4
After Lewis and
S
The 2004-2006 bice
commemorated one of 1
history. At the time of t
of the west captured the
along with Americans i
decade, scholars and ot~
interpretations of the Le
to the history of the Unit
country visited sites alor
legacy from a variety ofp
us that the American Indi
were often as much of th
Furthermore, the perspe'
Sacagawea as an Amer
trustworthy companion, ~
of substantial historical I
have been.
In reality, the Lewis
itself. Rather, it remain:
of participants stretching
Clark expedition ended ir
members, and other indil
to be significant to the ~
expedition. The factthat I
and Clark became Brigac
Brad Tennant is an assistant pro
Dakota, In addition to his stud
and wriles about a variety of to!
'Ill
\
5
After Lewis and Clark: Expedition Personalities and
South Dakota History
by
Brad Tennant
The 2004-2006 bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition
commemorated one of the most significant milestones in American
history. At the time of the expedition, Lewis and Clark's exploration
of the west captured the attention of the French, British, and Spanish,
along with Americans in the eastern United States. Over the past
decade, scholars and other history enthusiasts discussed old and new
interpretations of the Lewis and Clark expedition and its significance
to the history of the United States. In addition, people from across the
country visited sites along the trail and learned about the expedition's
legacy from a variety ofperspectives. Recent scholarship also reminded
us that the American Indian nations whom Lewis and Clark encountered
were often as much of the story as the expedition members themselves.
Furthermore, the perspectives of York as an African-American slave,
Sacagawea as an American Indian woman, and, yes, even Lewis'
trustworthy companion, Seaman, have been considered despite the lack
of substantial historical evidence as to what their actual thoughts may
have been.
In reality, the Lewis and Clark expedition was never a story by
itself. Rather, it remains a collection of stories featuring a huge cast
of participants stretching from coast to coast. Although the Lewis and
Clark expedition ended in September 1806, the role ofseveral expedition
members, and other individuals whom Lewis and Clark met, continued
to be significant to the history of South Dakota in the years after the
expedition. The fact that Lewis served as Governor ofLouisiana Territory
and Clark became Brigadier General of the Louisiana Territorial Militia
Brad Tennant is an assistant professor ofhistory at Presentation College in Aberdeen, South
Dakota. In addition to his studies on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, he also researches
and writes about a variety of topics related to South Dakota and regional history.
6
and Superintendent of Indian Affairs for the territory is significant in
itself.! In their post-expedition political positions, both Lewis and Clark
continued to play important roles that were often connected to what is
now South Dakota.
From 1825 to 1828, William Clark compiled a list of the members
of the expedition and where they were at that time. Because it was
based on his personal knowledge of the expedition members, there
were many members with whom he had lost contact over the years
and could not accurately list their status. It is interesting to note how
many of the members died during the approximately twenty years after
the expedition. Among those listed by Clark as dead by 1825-1828
were Meriwether Lewis, John Ordway, John Collins, John Colter,
Pierre Cruzatte, Joseph Field, Silas Goodrich, George Gibson, George
Drouillard, Sacagawea, Hugh McNeal, John Shields, John Potts, Jean
Baptiste Lepage, John Thompson, and Peter Weiser. 2 In fact, many of
these well-known expedition members were dead within ten years of
the expedition's return in 1806. Many of these individuals returned
to the upper Missouri and, in doing so, passed through South Dakota.
While the connection to South Dakota's history may be minor in many
respects, others developed notable connections to the state and region.
As the expedition was returning through present day North Dakota,
it met two fur traders, Joseph Dickson and Forrest Hancock, who were
heading west. On 17 August 1806, John Colter asked Captain Lewis
and Lieutenant Clark ifhe could join Dickson and Hancock. Permission
was granted, and Colter immediately returned to the wilderness from
which he came. 3 The following spring, Colter decided to return to St.
Louis. However, as he was heading down the Missouri River, he met
and joined Manuel Lisa's trapping party.4 Consequently, he once again
traveled the MisSOUJi River highway through South Dakota.
