Grammar of Shina Language
And
Vocabulary
(Based on the dialect spoken around Dras)
B. B. Rajapurohit
Former Professor-cum-Deputy Director,
Central Institute of Indian Languages,
Mysore 570 009
India
2012
2
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary:
Dr.B.B. Rajapurohit,
M.A., Ph.D., Diploma in Linguistics, Certificate in Acoustic Phonetics, (USSR)
Professor-cum-Deputy Director (1971-1991)
Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore,
Visiting Professor:
Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Tokyo, (2 years)
International School of Dravidian Linguistics, Trivandrum.
Telephone:(+91-821) 2540 914; Mobile: +91-98454 54750
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
3
Contents
Brief biography of the author ... ... ... ... ...
Foreword
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
Acknowledgments
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1. Preface ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
1.1. Extent of Shina language ... ... ... ... ...
Map of Dras Valley with Distribution of Shina
2. General Phonetics ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
2.1. Phonology ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
2.2. Organs of Speech ... ... ... ... ... ... …
2.3. Nature of Speech Organs ... ... ... ... …
2.4. Phonetic Activity in the Three Areas
... ...
2.5. Manner of Articulation
... ... ... ... ...
2.6. Identification of Sounds ... ... ... ... ...
2.7. Articulation of Vowels
... ... ... ... ...
2.8. Modification of Articulation ... ... ... ...
3. Grammar of Shina ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
3.1. Phonology of Shina ... ... ... ... ... ...
3.1.1. Inventory of Vowel Phonemes ... ...
3.1.2. Supra-segmental Features
... ... ...
3.2. Distribution of Vowel Phonemes ... ... ...
3.3. Key to the Chart ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
3.4. Diphthongs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
4. Inventory of Consonant Phonemes ... ... ... ...
4.1. Marginally Occurring Sounds: Distribution …
4.2. Distribution of Consonant Phonemes ... ...
4.3. Occurrence of Consonant Phonemes
... ...
4.4. Key to the Chart ... ... ... ... ... ... …
5. Morphology of Shina ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
5.1. Noun Morphology
... ... ... ... ... ...
5.2. Pronouns
... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
5.3. Gender ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
5.4. Case Suffixes
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
6
9
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13
15
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19
22
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30
31
32
32
33
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
5.5. Adjectives ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
5.6. Compounds ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
5.7. Reduplication
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
6. Verb Morphology of Shina ... ... ... ... ... ...
6.1. Finite Verbs ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
7. Sentences ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
7.1. Intonation of sentences
... ... ... ... ...
8. Writing system for Shina language ... ... ... ...
8.1. Scripts recommended for Shina
... ... …
8.1.1. Perso Arabic script ... ... ... ... ... …
8.1.2. Writing system for Perso Arabic and
Devanagari Scripts ...
... ... ... ...
8.1.3. Alphabet for Perso Arabic writing ... ... …
8.1.4. The Devanagari script ... ... ... ... ...
8.1.5. Writing system for Devanagari Script ... …
9. Shina Language Vocabulary
... ... ... ... ...
9.1. Earth, sky, water etc. ... ... ... ... ... …
9.2. Mankind, Sex, family, Relationship etc. ... …
9.3. Animals, birds etc
... ... ... ... ... ...
9.4. Parts of the body, conditions and functions …
9.5. Food, drinks, cooking and utensils ... ... …
9.6. Clothing, ornaments, care etc. ... ... ... …
9.7. House and parts of it ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.8. Farming,gardening,trees,vegetables and fruits
9.9. Professions and professional equipment ... …
9.10. Road transport ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.11. Adverbs and adjectives ... ... ... ... ...
9.12. Directions and measurements ... ... ... …
9.13. Numerals and ordinals ... ... ... ... ...
9.14. Time, months and seasons
... ... ... …
9.15. Sense of perception ... ... ... ... ... …
9.16. Emotion, temperament, moral and aesthetic
9.17. Education ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.18. Government
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.19. War ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.20. Law ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
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9.21. Religion
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.22. Games and sport ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.23. Entertainment, music, dance, drama etc.
9.24. Metals ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.25. Functional words ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.26. Verbs ...
... ... ... ... ... ... ...
9.27. Miscellaneous: specific to the area ... ...
...
…
...
...
...
...
…
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139
165
Bibliography of the studies of Shina language
... 167
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Brief biography of the author:
Date of birth: 20th May 1935
Academic record:
1. B.A. (Hons) 1957, Karnatak College, Dharwad, India.
2. M.A. 1959, Karnatak University, Dharwad, India.
3. Diploma in Linguistics 1963, Deccan College, Pune.
4. Ph.D. 1965, Karnatak University, on "A Grammar of
Vachana Literature"
5. Certificate in Acoustic Phonetics, 1979, Leningrad State
University, USSR.
Languages known:
Kannada, English, Sanskrit, Hindi, Marathi, Malayalam.
Prizes and scholarships:
1. Kannada literary prize, 1956.
2. Vidyaranya Prize, 1957.
3. Karnatak University Scholarship during M.A. (1957-59)
4. Karnatak University Research Fellowship, for Ph.D. 59-61
5. National Research Scholarship in Humanities of
Govt. of India, (1961-63)
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
7
Teaching and Research Experience:
1. Lecturer in Kannada, Poornaprajna College, Udupi, 63-67.
2. Lecturer in Kannada and Linguistics, Dept. of Linguistics,
Kerala University, Trivandrum, 1967-71.
3. Reader-cum-Research Officer, Central Institute of Indian
Languages, Mysore, 1971-90.
4. Professor-cum-Deputy Director, Central Institute of Indian
Languages, Mysore, 1990-91.
5. Visiting Research Professor, Tokyo University of Foreign
Studies, Tokyo, 1991-92 and 1994-95. (two years)
6. Honorary Visiting Professor, International School of
Dravidian Linguistics, Trivandrum, 1991-92 and 94-95.
Membership of Learned bodies:
1. Life Member, Linguistic Society of India, Pune.
2. Life Member, Dravidian Linguistic Association,
Trivandurm.
3. Life Member and Organizing Secretary, Phonetics Society
of India, Mysore.
4. Member, Place Names Society of India, Mysore.
5. Member, International Society for Phonetic Sciences,
Florida University, Florida, USA.
6. Member, Board of Advisors to Government of Karnataka
on the recognition of Kannada as Classical Language.
Publications: Books:
1. Intensive Course in Kannada, 2006. DLA, Trivandrum.
2. Acoustic Characteristics of Kannada,1982,CIIL, Mysore.
3. Shina Phonetic Reader, 1983, CIIL, Mysore.
4. Papers in Phonetics and Phonology, (Ed) 1984, CIIL,
Mysore.
5. Studies in Indian Place Names, vol.IV, (Co-Ed) 1984,
Geetha Book House, Mysore.
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
6. Studies in Indian Place Names, vol.V, (Co-Ed) 1984,
Geetha Book House, Mysore.
7. Acoustic Studies in Indian Languages, (Ed) 1986, CIIL,
Mysore.
8. Foundation Course in Kannada, (in 4 vols), (Ed) 1988,
IGNOU, New Delhi.
9. Technology and Languages, (Ed) 1994, CIIL, Mysore,
10. Phonetics and its Application to Different Areas: (in
press) C.I.I.L. Mysore.
11. Kannada English Japanese Dictionary, with N.Uchida,
(in press), Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, Tokyo.
12-33. Twentytwo books in Kannada on different topics.
(Updated up to 1st July 2012)
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
9
Foreword:
The field work on Shina language spoken in Dras and
the villages around Dras, was undertaken in the years from
1971 to 73, during the summer months. The Central Institute
of Indian Languages, (CIIL) where I was working as a Senior
Research Officer at that time, deputed me to collect the data
on Shina language and analyze it to prepare Phonetic Reader
and Grammar of that language.
During early 70’s the Ladakh district was a prohibited
area, because of the wars with Pakistan and China. Hence
those who intended to visit Ladakh district had to take
special permission from the Ministry of Home Affairs of the
Government of India. A further permission from the Ladakh
Affairs Department of the Jammu and Kashmir Government
was also required to enter Ladakh district.
The CIIL deputed three more persons along with me, to
work on Purki (Balti), Brokskat and Ladakhi. The team of
four persons, including me, left for New Delhi to obtain the
required permission to enter Ladakh, from the Government
of India. After obtaining the special permission from the
Government of India, we went up to Jammu Tawi by rail and
traveled further up to Srinagar by bus. The distance from
Jammu to Srinagar is about 300 kilometers. We decided to
travel by bus as the journey by road would be a thrilling
experience.
The transport facilities in that area were limited in the
early years of 70’s and air travel and the road travel were the
only two options. We opted for road travel and decided to
take a bus.
The bus left Jammu in the early morning and was
passing through a hill station, Patni top, which is at an
10
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
altitude of 6650 ft. above sea level. The driver stopped the
bus at Patni top and we got out of the bus to enjoy the beauty
of nature. We felt as though the smoky wind was blowing
around us. But the bus driver explained that they were not the
smoky wind but the clouds. We were excited to hear that
because we were traveling in the clouds like mythological
heroes.
Next thrilling experience in the afternoon was the travel
through Nehru tunnel near Srinagar. This tunnel is 2.5
kilometers long. When we entered the tunnel, it was all dark
and the other end was not visible at all. After a travel of few
minutes, the other end was seen like a white spot in the
background of dark wall.
On arrival in Srinagar, we took rooms in the Tourist
Reception Centre, in the heart of the city and the next day we
went to the office of the Ladakh Department of the
Government of Jammu and Kashmir. The under-secretary
Mr. Vaishnavi was very cooperative. He not only got us the
permission to enter Ladakh but got the government jeep with
petrol, to take us to Kargil. The jeep was a powerful one with
an option of four wheel drive to climb difficult steep
mountains in four wheel drive gear.
