.2
A
244.8
70.6
11.9
28.8
32.1
B
414.7
136.1
13.1
32.8
35.2
A
156.7
30.0
14.6
19.2
19.4
B
134.7
32.6
13.6
24.2
22.5
A
387.9
148.0
13.0
38.2
39.5
B
581.0
252.4
14.3
43.4
43.7
A
137.4
16.0
10.1
11.6
13.0
B
236.2
139.6
12.3
59.1
63.2
A
30.5
14.7
22.1
48.0
43.1
B
11.6
5.1
27.8
44.2
39.0
A
220.8
114.2
13.5
51.7
51.5
B
200.8
123.7
14.1
61.6
57.1
A
218.0
63.6
17.1
30.5
32.3
B
176.0
63.7
18.0
39.8
37.2
23
Table 4.3. Livestock population and productivity
Annual averages: A 1963-67 B 1993-97
Pigs
Population
Slaughtered
Av.
Carcass
Take-off
Productivity
%
%
weight
Millions
World Total
Africa
L America
Asia-China
China
N America
Europe+Russia
Oceania
Millions
Kg/head
A
491.8
483.3
63.8
98.3
102.3
B
873.0
1027.8
76.6
117.7
117.8
A
6.2
4.5
47.7
72.5
74.8
B
22.3
17.2
47.0
77.2
82.7
A
56.2
25.6
64.5
45.5
47.9
B
74.9
51.2
69.7
68.3
67.0
A
42.2
40.1
49.5
95.0
98.8
B
87.7
114.4
60.1
130.4
132.6
A
151.8
116.9
44.4
77.0
88.9
B
398.7
430.9
76.7
108.1
108.8
A
63.1
89.9
66.9
143
142
B
69.2
109.3
83.6
158
159
A
169.0
200.9
77.3
119
119
B
215.2
297.3
83.7
138
136
A
3.2
4.2
45.7
128
132
B
5.1
7.5
59.5
147
149
24
Figure 1.United States: Industrial processing of maize for various products (Mi MT)
25.0
20.0
Sweeteners
Other food
Starch
Ethanol
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
1995
2000
Sweeteners
0.0
1.2
3.0
8.2
14.2
17.4
20.0
Other food
2.6
2.5
2.5
3.4
6.4
6.7
8.0
Starch
1.9
2.1
2.5
3.8
5.6
5.8
6.4
Ethanol
0.0
0.0
0.5
0.9
8.2
11.7
14.1
Figure 2.United States: Per caput consumption of refined sugar and non-sucrose caloric sweeteners
(Kg per year)
50.0
40.0
30.0
Sugar
HFCS
Dextrose + Glucose
20.0
10.0
0.0
1920
1930
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
Sugar
41.8
48.1
42.9
42.5
42.2
28.1
29.8
HFCS
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.3
19.2
26.4
Dextrose + Glucose
5.0
5.5
5.7
8.3
10.2
9.8
11.0
Figure 3.World annual production of selected crop products
(Mi Mt product weight)
20
18
16
14
12
Non-sucrose caloric sweeteners
Frozen potatoes
Concentrate orange juice
10
8
6
4
2
0
1965
1975
1985
1995
Non-sucrose caloric sweeteners
3.8
6.4
12.5
17.5
Frozen potatoes
1.3
2.8
4.8
7.2
Concentrate orange juice
0.5
1.3
1.7
2.3
Figure 4.United States: Potatoes utilization for food as such and processed (Mi t per year)
8
7
6
5
As such
For freezing
Other processing
4
3
2
1
0
Fifties
Sixties
Seventies
Eighties
Nineties
As such
6.8
6.08
5.35
5.13
5.76
For freezing
0.20
1.54
3.67
4.54
6.71
Other processing
1.63
2.72
3.36
3.67
4.40
Figure 5.United States: Utilization of vegetables produced (%)
80
70
60
50
For fresh market
For processing
40
30
20
10
0
1935
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
1999
For fresh market
72
62
58
51
48
53
51
For processing
28
38
42
49
52
47
49
Figure 6.United States: Per caput consumption of vegetables (Kg farm-weight basis)
80
70
60
50
For fresh use
For freezing
For other processing (mainly canning)
40
30
20
10
0
1940
1950
1960
1970
1980
1990
1999
For fresh use
65
64
60
56
51
64
76
For freezing
0
2
3
5
7
9
11
For other processing (mainly
canning)
27
31
37
45
46
51
48
Figure 7.United States: Destination of fruit crops (%)
80
70
60
50
Fresh use
Processing
40
30
20
10
0
1948-50
1963-67
1968-72
1978-82
1988-92
1994-98
Fresh use
49
37
32
30
35
33
Processing
51
63
68
70
65
67
Figure 8.Annual production of frozen concentrate orange juice in the United States and Brazil
(Million Gallons)
250.0
200.0
150.0
US-Brix 42º
Brazil-Brix 65º
100.0
50.0
0.0
1948-52
1958-62
1968-72
1978-82
1988-92
1995-99
US-Brix 42º
44.7
83.8
135.5
176.4
143.6
200.7
Brazil-Brix 65º
0.0
0.0
10.1
88.0
169.9
235.0
Figure 9.World annual production of wine and beer
(Mi MT product weight)
140
120
100
80
Wine
Beer
60
40
20
0
1965
1975
1985
1995
Wine
28.1
31.1
29.4
25.2
Beer
56.8
85.6
103.9
129.1
Figure 10.Percent distribution of World production by main producing areas
Palm oil and palm kernel oil
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
W C AFRICA
L AMERICA
S E ASIA
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
W C AFRICA
79.6
73.8
43.3
20.1
12.6
L AMERICA
4.0
7.8
6.3
6.0
6.6
S E ASIA
14.6
16.3
45.4
72.0
79.8
Figure 11.Percent distribution of World production by main producing areas
Soybeans
80.0
70.0
60.0
50.0
N AMERICA
L AMERICA