While the role of Manuel Lisa's fur trading business in South
Dakota and the upper Missouri valley is well known, it is interesting
to note how many members of the Lewis and Clark expedition were
employed by Lisa. In addition to Colter, Peter Weiser, John Potts,
George Drouillard, and Touissant Charbonneau all served as employees
of Lisa at one time. Weiser and Potts joined Lisa's fur trading ventures
in 1807 and were traveling
John Colter in the area oft
members were then reunit~
through South Dakota and
Potts operated for several)
near the confluence of t1
returned to St. Louis in 1:
trapping expedition. In 18
the Three Forks of the Mis:
were captured by Blackfoa
stripped and given a head s
Colter, who was known dt
running ability, outran the
and his partners later sued
for trapping supplies. 6
George Drouillard, the
and Clark expedition, spent
but eventually, he also ren
South Dakota. As prevmu
and Weiser, was employee
killed by the Blackfoot Ind
After departing the Lev
Toussaint Charbonneau, 8
the Mandan and Hidatsa vi
Weiser, and Drouillard, Cl
Lisa. In late 1809, Charba
Dakota on their way to 8t
Jean-Baptiste began his fo
the next six years. 8
While the connection
Charbonneau to Manuel I
traveling up and down tht
more significant. Given 1
in the Lewis and Clark j,
nonetheless, has become 0
~ territory is significant in
ions, both Lewis and Clark
Dften connected to what is
)iled a list of the members
hat time. Because it was
xpedition members, there
)st contact over the years
is interesting to note how
~imately twenty years after
lrk as dead by 1825-1828
)hn Collins, John Colter,
h, George Gibson, George
l Shields, John Potts, Jean
~eiser.2 In fact, many of
: dead within ten years of
these individuals returned
,ed through South Dakota.
)ry may be minor in many
ns to the state and region.
present day North Dakota,
orrest Hancock, who were
)lter asked Captain Lewis
and Hancock. Permission
ed to the wilderness from
:er decided to return to St.
he Missouri River, he met
msequently, he once again
South Dakota.
rading business in South
,11 known, it is interesting
nd Clark expedition were
Peter Weiser, John Potts,
m all served as employees
Lisa's fur trading ventures
7
in 1807 and were traveling up the Missouri River when their party met
John Colter in the area of the Platte River. The three former expedition
members were then reunited as they once again headed up the Missouri
through South Dakota and toward the Yellowstone. 5 While Weiser and
Potts operated for several years from Lisa's trading post Fort Raymond,
near the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn rivers, Colter
returned to St. Louis in 1809 where he joined the Andrew Henry fur
trapping expedition. In 1810, Colter and Potts met again in the area of
the Three Forks of the Missouri in Montana. Shortly thereafter, the two
were captured by Blackfoot Indians. Potts was killed, while Colter was
stripped and given a head start in a game of cat and mouse. Fortunately,
Colter, who was known during the Lewis and Clark expedition for his
running ability, outran the Blackfoot and survived. Unfortunately, Lisa
and his partners later sued Potts' estate for $1,000 in payment for debts
for trapping supplies. 6
George Drouillard, the acclaimed hunter and interpreter ofthe Lewis
and Clark expedition, spent several years in Missouri after the expedition,
but eventually, he also returned to the upper Missouri passing through
South Dakota. As previously mentioned, Drouillard, like Colter, Potts,
and Weiser, was employed by Lisa, and like John Potts, he was also
killed by the Blackfoot Indians in 1810. 7
After departing the Lewis and Clark expedition in mid-August 1806,
Toussaint Charbonneau, Sacagawea, and Jean-Baptiste settled among
the Mandan and Hidatsa villages ofNorth Dakota. As with Colter, Potts,
Weiser, and Drouillard, Charbonneau became an employee of Manuel
Lisa. In late 1809, Charbonneau and his family traveled through South
Dakota on their way to St. Louis to visit William Clark. At this time,
Jean-Baptiste began his formal education and remained in St. Louis for
the next six years. 8
While the connections of Colter, Potts, Weiser, Drouillard, and
Charbonneau to Manuel Lisa and South Dakota history are limited to
traveling up and down the Missouri River, Sacagawea's connection is
more significant. Given the fact that actual references to Sacagawea
in the Lewis and Clark journals are limited and brief in detail, she,
nonetheless, has become one of the most notable figures associated with
8
the expedition. In addition to different interpretations regarding the
spelling and meaning of her name, along with her role and contributions
to the expedition, Sacagawea's place and date ofdeath are also matters of
controversy. Most historians, however, believe that Sacagawea died at
Fort Manuel Lisa in north central South Dakota on 20 December 1812. 9
Among the evidence supporting Sacagawea's death at Ft. Manuel is a
journal entry by John C. Luttig, who was a clerk for the Missouri Fur
Company at Ft. Manuel Lisa. According to Luttig's journal, the Snake
(Shoshoni) wife of Charbonneau died of putrid fever on that date. He,
furthermore, stated that she was approximately twenty-five years of age
and had a child, which would have been her daughter Lizette. Even
William Clark listed Sacagawea as dead when he compiled his 1825-1828
roster of expedition members. lo Several historical markers devoted to
Sacagawea can be found along the upper Missouri River, including one
near Mobridge, South Dakota that refers to her as "the most illustrious
feminine representative of the Indian race."