Since we were living in south India, we were used to the
altitude of 2-3 thousand feet. Hence we were advised that we
should go slowly climbing the altitude to get acclimatized
with the altitude step by step. Thus we halted for a day in
Sonamarg, which at an altitude of 9200 feet. The glaciers and
the mountain ranges around Sonamarg are simply thrilling.
The driver of our jeep was an experienced man to drive
with ease and cross the Zojila Pass, which at an altitude of
11,600 ft. It is said to be the second highest pass on Srinagar
Leh highway. The first highest one being Fotula, between
Kargil and Leh, which has an altitude of 13,500 ft.
While passing through Zojila we felt that we had to take
deep breath to fill our lungs with oxygen. This was an
experience that the oxygen becomes rare as we go higher
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
11
altitudes. The driver took us safely to Kargil and the local
government authorities made arrangements for our stay in the
Dak Bungalow. We settled there and started to plan to work
on our respective languages.
I enquired the local merchants about the speakers of
Shina Language and requested them to send them to me.
Thus within a day or two speakers of Shina language started
coming to meet me. After the preliminary introduction, I
examined their suitability as informant and collected some
sample data.
We had a standard questionnaire containing a list of
2500 words for vocabulary, 400 words for declensions and
conjugations of nouns and verbs and 1000 sentences. The list
was carefully prepared to collect all varieties of possible
utterances.
There were variations from speaker to speaker but an
informant who was representing the most popular way was
selected for the collection of data in detail. Yet the data
collected was cross checked with the other informants to test
the reliability.
The data was transcribed using the IPA symbols, so that
any one who knows the articulatory values of the symbols
would be able to pronounce the words and sentences in the
same way as the native speakers do.
The next stage was to analyze the data for preparing the
phonetic reader and the grammar. The idea of the `Phonetic
Reader’ was to enable the Shina-speaking community to get
awareness about their language and help them to write in
their own language and introduce Shina in the first four
standards of the primary school, so that the children would
get acquainted with their own language. The idea of
Grammar was to give them a tool to scientifically handle
their language and give them the confidence that their
language is in no way less than the other languages. Here are
the Grammar and Vocabulary of Shina language.
12
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Acknowledgments:
I should express my deep gratitude
To the
Central Institute of Indian Languages,
(Ministry of Human Resource Development,
Government of India)
For encouraging me to undertake the
Data collection in 1971-73 and analysis
Of Shina language spoken in and around Dras,
In Kargil district of Jammu and Kashmir state.
I should also express my thanks to
Informants:
1. Mohammad Shafi Drasi (hails from Dras)
Electrical Department, Leh,
2. Daulat Ali (hails from Kurutyal, Ranbirpur)
Teacher, Primary School, Dras,
3. Hazi Gulam Mohiuddin (hails from Holyal)
Teacher, High School, Dras,
4. Gulam Mohammad Mir (hails from Kurutyal)
Teacher, High School, Dras,
5. Abdul Aziz (hails from Goshan, Dras)
Teacher, Government High School, Dras,
6. Abdul Rashid Drasi (hails from Khunda, Dras)
Electrical Department, Dras.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
13
1. Preface
The Ministry of Human Resource Development of the
Government of India, had decided to implement the mother
tongue of the child as the medium of instruction in the
primary schools from 1st standard to 4th standard. This
decision was taken considering the difficulties the children of
the age group between 6-9 were facing in picking up the
subjects taught through the medium of language of school
education. The language factor, that is, the medium of
education in the schools being different from the language
spoken at home, was the main reason for the children to drop
out of the school because the children were not able to cope
with the situation. Continuous efforts were being made by
the Human Resource Development of the Government of
India to solve the problem, and the culminating step was to
form an act for the purpose. The act is known as Section 29
of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education
(RTE) Act, 2009. It is dated 31st January, 2012. The act has
two sub-sections and they are as follows:
Section 29(1) of the RTE Act provides that the
curriculum and evaluation procedure for elementary
education shall be laid down by an academic authority
specified by the appropriate Government.
Section 29(2) lays down the factors which need to be
taken into consideration by the academic authority notified
by the States for preparing the curriculum and evaluation
procedure, namely:
(a) Conformity with Constitutional values;
(b) All round development of the child;
(c) Building up the child’s knowledge, potentiality and
talent;
14
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
(d) Development of physical and mental abilities to the
fullest extent;
(e) Learning through activities, discovery and
exploration in a child friendly and child-centered manner;
(f) The child’s mother tongue serving ‘as far as
practicable’ as the medium of instruction;
(g) Making the child free of fear, trauma and anxiety and
helping the child to express views freely and
(h) Comprehensive and continuous evaluation of the
child’s understanding and knowledge and the ability to apply
it.
The Govt. of India also volunteered itself in conducting
the conferences and meetings, and encouraging the
organizations under it to organize national and international
conferences. Two such recent meetings should be made
mention of.
One was the international conference jointly organized
by the National Multilingual Education Resource Consortium
(NMRC) and Central Institute of Indian Languages (CIIL), in
collaboration with UNICEF, UNESCO, NCERT, NUEPA
and other national institutions on the subject “International
Consultative Meet and Strategy Dialogue on Mother Tongue
Based Multilingual Education: Framework, Strategies and
Implementation. It was held at CIIL, Mysore from September
19 – 21, 2011.
The second one was the Conference of the State
Education Ministers held by the Ministry of Human
Resource Development, Government of India, on 22nd
February 2012, in New Delhi.
It is gratifying to note that the Govt. of India is seriously
concerned with the problem and making serious attempts to
solve the problem although the solution does not seem to be
easy, considering the extent of the details involved in the
topic. One prominent problem is that of non-availability of
grammar and script for many of the tribal and rural
languages, and very few attempts have been made to develop
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
15
them. It appears that the Govt. of India has sensed it in
Section 29(2)(f) in saying: `The child’s mother tongue
serving ‘as far as practicable’ as the medium of instruction.’
Unless the grammar and script are developed for all spoken
languages, it is impossible to think of preparing the texts for
the children to study in their mother tongue. This is probably
implied in the phrase, ‘as far as practicable.’
In this direction the present work, Grammar of Shina
Language and Vocabulary attempts to prepare the grammar
for Shina language spoken in and around Dras of Kargil
district of Jammu & Kashmir state. It also tries to evolve
modified Urdu script for writing down the language.
Modified Urdu script is proposed because Urdu is the
prominent language of the area. Modified Devanagari script
is also suggested in case it is opted for writing the language.
Since Shina is a member of the family of Indo Aryan
languages, suggestion of adopting modified Devanagari is
logically possible to be accepted.
The present grammar of Shina language will help in
developing the texts in the text books and the vocabulary
should come handy in building up the lessons on various
topics. Once this process is completed, it will help to
implement Shina language as the medium of instruction in
the primary schools.
1.1. Extent of Shina language:
The Shina language belongs to Dardic branch of IndoAryan family of languages. The speakers of that language in
India are said to be about 21,000, according to census of
India 2001. They are distributed over a large hilly area and
the communication and transport facilities are minimal. Yet
the teachers in the schools in the area are enthusiastic about
the implementation of their language as the medium of
education in the primary standards. The map on the
following page shows the distribution of Shina speakers.
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
It is evident from the above map that the maximum
number of speakers is in the area around Karkit and Kharbu
near Kargil. The second area is around Goshan, Prandras and
Gindyal. It may also be noticed that Prandras and Kharbu are
on the highway from Zoji La (Zoji pass) to Leh. Kargil being
the district head quarters, it should be easy to watch the
progress of implementation of Shina as mother tongue in the
schools.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
17
2. General Phonetics
2.1. Phonology:
The phonology of Shina is described in terms of general
phonetics. Hence it would be necessary to explain the
principles of general phonetics.
2.2. Organs of Speech:
Let us now look at the cross section of the human head.
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
The organs involved in the production of speech are
marked in the above figure. The abbreviations therein are
expanded below:
A, B and C are the areas (indicated by broken lines)
where the discerning phonetic activity takes place.
In the area A, the following parts are marked:
VC = Vocal Cords
Oe = Oesophagus, food pipe
T = Trachea or wind pipe
In the area B, the following parts are marked:
NP = Nasal Passage
Ve = Velic
U = Uvula
FP = Faucal or oral Passage
P = Pharynx
E = Epiglottis
In the area C, the following parts are marked:
NC = Nasal Cavity
UL = Upper Lip
LL = Lower Lip
UT = Upper Teeth
LT = Lower Teeth
TR = Tooth Ridge, Alveolus
HP = Hard Palate, or roof
SP = Soft Palate, Velum
of the mouth, dome
a = Apex or the tip of the
BL = Blade of the tongue
tongue
FT = Front of the Tongue
MT = Mid of the tongue
BT = Back of the Tongue
RT = Root of the Tongue
OC = Oral Cavity
M = Mandible or lower jaw
2.3. The Nature of Speech Organs:
The speech organs, described above, are classified into
two types on the basis of their physiological nature:
One set of organs is stationary, like the teeth, the tooth
ridge and the hard palate.
The other set of organs is movable, like the lips, the
tongue, soft palate, vocal cords and the uvula. The uvula can
have only the ballistic movements, i.e., it moves passively in
an uncontrolled way; whereas the movements of the other
organs can be controlled at the speaker’s will. The mandible
or the lower jaw, can be moved, as a whole, up and down or
sideways. The downward movement of the mandible
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
19
increases the volume of the oral cavity. In case of the most
openly articulated sounds the mandible is opened
approximately half of its full capacity of opening. The
sideways movement of the jaw is not relevant in speech
production.
The speech organs are also classified into two categories
on the basis of their function in the process of speech
production.
One category is known as the `articulators’, which touch
or approximate at some point in the oral cavity. For example,
the lower lip and the tongue.
Another category is known as the `points of
articulation’, which are the areas, which the articulators
touch or move towards. These are for example, upper lip,
upper teeth, tooth ridge, hard palate, velum, uvula and the
back of the tongue.
The earlier classification of speech organs on the basis
of their physiological nature as stationary and movable
should not be confused to correspond with the latter
classification on the basis their function. However, some
general relationships may be brought out. An articulator has
to be movable, but the point of articulation need not
necessarily be stationary.