China
S E ASIA
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
N AMERICA
49.0
73.2
66.1
57.6
48.5
L AMERICA
0.5
2.2
17.7
26.9
32.5
China
43.3
19.6
11.4
10.4
10.6
S E ASIA
6.2
3.5
2.5
3.3
6.3
Figure 12.Percent distribution of World production by main producing areas
Groundnuts
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
AFRICA
N AMERICA
L AMERICA
China
S E ASIA
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
AFRICA
27.6
36.7
28.3
19.0
21.4
N AMERICA
5.7
7.0
8.9
9.0
5.8
L AMERICA
4.1
8.9
5.8
4.8
2.7
China
24.4
13.3
12.6
32.4
35.0
S E ASIA
38.2
34.8
44.0
34.7
34.7
Figure 13.Percent distribution of World production by main producing areas
Sunflower seed
100.0
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
N AMERICA
L AMERICA
ASIA+China
EUROPE+RUSSIA
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
N AMERICA
0.0
0.0
6.3
7.9
7.2
L AMERICA
7.4
11.3
8.3
18.5
23.1
ASIA+China
3.8
3.7
6.2
16.4
15.1
EUROPE+RUSSIA
87.0
85.0
75.0
53.4
51.5
Figure 14.Percent distribution of World production by main producing areas
Rapeseed
50.0
45.0
40.0
35.0
30.0
N AMERICA
China
25.0
S E ASIA
EUROPE+RUSSIA
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
1955
1965
1975
1985
1995
N AMERICA
0.0
9.6
20.5
18.4
19.5
China
28.6
21.2
17.0
29.5
28.6
S E ASIA
45.7
36.6
30.7
18.4
18.1
EUROPE+RUSSIA
22.9
30.8
30.7
33.2
31.5
Figure 15.World annual production of visible fats and oils (Mi MT product weight)
80.0
70.0
60.0
Vegetable oils (excluding those used for
margarine)
Margarine+shortening
50.0
40.0
Lard+tallow
Butter+ghee
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
Pre World
War I
Fifties
1965
1975
1985
1995
18.5
26.0
41.5
67.5
4.4
5.6
7.6
10.6
11.8
6.1
7.5
8.7
10.9
11.5
4.4
5.8
6.3
7.5
6.6
Vegetable oils (excluding
those used for margarine)
Margarine+shortening
2.2
Lard+tallow
Butter+ghee
4.1
Figure 16.United States: Annual per caput consumption of fats + oils (% animal and vegetable)
90
80
70
60
50
Animal
Vegetable
40
30
20
10
0
pre World War I
pre World War II
Fifties
Sixties
Seventies
Eighties
Nineties
Animal
74
58
47
35
29
22
16
Vegetable
26
42
53
65
71
78
84
Figure 17.Australia: Per caput/year consumption (Kg)
25
20
15
Butter
Margarine
Total oils+fat
10
5
0
1938
1948
1958
1968
1978
1988
1998
Butter
14.9
11.3
12.3
9.8
5.1
3.2
2.9
Margarine
2.2
2.8
3.9
4.9
8.5
9.0
6.7
Total oils+fat
20.0
16.4
18.3
16.5
23.6
22.2
19.6
Figure 18.United States: Annual per caput consumption of fats and oils
(Kg of pure fat)
16
14
12
10
Butter
Lard + Tallow
Margarine+Shortening
Vegetable oils
8
6
4
2
0
pre World
War I
pre World
War II
Fifties
Sixties
Seventies
Eighties
Nineties
Butter
6.4
6.2
3.2
2.4
1.7
1.7
1.6
Lard + Tallow
5.4
5
4.9
2.8
1.4
1.1
1.9
Margarine+Shortening
4.4
6.2
7.9
10.4
11.9
12.3
14.1
Vegetable oils
0.7
3.2
4.4
6.3
8.7
11.2
12.7
Figure 19.United States: Annual production of butter and margarine/shortening
(Th MT - product weight)
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
Butter
Marg/Short
2000
1500
1000
500
0
pre World War I
pre World War II
Fifties
Sixties
Seventies
Eighties
Nineties
Butter
753
1000
693
612
467
549
569
Marg/Short
514
863
1431
2177
2822
3348
3897
Figure 20.World annual production of selected dairy products
(Mi MT product weight)
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
Cheese (all)
Dry milk (whole+skim)
Condensed+evaporated milk (whole+skim)
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1965
1975
1985
1995
Cheese (all)
6.3
9.4
13.2
14.6
Dry milk (whole+skim)
3.0
5.2
6.6
5.9
Condensed+evaporated
milk (whole+skim)
4.0
3.9
4.2
4.0
CONCLUSION
It is hoped that this in depth review of four decades of agricultural data and technical
conversion factors (TCF) is the catalyst for additional studies, along these lines, of the
changes taking place in the food industry. The study, which is being released in a provisional
version, is intended to invite comments and suggestions for improvement and be a
complement to the TIFF Document also found on this Statistics Division web page. It
should be read in consultation with the latter and the diagrams of commodity trees, which
are published with the TCF.
http://www.fao.org/WAICENT/FAOINFO/ECONOMIC/ESS/tcf.htm
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