While some ofthe former members ofthe Lewis and Clark expedition
returned to the upper Missouri because of the fur trade, other members
returned to South Dakota as part of a special assignment. When Lewis
and Clark stopped at the Mandan villages on their return trip in 1806,
they convinced the Mandan chief Sheheke (White Coyote) to return
with them and to visit Washington, DC, which he did accompanied by
his family. 1I A year later, in 1807, White Coyote was ready to return
to the Mandan people. Consequently, the responsibility of returning
Sheheke to his village was assigned to Ensign Nathaniel Pryor, who
was one of the sergeants during the Lewis and Clark expedition. 12 In
addition to Pryor and Sheheke, other noteworthy individuals recruited
for this mission included Private George Shannon and interpreters Pierre
Dorion and Rene Jessaume. Envisioning an opportunity to establish
trade relations with several upper Missouri tribes, St. Louis fur trader
and entrepreneur Auguste Pierre Chouteau received permission to also
accompany Pryor's party.
George Shannon was the young private in the Corps of Discovery
who was lost sixteen days on the Nebraska side of the Missouri as the
expedition made its way into South Dakota. Thinking that the expedition
was ahead of him, he pu
when, in reality, the expec
the Frenchman who lived
years prior to being hired
Yankton council of 30-31
Lewis and Clark Visitor's l
for him, and a historical II
The other interpreter, Ren
expedition's 1804-1805 v
Chouteau was the eldest
famous St. Louis fur tradi
South Dakota derive the]
worked closely with botl
political positions in St. L
The 1807 party under
hundred people when it 11
troops, traders employed t
were being returned to th(
many of these people travl
Chouteau still had nearly f
villages. With this number
encountered a hostile grou
however, was the collectiv~
Although several factI
any Americans coming tm
the most important factor v
In the spring of 1805, as p:
to St. Louis with the kee
to Washington, DC. Arne
Feather. Unfortunately, a
Philadelphia, Eagle Feath
of the great chief's death
hostility toward Arnericar
Mandan and Arikara natic
of distrust, dislike, and h<
Arikara nation in order to
\
\,
9
:erpretations regarding the
1 her role and contributions
ofdeath are also matters of
~ve that Sacagawea died at
ota on 20 December 1812. 9
's death at Ft. Manuel is a
clerk for the Missouri Fur
Luttig's journal, the Snake
rid fever on that date. He,
:ly twenty-five years of age
er daughter Lizette. Even
l he compiled his 1825-1828
;torical markers devoted to
ssouri River, including one
b~ as "the most illustrious
Lewis and Clark expedition
,e fur trade, other members
l assignment. When Lewis
n their return trip in 1806,
(White Coyote) to return
lch he did accompanied by
;oyote was ready to return
responsibility of returning
~ign Nathaniel Pryor, who
md Clark expedition. 12 In
orthy individuals recruited
mon and interpreters Pierre
m opportunity to establish
tribes, St. Louis fur trader
eceived permission to also
in the Corps of Discovery
side of the Missouri as the
'hinking that the expedition
was ahead of him, he pushed himself trying to catch the main party
when, in reality, the expedition was pursuing him. l3 Pierre Dorion was
the Frenchman who lived with the Yankton for approximately twenty
years prior to being hired by Lewis and Clark as an interpreter for the
Yankton council of 30-31 August 1804. The Dorion Gardens at the
Lewis and Clark Visitor's Center near Yankton, South Dakota are named
for him, and a historical marker located in Yankton is dedicated to him.