2.4. Phonetic Activity in the Three Areas:
The phonetic activity in the three main areas (which are
marked by the broken lines in figure 1) in which any kind of
operation of speech organs becomes a part of the characteristic feature of a particular sound.
The area A is the glottal region, where the state of the
glottis is taken into consideration while determining the
nature of a sound.
The state of the glottis is determined by the function of
the vocal cords. The vocal cords remain apart at the time of
breathing. They tightly close as they do at the time of holding
20
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
breath. The ligament portion vibrates at the time of voicing,
and the cartilaginous portion vibrates at the time of murmur.
Like a musical instrument the vocal cords are capable of fine
variation of pitch. The sounds produced when the vocal cords
vibrate are known as the voiced sounds and the sounds
produced when the vocal cords do not vibrate are known as
voiceless sounds.
In the area B, there is a valve known as the velic, which
when raised closes the nasal passage. The air, then, passes
through the oral passage, and thus the oral sounds are
produced.
On the other hand, the oral passage may be closed,
somewhere in the oral cavity, and the air may be allowed to
pass through the nasal cavity to produce nasal sounds.
Depending upon the point of the oral closure, the nasals
would be differentiated. It is also possible to allow the air to
pass through both the passages, yielding the nasalized
sounds. Sometimes the air may be completely blocked by the
closure of both the passages, in which case the unreleased
sounds will be produced.
The following table shows the nature of sounds on the
basis of air release.
Nasal passage
Open
Closed
Nasalized
, ,ẽ
Oral sounds:
a,i,u,e
Nasals:
m,ɲ,ɳ
Unreleased
sounds: ,d ,g
Oral passage
Closed
The area C is an important one because many of the
articulatory features are determined by the movement of the
articulators. It should be noted that the symbols given in the
International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) 2005, are used.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
21
The following figure 2 shows the direction of the
movement of the articulator towards the point of articulation. This constitutes one dimension of the nomenclature of
the sounds. The other dimension of the nomenclature is the
manner of articulation. This is the manner in which the
sounds are articulated. It may be noted that in the same place
of articulation different manners of articulations are possible.
For example, plosive, fricative, trill etc. are the sounds
produced by different manners of articulations in the same
place of articulation.
The nasal sounds are produced with the nasal passage
opened and the oral passage closed at some point in the oral
cavity. The nasals can be continued, like the vowels, till the
stock of breath in the lungs lasts. It is not necessary that a
vowel should be released after the nasal.
The oral sounds are produced with the oral passage
opened and the nasal passage closed
The nasalized sounds are the ones produced with both
the oral and nasal passages opened.
The numbers in the above figure indicate the nature of
the sounds produced. They are as follows:
22
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1. Bilabial (where lower lip 2. Labio-dental (where lower
touches the upper lip)
lip touches the upper teeth)
3. Dental (where tip of the 4. Alveolar (where the tip of
tongue touches upper teeth)
tongue tooth ridge)
5. Palatal (where front of the 6. Velar ((where back of the
tongue touches hard palate) tongue touches soft palate)
7. Post velar (where back of 8. Uvular (where root of the
tongue touches uvula-root
tongue touched the uvula)
9. Pharyngeal (where root of 10. Glottal (where the vocal
tongue touches pharynx)
touch each other
11. Retroflex (where the tongue
is curled up towards palate.
Shown with broken line.)
2.5. Manner of Articulation:
Though the articulator approximates the same point of
articulation, the manner, in which the sounds are produced, is
an important dimension in the description of speech sounds.
The names of these manners are self explanatory of the
processes involved in the sound production. For example,
stops or plosives are those sounds in which the air stream is
stopped at some point of articulation and exploded. Thus the
bilabial stops [p] and [b]; alveolar stops [t] and [d] and velar
stops [k] and [g] are obtained. It is customary to enclose the
sounds in square brackets [ ], to indicate that it is phonetic
writing.
In the same way, the laterals are those sounds in which
the tongue closes at the central part of the oral cavity and the
air is released through the sides of the tongue. If the air is
released without frication the sounds are lateral nonfricatives. For example, alveolar lateral non-fricative, [l] and
retroflex lateral non-fricative [ɭ] are thus obtained. On the
other hand, if the air is released with frication, the sounds are
lateral fricatives. For example, alveolar lateral voiceless
fricative, [ɬ] and alveolar lateral voiced fricative, [ɮ] are
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
23
obtained. It may be noted again that the voiceless and voiced
indicate the silent and the vibration condition of the vocal
cords.
Similarly, in trills, the tip of the tongue beats against the
tooth ridge area many time. Thus alveolar trill [r] is
produced. Instead of many beats, if the tongue taps only
once, then the alveolar flap of tap is produced. Thus alveolar
flap [ɾ] is produced and if the tongue flaps against the palate
in a retroflexed manner, retroflex flap [ɽ] is produced.
When the air passes through the slit or groove, made by
the articulators creating frication, then the sounds are known
as fricatives. Thus labio dental voiceless and voiced
fricatives are respectively, [f] and [v]; the dental voiceless
and voiced fricatives are respectively, [θ] and [ð]; post
alveolar or alveo-palatal voiceless and voiced fricatives are
respectively, [ʃ] and [ʒ]; retroflex voiceless and voiced
fricatives are respectively, [ʂ] and [ʐ]; velar voiceless and
voiced fricatives are respectively, [x] and [ɣ]; glottal
voiceless and voiced fricatives are respectively, [h] and [ɦ].
Each sound thus produced is represented by a distinct
symbol. It is also customary to write the voiceless sound first
and then the voiced sound.
2.6. Identification of sounds:
The mechanism of speech production, as described
above, has two purposes to serve. It would serve as reference
information for describing the sounds. Secondly, when a
phonetic description is given, it would serve as a guide to
enable one to produce the sound of the given description as
the native speakers of the language speak.
Every phonetic description of a sound will be indicating
the following three factors:
a. Whether the vocal cords are vibrating or not at the
time articulation (voiced or voiceless)
24
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
b. Which point of articulation the articulators are
touching or approximating towards.
c. In what manner a sound is articulated.
For example, voiced velar stop or voiceless labio-dental
fricative would express the above three factors. In some
cases, unless otherwise mentioned, the description in which
they are popularly found in the language, are construed. For
example, [r] would be taken as a `voiced alveolar trill’ even
though it is referred to as only `trill’. Similarly, [h] would
mean voiceless glottal fricative even though it is referred to
as glottal fricative and [l] would mean voiced lateral nonfricative or approximant even though it is referred to as
lateral approximant.
In case of the nasals the passage through which the air
passes out is indicated by the name itself. Unless otherwise
specified they are taken to be voiced.
2.7. Articulation of vowels:
Vowels are oral sounds which are produced with the
least or no obstruction in the oral cavity. All the vowels are
produced within the palatal and velar region.
If the front portion of the tongue is raised towards the
hard palate to such a high point by raising beyond which the
sound would no more remain as a vowel and becomes a
fricative, that point is known as high front position.
Similarly, if the back of the tongue is raised towards velum,
to such a high point by rising beyond which the sound
becomes fricative is known as high back position. When the
jaw is lowered to the normal open position and the tongue is
moved forward or backward position, two more positions on
the mid of the tongue and the back of the tongue are
identified. They are known as low front position and low
back position. It should be noted that in case of low front
position, the tongue is not as much to the front as it would be
in case of the high front position because of the muscular
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
25
structure of the tongue. In case of low back position the
tongue is moved back as much as it is moved in case of high
back position.
These four positions form the vertices of a trapezium,
which is popularly known as vowel triangle. The following
figure 3, would illustrate the four positions.
A = High front position, B = High back position,
C = Low back position, D = Low front position.
The range of tongue height from low to high is again
sub-divided into 3,4,5,6, or 7 points, like high, mid, low or
close, half close, half open, open etc. depending upon the
necessity created by the contrasting vowels. The range of
forward and backward movement of the tongue is generally
sub-divided into three points, like front, central and back.
For the description of vowels of Shina language, four
levels of tongue height are found to be sufficient. These
levels are high, lower high, higher low and low,
corresponding to close, half close, half open, open.
In addition to the dimensions of tongue height and the
forward-backward movement of the tongue, there is a third
dimension which is also important in the description of
26
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
vowels. That is the lip rounding. The vowels pronounced
with partly or fully rounded lips are known as rounded
vowels. The vowels pronounced with lips in the normal
position or widely spread position is known as unrounded
vowels. Thus [i] is identified as high front unrounded vowel
and [u] is identified as high back rounded vowel, and so on.
The vowel triangle or trapezium works well for all
languages. Hence given any vowel one should be able to
identify its place in the triangle. The vowels a, i, u, e, o have
similar description in whatever language they occur.
All vowels are capable of forming the nucleus of a
syllable. But there are some vowel-like articulations which
cannot form the nucleus of the syllable. They are semivowels or approximants, like [w], a voiced labial-velar
approximant in the IPA, is a bilabial approximant in our
description and [y] is a high front rounded vowel in the IPA
is a palatal approximant here in our description.
The syllabic [ṛ], [ḷ] and [ṃ] also appear in the data. The
syllabic [ṛ] occurs in the words like [ʌtṛ] `perfume’, where
the stop [t] is released into [ṛ]. In [ʃkḷ] `shape’, [ḷ] is
syllabic and in [nzṃ] `poetry’, [ṃ] is syllabic.
2.8. Modification of articulation:
In any natural language, all vowels and consonants are
not found in their pure form as described above. Some of
them might occur with modification.
With reference to Shina language two types of vowel
modifications are seen:
(a) Stress and
(b) Nasalization.
on the vowel. Nasalization is the coloring
which vowels get
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
27
on the vowel. These two simultaneous activities will have to
be accounted for because the meanings of words get
distinguished by these activities.
