Freshman Composition
If you are taking Freshman Composition (English 1310 and English 1320),
then you are developing writing techniques that you can use in your other
college courses. In both courses, you’ll focus on writing and revision—lots of
revision.
Part of your goal is to carefully read and examine your writing in order to
improve your technique. To do this, you’ll learn about and use key rhetorical
concepts in your writing. Simply put, rhetoric is the art of using language,
whether we’re using it in writing or in our everyday speech. Rhetoric exists all
day every day, from a billboard, to a bumper sticker, to a tattoo. All of these
items deliver a sort of message; the effectiveness of the message has the
potential to persuade us to see things differently or to acknowledge that a
different viewpoint is a viable option. Once you understand the terminology
you’re using in the course, you’ll find it quite useful because you’ll be able to
turn that terminology into effective rhetorical tools you can use over and over,
both in your coursework and in the future when you enter the workforce.
The concept of rhetoric comes from the ancient Greeks, a civilization that
members of Western civilization have looked to because of its sophisticated
modes of living, learning, and governing themselves. Many of our other modern
ideas are taken from Greek models, including our judicial system and the
modern Olympic games. The rhetorical concepts you’ll use in English 1310 and
1320 come from the Greek ideas of effective written and oral communication.
Modern writers still use and value these ancient concepts because they work so
well.
Format and Length Requirements for Your Papers
Your papers in both English 1310 and English 1320 will be short. In fact, you’ll
probably be limited to writing two pages. You’ll be asked to use single-spaced
Times New Roman typeface in a 10-point font. You’ll submit all of your work on
paper; you won’t turn in anything online. This is intended to help both you and
your instructor to focus on revision rather than on length. Once again, you will
 Limit your paper to two pages
(You’ll turn in one page with printing on the front and on the back.)
 Single-space
 Use Times New Roman in a 10-point font
In this handout, we’ll explain the basic premise of the papers you’ll write in
English 1310 and English 1320. We’ll conclude with a brief definition of many
of the important terms you’ll use in these courses.
Freshman Composition, Page |2
Your instructor may choose to vary the content somewhat, but you can expect
the following types of assignments in English 1310 and 1320.
Hupomnemata
Think of the Hupomnemata (Hoop-oh-nay-mot-ah) as a type of writing journal
where you record the rhetoric you see daily. This journal helps you build copia
(abundant arguments or figures) about commonplaces (ideas, statements, or
knowledge commonly shared by a group of people). In other words, the
Hupomnemata helps you compile topics you might use for your papers in this
course, and it also helps you to test ideas that you can use as the foundation
for your papers in English 1310 and 1320. Your instructor may ask you to do
some daily in-class writing activities in your Hupomnemata.
Argument Description
In this assignment, you’ll choose an essay from the readings you’ve done for
class and describe how the writer developed his or her argument. Keep in mind
that in rhetorical terms, an argument is a stance rather than a disagreement.
In this assignment you will
 Describe how the writer developed his or her argument
 Identify the main argument of the piece
 Examine what types of proof the writer uses to justify his or her claims
Argumentative Analysis
Using a piece you’ve read for class, you will evaluate the writer’s argument. In
this assignment you will
 Use close reading as a strategy
 Evaluate the writer’s argument, looking at both primary and secondary
claims
 Use description to identify and describe the writer’s argument
 Look at the challenges and possible consequences if the writer fails to
persuade the audience
 Examine what, if anything, is missing from the argument
 Look at how the intended audience might react to the argument
Genre Analysis
For this assignment, you’ll need to use an assignment from outside English
1310 or 1320. In this assignment you will
 Choose an assignment you haven’t completed yet, like a final project for
one of your classes other than English 1310 or 1320
 Develop an argumentative analysis in which you explain what you’ll need
to do to complete the assignment
 Analyze the strategies and processes you’ll use to complete the
assignment
 Evaluate how you’ll adapt these strategies and processes to meet the
conventions of the specific discipline
Freshman Composition, Page |3
Arguments in Literature
In this assignment, you’ll examine the argumentative possibilities in a piece of
literature. In this assignment you will
 Examine the argumentative possibilities of a piece of literature
 Use analysis and description to identify the arguments the writer
presents in a fictional context
 Compare the effectiveness of the fictional arguments with the non-fiction
pieces you’ve read in class
 Synthesize, or combine, the arguments in relation to one another by
examining how fiction as a genre works in the same “conversation” that
essays as a genre work
 Use analysis and close reading to identify connections between the two
genres and to explain their relevance to each other
Writing Portfolio
During the semester, you’ll compile a portfolio of your work. Your final portfolio
will contain the best examples of your work in English 1310 or 1320. Thus, it
becomes a record of your growth as a writer. You’ll need to check with your
instructor to see how he or she wants you to arrange and turn in the portfolio.