The other interpreter, Rene Jessaume, was hired to translate during the
Auguste Pierre
expedition's 1804-1805 winter with the Mandan. 14
Chouteau was the eldest son of Pierre Chouteau, the patriarch of the
famous St. Louis fur trading family from whom Fort Pierre and Pierre,
South Dakota derive their name. In addition, the Chouteau family
worked closely with both Lewis and Clark in their post-expedition
political positions in St. Louis. 15
The 1807 party under Pryor's leadership numbered a little over one
hundred people when it left St. Louis. This number included Pryor's
troops, traders employed by Chouteau, and a large group ofIndians who
were being returned to their respective tribes along the way. Although
many of these people traveled only as far as the Sioux nation, Pryor and
Chouteau still had nearly fifty men as they continued toward the Mandan
villages. With this number, Pryor felt that they would be safe even if they
encountered a hostile group along the way. What Pryor did not expect,
however, was the collective resistance of the Arikara nation. 16
Although several factors contributed to the Arikara turning against
any Americans coming through their part of north central South Dakota,
the most important factor was the death ofthe Arikara chiefEagle Feather.
In the spring of 1805, as part ofthe Lewis and Clark expedition returned
to St. Louis with the keelboat, a number of chiefs were invited to go
to Washington, DC. Among those accepting the invitation was Eagle
Feather. Unfortunately, after visiting Washington, DC, Baltimore, and
Philadelphia, Eagle Feather became ill and died on 7 April 1806. Word
of the great chief's death angered the Arikara, thus creating a sense of
hostility toward Americans. At the same time, the rivalry between the
Mandan and Arikara nations rekindled. In the midst of this atmosphere
of distrust, dislike, and hostility, Ensign Pryor had to pass through the
Arikara nation in order to take Sheheke back to the Mandan villages. 17
10
Upon arriving at the Arikara villages, Pryor quickly realized the
seriousness of the situation. Pryor later reported that he believed
Manuel Lisa also contributed to the hostile environment. Lisa, who
was traveling with a trapping party ahead of Pryor and Chouteau,
supposedly informed the Arikara that a Mandan chief and many trade
goods would soon be arriving. Thus, Lisa convinced the Arikara to
let his party pass. 18 When Pryor arrived at the Arikara villages, he
attempted to deliver a speech of friendship, however, the interpreters
Dorion and Jessaume, who spoke Sioux and Mandan respectively, were
of little use. Consequently, Pryor had to rely upon a Spaniard, who was
residing with the Arikara at the time, to interpret. Given the resentment
by the Spanish over the American acquisition of Louisiana Territory,
Pryor considered the Spaniard to be very suspect in his interpretation.
Afterwards, Pryor gave the Arikara chief Grey Eyes a peace medal,
while Chouteau reluctantly offered a great portion of his trade goods
as gifts. Although Lewis and Clark did not meet Grey Eyes during
their outbound trip in October 1804, Clark held a council with Grey
Eyes on 21 August 1806 on their return trip. Since then, Grey Eyes had
become increasingly anti-American. As tensions between the Arikara
and Pryor's party increased, Grey Eyes reportedly tore the medal from
his neck and violence erupted. With an estimated 650 Arikara warriors
beginning to shoot, Pryor and Chouteau eventually retreated downriver,
although shots continued to be fired for almost an hour until safety was
finally reached. 19
Despite the odds, Pryor and Chouteau lost only three men although
a number of men suffered from various wounds. Among the wounded
were George Shannon and Rene Jessaume. Although Jessaume's
wounds were not life-threatening, Shannon suffered a severely broken
leg, which eventually had to be amputated. Despite his injury, Shannon
provided a great deal of assistance several years later to William Clark
when Nicholas Biddle edited the Lewis and Clark journals. Meanwhile,
Pryor returned Sheheke to St. Louis and wrote a lengthy letter to
Superintendent ofIndian Affairs William Clark explaining the situation.