With reference to Shina language two types of consonant
modifications are observed:
(a) Affrication and
(b) Aspiration
Affrication is a release of a stop consonant into the
fricative in quick succession. For example, when alveolar
stop [t] is released into alveolar fricative [s], alveolar
affricate [ʦ] is generated. When alveolar stop [t] is released
into palatal fricative [ʃ], palatal affricate [ʧ] is generated.
When retroflex stop [ʈ] is released into retroflex fricative [ʂ],
a retroflex affricate [ʈʂ] is generated. It should be noted that
the state of the glottis has to be the same. Here all are
voiceless consonants. The affrication of voiceless [t] or [ʈ]
and voiced [z], [ʐ] or [ʒ] will not be articulatory possibility.
However, it is possible to have the voiced counterparts of
these affricates. For example,
The voiced counterpart of [ʦ] is [ʣ], the voiced
counterpart of [ʧ] is [ʤ] and the voiced counterpart of [ʈʂ] is
[ɖʐ]. Although [ʈʂ] occurs in the Shina language, [ɖʐ] does
not occur.
Aspiration is a release of a consonant with an extra puff
of air coming out of the lungs. Peter Ladefoged identifies a
brief period of voicelessness after the stop is released. That
period is of the duration of less than 5 milliseconds. It is
observed only on the spectrograms but it is not audible. The
puff of air is similar to that of the one found in the
pronunciation of [h]. Since voiced aspirates are not found in
Shina, the occurrence of its voiced variety [ɦ] in aspirates is
ruled out, although it rarely occurs independently. Aspirates
are treated as unsegmentable sequences of consonant and [h].
Thus the stops p, t, ʈ, k occur with their respective aspirated
counterparts, ph, th, ʈh, kh and the affricates ʦ, ʧ, ʈʂ occur with
their aspirated counterparts, ʦh, ʧh, ʈʂh.
28
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
3. Grammar of Shina
3.1. Phonology of Shina:
There are 10 segmental vowel phonemes and 3
suprasegmental phonemes in Shina and 38 consonant
phonemes. The phonemes and the distribution of their
allophones is explained here. Most of the vowel phonemes
realize as only one sound phonetically. But a few phonemes
realize as more than one sound. The realizations are
predictable in terms of environment. They are known as
allophones. It is a convention to enclose phonemes in / /.
3.1.1. Inventory of vowel phonemes: Segmental sounds:
High
Lower high
Higher low
Low
Front
/i/
Mid
/e/
Back
/u/
/o/
/ɛ/
/ə/
/ʌ/,/ɔ/
/a/
Length: /:/
Supra-segmental sounds:
].
The Shina language has nine vowels, as listed above. All
of them occur with length to contrast the meaning. That is,
on the basis of length of the vowel the meaning changes.
Hence length is identified an independent phoneme /:/. The
length, as a phoneme, is also called `chroneme’ by some
linguists.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
29
To illustrate the contrast of length, minimally contrasting
pairs are not available in the data. However the occurrence of
short and long varieties of vowels is available in different
environments. The following examples may be examined.
[khaʧí:lo] `Lean’
[kha:r] `Sympathy’
h
h
[ʧ íme k á:mo] Kingfisher [ʧhí:mo] `Fish’
[ʧiʧél] `Clay’
[ʧé:v thók] `Tea plant’
h
[p ɛrɛ] `Again’
[p:dʌl] `By foot’
[ʧúɳo] `Small, young
[ʧú:ʈo] `Dwarf’
[kore] `Big cup’
[ko:rʈ] `A kind of animal’
[pʌtó:] `Afterwards’
[p:ʈe] `Leaves
[dəmn] `True’
[yʈʂə:lo] `Insanity’
Short and long varieties of vowels i,e,ɛ,a,u,o,u,ə are
available in the above examples. But for [ɔ], its short
variety is available in the words like [ʧɔl] `Dawn’ and its
long variety is not available.
Sometimes the informants used to pronounce the
words with length on different vowels. For example, for
`Insanity’ some gave [yʈʂə:lo] and for `Madness’ some
others gave [yʈʂəlo]. Such variations in pronunciation are
not unnatural.
I
], high central unrounded vowel [ɨ] and
slightly lower than high unrounded vowel [ ] were recorded
in the words:
] `Wall’
[gɨɳyó:no] `Initiate’
] (~[gut]) `Pendal (tent)’
[bír ] `Lake’
Since these were the alternative pronunciations, of some
informants, those vowels are not included in the inventory.
30
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
3.1.2. Supra-segmental features:
The stressed vowels are generally long although short
stressed vowels also occur. For example:
[hí:n] `Ice, hail’
[ʂé:ʋ] `blind’
[káko] `brother’
[bɽo] `elder, big
[bíro] `male’
[bíri] `well (water)’
[khúkuɳ] `pigeon pea’
[khó:no] `to eat
‘
contrasts in the following minimal pairs. It
optionally occurs on the monosyllabic words:
[áʐo] `cloud’,
[aʐó] `inside’
[ɖaŋó] Bridge
[ɖŋo] `high’
Similarly, the nasalization
occurs on eight vowels of
the total nine vowels. That is, it occurs on a,i,u,e,o,ɛ,ə,ʌ and
it does not occur on [ɔ] in the data. Although contrasting
minimal pairs are not found, the nasalized vowels occur in a
number of words which are not acceptable by the native
speakers, without the nasalization. The following words
illustrate the nasalized vowels and diphthongs.
] `Ladder’
] `Louse’
[krĩ:] `Derm’
] `Pickle’
:ʂʈ] `Eight’
] `Tree’
] `Rice’
[ʃĩ:ʃé:r] `Saturday’
:] `Pestle’
h
[p y:li] `Shovel’
:] `Breath’
] `Ear ring (big)
Sometimes the stressed vowels show [ə] (shwa) glide.
The [ə] glide may be the result of the extra stress also.
[dá:ʂʈ] `yard stick’ is pronounced as [dá:əʂʈ].
[yó:ŋ] `forehead’ is pronounced as [yó:əŋ].
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
31
] occurs at the end of only
one word, the pos
]. For example, [ʈʂh ] `Tears’
3.2. Distribution of vowel phonemes:
The following table shows the occurrence of vowels in
the initial, medial and final positions. The key words follow:
Vowel
i
i:
e
e:
ɛ
ɛ:
ə
ə:
a
a:
o
o:
u
u:
ʌ
ʌ:
ɔ
ɔ:
Initial
1
4
7
10
15
17
20
23
26
29
32
35
38
Medial
Final
2
5
8
11
13
16
18
19
21
24
27
30
33
36
39
40
41
3
6
9
12
14
22
25
28
31
34
37
32
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
3.3. Key to the chart:
1. [iʂ] `Bear’
2. [bírI] `Lake’
3. [philí:lI] `Ant’
4. [í:l] `Stream’
2. [gí:ro] `Rock’
6. [ʃʌdí:] `Monkey’
7. [ékbo] `Alone’
5. [nezá:] `Spear’
9. [p:ʈo] `Wing’
10. [é:lo] `Attachment’
11. [ɦe:ʋán] `Animal’
12. [ʤe:] `Some one’
13. [síŋɛl] `Sand’
14. [phúŋɛ] `Moustache’
12. [:la] `Prime
16. [ok:no] `Dig’
17. [əyáv]`Coriander seed’ 15. [məki] `Maize’
19. [yʈʂə:lo] `Insanity’ 20. [áʐo] `Cloud’
21. [ɖaŋó] `Bridge’
22. [bʌná] `Boundary’
23. [á:ʈe] `Flour’
24. [ʧáʈo] `Dumb’
22. [ʐa:] `Brother’
26. [(ʔ)ózur] `Protest’
27. [ɖóɾo] `Hail’
25. [ʧomó:] `Nun’
29. [ó:ʃ] `Wind’
30. [ló:lo] `Red’
31. [kro:] `Chest’
32. [udú:] `Dust’
33. [ɦúluk] `Sweat’
34. [píʃu] `Cat (male)’
32. [u:ʂ] `Debt’
36. [musú:ʈi] `Beak’
37. [kaɣú:] `Fog’
] `Finger’
h
39. [bʌʃóno] `Echo’
40. [k :ʈo] `Lid’
41. [ʧɔl] `Dawn’
3.4. Diphthongs:
The diphthongs or the sequences of vowels in Shina are
very interesting. Two vowels of different nature appear in
sequence. Rarely stressed and unstressed same vowel
sequence is also found. (As: aá). However three vowel
sequences do not occur. Of the two vowels, the first one may
be stressed or the second one may be stressed or neither may
be stressed. The first one may be stressed and/or nasalized or
the second one may be stressed. But the second one stressed
and nasalized is not available. The diphthongs of the above
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
33
combinations are as follows: i
, ĩ, áe, áo, éə, i,
:ə, éə, éi, úe, úi, ói, óə, uí, ué, aá, uú, ei.
4. Inventory of consonant phonemes:
There are 49 consonants in Shina language. They are
listed in the beginning of vocabulary. On the basis of their
distribution, 38 consonants acquire the status of phoneme.
The other 11 consonants marginally occur in the borrowed
words from Urdu, Balti, Kashmiri or English. They also
occur in some native words as alternative pronunciation.
These are described after the main consonants.
The 38 consonant phonemes of Shina are tabulated
below on the basis of their articulatory properties.
S
t
o
p
s
Bila- Labio- Alve- Retro- Pala- Ve- Uv- Globial
dental olar flex
tal
lar ular ttal
vl- p
t
ʈ
k
unvl- ph
th
ʈh
kh
asvd- b
d
ɖ
g
un-
Af vlfr unic vlat ases vdun-
ʦ
ʈʂ
ʧ
ʦh
ʈʂh
ʧh
Nasals- m
n
Lat.Approximant
l
ʣ
ʤ
ɳ
ŋ
34
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Bila- Labio- Alve- Retro- Pala- Ve- Uv- Globial
dental olar flex
tal
lar ular ttal
Trill
r
Frica- vl
tives vd
s
Approximants
ʂ
z
ʋ
ʃ
x
ʐ
ʒ
h
ɣ
ɦ
y
4.1. Marginally occurring sounds and their distribution:
The occurrence 11 consonants is marginal. Hence they
are not having the status of phoneme. The occurrence of
these consonants may be due to influence of other languages
also. They are as follows:
q ʔ ɱ ɲ ɾ ɽ ɸ β f w ð χ.
