Groups and Organizations
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social Group
Two or more people who identify and interact with one
another.
• Not every collection of individuals forms a
group.
• Many people with a status in common–
women, homeowners, soldiers,
millionaires, college graduates, and
Roman Catholics–are not groups, but
categories.
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Not Quite a Social Group
• Crowd
– Temporary cluster of people
– A group can have temporal status
• A crowd can become a group, then a
crowd again.
– A large gathering of people at a football game
– A crowd that begins to riot might be
considered a group.
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Primary Groups
Small social groups whose members share personal,
lasting relationships.
• Traits
– Small
– Personal orientation
– Enduring
• Primary relationships
– First group experienced in life
– Irreplaceable
• Assistance of all kinds
– Emotional to financial
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Secondary Groups
A large, impersonal social group whose
members pursue a specific goal or activity.
• Traits
– Large membership
– Goal or activity orientation
– Formal and polite
• Secondary relationships
– Weak emotional ties
– Short term
• Examples
– Co-workers and political
organizations
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Summing Up
Primary Groups and Secondary Groups
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Group Leadership
• Two roles
– Instrumental: Task-oriented
– Expressive: People-oriented
• Three leadership styles
– Authoritarian: Leader makes decisions;
Compliance from members
– Democratic: Member involvement
– Laissez-faire: Mainly let group function on its
own
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Group Conformity Studies
• Asch’s research
– Willingness to compromise our own
judgments
– Line experiment
• Milgram’s research
– Role authority plays
– Following orders
• Janis’s research
– Negative side of groupthink
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7.1
Cards Used in Asch’s Experiment in Group Conformity
In Asch’s experiment, subjects were asked to match the line on Card 1 to one of the lines on Card 2. Many subjects agreed with the wrong answers given by
others in their group.
Source: Asch (1952).
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Reference Group
A social group that serves as a point of reference in
making evaluations and decisions
• Stouffer’s research
– We compare ourselves in relation to
specific reference groups.
• In-groups and out-groups
– Loyalty to in-group
– Opposition to out-groups
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Group Size
• The dyad
– A two-member group
– Very intimate, but unstable given its size
• The triad
– A three-member group
– More stable than a dyad and more types
of interaction are possible
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7.2
Group Size and Relationships
As the number of people in a group increases, the number of relationships that link them increases much faster. By the time six or seven people
share a conversation, the group usually divides into two. Why are relationships in smaller groups typically more intense?
Source: Created by the author.
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Social Diversity:
Race, Class, and Gender
• Large groups turn inward.
– Members have relationships between themselves.
• Heterogeneous groups turn outward.
– Diverse membership promotes interaction with
outsiders.
• Physical boundaries create social boundaries.
– If segregation of groups takes place, the chances
for contact are limited.
• Networks
– Web of weak social ties, people we know of or who
know of us
Sociology, 13 Edition by John Macionis
h
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Global Map 7.1
Internet Users in Global Perspective
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Formal Organizations
Large secondary groups organized to achieve goals
efficiently; date back thousands of years.
• Utilitarian
– Material rewards for
members
• Normative
– Voluntary organizations
– Ties to personal morality
• Coercive
– Punishment or treatment
– Total institutions
Sociology, 13
h
Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Summing Up
Small Groups and Formal Organizations
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Bureaucracy
An organizational model rationally designed to
perform tasks efficiently
• Max Weber’s six elements to promote
organizational efficiency:
–
–
–
–
–
–
Specialization of duties
Hierarchy of offices
Rules and regulations
Technical competence
Impersonality
Formal, written communications
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Organizational Environment
• Factors outside an organization that
affect its operation:
–
–
–
–
Economic and political trends
Current events
Populations patterns
Other organizations
• Informal side of bureaucracy
– In part, informality comes from the
personalities of organizational leaders.
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Problems of Bureaucracies
• Bureaucratic alienation
– Potential to dehumanize individuals
• Bureaucratic inefficiency and ritualism
– Preoccupation with rules, interferes with meeting
goals
• Bureaucratic inertia
– Perpetuation of the organization
Oligarchy: The rule of the many by the few
• Helps distance officials from the public.
• Michels: Concentrates power and threatens
democracy
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
The Evolution of Formal Organizations
Scientific Management
Application of scientific principles to the
operation of a business or large
organization
1. Identify tasks and time needed for tasks
2. Analyze to perform tasks more efficiently
3. Provide incentives for worker efficiency
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
New Challenges
to Formal Organizations
• Race and gender
– Pattern of exclusion
– “Female advantage”
• Japanese organizations
– Value cooperation
– Organizational loyalty
• Changing nature of work
– Information-based organizations
– Creative autonomy, competitive work teams,
flatter organization, and greater flexibility
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7.3
U.S. Managers in Private
Industry by Race, Sex, and
Ethnicity, 2005
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Figure 7.4
Two Organizational Models
The conventional model of bureaucratic organizations has a pyramid shape, with a clear chain of command. Orders flow from the top down, and reports of
performance flow from the bottom up. Such organizations have extensive rules and regulations, and their workers have highly specialized jobs. More open
and flexible organizations have a flatter shape, more like a football. With fewer levels in the hierarchy, responsibility for generating ideas and making
decisions is shared throughout the organization. Many workers do their jobs in teams and have a broad knowledge of the entire organization’s operation.
Source: Created by the author.
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
McDonaldization of Society
•
•
•
•
Efficiency: Do it quickly
Predictability: Use set formulas
Uniformity: Leave nothing to chance
Control: Humans are most unreliable
factor
Each principle limits human creativity,
choice, and freedom.
Weber: Rational systems are efficient but
dehumanizing.
Sociology, 13 Edition by John Macionis
h
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.
Future of Organizations:
Opposing Trends
• Movement toward more creative
freedom for highly skilled information
workers
• Movement toward increased
supervision and discipline for less
skilled service workers
Sociology, 13h Edition by John Macionis
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.