Pryor's first sentence stated, "The Escort under my command for the
reconveyance of the Mandane Chief to his nation has been compelled to
return to St. Louis without accomplishing that object."2o
The post-Lewis and Cl
the Arikara lasted well int
Fur Company was organizl
Clark, Manuel Lisa, Pierr
Lewis, Meriwether's brat
Indians on the Missouri Ri
Lewis extended a contract
Louis Missouri Fur Comp
The amount of the contrac
From a practical pers
government lacked the
treacherous Sioux and A
Missouri Fur Company r
along the Yellowstone Ri
Sheheke was returned hor
As Chouteau and Lisa
them with an additional l
wrote, "That the aricare I
unprovoked attack on the
in September 1807." Le'
individuals who killed ou
number with those murdel
their nation. 23 It was at th
historian Stephen Ambro
unsettled. His order of v
strain under which Lewis
being challenged by oth~
to the St. Louis Missouri
in particular, was being (
on a regular basis from
personal financial situatio
Madison's secretary of"
that expenditures beyond
Missouri Fur Company 1
government. Lewis begar
to Washington, DC. 24 Of
~
11
Pryor quickly realized the
reported that he believed
: environment. Lisa, who
1 of Pryor and Chouteau,
Ildan chief and many trade
i convinced the Arikara to
at the Arikara villages, he
, however, the interpreters
Mandan respectively, were
'upon a Spaniard, who was
pret. Given the resentment
ion of Louisiana Territory,
Ispect in his interpretation.
~rey Eyes a peace medal,
portion of his trade goods
ot meet Grey Eyes during
. held a council with Grey
Since then, Grey Eyes had
ISions between the Arikara
>rtedly tore the medal from
nated 650 Arikara warriors
Itually retreated downriver,
)st an hour until safety was
1St only three men although
mds. Among the wounded
me. Although Jessaume's
suffered a severely broken
Despite his injury, Shannon
'ears later to William Clark
=:lark journals. Meanwhile,
wrote a lengthy letter to
lrk explaining the situation.
nder my command for the
ltion has been compelled to
at object."20
The post-Lewis and Clark expedition connection to the fur-trade and
the Arikara lasted well into the 1820s. In 1808, the St. Louis Missouri
Fur Company was organized with some ofthe partners including William
Clark, Manuel Lisa, Pierre and Auguste Pierre Chouteau, and Reuben
Lewis, Meriwether's brother whom Clark appointed as a subagent to
Indians on the Missouri River. In an interesting political twist, Governor
Lewis extended a contract on behalf of the federal government to the St.
Louis Missouri Fur Company to return Sheheke to the Mandan nation.
The amount of the contract was $7,000 for Sheheke's safe return. 21
From a practical perspective the arrangements made sense. The
government lacked the manpower to take Sheheke through the
treacherous Sioux and Arikara country. Meanwhile, the St. Louis
Missouri Fur Company needed funding to establish trading outposts
along the Yellowstone River, well beyond the Arikara nation. Once
Sheheke was returned home, the company could continue westwardY
As Chouteau and Lisa prepared to return Sheheke, Lewis presented
them with an additional order. In a letter dated 8 June 1809, Lewis
wrote, "That the aricare nation should be severely Punished for their
unprovoked attack on the party under the Command of Ensign Pryor
in September 1807." Lewis continued by stating that "the particular
individuals who killed our citizens on that occasion" or "an equivalent
number with those murdered" should be surrendered and shot in front of
their nation. 23 It was at this time, according to the late Lewis and Clark
historian Stephen Ambrose, that Lewis' behavior became noticeably
unsettled. His order of vengeance against the Arikara may reflect the
strain under which Lewis was suffering. He was ill; his authority was
being challenged by other government officials; and his relationship
to the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company, and to the Chouteau family
in particular, was being questioned. Not only did he borrow money
on a regular basis from the Chouteaus, which drew attention to his
personal financial situation, but he also received a letter from President
Madison's secretary of war, William Eustis. Eustis informed Lewis
that expenditures beyond the initial $7,000 provided to the St. Louis
Missouri Fur Company would not be honored by the United States
government. Lewis began making plans to defend his requests by going
to Washington, DC. 24 Of course, Lewis never finished his trip, and he
12
is believed to have committed suicide while on the way to defend his
expenditures.