They do not show any contrast with other words. Further in
some examples, they occur in free variation with the other
sounds, or they occur in definable environments. Hence they
do not get the status of phonemes. Their occurrence is noted
below:
Sounds occurring in free variation:
[q] occurs in free variation with [k]. For example:
[toqlé:] ~ [toklé:] `pan’
[ka:lí:n] ~ [qa:lí:n] `carpet’
[ʔ] occurs in free variation with its absence. For example:
[ʔóŋo] ~ [óŋo] `sickle’
[ʔé:li] ~ [é:li] `near’
[ʔʌʃ] ~ [ʌʃ] `today’
[ʔəmn] ~ [əmn] `peace’
. for example,
] `he/it goes’
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
35
Sounds occurring in predictable environments:
[ɲ] occurs before palatal affricates, [ʧ] or [ʤ] only.
[ʃɲʧi] `an animal’
[ʧɲʧul] `snail’
[kʌɲʤú:s] `miser’
[giɲʤá:] `church’
[ɾ] occurs in between the vowels, in an isolated example:
[ɖóɾo] `hail’ and its plural form [ɖóɾe]
whereas [r] occurs in all the three positions:
[ráðo ʃá:] `boiled vegetable’;
[tóri] ~ [torí:] `isthmus’;
[so:r] ~[so:ər] `ice’
[ɽ] occurs medially between vowels and in final position:
[kəɽá:r] `knife’
[gʌɽá:] `axe’
[bɽo] `big’
[pa:p:ɽ] `Papad’
h
[k ʌɽk] `moss’
[phaɽáro] `bald’
[ɸ] occurs medially between vowels in an isolated word:
[bʌɸúr] `fur’.
[β] occurs medially between vowels in isolated words:
[ʧuβo] `silently’
[taβʌrúk] `something’
[ʧa:βi dyó:no] `wind (clock)’
[f] occurs medially followed by [s] in a few borrowed words:
[mirá:fs] `descendents’
[ʌfsú:s] `Alas!’
[əfsər] `officer’
[w] occurs initially and medially as an alternative
pronunciation of [υ] in the native and borrowed
words:
[wʌyʋ] `blister’
[wa:skʈ] `waist coat’
[bowár] `watermelon’
[gá:wo] `cow’
It also occurs in cluster with other consonants:
[ʧhɪlikhwe] `clothing’
[kʌɳ(ə)wá:ʤi] `ear ring’
[sukwá:ʃ] `squash’
[muʐwá:lo] `gambling’
It occurs to make the consonant [k],[ʈʂ] labialized:
[ʦukwé:] `toy’
[kwé:] `green peas’
[ʈʂwe] `testicles’
36
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[ð] occurs medially and in cluster with other consonant as an
alternative pronunciation of [t], [d] or [ʈʂ].
[χotgʌrʌs] ~ [χoðɣʌrʌs] `selfishness’
[bʌdyá:n] ~ [bʌðyá:n] `sago’
[ebadt] ~ [ebaðt] `worship’
[dádo málo] ~ [dáðo málo] `ancestors’
[rádek br ] ~ [ráðek br ] `boiled rice’
[ba:ʈʂá:] ~ [bá:ð(ə)ʃa:] `king’
[χ] occurs initially, medially and in cluster with other
consonants:
[χʌt(ʌ)ra:] `danger’
[χoð ɣʌrʌs] `selfishness’
[χoðai] `god’
[aχrət ʧən] `north’
[buχá:r] `high fever’
[dʌχón] ‘sari’
[saχí:] `generous’
[ʌχmq] `stupid’
4.2. Distribution of consonant phonemes:
Almost all the consonants have only one phonetic
realization as recorded in the list of vocabulary. The
prominent allophones are also recorded there. A few
phonemes have additional allophones which are not recorded
in the vocabulary list. They are noted here along with their
distribution. Prominent allophones are also described here for
confirmation.
] respectively between two vowels or between [r] and a
vowel in addition to their normal form. [g] has one more
allophone [g<], a pre-velar variety, when it is followed by a
front vowel. The following examples will illustrate these
additional allophones:
]
k]
:]
:]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
37
[khrigi] ` cheat’ is actually [khrig<i]
(b) [k], [kh] have additional allophones [k<], [kh<], prevelar voiceless consonants, when followed by front vowels.
[gikíti] `arm pit’ is actually [g<ik<íti]
[ʈekér] `jar (earthen pot)’ is actually [ʈek<ér]
[ʂe:ʋ khikílo] `lizard’ is actually [ʂe:ʋ kh<ik<ílo]
[khiŋíro] `curl’ is actually [kh<iŋíro]
(c) [ɖ] has an allophone [ɽ], a retroflex flap, between
vowels, as has been recorded in the vocabulary:
[b:ɖo] `big’ is actually [b:ɽo]
[khʌɖk] `moss’ is actually [khʌɽk]
(d) [n] has [ṉ], a dental nasal and [ɲ], a palatal nasal
before dental stops and palatal affricates. [ɲ] before palatal
affricates has already been recorded in the list of vocabulary.
[sʌntʌrá:] `orange’ is actually [sʌṉtʌrá:]
[ʧʌndá:] `pocket’ is actually [ʧʌṉdá:]
[ʧnʧul] `snail is actually [ʧɲʧul]
[inʤén] `engine’ is actually [iɲʤén]
(e) [r] has an allophone [ɾ], an alveolar flap, after [b],
[d], [g], when the following vowel is short.
[brésput] `Thursday’ is actually [bɾésput]
[drŋ bóno] `volcano’ is actually [dɾŋ bóno]
[groms] `box ‘ is actually [gɾoms]
(f) [ʋ] has an allophone [w], a bilabial approximant,
when followed by rounded vowels.
[gʌʋó:] `canal’ is actually [gʌwó:]
38
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[vo:ʈ] `vote’ is actually [wo:ʈ]
4.3. Occurrence of consonant phonemes:
The following table shows the occurrence of the
consonant phonemes. `x’ at an intersection indicates that the
occurrence is not possible.
Consonant
p
ph
b
t
th
d
ʈ
ʈh
ɖ
k
kh
g
ʦ
ʦh
ʣ
ʧ
ʧh
ʤ
ʈʂ
ʈʂh
m
n
ɳ
ŋ
l
initial
1
4
6
8
11
13
15
18
20
22
25
27
29
32
34
36
39
41
43
46
48
51
x
x
58
Medial Final
2
5
7
9
12
14
16
19
21
23
26
28
30
33
35
37
40
42
44
47
49
52
54
56
59
3
x
x
10
x
x
17
x
x
24
x
x
31
x
x
38
x
x
45
x
50
53
55
57
60
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
r
s
z
ʃ
ʒ
ʂ
ʐ
x
ɣ
h
ɦ
ʋ
y
61
64
67
69
72
74
77
79
81
83
86
89
92
62
65
68
70
73
75
78
80
82
84
87
90
93
39
63
66
x
71
x
76
x
x
x
85
88
91
94
4.4. Key to the chart:
1. [p:ʈo] `Wing’
2. [əpóŋya] `Shell’
3. [ʧhúp] `Bank of river’ 4. [phaʈá:] `Colt’
2. [ɖophós] `Mace’
6. [bʌréʋ] `Husband’
7. [bábo] `Father’
5. [t:to] `Heat in kitchen’
9. [liti] `Building’
10. [hʌrút] `Woolen mattress’
11. [thʌp] `Dark(ness)’
12. [pʌthá:r] `Floor’
13. [dá:ʂʈ] `Lane’
14. [tedá:t] `Number’
12. [ʈóri] `Isthmus’
16. [ʧhá:ʈi] `Vomit’
17. [dukʈ] `Scissors’
15. [ʈhóki] `Ball’
19. [muʈhú:]`Kidney beans 19. [ɖóɾo] `Hail’
21. [hʌɖí:s] `Sermon’
22. [kú:ʈo] `Deaf’
23. [ɖá:ke] `Back’
24. [ɦúluk] `Sweat’
25. [khúʈo] `Short’
26. [ʧʌkhʈ] `Stammerer’
27. [gon] `Smell’
28. [phúguɳo:h] `Pincer’
29. [ʦoŋ] `Onion’
30. [bʦih] `Family’
31. [uʦ] `Spring of water’ 32. [ʦhóŋ] `Trade’
33. [bʌʦhr] `Calf’
34. [ʣɦʌr] `Venom’
40
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
32. [iʣʣʌt] `Respect’
36. [ʧom] `Leather’
37. [khaʧí:lo] `Lean’
35. [ilá:ʧ] `Treatment’
h
39. [ʧ óro] `Shade’
40. [kʌʧhá:] `Loin cloth’
41. [ʤá:ro] `Old (man)’ 42. [ʌʤí:p] `Wonder’
43. [ʈʂʌkyó:no] `Examine’ 44. [ʌʈʂúr] `Mine’
42. [ʈʂ] `Tears’
46. [ʈʂhʌpáro] `Churning rod’
h
47. [ʌʈʂ ó:] `Walnut’
45. [miʃ(i)ryó:no]`To mix’
49. [ʧímer] `Iron’
20. [ʃó:rde ʧom] `Hyde’
51. [nʌlká:] `Tap’
22. [krinének] `Seller’
23. [yu:n] `Moon’
24. [kó:ɳor] `Eclipse’
22. [tuɳ] `Navel’
26. [síŋɛl] `Sand’
27. [yú:ŋ] `Liver’
25. [lé:l] `Blood’
29. [ɦilál] `Bridegroom’ 60. [i:l] `Canal (big)’
61. [ró:no] `Weeping’
62. [bíro] `Male’
63. [so:r] `Ice’
64. [suʒóno] `Known person’
62. [musú:ʈi] `Beak’
66. [da:s] `Plain’
67. [zurmó] `Pain’
65. [rózunu:n] `Vulture’
69. [ʃuʒóno] `Dout’
70. [phʃi] `Bed bug’
71. [dʃ] `Drapes’
72. [ʒʌró:] `Orphan’
73. [miʒúko] `First’
74. [ʂíŋo] `Horn’
72. [pʌʂó:] `Turban’
76. [ʃʂ] `Mother-in-law’
77. [ʐíŋŋi]`Mid’
75. [áʐo khói] `Rain hat’
79. [xudái] `Dod’
50. [dʌxón] `Sari’
81. [ɣon] `Melon’
52. [bʌɣái] `Loaf of bread’
53. [hʌtgʌɽi:] `Hand cuff’ 54. [zhər] `Poison’
52. [ʈhuléh] `Eggs’
56. [ɦilál] `Bridegroom’
57. [siɦt] `Health’
88. [phapíɦ] `Paternal aunt’
59. [ʋʌbá:] `Epidemic’
90. [gʌʋó:] `Canal’
91. [bʌréʋ] `Husband’
92. [yʌkú:t] `Diamond’
93. [mʌyú:n] `Peacock’ 94. [kha:y] `Pebble’
On the basis of the occurrence of 38 consonant
phonemes in different positions, they are established as
phonemes.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
41
5. Morphology of Shina language
5.1. Noun morphology:
There are two numbers in Shina, viz, singular and plural.
