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Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
Robert J. Bunker
Claremont Graduate University
Recommended Citation
Bunker, Robert J. "Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty." Europe Since 1945: An Encyclopedia, Ed. Bernard A. Cook. New York,
NY: Garland Publishing, 2001. 614-615.
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614
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty
of books by Huxley, Orwell , and Koes der. In the Library
of Kul tura se ri e works in sociology, politi cal science, hisrory of philosophy, li terary criticism, and politics have
been publi shed. Also within th e series the fo ll ow ing subseri es have been published: Dokumenty (The Documents),
containi ng so urces on th e co ntemporary hisro ry of central
Europe; Archiwum RevoLucji (Archives of the RevoLution),
essays and docum ents about th e hisrory of co mmuni sm;
and Bez Cenzury (Without Censorship), books th at had
been rejected for publi cation in Poland for political reasons. A quarterl y, Zeszyty Historyczne (The History Notebook), has been published since 1962 within the main
seri es. lr is dedicated ro the hisrory of Poland and ce ntral
Europe after 19 18.
in ce 1947 th e IL published th e main political periodi cal of Polish emi grati on, a monthly, KuLtura (CuLture) ,
edited by J. Giedroyc with the help of Z. H ertz and the
co ntribution of Juliusz M ieroszewski, Konsranry A. Jelen ki , G usraw H erlin g-G rudzinski, Jerzy rempowski,
Czeshw Mil-osz, j 6zef Czapski , Wojciech Skalmowski,
Bohdan Osadczuk, Leopold Unger and Michal- Heller.
ix-hundred iss ues of cl1 e periodi cal dealin g with co ntemporary hi story and co ntemporary politics as well as Polish
and foreign lirerawre and culture have been published.
T he IL is an important center for rhe social and political li fe of Polish emigres as well as a meeting place for
emi gres from ce ntral and Eas tern Europe. IL publica tion s
were bann ed in Poland until 1990 and had to be smuggled in. T hey were an important so urce of reprints for th e
post-1976 und erground publi hing houses in Poland ,
whi ch th e JL also supported fin ancially. In 1995 in Warsaw rh e Society for the Preservation of the lL Archives in
Paris was found ed ro work on the priceless archives and
the library of the IL in Maisons-La.6rre and ro promote
rh e activiti es and rh e heritage of th e lL.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ledroye, Jerzy. Autobiograjia na cztery r~ce. Warsaw: Czyrelnik, 1996.
Jelenk.i , Kon sranty A. "Le Rol e du mensuel 'Ku lrura' en
france." Revue du Nord, no. 4 (1988).
Kostrzewa, Robert, ed. Between East and West: Writings
from "KuLturrz. " N ew York: Hill and Wang, 1990.
upruniuk, Miroshw. Material]' do dziej6w !L w Pmyzu.
Vol . 1-2 . Torurl!War aw: UMK, 1994--95.
Tyrm and Leopo ld , ed. ExpLorations in Freedom: Prose,
Nan-ative, and Poetly from "KuLtltrrz." ew York: Stare
University of New York, 1970.
- - -. ed. "KuLtura " Essays. ew York: Stare University
of New York, 1970.
Mirosfaw Supruniuk
Intermediate-Range Nuclear
Forces Treaty
T he 1987 arms co ntrol agreement between the Soviet
Union and th e U nited Stares tOtally eliminating
intermediate-range and shorter- range gro und-launched
nuclear miss il es. T he Interm edi ate-Range Nuclear Forces
(INf) Treaty was a response to the deployment in 1977
of rh e new ov iet SS-20 mobil e in te rm ediate- range missil e, whi ch drastically altered rhe European security enviro nm ent in favor of rhe Warsaw Pact. The North Atlanti c Treaty Organ iza tion (NATO) had earlier
recogni zed that it lacked th e capacity for a median response to a Warsaw Pact ground offensive rhar wou ld be
provided by an interm edi ate- range nucl ear force. NATO
responded in 1979 to th e SS-20 deployments with a devious "dual track" co unter. T he U n ired tares proposed
th e elimination of all ovier interm ediate-range missiles,
cl1e "zero option " approach, in return for a ca ncellation
of impending American deployments. T his would appease Eu ropean opinion and blunt Soviet propaganda,
whi le simultaneo usly bu yin g tim e for the deployment of
Pershin g II ballisti c and ground-launched cru ise missiles
(GLCMs) . formal talks began in 1981 and were suspended in November 1983 by the Soviets because of Pershing II and GLCM deployment.
IN f talks were resum ed in March 1985 as parr of the
bilateral Nuclear and Space Talks (NST), bur remained
deadlocked over rhe inclusion of British and French nuclear forces, verifi ca tion procedures, and geographic exrent of th e proposed treaty. T he INf Treaty was signed
on December 8, 1987, after th e Soviet Union proposed
a total ban on all shorter-range nucl ear missiles as well as
intermedi ate- range missil es, rhe "doubl e-zero" option,
and accepted modifi ed Arne ri can verifi cation procedures.
The treaty un equivocall y bans GLCMs and groundlaunched ballistic mi ss il es (GLBM) with a range of 500
to 5,500 kilometers. All such , mi ssil es and their launchers
were destroyed within three yea rs after cl1 e treaty emered
into force on June 1, 1991. Such mi sil es, laun chers, and
supporr srrucwres and equipment cou ld henceforth not
be possessed by either rhe Soviet Un ion or cl1e United
Stares.
The INF Treaty represents a high-water mark in EastWest arms co ntrol nego tiations because of irs provisions
for on-sire inspections to ensure compli ance with rreaty
terms. The United Stares has concluded that the rwelve
newly independent stares of the former USSR are successo rs ro the INf Treaty. T hese stares have confirmed that
they are rreaty successors and will abide by treaty prohibitions.