On Sheheke's return trip, despite Lewis' demand for retaliation,
Chouteau held a peaceful council with the Arikara, and the party
continued out of South Dakota with Sheheke arriving at his village on 22
September 1809. 25 A little over three years after Sheheke left his people
with Lewis and Clark, he was finally home once again. Meanwhile,
relations between American traders and the Arikara improved until the
early l820s, when renewed tensions developed. John Collins, who
was a private with the Lewis and Clark expedition and who is often
remembered for his court-martial for stealing whisky, was a member
of the 1823 Ashley fur trading party heading to the Yellowstone Valley
and the Rocky Mountains. On 2 June 1823, the Arikara attacked the
Ashley Party near the Grand River in north central South Dakota. In the
ensuing battle, Collins was killed marking yet another post-expedition
connection to South Dakota history. 26
After the Arikara's attack on the Ashley party, Colonel Henry
Leavenworth led a retaliatory force of 220 soldiers from Fort Atkinson
(Nebraska). As Leavenworth's Missouri Legion advanced up the river,
approximately forty fur traders and several hundred Lakota joined the
campaign against the Arikara. 27 On 9 August 1823, the Sioux warriors
accompanying Leavenworth attacked the Arikara villages ahead of the
troops. The next day, lOAugust, Leavenworth's men arrived and began
an artillery attack on the villages. Grey Eyes, the longtime Arikara leader
who sat in council with William Clark in August 1806, died as the result
of this shelling. Eventually, Leavenworth asked the remaining Arikara
leaders to negotiate a peaceful resolution to the battIe. Interestingly, the
interpreter for the negotiations was Toussaint Charbonneau. 28
Tribal leaders of the Yankton Sioux and Teton Sioux are also among
the personalities who played important roles during the Lewis and Clark
expedition as well as years afterward. Readers of the Lewis and Clark
journals often note the difference between the peaceful council that
Lewis and Clark held with the Yankton Sioux (Nakota) as opposed to
the four tense-filled days spent later with the Teton Sioux (Lakota). Not
only did Lewis and Clark enjoy the advantage of Pierre Dorion as an
interpreter with the Yankton, but the general disposition of the Yankton
b
was also friendlier. The Y
trade goods, and in the enl
Crane, and HalfMan, alon
they wanted both trade ar
both the Yankton and Am
the council was a success
Parks manages the Chief~
which is named for the cI
Second Chief during the c
Despite the tension tha
the Lakota from 25-28 Se
sought peace with the Un
concluded. In 1815, Wi
Governor, hosted a large n
(Missouri). Thirty-seven]
to the council, which wa!
River. Among the first of'
the Lakota leaders Black]
When Lewis and Clm
1804 near present-day Fe
between the two Lakota 11
to the tensions between th
Yet, in the summer of 181
Lakota nation in an attem
States. Unfortunately, B
Lewis and Clark to conti
at the Portage des Sioux
reactions, Clark ensured
a great tribal leader. WI
salutes to the fallen Lak
funeral came when the 0
The Omaha and Lakota v
eulogy was important in e:
talks. According to the 1
13
on the way to defend his
s' demand for retaliation,
e Arikara, and the party
miving at his village on 22
ter Sheheke left his people
once again. Meanwhile,
\rikara improved until the
oped. John Collins, who
pedition and who is often
Ig whisky, was a member
to the Yellowstone Valley
i, the Arikara attacked the
mtral South Dakota. In the
et another post-expedition
ley party, Colonel Henry
lldiers from Fort Atkinson
~ion advanced up the river,
mndred Lakota joined the
;t 1823, the Sioux warriors
lkara villages ahead of the
h's men arrived and began
he longtime Arikara leader
ust 1806, died as the result
ked the remaining Arikara
Ie battle. Interestingly, the
:Charbonneau. 28
eton Sioux are also among
luring the Lewis and Clark
~rs of the Lewis and Clark
the peaceful council that
lX (Nakota) as opposed to
reton Sioux (Lakota). Not
ge of Pierre Dorion as an
disposition of the Yankton
was also friendlier. The Yankton Sioux desperately wanted and needed
trade goods, and in the end, the Yankton chiefs The Shake Hand, White
Crane, and HalfMan, along with other tribal leaders, acknowledged that
they wanted both trade and peace. With these objectives agreeable to
both the Yankton and American delegations, Lewis and Clark felt that
the council was a success. 29 Today, the South Dakota Game, Fish and
Parks manages the Chief White Crane Recreational Area near Yankton,
which is named for the chief whom Lewis and Clark identified as the
Second Chief during the council of August 1804. 30
Despite the tension that prevailed during Lewis and Clark's stay with
the Lakota from 25-28 September 1804, the Lakota leaders eventually
sought peace with the United States, especially once the War of 1812
concluded. In 1815, William Clark, serving as Missouri Territorial
Governor, hosted a large multi-tribal peace council at Portage des Sioux
(Missouri). Thirty-seven Indian nations were invited to send delegations
to the council, which was the first of its kind west of the Mississippi
River. Among the first of the Indian leaders to arrive at the council were
the Lakota leaders Black Buffalo and the Partisan. 3l
When Lewis and Clark first met Black Buffalo and the Partisan in
1804 near present-day Fort Pierre, South Dakota, the political rivalry
between the two Lakota leaders is believed to have contributed greatly
to the tensions between the Lewis and Clark expedition and the Lakota.