The uninflected nouns generally form the singular forms. In
some cases of nouns, the uninflected forms also stand for
their plural forms. These are the collective nouns.
The allomorphs of the plural suffixes and their
distributions are as follows:
Plural suffixes:
1. Plural suffix -e is added to singular nouns, to make
them plural, without bringing any change in the singular
form. Note the following singular and plural forms.
Singular forms
[sin] `River’
[pon] `Road’
[ʧhúp] `Bank of river’
[ó:ʃ] `Air’,
[udú:] `Dust’
[so:r] `Ice’
[kha:y] `Pebble’
[khʌɽk] `Moss’
[ró:ŋs] `Deer’
[ʒʌró:] `Orphan’
[bí:ro miʂ] `He buffalo’
Plural forms
[sine] `Rivers’
[pone] `Roads
[ʧhúpe] `Banks of river’
[ó:ʃe] `Different knids of Air’
[udú:e] `Dusts’
[so:re] `Ices’
[kha:ye] `Pebbles’
[khʌɽke] `Mosses’
[ró:ŋse] `Deer’
[ʒʌró:e] `Orphans’
[bí:ro miʂe] `He buffalos’
On some nouns suffix -éh is found and rarely -éɦ is also
found.
[ʤk] `People’
[ʤkéɦ] `Peoples’
[ga:ʤr] `Carrot’
[ga:ʤʌréh] `Carrots’
h
[k órma:] `Date palm’
[khórméh] `Date palms’
[zʌmindá:r] `Farmer’
[zʌminda:réh] `Farmers’
42
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[bá:k] `Darden’
[bʌkéh] `Dardens’
It may be noticed that the final vowel -a: replaced by é
of -éh suffix and the the final d changes into t. In some
words, the stress gets shifted to the final syllable.
[borá:] `Jute’
[boréh] `Jutes’
[əmrú:d] `Duava fruit’
[əmrutéh] `Duava fruits’
[ʧins] `Dreen gram’
[ʧinʌséh] `Dreen grams’
[ɖophós] `Mace’
[ɖophoséh] `Maces’
Plural suffix -i is added to non-human singular nouns, to
form their plural, without bringing any change in the singular
form.
[sʈʂi ʃúŋ] `Female dog’ [sʈʂi ʃúŋi] `Female dogs’
[khukúr] `Puppy’
[khukúri] ``Puppies’
[ʧɲʧul] `Snail’
[ʧɲʧuli] `Snails’
[khríʦ] `Ankle’
[khríʦi] `Ankles’
[ʐúk] `Kidney’
[ʐúki] `Kidneys’
In some cases the preceding consonant gets voiced.
[ʔʂ] `Dut’
[ʔʐi] `Duts’
[sʈʂi miʂ] `She buffalo’ [sʈʂi miʐi] `She buffaloes’
In case of some nouns the plural suffix -e replaces the
final vowel of the singular form. Sometimes it shortens the
penultimate vowel:
[áʐo] `Cloud’
[áʐe] `Clouds’
[phaɽáro] `Bald person’
[phaɽáre] `Bald persons’
[móti] `Limestone’
[móte] `Lime stones’
[gálo] `Ray’
[gále] `Rays’
[táro] `Star’
[táre] `Stars’
[ph:ʃi] `Bed bug’
[ph:ʃe] `Bed bugs’
[bír ] `Lake’
[bíre] `Lakes’
[mʐi] `Mouse’
[mʐe] `Mice’
[ʐi] `Intestine’
[ʐe] `Intestines’
[ʤó:ʐi] `Teak’
[ʤó:ʐe] `Teaks’
[manú:ʐo] `Man’
[manúʐe] `Men’
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
43
In case of some nouns the plural suffix -e replaces the
voiceless consonant into voiced one. (Especially ʂ into ʐ.).
[mú:ʂ] `Rat’
[mú:ʐe] `Rats’
[oi broʂ] `Stork’
[oi broʐe] `Storks’
[ʂíʂ] `Head’
[ʂíʐe] `Heads’
[dʌlí:ʂ] `Sieve’
[dʌlí:ʐe] `Sieves’
[ʈʂó:ʂ] `Loom’
[ʈʂó:ʐe] `Looms’
[gó:ʂ] `Attic (room)’
[gó:ʐe] `Attic (rooms)’
[ʈʂhé:ʂ] `Farm’
[ʈʂhé:ʐe] `Farms’
[hi:ʂ] `Sorrow’
[hi:ʐe] `Sorrows’
[ʧhí:ʂ] `Peak’
[ʧhí:ʐe] `Peaks’
The -e suffix sometimes changes final [s] of the singular
form in to [ʦ].
[phúrus] `Dew’
[phúruʦe] `Dews’
[kórkus] `Crow’
[kórkuʦe] `Crows’
[kkəs] `Pheasant’
[kkəʦe] `Pheasants’
Sometimes it replaces the final vowel along with the
penultimate consonant.
[ʃʌríʂo] `Necklace’
[ʃʌríʐe] `Necklaces’
Sometimes -e suffix replaces the penultimate long vowel
by short vowel.
[gá:ʋ] `Cow’
[gáʋe] `Cows’
h
[ʈ ú:l] `Egg’
[ʈhúle] `Eggs’
[ʈʂ:ku] `Spindle’
[ʈʂke] `Spindles’
Some other times -e suffix becomes -yé and it drops the
final vowel or it replaces the final vowel by other vowel.
[bó] `Cave’
[bóyé] `Caves’
[no:r] `Paw’
[no:ryé] `Paws’
[gʌɳʈí:] `Bell’
[gʌɳʈyé] `Bells’
[ʃeí] `Mountain’
[ʃʌyé] `Mountains’
[ʃeirí:] `Wife’s brother’ [ʃeiryé] `Wife’s brothers’
[ʦʌléni] `Pyjama’
[ʦʌlen(i)yé] `Pyjamas’
44
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[ela:ʧí:] `Cardamom’
[ʃɪɳʈí:li] `Mushroom’
[ʧĩ] `Bird’
[ela:ʧyé] `Cardamoms’
[ʃɪɳʈi:lyé] `Mushrooms’
[ʧẽyé] `Birds’
5.2. Pronouns:
There are 7 personal pronouns in Shina:
Singular
Plural
1st pereson: mo `I’
be `we’(excl); bẽĩ `we’(incl.
2nd person: tu `thou’
ʦho `you’
3rd person:
a:v `he’
a: `they’ (masc.)
(ʐo `proximate’)
(pʌra:v `remote’)
a:v `she’
a: `they’ (fem.)
(ʐe `proximate’)
ʌnu `it’
a: `they’ (neut.)
In the third person, the following pronouns are also used
to indicate the proximate and remote persons and objects.
3rd person singular
3rd person plural
He a:v, ʐo,(proximate) They (m) a:, ʐe, (proximate)
She a:, ʐe, (proximate)
They(f) əya:, ʐɛ,(proximate)
It ani, anu, (proximate) They(n) a:, ʐe, (proximate)
pʌra: (remote)
There are a number of pronouns listed in section 25 of
the Vocabulary. Some of the pronouns which are are
frequently used, are illustrated here.
[buʧhe ~ buʧʧhe] `Many’
[buʧʧhe ba:l] or [ba:l buʧʧhe] `Many boys’
[buɽe] `All’
[ba:l buɽe] ~ [buɽe ba:l] `All boys
[ʈʂé:k] `Few’ (countable)
[púʂi ʈʂé:k] `Few or some flowers’
[zá:sek] `Few, little’ (uncountable)
] `Little rice’
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
45
[phere] ~[phɛrɛ] `Another’
[phere mulɛ:k] `Another one boy’
[miʒúko] `First’
[miʒúko ba:l] `First boy’
[dumó:gi] `Second’
[dumó:gi muli] `Second girl’
5.3. Gender:
Gender in Shina grammar is like in Hindi. Some words
are feminine by morphological function. That is, they take
feminine verb suffixes. Such nouns are for example,
[kúi] `Earth’
[mya:l] `Earthquake’
[gi] `Flame’
[phí:ɳ] `Foam’
[mu:s] `Flood’
[buχá:r] `Fever’
[ʈóri] `Isthmus’
[bír ] `Lake’
Gender, in some words is natural and on some words the
gender marker is suffixed. Examples for natural gender:
Masculine nouns
Feminine nouns
[bábo] `Father’
[á:ʒe] `Mother’
[dá:do] `Drand father’
[dʌdí:] `Drand mother’
[ʐa:] `Brother’
[sʌs] `Sister’
[káko] `Brother’
[káki] `Sister’
[bá:l] `Son, young one’ [muli] `Daughter’
[bʌréʋ] `Husband’
[ʧĩ] `Wife’
[iʂ] `Bear’
[kʂ] `Female bear’
Gender marker -i is suffixed. Examples,
[ʃúŋ] Dog
[ʃúŋi] `Bitch’
[khá:r] `Partiality’
[khá:ri] `Partialities’
When the gender marker -i is suffixed, the final vowel
and sometimes the penultimate vowel are replaced.
