The Defining Event in Modern History First truly total war En.re genera.on slaughtered En.re poli.cal structure of Europe changed: Second World War = direct con.nua.on of the Great War No Cold War, Korea, Vietnam, Persian Gulf, Israel, war in the Balkans, radical Muslim terrorism, or U.S. as a hyperpower. The appearance of a German Empire upset balance of power in Europe. German Empire state of great wealth, industrial capacity, military power, and population. Forces of nationalism threatened Austria with disintegration. After defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, France no longer a dominant Western European power; obsessed with Germany. Bismarck: Avoid war, preserve Germany’s territorial integrity Established Three Emperors’ League with Austria and Russia. After League collapsed, The Treaty of San Stefano freed the Balkan Slavic states from Ottoman rule; Russians gained some territory. Congress of Berlin(1878) settled Eastern Question unsatisfactorily; south Slavic question remained a threat to European peace. Germany and Austria agreed to mutual defense treaty from Russia (Dual Alliance); later joined by Italy. Bismarck allied with Austria, Russia, and Italy, and on good terms with Britain. Changes under William II threatened future European stability. Bismarck as “honest broker” Seeks coalition of three powers Fears encirclement Isolate France Encourage others toward imperialism, deflect attention Russia cornerstone Germany’s growth and power=complicating factor Three Emperors’ League (1873) Great Eastern Crisis (1875-78) • Pan-Slavism • Bosnia rebellion (1875)/ Serbian war v. Ottomans/ Bulgarian uprising (1876) • Russia intervenes: War with Turkey (1877-78) • Britain becomes concerned as Russia approaches Constantinople Berlin Congress (1878) Web of Alliances • Last gasp on “Concert” • Goal: Entangle alliances • Bismarck as “honest • 1879 secret Dual Alliance broker” 1. Bulgaria halved 2. Macedonia returned to O.E. 3. Romania independent 4. A-H “temporary” occupation of BosniaHezegovina and Sanjak of Novi Pazar 5. Britain gains Cyprus 6. Russia feels cheated w. Austria • 1881: Three Emperors’ League renewed • 1882: Italy joins A-H and G, angered w. France over Tunisia Bulgarian Crisis (1885-7) Reinsurance Treaty (1887)-Conditional Neutrality w. Russia . France, concerned with security against Germany, invested in Russia, which in turn proffered a mutual defense treaty against Germany. William II instigated naval arms race in attempt to emulate Britain, which simply produced more ships. Entente Cordiale (1904) represented major step in aligning Britain with France. After Germany attempted to pressure France and the international community into colonial concessions, Britain and France arranged an alliance; forces mutually dependent by 1914. Britain concluded an agreement like Entente Cordiale with Russia (1907). The Triple Entente of Britain, Russia, and France were aligned against the Triple Alliance of Germany, AustriaHungary, and the unreliable Italy. Wilhelm II forces Bismarck from office (1890) • Emphasize brinkmanship, ignore subtlety and restraint Franco-Russian Alliance (1894) • French investments • Realpolitik Germany tries to bring UK in alliance Fashoda Incident (1898) • Splendid isolation ends • Britain & France: War? • Two power standard (1889) • Kitchener & Omdurman • Boer War (1899-1902) • Fashoda & negotiation German sympathies with Boers, frictions • Delcasse backs down Wilhelm II after Bismarck • Poor entourage • Weltpolitik=“Place in Sun” • “Zigzag” diplomacy Patron of Ottomans • By 1900 • Berlin-Bagdad Railway British reaction • Alliance w. Japan (1902) Entente Cordiale (1904) • France and Britain • Resolves colonial disputes Egypt, Morocco Nicolas II begins disastrous reign (1894) First victory of Asians over Europeans, shock Russia & Japan clash over Manchuria Japan sneak attack on Port Arthur (Feb 1904) • Japan sinks Pacific fleet Battle of Tsushima Straits (1905) • Japan sinks Baltic fleet Revolution of 1905 Peace of Portsmouth (1905) • Japan controls Korea (annexes in 1910) and influence in S. Manchuria Russia focuses on Balkans Anglo-German Naval Arms Race (1898-1912) First Moroccan Crisis (1905) • Admiral von Tirpitz • Germany tries to provoke “Risk Fleet” (2/3 UK) wedge between Fr and UK • Wilhelm II lands in Algeria, pushes German claims • HMS Dreadnought (1906) Jackie Fisher Arms Races Algeciras Conference (1906) • Germany isolated • Britain supports France Anglo-Russian Entente (1907) • Settle colonial differences The naval strength of the powers in 1914 Country Personnel Large Naval Vessels (Dreadnoughts) Tonnage Russia 54,000 4 328,000 France 68,000 10 731,000 Britain 209,000 29 2,205,000 TOT 331,000 43 3,264,000 Germany79,000 17 1,019,000 Austria 16,000 4 249,000 TOT 95,000 21 1,268,000 (Source: Ferguson 1999, p. 85) Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Ottoman Empire disintegrating • Serbia, Montenegro, Romania independent (1878), Bulgaria autonomous • Armenian massacres • Greek-Turkish War (1897) • German patronage of Ottomans worries Russia Serbia rising • See selves as Piedmont of the Balkans • Officers murder royal family (1903) • “Pig War” (1906) • Russian support revives Bosnia Crisis (1908) • ‘Young Turks’ try to revive • • • • empire Austria formally annexes Bosnia Austria refuses Serbian and Russian demands for compensation Italy also upset Germany strongly backs Austria, humiliates Russia and Serbia Italy invades Libya (1911) Second Morocco Crisis (1911) • German gunboat • • • • “Panther” sent to Agadir demanding compensation Germany demands French Congo UK stands by France Germany isolated France & Britain formally divide naval responsibilities Balkan Wars (1913-14) • Balkan League (Serbia, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro) turn against Ottomans • Serbia and Greece gain most • London Conference Austria demands independent Albania Second war begins over Macedonia Serbia keeps territory Bulgaria wants Serbia & Bulgaria go to war Bulgaria loses Serbia 2 x in size Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. EUROPE IN 1914 Archduke Franz Ferdinand assassinated, 28 June 1914 Outrage in Europe Austria slow to respond to Serbia • Blank check: Germany to Austria • Russia: Likely to defend Serbia France to be drawn in Austria mobilized, Russia mobilized, Germany declared war on Russia and the next day declared war on France. Germany invaded Belgium, drawing Britain into the war, Germany invaded France, and then Britain declared war on Germany. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Russia mobilizes troops German demands France and Russia reject demands Germany declares war on Russia, then France. Schlieffen Plan: German war plans-invasion of neutral Belgium Britain declares war on Germany. The slaughter begins and continues until November 1918. First large-scale use of many deadly weapons: • Machine guns • Combat aircraft • Tanks • High velocity artillery • Submarines • Poison Gas Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. . Sub-Saharan Africa • Four German colonies targeted • Only Togoland falls quickly Gallipoli • Britain strikes Ottomans • Battle of Gallopoli = disaster 250,000 casualties each side Weakens Commonwealth ties Gallipoli Map The incompetent government of Nicholas II led to internal disorder in Russia. Peasant discontent plagued the countryside. In the absence of Nicholas II, incompetent government officials attempted to keep order as the members of Russia’s parliament remained unsatisfied. After Gallipoli: • Lose Caucasus to Russia • British encourage Arab revolts • T.E. Lawrence & Iban Ali Hussain Balfour declaration (1917) • Zionist homeland After the abdication of the tsar, the provisional government continued to support the war effort. After one failed coup attempt, a second coup led by Lenin and Trotsky was successful in November. The government nationalized the land and turned it over to peasants. Russia was taken out of the war. The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk yielded Poland, Finland, the Baltic states, and Ukraine to Germany. After a three year battle between the Red Army, controlled by Lenin, and the White Russians, who opposed the revolution, Lenin’s Bolshevik forces were in firm control. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. With Russia out of the war, Germany, in control of important European resources like food, could focus on the western front. The deadlock continued through 1917 although American involvement would change the tide of the war. US Neutrality 1914-1916 • Supplies, loans to Allies • By 1917 = Repayment dependant on Allied Victory • Submarine Warfare Lusitania, 1915: 1,198 casualties Zimmerman Telegram • US declares war on Germany, 6 April 1917 Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. April 1916: Easter Revolt in Ireland Central Powers: Shortages, riots, mutinies 1917: French mutiny German offensive, Spring 1918 fails US troops arrive = Break German Front Central Powers collapse Armistice, 11 November 1918 April 1916: Easter Revolt in Ireland Central Powers: Shortages, riots, mutinies 1917: French mutiny German offensive, Spring 1918 fails US troops arrive = Break German Front Central Powers collapse Armistice, 11 November 1918 In March, the Germans mounted a final unsuccessful offensive. With Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey essentially out of the war, the Germany army was finished. Germany set up a new government to be established on democratic principles and asked for peace based on the Fourteen Points that were the Americans’ war aims. • Fourteen Points included self-determination for nationalities, open diplomacy, freedom of the seas, and the establishment of a League of Nations to keep the peace. Germans felt betrayed by the terms of the treaty. Casualties on both sides came to ten million dead and over twenty million wounded. The financial resources of Europe were badly strained and much of Europe was in debt to Americans. The Great War undermined ideals of Enlightenment progress and humanism. The aftermath of the Great War paved the way for the Second World War and much of the horrors of the rest of the century. Its new leaders, the Young Turks, saw their nation divided up amongst Britain and France. In its wake was the new republic of Turkey. The Arab portions of the old empire were divided into a collection of artificial states with no historical reality governed by foreign administrators. War’s toll Leading powers: • US (Wilson) • Britain (George) • France (Clemenceau) Twenty-seven nations participate Germany & Soviet Union not allowed Public opinion was a major force in politics. Many of Europe’s ethnic groups agitated for attention. Wilson’s idealism conflicted with the practical war aims of the victorious powers. Some nations had competing claims for land. The victorious nations feared the spread of Bolshevism. Fourteen Points: • Free trade, arms reduction, colonial rights, League of Nations concept • Mostly rejected; Central Powers betrayed Peace Treaties, 1919 • French = Destroy German military • Central Powers = War guilt, reparations • Austria-Hungary dissolved; new ind. states • Peace was a failure, set stage for WWII Mustafa Kemal, father of modern Turkey 1923=Drive out Allied occupation, proclaim Republic of Turkey Reforms = Women’s emancipation, Western dress, European law Secular rule Supposed constitutional democracy Ataturk rules as dictator until 1938 Forty-two members, twenty-six outside Europe Collective security • No power to enforce decisions • Relies on all nations, but US does not join Create nation-states • Based on ethnicity Redraw map of Europe: • Poland, Czechoslovakia, • Germany chopped-up (Danzig) • Yugoslavia: Mix of Serbs, Croats, Slovenes Allies propose ‘trusteeships’ • US opposition to colonization Colonies divided: Three classes of mandates Divide Germany’s African colonies, Ottoman territories in SW Asia Arabs outraged Weakens Europe Economic, social crises United States’ economic preeminence Loss of prestige for Europe • End of colonies Revolutionary ideas End of Old Europe Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved. The peace violated some idealistic principles. It left many minorities outside the borders of their national homelands. By excluding Germany and Russia, the settlement ignored the reality of their European influence. Germany felt cheated. Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. All rights reserved.
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