Yet, in the summer of 1815, both leaders stood together to represent the
Lakota nation in an attempt to forge peaceful relations with the United
States. Unfortunately, Black Buffalo, who is credited with allowing
Lewis and Clark to continue their expedition in 1804, died suddenly
at the Portage des Sioux proceedings. Hoping to avoid any negative
reactions, Clark ensured that Black Buffalo received a funeral fit for
a great tribal leader. While American troops marched and gave rifle
salutes to the fallen Lakota chieftain, the most notable event of the
funeral came when the Omaha chief Big Elk eulogized Black Buffalo.
The Omaha and Lakota were long time rivals; consequently, Big Elk's
eulogy was important in establishing a peaceful atmosphere for the treaty
talks. According to the Missouri Gazette, Big Elk said, "What is past
14
and cannot be prevented should not be grieved for. Be not discouraged
or displeased then that in visiting your father here, you have lost your
chief ... Chief of the Warriors - Your labors have not been vain - Your
attention shall not be forgotten."32
The Lakota leaders, along with William Clark as the main
representative of the United States, signed the Treaty of Portage des
Sioux on 19 July 1815, while the United States Senate ratified it on 26
December 1815. In short, the treaty stated that "there shall be perpetual
peace and friendship" between the United States and the Teton tribe. 33
The treaty, of course, would be only one of many to be signed between
the Sioux nation and the United States during the nineteenth century.
In retrospect, the significance of the many events and personalities
of the 1804-1806 Lewis and Clark expedition did not end with the
expedition itself. In many ways, the expedition marked the beginning
of a drastically changing period of time in American history, which
included trading, conflict, treaties, and westward expansion. The role
of many expedition members and others with whom Lewis and Clark
met continued to be significant to the history of South Dakota and the
upper Missouri Valley for years, and in some cases, decades after the
expedition returned in September 1806. Therefore, it is important to
remember those who were a part of the Lewis and Clark expedition and
the ever-changing course of history.
1. Stephen E. Ambrose, Undau
and the Opening of the Amej
415-16.
2. Donald Jackson, ed., Lettej
Documents 1783-1854,2 volur
638-39.
3. Ambrose, 387, 389.
4. Charles G. Clarke, The MI.
University of Nebraska Press, 1
5. Ibid., 46-47,51,59.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 42.
8. An American Legacy: TheLe
Clark Trail Heritage Foundatiol
9. Stephanie Ambrose Tubbs
Companion - An Encyclopedic
Holt and Company, 2003), 268·
10. James P. Ronda, Lewis and
Nebraska Press, 1984),258-59.
II. Sheheke was often translate
translation White Coyote.
12. Tracy Potter, Sheheke: Mc.
Thomas Jefferson, and Lewis Q
138; Landon Y. Jones, Willian
and Wang, 2004),158.
13. Ambrose, 166.
14. Tubbs and Jenkinson, 95, 1
15. Potter, 138.
16. Ibid., 139-40.
17. Mark Chalkley, "Eagle F(
2003,7-8.