[dá:do] `Drand father’
[dʌdí:] `Drand mother’
[mʌyáro] `Antelope’
[mʌyári] `Female antelope’
46
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
When the gender marker -e is suffixed to some female
nouns, the final consonant and sometimes the penultimate
vowel are replaced. Examples,
[sin] `River’
[sine] `Rivers’
[pon] `Road’
[pone] `Roads’
[nó:r] `Claw’
[nó:re] `Claws’
h
[ʧ í:ʂ] `Peak’
[ʧhí:ʐe] `Peaks’
[kʃ] `Marriage’
[kʒe] `Marriages’
[mu:s] `Flood’
[mu:ze] `Floods’
[ʈóri] ~ [ʈorí:] `Isthmus’ [ʈóre] `Isthmuses’
[bír ] `Lake’
[bíre] `Lakes’
Sample paradigms of male and female nouns:
Masc. noun: táro `planet’ and Fem. noun: bír `lake’
Singular
Plural
Masc. Fem.
Masc. Fem.
Nom:
táro
bír
táro
bír
(Trans.) tárosu bír su
tárosu bír su
Acc:
táro
bír
táro
bír
Inst:
tároʒo bír ʒo
tároʒo bír ʒo
Dat:
tárore bír re
tárore bír re
Abl:
tároʒo bír ʒo
tároʒo bír ʒo
Gen:
táryo:/e: bír
táryo:/e: bíréi
Loc:
tároʒa bír ʒa
tároʒa bír ʒa
5.4. Case suffixes:
There are seven cases in Shina. They are nominative,
accusative, instrumental, dative, ablative, genitive and
locative. They largely correspond with the structure of major
Indo-Aryan language, Hindi. (ø stands for zero or nil suffix.)
(Note: excl=exclusive, incl=inclusive, Trans=Transitive
verbs, H. -ne=As subjects take -ne. suffix in Hindi.)
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Singular
Masc. Fem.
ø
ø
47
Plural
Masc. Fem.
Nom:
ø
ø (excl)
-ẽĩ
-ɛ (incl)
(Trans.) -su
-su
-su
-su
(H. -ne) -i
-ĩ
-ʒa
-ʒa
Acc:
ø
ø
ø
ø
Inst:
-ʒo
-ʒo
-ʒo
-ʒo
Dat:
-re
-re
-re
-re
Abl:
-ʒo
-ʒo
-ʒo
-ʒo
Gen:
-yo:
-ye:
ø
-éi
Loc:
-ʒa
-ʒa
-ʒa
-ʒa
-ʒa
-ʒa
The paradigms of seven pronouns, viz, mu `I’, be `we’,
tu `thou’, ʦho `you’, a:v, `he or she’, anu `it’, a: `they’ are as
follows:
Paradigms of mu `I’ and be `we’:
Singular
Plural
Masc. Fem.
Masc. Fem.
Nom: mu:
mu: `I’
be:
be: (excl) `we’
bẽĩ
bɛ (incl) `we’
(Trans.) mu:su mu:su `I’
bésu
bésu `we’
(H. -ne) mi:
mĩ: `I’
ʌssóʒa ʌssóʒa `we’
Acc:
mu
mu `me’
ʌssó
ʌssó `us’
Inst:
mú:ʒo muʒo `by me’
ʌssó:ʒo ʌss:ʒo `by us’
Dat:
mú:re mú:re `to me’
ʌssó:re ʌss:re `to us’
Abl:
mú:ʒo muʒo`from me’ ʌssó:ʒo ʌss:ʒo`from us’
Gen:
myo:
mye: `of me’
ʌssó:
ʌsséi `of us’
Loc:
mú:ʒa mú:ʒa`in me’
ʌssóʒa ʌssóʒa`in us’
bé:ʒa bé:ʒa ‘in us’
Paradigms of tu `thou’ and ʦho `you’:
Masc.(sg.) Fem.(sg.)
Masc.(pl.) Fem.(pl.)
Nom: tu
tu `thou’
ʦho
ʦhɛ `you’
h
(Trans.) tusu
tusu `thou’
ʦ osu ʦhsu `you’
(H. -ne) tho
tho `thou’
ʦhóʒa ʦhʒa `you’
Acc:
tu
tu `thee’
ʦhó:re ʦhóre `you’
48
Inst:
Dat:
Abl:
Gen:
Loc:
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
tú:ʒo
tú:re
tú:ʒo
tho:
tú:ʒa
tú:ʒo `by thee’
tú:re `to thee’
tuʒo`from thee’
tho: `of thee’
tú:ʒa `in thee’
ʦhó:ʒo
ʦhó:re
ʦhó:ʒo
ʦhno
ʦhó:ʒo
ʦh:ʒo `by you’
ʦhóre `to you’
ʦh:ʒo`from you
ʦhno `of you’
ʦhó:ʒo `in you’
Paradigms of ʐo `he’, ʐe `she’ and ani `it’:
He
She
It
Nom:
ʐo,
a:v
ʐe, a:
ani, anu
(Trans) ʐossu, a:vsu
ʐessu, a:su
anisu, anusu
(H.-ne) ʐessei, a:sei
ʐesso, a:sso
anisei, anusei
Acc.
ʐessere, a:sere ʐessere, a:ssere anisere, anusere
Inst.
ʐesseʒo, a:sseʒo ʐesseʒo,a:sseʒo aniseʒo,anuseʒo
Dat.
ʐessere, a:sere ʐessere, a:ssere anisere, anusere
Abl.
ʐesseʒo, a:sseʒo ʐesseʒo,a:sseʒo aniseʒo,anuseʒo
Gen.
ʐosso, a:sso
ʐesso, a:sso
aniso, anuso
Loc.
ʐesseʒa, a:sseʒa ʐesseʒa, a:sseʒa aniseʒa,anuseʒa
Paradigms of ʐe `they’:
They(masc.) They(fem.)
They(neut.)
Nom: ʐe, a:
ʐɛ, əya:
ʐe, pʌra:
(Trans) ʐessu, a:su
ʐɛssu, əya:su
ʐessu, pʌra:su
(H.-ne) ʐennoʒa,annoʒa ʐɛnoʒa,əya:noʒa ʐennoʒa,pʌra:noʒa
Ac.ʐenno:re,anno:re ʐɛnno:re,əya:no:re ʐenno:re,pʌra:nn:ore
Inst. ʐennoʒo,annoʒo ʐɛnuʒo,əya:nuʒo ʐennoʒo,pʌra:noʒo
D.ʐenno:re,anno:re ʐɛnno:re,əya:nno:re ʐenno:re,pʌra:nn:ore
Abl. ʐennoʒo,annoʒo ʐɛnnoʒo,əya:noʒo ʐennoʒo,pʌra:noʒo
Den. ʐenno, anno
ʐɛnno, əya:no: ʐenno, pʌra:nno
ʐennai, annai
ʐɛnnai, əya:nai ʐennei, pʌra:nnei
Loc.ʐennoʒa,annoʒa ʐɛnnoʒa,əya:nnoʒa ʐennoʒa,pʌra:nnoʒa
Paradigms of kʌnu `who’:
Singular
Followed by
Masc. nouns Fem. nouns
Nom: kʌnu
kʌni
Plural
Followed by
Masc. nouns Fem. nouns
kʌni
kʌnye
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
(H.-ne) kʌniso
Acc.
kʌnise
Inst. kʌnisegi/kʌnigi
Dat.
kʌnisere
Abl.
kʌniʒo
Gen.
kʌnuso
Loc
kʌnusɛ
kʌnise
kʌnisei
kʌnisei
kʌnisei
kʌnise
kʌnisei
kʌnisei
49
kʌninei
kʌni
kʌnogi
kʌnore
kʌnoʒo
kʌnono
kʌnoʒa
5.5. Adjectives:
Adjectives generally precede the noun they qualify.
They end with -o if the following noun is masculine. For
example:
ʧúɳo bá:l `small boy’
bɽo tolyá: `big towel’
khúʈo go:ʂ `small house’ ʤáro manúʐo `old man’
Adjectives change the final vowel -o into -i if the
following noun is female, to agree with the gender of the
following noun.
ʧúɳi me:s `small table’
bɽi dʌχón `shawl’
ʤári dádih `old woman’
Sometimes the adjectives follow the noun.
bá:l buʧhe `many boys’ bá:l bú:ɽe `all boys’
ʤk búɽe `all people’
púʂi ʈʂé:k `few flowers’
ʃúŋi du `two dogs’
ʃúŋi buʧhe `many dogs’
Agreement of adjectives:
The nouns or pronouns with genitive case suffix function
as adjectives of the noun that follows it and they agree with
the following noun in gender and number: For example,
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Agreement with the following noun in number:
The pronoun changes its final vowel -o/-u to -e, when
the following noun is in plural:
myo ht `my hand’
mye hti `my hands’
tho pa: `your leg’
the pe: `your legs’
ʐesso pa: `his leg’
ʐesse pe: `his legs’
ʐenno go:ʂ `Their house’ ʐenne go:ʂi `their houses’
ʐessu ʈúkur `her basket’ ʐesse ʈúkuri: `her baskets’
Agreement with the following noun in gender:
The pronoun changes its final vowel -o to -i, when the
folowing noun is of feminine gender:
ʧúɳo bá:l `small boy’
ʧúɳi kha:y `small pebble’
muli píʃu `girl’s male cat’ mulɛ píʃi `girl’s female cat’
myo: gí:ro `my rock’
mye: kʃ `my marriage’
Ordinal adjectives:
When the numbers indicate the sequence, then the
ordinal forms of the numerals are used: For example,
[ek] `one’. Its ordinal form is first [miʒúko]
[du:] `two’. Its ordinal form is second [dumó:go]
[ʈʂe:] `three’. Its ordinal form is third [ʈʂemó:go].
