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I. SOCIAL GROUPS
A. A social group consists of two or more people who
interact with one another and who share a common
identity, a sense of belonging or “we-ness.” Social
groups can include friends, families, work groups,
religious congregations, clubs, athletic teams, and
organizations are all examples of social groups. Social
groups help us understand our identity and the behavior
of other people.
B. Groups can be divided into primary and secondary
groups.
1.
A primary group relatively small group of people who engage in intimate face-to-face
interaction over an extended period of time. Primary groups have influence for a long
period and are understanding, supportive, and tolerant when we’re in a bad mood or
selfish. They have a powerful influence on our social identity because we interact with
them on a regular and intimate basis over many years, usually throughout our lives.
Primary groups tend to solve expressive or emotional needs. Members in primary groups
are not easily replaced. Communication is informal and individuals are at liberty to stray
from rules and norms.
2. A secondary group is usually a large, formal, impersonal, and temporary collection of
people that pursues a specific goal or activity. Secondary groups are goal-based, meet
infrequently, and are formal. Secondary groups include political parties, college classes,
or co-workers. Secondary groups are instrumental, meaning they are goal-based. In
secondary groups, interaction is formal and face-to-face while communication is
unemotional. Members are easily replaced and individuals are expected to adhere to
formal rules. Primary and secondary groups are ideal types, general elements that
describe a social phenomenon rather than every case. Ideal types are composite pictures
of how social phenomena differ rather than specific descriptions of reality.
C. In-groups and out-groups determine who to relate to in groups. Members of an in-group share a
sense of identity and “we-ness” that typically excludes and devalues outsiders. Out-groups are
people who are viewed and treated negatively because they are seen as having values, beliefs,
and other characteristics different from one’s own.
1. For example an out-group might be obese and overweight people. They often have
negative self-concepts due to others thinking they are lazy. In-groups cohesion can create
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positive outcomes for an individual. However in-group/out-group hostilities ca also fuel
conflict such as the Palestinian-Israeli battles over the occupation of the West Bank, the
eviction of white farmers in South Africa, and ongoing civil wars in some African
nations.
D. Reference groups are a group of people that shape our behavior, values, and attitudes. Reference
groups influence who we are, what we do, and who we’d like to be in the future. Unlike primary
groups, however, reference groups rarely provide personal support or face-to-face interaction
over time. Reference groups are groups that we often want to become a part of, such as
professional associations, sports teams, or country club members.
E. Group conformity studies often reflect that Americans are not individualist but influenced by
groups and society.
1. Solomon Asch’s research on group influence in 1952 showed that even when we know
that something is clearly wrong, we may go along with the group to avoid ridicule or
exclusion. His experiment revealed that, when confronted with a group of people who
clearly claim the wrong answer, individuals will side with the group out of conformity.
Asch showed a group of subjects a line drawn on Card 1 and asked the subjects to match
the line to one of three lines on Card 2. The correct answer was clearly line C. Seven of
Asch’s accomplices chose the wrong answer. Tallying all of the trials, 37 percent of the
subjects ended up agreeing with the false judgments of the group. When the subjects
alone were asked to judge the length of the lines, away from the influence of the group,
they made errors only one percent of the time.
2. In 1963, Stanley Milgram’s laboratory experiment on obedience revealed that volunteers
would actually shock study participants in the course of taking orders. The simulated
experiment had learners receiving a shock from participants. When the learners shrieked
in pain, the majority of the teachers, although distressed, obeyed the study supervisor and
administered the shocks when told to do so. Many followed through.
3. The idea of just taking orders was recently discuss in the Abu Ghraib prison controversy
in Iraq. Many involved argued that they were just taking orders from higher up officers.
4. Philip Zimbardo’s research underscores the power of groups and conformity. In an
experiment he selected 24 volunteers for an experiment on prison life. With some of the
volunteer guards and other prisoners he found that normal young men quickly assumed
the roles of obedient and docile prisoners or autocratic and controlling guards. The guards
became increasingly more cruel and demanding. The prisoners complied with
dehumanizing demands (such as eating filthy sausages) to gain the guards’ approval, and
bowed to their authority. The experiment was ended after guards became abusive.
5. Irving Janis’s research on groupthink or a deterioration of mental efficiency, reality
testing, and moral judgment that results from in-group pressures. This can lead to the
acceptance of weak arguments. Groupthink is common in high levels of government or
local groups such as the PTA.
F. Social networks are a web of social ties that links an individual to others. A social network may
contain a group as small as three people to millions. They may be tightly knit, interact on a daily
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basis, and have clear boundaries about who belongs and who doesn’t. In other cases, our social
networks connect us to large numbers of people that we don’t know personally, with whom we
interact rarely or indirectly, and the group’s
boundaries are fluid or unclear.
II. FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS
A. A formal organization is a complex and
structured secondary group that is
deliberately created to achieve specific goals
in an efficient manner. Characteristics of
formal organizations include social statuses
and roles are organized around shared
expectations and goals, norms governing social relationships specify the members’ rights, duties,
and sanctions, and a formal hierarchy includes leaders or people who are “in charge.”
B. A voluntary association is a formal organization created by people who share a common set of
interests and who are not paid for their participation. Voluntary associations vary by the level of
organization, rules and procedures, and goals.
C. Bureaucracies are a formal organization that is designed to accomplish goals and tasks by large
numbers of people in the most efficient and rational way possible.
1. Max Weber argued that there are six ideal characteristics of bureaucracies. The first is a
high degree of division of labor and specialization, second is a hierarchy of authority,
third is explicit written rules and regulations, fourth impersonality, fifth qualificationbased employment, and lastly separation of work and ownership.