18. Jones, 161.
19. Potter, 143-46; Ronda, 248
20. Clarke, 52; and Jackson, 4:
21. Jones, 172.
22. Ambrose, 444.
23. Jackson, 451-54.
24. Ambrose, 450-51,456,45:
ed for. Be not discouraged
~r here, you have lost your
;have not been vain - Your
liam Clark as the main
the Treaty of Portage des
ltes Senate ratified it on 26
lat "there shall be perpetual
,tates and the Teton tribe. 33
nany to be signed between
g the nineteenth century.
lY events and personalities
tion did not end with the
tion marked the beginning
l American history, which
ward expansion. The role
th whom Lewis and Clark
y of South Dakota and the
Ie cases, decades after the
herefore, it is important to
s and Clark expedition and
15
NOTES
1. Stephen E. Ambrose, Undaunted Courage - Meriwether Lewis, Thomas Jefferson,
and the Opening of the American West, (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1996),
415-16.
2. Donald Jackson, ed., Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition with Related
Documents 1783-1854,2 volumes (Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press, 1978).
638-39.
3. Ambrose. 387, 389.
4. Charles G. Clarke, The Men of the Lewis & Clark Expedition, (Lincoln, NE:
University of Nebraska Press, 1970, reprinted 2002), 46-47.
5. Ibid., 46-47,51,59.
6. Ibid.
7. Ibid., 42.
8. An American Legacy: The Lewis and Clark Expedition, (Great Falls, MT: Lewis and
Clark Trail Heritage Foundation, 2001), B.25-26, B.28.
9. Stephanie Ambrose Tubbs and Clay Straus Jenkinson, The Lewis and Clark
Companion - An Encyclopedic guide to the Voyage ofDiscovery, (New York: Henry
Holt and Company, 2003), 268-69.
10. James P. Ronda, Lewis and Clark among the Indians, (Lincoln, NE: University of
Nebraska Press, 1984),258-59.
11. Sheheke was often translated into Big White, however, recent scholarship uses the
translation White Coyote.
12. Tracy Potter, Sheheke: Mandan Indian Diplomat - The Story of White Coyote,
Thomas Jefferson, and Lewis and Clark, (Washburn, ND: Fort Mandan Press, 2003),
138; Landon Y. Jones, William Clark and the Shaping of the West, (New York: Hill
and Wang, 2004), 158.
13. Ambrose, 166.
14. Tubbs and Jenkinson, 95,169-70.
15. Potter, 138.
16. Ibid., 139-40.
17. Mark Chalkley, "Eagle Feather Goes to Washington," We Proceeded On, May
2003, 7-8.
18. Jones, 161.
19. Potter, 143-46; Ronda, 248-49.
20. Clarke, 52; and Jackson, 432.
21. Jones, 172.
22. Ambrose, 444.
23. Jackson, 451-54.
24. Ambrose, 450-51,456,458.
16
25. Potter, 163.
26. Clarke, 45.
27. Herbert S. Schell, The History ofSouth Dakota, (4 th Edition, Revised)., (Pierre, SD:
South Dakota State Historical Society Press, 2004),58.
28. Jones, 270.
29. Ronda, 25-26.
30. "Chief White Crane Recreational Area," South Dakota Game, Fish and Parks
website at: http://www.sdgfp.info/Parks/Regions/LewisClark/ChiefWhiteCrane.htm.
Retrieved 13 April 2006.
31. Jones, 226-28.
32. Ibid., 229-30.
33. Charles Kappler, ed., "Treaty with the Teton, 1815," Indian Affairs: Laws and
Treaties, Volume JI, (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, 1904), 112-13.
Jim Burden, Lost in SI
TheoryWor
in Wi
In Willa Cather's My
Lena Lingard are all disp
navigates the liminal space
determined to move beyon
finds his place in space. At
learning the roles of adorn
marriage to Larry Donov;
she finds herself returning
order to live out her life ai
Conversely, Lena finds her
to be more rewarding thar
which included raising her
master her trade and quick
Eventually, she settles in S
she becomes a successful
neither marriage nor chill
settle anywhere. Instead,
the west while working a:
lenses of liminal space anl
examine how subordinatir
the development of Cather
and Lena Lingard, leading
of this paper I am definir
disaster based upon the su
values, which in Jim's cas
Angela L. Glover is a Ph.D. cal
department at the University of
a collection of personal, place-I
growing up in Nebraska.