Most likely, your instructor will also want you to write some kind of account of
what’s in your portfolio. In this account, you will most likely
 Demonstrate your writing progress throughout the semester
 Evaluate your choices in your revisions
 Point to evidence of your growth as a writer during the semester
 Identify opportunities for continued growth as a writer
Revision Memos
Becoming a better writer is dependent on your ability to understand the
rhetorical strategies you use in your papers, and then to use those strategies to
revise and improve your paper. Towards this end, you’ll write a revision memo
for each paper. When you write a revision memo, your goal is to think critically
about the rhetorical strategies you’ve used and how well you used them. The
memo will include an Executive Summary, a response to the instructor, a plan
for revision, and specific dates for completion. Consult with your instructor on
the format for this memo. When you write the revision memo you should
 Show careful consideration of the instructor’s feedback in the Executive
Summary
 Respond in writing to the questions your instructor has asked
 Explain your plan for revising your work
 Explain why you choose not to revise something if that is your choice
 Outline the strategies you’ll use to improve your work along with a
schedule with specific dates for completing your revision
Freshman Composition, Page |4
Freshman Composition Terminology
You’ll encounter many of these terms and ideas during your work in English
1310 and English 1320. Check the glossary in Ancient Rhetorics for
Contemporary Students for terms we don’t define in this handout.
Five Canons of Rhetoric
The Five Canons, or rules of rhetoric, are guides to helping you create an
effective rhetorical strategy. The canons include
 Invention, or the process of developing arguments
 Arrangement, or organizing ideas for maximum impact
 Style, or determining how to present the argument most effectively
 Memory, the process of memorizing both speeches and persuasive
messages
 Delivery, or the way a speaker uses tones, pronunciation, pacing, and
gestures to present a persuasive argument
Amplification & Amplification means the ability to say a lot about a little.
expansion In other words, you can amplify, or expand, your idea by
discussing it at length.
Arrangement Arrangement refers to the order in which you place your
arguments and/or your evidence.
Artifact An artifact is any combination of words, images, and
sounds that represent the values and ideas of a group.
Artifacts provide a tangible expression of the way a
person or a group represents its ideas.
Chreia (KRAY ya) Chreia is elaboration on a famous saying or
event, like the signing of the Declaration of
Independence.
Commonplace A commonplace is an idea, statement, or knowledge
that’s commonly accepted by a group of people.
Comparison Comparison is considered a sophisticated rhetorical
concept. In it, you place two similar items side-by-side
and look at their similarities.
Confirmation A confirmation is an elaboration in support of something
you hold to be true or correct.
Conjecture A conjecture is a guess or speculation that something’s
true.
Copia (KO pee ya) Copia represents an abundant and ready
supply of information you can use for any occasion.
Counterargument A counterargument is a contrasting idea that is often the
opposite of what you’re trying to say or prove.
Delivery Delivery is the way a speaker uses tones, pronunciation,
pacing, and gestures to present a persuasive argument.
Freshman Composition, Page |5
Dialogue Dialogue is a conversation between two or more people.
It can also be an exchange of ideas.
Ekphrasis (ek FRAY sis) Also called “description.” Simply put, it’s
the description of a work of art as part of a rhetorical
exercise. An example of an ekphrasis is John Keats’s
poem “Ode on a Grecian Urn,” where Keats describes the
urn and imagines what it means both to him and to
others who might see it.
Encomium (en KOH mee uhm) An encomium is a formal expression
of high praise, like a eulogy, a letter of recommendation,
a character witness at a trial, or a wedding toast.
Enthymemes (EN thee meem) An enthymeme is a type of three part
deductive reasoning (also called a syllogism) that omits
one part of the reasoning because it’s considered
obvious. Here’s an example:
All men are mortal.
Socrates was a man.
Socrates was mortal.
Ethical proof
Ethopoeia
Ethos
Examples
Extrinsic proof
In an enthymeme, we’d leave one part of that argument
out. Our reasoning could look like this in an
enthymeme:
All men are mortal.
Socrates was mortal.
Ethical proof depends on the good reputation of the
rhetor (the person making the argument).
(ee tho PO ee ya) Ethopoeia is a character portrayal.
Ethopoeia allows you to understand someone else’s
viewpoint by putting yourself in their situation. It’s the
rhetorical equivalent of what happens in To Kill a
Mockingbird when Atticus tells Scout, "You never really
understand a person until you consider things from his
point of view” (Lee 39).