International Expositions
BlBLIOG RAP HY
· a
Nolan, ]anne E. "The I F Treary·· El1·1111·nann
0
I
Intermediate-Range N uclear Missiles , 1987 to ne
Presenr," in Richard Dean Burns, Encyclopedia ofAlms
ControL and Disarmament, Vo l. 2. New Yo rk: Scribner
1993 .
'
Talbon , Strobe. DeadLy Gambits.
ew Yo rk: Vintage
Books, 1985.
U.S. Arms Co nrro l and Disarm ame nt Age ncy. Anns Con-
trol and Disarmament Agreements: Texts and Histories of
the Negotiations. Washingto n, D .C.: Governm ent
Printing O ffi ce, 1990.
Robert J Bunker
SEE ALSO Pershing II M iss ile
International Expositions
Imern ational exhibiti ons, co mmonly called "fairs" in the
United States, "exhibitions" in G reat Britain, and "expositions" in Fran ce. T he terms are used imerchangeably
although th ey are actual ly events of diffe rent size. T he
Bureau oflntern ati onal Expos itions, the regulating body,
designates them as "intern ational expos itions," which
bridges th e gap berween fair and exJ1ibi rion and is actually
a larger, more ex tensive, and more formall y organized
evenr.
T he first intern ational expos ition was held in 185 1 in
London, th e Crys tal Palace Exhibition. Durin g medieval
rimes great fa irs were held at major crossroads of trade as
a mixture of co mm erce, entertainment, and theater. T hey
were bas ically intern ati onal to the extent to which there
were nations. In England the fairs were national , a blend
of trade show and public entertainment. From these fairs,
rhe industrial exJ1ibirions were developed in France then
spread to England, where they were sponsored by mechanics insritutes to reach sci entific prin ciples to the
working cl ass. The mechani cs institute exhibitions included scientifi c, mechani cal, exo ti c, and fin e arts sections
that merged into the 1851 Crys tal Palace ExJ1ibirion and
the international expositions that foll owed.
These fai rs soon included special themes and more
nonindustrial features, such as fine arts and amusements.
All have demonstrated a strong streak of nationalism,
vaunting the national im age and citizens' pride in ir. Fair
managers, often with strong government support, srrove
to heighten nationalistic features on behalf of the host
country to make it loo k better than irs rivals. T his reached
its apex (or nadi r, dependin g on one's point of view) with
the American-Soviet rivalry at th e Brussels exposition in
!958, during the height of rh e Cold War, when the rwo
615
c~~ntries comp red thro ugh their re pecrive national pavil ions· Nor c01nc1
. 'd ental ly, t I1ey w re a ros from each
· · n was expe ted
other. In fact th is U · .-U 1~~ compet1n
at all the po t- 1945 expo before rh · breakup f the viet
Uniol~ in the late 1980s, but it n ver quit rea hed the
lnten lty that it did at Bru el .
Two agencies have re p nsi bil iry for U .. invo lvement
ar post-Wo rld War li expositions: rhe Dep:mm nt of
Commerce fo r fai r held in the United tate and the
U ni~ed ta res In formation Age ncy (U IA) fo r those hel d
ours1de the Uni ted rates. After 1992, rh U lA abolished
irs expo raff and w rned rhe operati on of all fuw re w rid
:airs over to the private ector, with the age n y ma in ta in lllg an advisory role only. At enoa ( 1992) and then at
Taejo n, ourh Korea (1993), the U.. effort was adm inistered by priva te-sector Amway officials who w rked
with the USIA sraff. However, the United rates still objects ro rh e hos t co untry paying total cos ts, es p iall y if
th e fai r is unsuccessful. To dare, the United rates i the
only participatin g co untry that does nor ass um e res ponsibili ty for fi nancial loss.
Promoters cl aim rh ar fa irs have three majo r benefits:
th ey promote tourism in the country in whi ch the ex po
is held as well a in co untri es represented at rhe fa irs;
increase trade berween rhe ho t nation and oth er co un tries; and rrengthen diplomati c relati ons. oun rry participation works under the "1 went to yo urs, yo u co me to
mine" theo ry, which has often pu t major co untries in
political tight spots, as happened with th e U nited tares
ar Seville. T he United Sta tes was under pressure from the
Spanish government to appear. Pulling out, whi ch ongress wanted, would have been considered an insult by
Spain , a major U.S. trading partn er.
All world fairs were canceled during Wo rld War U, and
none were held agai n until1 958. T hey re um ed with th e
Exposition Uni versell e er Imern ationale de Bruxell es
(Brussels, Expo '58); Seatcl e World 's Fai r (Cenrury 21 Exposition, 1962); New York Wo rld 's Fair (1 964-1965; not
BIE approved); Uni versal and Intern ational Exhibiti on
(Montreal, Expo '67); H emisfair '68: A Co nAuence of
Culwres of rhe Am eri cas (Sa n Antoni o, 1968); Japan
World Exposition (Osaka, Ex po '70); Intern ational Exposition of the Enviro nment (S pokane, Washington,
Expo '74); Internati onal Ocean Expos iti on (O kin awa,
1975-76); Knoxville Imernational Energy Expos iti on
(1 982); Louisiana World Expos ition (New Orleans,
1984); Tsukuba, Japan (Expo '85); 1986 World Exposition (Van couver); World Expo 88 (Brisbane, 1988); Sevill e (Expo '92); Genoa (1992); and Taejon, Korea
(1993). A 1996 expo in Budapest was canceled after a
new, democratic Hungarian governm ent decided it did