2. Shortcomings of bureaucracies include weak reward systems which reduce the
motivation to do a good job. Weak rewards are thus a major source of inefficiency and
lack of innovation. Rigid rules also discourage creativity. Rigid rules create and reinforce
bureaucratic ritualism, a preoccupation with rules and regulations rather than an
organization’s objectives. Rigid rules and ritualism often lead to alienation or a feeling of
isolation, meaninglessness, and powerlessness. Communication problems are also
common in bureaucracies. Because communication typically flows down rather than up
the hierarchy, employees (including many managers) below the highest echelons rarely
know what’s going on. Another problem with bureaucracies is what is called Parkinson’s
Law, the idea that work expands to fill the time available for its completion. This means
that even if employees finish an assigned task before a due date, they’ll look busy and act
as though they’re still working on the task to safeguard their jobs or to avoid getting
another assignment. A related problem, the Peter Principle, proposes that workers are
promoted until they reach their “level of incompetence.” Employees who perform well
are promoted to the next level, usually into administrative positions.
3. The iron law of oligarchy is the tendency of a bureaucracy to become increasingly
dominated by a small group of people. A handful of elite can control and rule a
bureaucracy because the officials and leaders monopolize information and resources. As
a result, those at the top maintain power and privilege. The cumulative effect of these and
other bureaucratic dysfunctions can result in dehumanization.
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4. The McDonaldization of Society refers to the application of the principles of the fast food
industry to other social institutions. The McDonaldization of society has four parts. They
include efficiency, calculability, predictability, and control. These characteristics reflect a
rational system that increases a bureaucracy’s efficiency. On the other hand, George
Ritzer contends, McDonaldization reflects the “irrationality of rationality” because the
results can be harmful. For example, the huge farms that now produce “uniform potatoes
to create those predictable French fries” of the same size rely on the extensive use of
chemicals that then pollute water supplies. And the enormous nonbiodegradable trash that
McDonald’s produces wastes our money because we—and not McDonald’s—pay for
landfills.
D. The informal side of bureaucracy refers to the tendency of workers to create networks that help
them make sense of bureaucracies and make decisions. Studies of informal social groups show
they can promote the goals of the organization as well as resist the organization’s formal rules
and procedures. Today, self-managing work teams work in groups to solve problems, gather and
interpret information, act on the information, and take collective responsibility for their actions.
1. Historic studies of informal studies structures show differences in how people work
inside of bureaucracies. Frederick Winslow Taylor studied organizational efficiency
based on the principles of scientific management. He believed that workers were
inefficient and in need of managers and organization. Other research such as the
Hawthrone studies found this was not true. It found that informal social groups can
promote an organization's goals if they collaborate, are cohesive, and motivate each
other. The study found important links between formal and informal networks. They
found individuals will not turn out to much or too little work, tell on a coworker, and act
like an inspector.
2. Modern Work Groups assume that workers can think and self-manage. Today, selfmanaging work teams are the dominant model in most large organizations. These
postbureaucratic organizations, involve groups of 10 to 15 people who take on the duties
of their former supervisors. Instead of being told what to do by a boss, self-managing
workers gather and interpret information, act on the information, and take collective
responsibility for their actions.
III. SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS
A. Functionalists argue that cooperation works with rules and procedures effective ways to organize
work. Groups and formal organizations are composed of interrelated, mutually dependent parts.
They do point to the dysfunctions of bureaucracies, such as alienation and weak reward systems.
1.
For critics, especially conflict theorists, functionalists exaggerate harmony and tend
to gloss over dysfunctions such as worker dissatisfaction and alienation.
B. Conflict theorists claim that some benefit more than others in bureaucracies. They point to
differences in power and control. Inequality in income, status, and other rewards means that
owners and managers can easily exploit workers.
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1.
Critics argue that conflict theorists overestimate equality and underestimate the good
sides of bureaucracies, such as efficiency.
C. Feminists argue that men benefit more than women in organizations. They point out that women
and minorities fare worse than white males in organizations. A key idea is the glass ceiling, where
attitudinal or organizational biases in the workplace prevent them from advancing to leadership
positions. Organizational barriers reflect, in large part, stereotypes about gender roles.
1.
Critics see feminists ignoring Latino women and all men’s experiences. They also
focus less on progress seeing problems instead.
D. Symbolic interactionist emphasize that how people define a situation shapes group dynamics and,
consequently, organizations. They shape the outcome of group dynamics by interpreting
meanings. Group leaders or members can create or reinforce conformity.
1. Critics of interactionists point to their emphasis on small groups. They ignore the macro
level of organizations and the tendency for individuals to be impacted by large scale
structures.
IV. INSTITUTIONS
A. An institution has all the norms, statuses, and roles that meet one or more of a society’s basic
needs. Key institutions are:
1. The family replaces people in a society through procreation, socializes its members,
raises children, and legitimizes sexual activity between adults.
2. The economy organizes a society’s development, production, distribution, and
consumption of goods and services.
3. The political institution maintains law and order, passes legislation, and forms military
groups for internal and external defense.
4. Education socializes people, transmits knowledge, and provides information and training
for jobs and other work-related activities.
5. Religion encompasses beliefs and practices that provide a sense of meaning and purpose
related to the afterlife.
B. Institutions are important because they ensure society’s survival. They contain the shared beliefs,
values, and norms that govern individuals, groups, and organizations.
C. Institutions are interconnected. Taxes in the economy provide revenues for political, education,
and family institutions. Education provides productive people for the economy. For instance
understanding institutions can tell us a lot about how a society functions and how we’re
connected to each other. Consider, for example, the linkages between six social institutions—the
economy, the political system, medicine, education, family, and the media—in addressing
Americans’ weight.