(EE thos) Ethos is a person’s character or reputation. It
is also the fundamental principles of a culture—the
ideas, practices, and customs of a group of people.
An example is an element of rhetorical proof that
supports your argument.
Extrinsic proof exists in the rhetorical situation itself.
You don’t have to invent it. For example, we consider
justice to be good because its basic principle is morally
right and sound.
Freshman Composition, Page |6
Fable A fable is a short story with a moral point. Most of us are
familiar with Aesop’s fables, like the story of the Tortoise
and the Hare. The moral of that fable is “slow and steady
wins the race.”
Imitation
Introduction
of Law
Invective
Invention
Kairos
Logos
Maxim
Memory
Narrative
Pathetic proof
Pathos
There are three forms of fables: the rational form with
human characters; the ethical form with animals as lead
characters; and the third form, which involves both
humans and animals as characters.
Rhetorical imitation involves copying the work of other
rhetors so you can understand their style and their
process.
Introduction of law is the most challenging rhetorical
exercise. In it, you consider a proposed or enacted law,
and then you will either attack or defend that law.
An invective is a strong speech against something, like
testimony in Congress before a law is passed, political
ads against a candidate, or a letter to the editor of a
newspaper or magazine. An example of an invective is
the documentary film “Supersize It,” which criticizes
McDonald’s restaurants for contributing to our country’s
obesity problem.
The process of developing arguments.
(KY ross) The right time, opportunity, occasion, or
season. An example of kairos is South Carolina’s
decision to remove the Confederate flag after the church
massacre in Charleston in the summer of 2015.
(LO gose) The logic or premise behind an argument.
A maxim is a familiar saying, like “absence makes the
heart grow fonder.” Most of us think of maxims as
having some element of truth.
Memory is the process of memorizing both speeches and
persuasive messages to have them readily available.
A narrative is anything that tells a story. Aristotle
claimed there were four values to narrative—clarity,
directness, persuasiveness, and purity of language.
Pathetic proof appeals to our emotions or motives. An
example is a letter from a homesick child who begs to
come home from summer camp.
(PAY those) Pathos is the Greek word for “emotions” or
“passions.” Many words we use have the root “pathos” in
them—sympathy, empathy, pathological, apathy,
telepathy, and so on.
Freshman Composition, Page |7
Proverb A proverb is a short, forceful saying that expresses a
belief or value that’s relevant, or kairotic, to a group or
culture. An example of a proverb is “actions
speak louder than words.”
Reflection A reflection represents your ability to reflect, or think,
about the work you’ve written. When you write a
reflection, your goal is to think critically about the
rhetorical strategies you’ve used and how well you used
them.
Refutation When you refute, you consider claims that oppose your
own claims, and then you argue against those opposing
ideas. Using refutation well strengthens your argument
because it demonstrates you’ve considered all angles of
your topic and the objections people could have to it.
Rhetor (REH toor) A rhetor is anyone who uses rhetoric for any
reason. When you write your papers for English 1310
and English 1320, you are the rhetor.
Rhetoric Rhetoric is the art of using language, whether we’re
using it in writing or in our everyday speech.
Signs Facts or events that usually (or always) follow other facts
or events. For example, if you have a fever, you’re
probably ill.
Stasis (STASE is) Stasis means to stay in place or take a stand.
Stasis theory In stasis theory, you critically assess each element of
your argument. Doing this allows you to clarify your
thinking, to consider the ideas and values of your
audience, to name areas that need more research or
consideration, to think about which points are critical to
proving your point, and to arrange your ideas for
maximum impact.
Style Style refers to using language to its most effective
advantage.
Syllogism (SILL oh jiz im) A syllogism is a type of deductive
reasoning that has three parts. A classic syllogism is
All men are mortal.
Socrates was a man.
Socrates was mortal.
The last statement in a syllogism is a natural conclusion
you get from the first two statements.
Thesis (THEE sis) A thesis is a general issue.
Voice For the Greeks, voice was literally the ways in which you
used the volume, tone, and inflection of your voice to
carry your argument forward.
Freshman Composition, Page |8
Works Cited
Coleman, Britta. (2015). College Writing I. Unpublished syllabus. Department
of English, University of North Texas. Denton.
Crowley, Sharon and Debra Hawhee. Ancient Rhetorics for Contemporary
Students. Fifth edition. Boston: Pearson, 2012. 391 pages.
Lee, Harper. To Kill a Mockingbird. New York: HarperCollins, 2014. 385 pages.