When the ordinals of the numerals refer to female nouns,
the final vowel and the preceding consonant change. E.g.
miʒúko ba:l `first boy’. miʒúki muli `first daughter’
dumó:go mʌnúʐo`second man’.dumó:ki ʧĩ `second wife’
ʈʂemó:go mó:mo `third uncle’. ʈʂemó:ki sʌs `third sister’
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51
Inflexion of adjectives with suffixes.
When the adjectives indicate men or things having that
quality, they take suffixes like the nouns to mean `to small
thing’, `from small thing’, `to big thing’, `from big thing’ etc.
For example,
ʧúɳo `small’
Masc. nouns
Fem. nouns
Nom: ʧúɳo
ʧúɳi
(H.-ne) ʧúɳiso
ʧúɳise
Acc.
ʧúɳise
ʧúɳisei
Inst. ʧúɳisegi/ʧúɳigi ʧúɳisei
Dat.
ʧúɳisere
ʧúɳisei
Abl.
ʧúɳiʒo
ʧúɳise
Gen.
ʧúɳuso
ʧúɳisei
Loc
ʧúɳusɛ
ʧúɳisei
b:ɽo `big’
Masc. nouns Fem. nouns
b:ɽi
b:ɽye
b:ɽinei
b:ɽi
b:ɽgi
b:ɽore
b:ɽoʒo
b:ɽono
b:ɽoʒa
The inflected forms of other adjectives:
bɽo`great’ ekbo`alone’ ʌʦhko`bad’ mun`blunt’
Nom: bɽo
ekbo
ʌʦhko
mun
h
Acc.
bɽere
ʌʦ kore
mun
Inst.
bɽogi
ekbo
ʌʦhkogi
mungi
h
Dat.
bɽere
ʌʦ kore
munʌre
Abl.
bɽoʒo
ʌʦhkoʒo
munʒo
h
Gen.
bɽyo
ʌʦ koyo
muno
Loc
bɽaʒa
ʌʦhkʌʒa munɛ/munʌʒa
5.6. Compounds:
The combination of an adjective and a noun type of
compound is a common construction in Shina. For example,
ʤáro manúʐo `old man’ ʤári dádih `old woman’
ʌʦhko go:ʂ `bad house’ lo:lo púʂo `red flower’
ʐíŋŋi ɖáki `long stick’
tto bai `hot food’
sʈʂi ʃúŋ `female dog’
kíɳe dó:ne `black cattle’
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
ʈhú:lo ɖé:r `fat belly’
ɖŋo lʌmúʈi `long tail’
Two or more nouns combine to form the compounds.
sínyo kʧe `bank of river’
púʂo gáɳo `wreath of flower’
mʌyrmo muli `step daughter’
phere mul:k `another girl’
bĩ p:ʈe `leaves of tree’
5.7. Reduplication:
The numerals ék `one’, du `two’, ʈʂe: `three’, ʧa:r `four’
and põ:ʃ `five’ are reduplicated as ékek, dúdu, ʈʂeʈʂe:, ʧáʧa:r,
põpõ:ʃ respectively to mean one each, two each, three each,
four each and five each. For example,
ékekóre ʧáʧar dé `give four to each one of them’
ékekóre põpõ:ʃ dé `give five to each one of them’
nno:re ékek de `give one each to these’
nno:re dúdu, de `give two each to these’
nno:re ʈʂeʈʂe: de `give three each to these’
6. Verb morphology of Shina:
Verbs in isolation take `-o:no’ suffix as an infinitive
marker. They are the forms of verbs not changed for person,
number or tense. For example,
hʌʒó:no `to laugh’
dyó:no `to give’
uʧó:no `to pack’
phʌryó:no `to pour’
ʌlyó:no `to pull’
ʧhuryó:no `to put’
kʌɳyó:no `to scratch’
ʈʂʌkyó:no `to see’
Conditional participles are formed in Shina by suffixing
`-to’ to the verbs, to indicate the meaning,`if ...(did some
thing)’
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Infinitive forms
rʌʒó:no `to tell’
gunyó:no `to think’
thyó:no `to do’
ʌryó:no `to bring’
53
Conditional participles
rʌʒó:nto `if told’
gunyó:nto `if thought’
thyó:nto `if done’
ʌryó:nto `if brought’
Although thyó:no is an infinitive verb meaning `to do’, it
also serves as an infinitive marker when it occurs on nouns,
meaning to `do that work’. Then it forms all verbs like a
regular verb. For example,
Noun forms
Verb formed from nouns
pré: `acting’
pré: thyó:no `to act’
ʈʌkó:r `cover’
ʈʌkó:r thyó:no `to cover’
pa:r `other side’
pa:r thyó:no `to go other side’
púʂ `baby, child’
púʂ thyó:no `Adopt (child)’
km `less’
km thyó:no `to reduce’
obó:ki `belch’
obó:ki thyó:no `to belch’
As in the above examples, thyó:no is employed in the
sense, `to do’, bó:no `to become’ is employed after the noun
forms to give the sense of `to become that’. For example,
Noun forms
Verb formed from nouns
h
p t `acquaintance’ p t bó:no `to get acquitted’
lʌʃ `shy’
lʌʃ bó:no `to become shy’
prik `bouncing’
prik bó:no `to get bounced’
ápe `decrease’
ápe bó:no `to get decreased’
só:r `ice’
só:r bó:no `to become ice’
bɽo `big’
bɽo bó:no `to become big’
In the similar way, dyó:no `to give’ is employed on the
nouns to give the sense of `to give (that)’.
Noun forms
Verb formed from nouns
ʃʌpé `blessing’
ʃʌpé dyó:no `to give blessing’
o:ʃ `air, wind’
o:ʃ dyó:no `to blow air’
h
ʦ ʌt `heat’
ʦhʌt dyó:no `to give heat’
ɦʌt `hand’
ɦʌt dyó:no `to give hand, help’
h
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
oi `water’
sa:t `company’
oi dyó:no `to give water, irrigate’
sa:t dyó:no `to give company’
Similarly ó:no `to come’ is also used on the nouns, to
indicate the sense of `to come, become (that)’. For example,
Noun forms
Verb formed from nouns
bó:iki `bubble’
bó:iki ó:no `to bubble’
khu:zi `cough’
khu:zi ó:no `to cough’
ro:ʂ `anger’
ro:ʂ ó:no `to get angry’
huʦiki `hiccup’
huʦiki ó:no `to hiccup’
khá:ji `itch’
khá:ji ó:no `to itch’
: `panting, breath’
: ó:no `to pant’
6.1. Finite verbs:
The finite verbs usually occur at the end of a sentence. In
other words, they complete the utterance. They carry
different markers in respect of personal pronouns, in different
tenses. The following examples illustrate the use of
intransitive and transitive verbs of Shina, in respect of 7 basic
personal pronouns.
The intransitive verbs form the simple present tense
verbs in the following way. The forms of the verb, boʒó:no
`to go’ are as follows:
Singular
Plural
1st per. (mf)mu boʒó:mos
(mf)be oʒnʌs(exclusive)
(m)bẽĩ boʒnʌs(inclusive)
(inclusive)
2nd per. (mf)tu bo
(m) ʦho bo:ʒa:
(f) ʦhɛ bo:ʒa:
3rd per. (m.) a:v bo:ʒʌɱ
a: boʒna:
(f.) a: bo:ʒĩ:
(mfn) a: boʒna:
(n.) a:v bo:ʒʌɱ
a: boʒna:
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
55
The transitive verbs form the simple present tense
verbs in the following way: The forms of the verb dyó:no `to
give’:
Singular
Plural
1st per.(mf) musu dyó:mos (mf)besu dyó:nʌs(excl.)
(m) bẽĩsu dyó:nʌs(incl.)
(incl.)
2nd per. (mf)tusu dyó:
(m) ʦhosu dyóa:
(f) ʦh
:
3rd per. (m.) a:vsu dyóʌɱ
a:su dyó:na:
(f.) a:su dyó:ĩ: (mfn) a:su dyó:na:
(n.) a:vsu dyó:ʌɱ
a:su dyó:na:
Equational and Existential Verbs:
`to be’ are used as copula in
equational of sentences. For example,
Singular
`I am’
Plural
(m) ʦh
(f) ʦh
2nd per.
3rd per. (m.)
:
(n.)
:
Some examples to illustrate
χoðai bɽ
á:n
`we are’
(inclusive)
(inclusive)
`to be’:
: `there are three dogs’
`Dod is great’
. `Here is a cat’
. `Here are two cats’
:. `Here are a cat and a dog’
: `hands are small’
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
The forms of verb bil `to exist’ are used in existential
sentences. For example,
Singular
1st per. mu bil `I am’
2nd per. tu bil
3rd per. (m.) a:v bil
(f.) a: bil
(n.) a:v bil
Plural
be (exclusive) bili `we are’
(m)bẽĩ bili (inclusive)
(inclusive)
(m) ʦho bili
(f) ʦhɛ bilĩ
a: bil
(mfn) a: bil
a: bil
Examples to illustrate the use of verb bil `to exist’:
anu go:ʂek bil ` this is a house’
anni go:ʐi du bil `these are two houses’
anu myõ: go:ʂ bil `this is my house’
anni myẽ go:ʐi bil `these are my houses’
anni mi kitáp bil `these are my books’
anu ʃúŋek bil `this is a dog’
a:v myo bá:l bil `he is my boy’
a: mi mulái ne bil `they are not my girls’
Dubitative marker da `is (it) not?’
In the event of expressing doubt or in order to question
whether a particular thing exists or not, da `is (it) not’ is used
outside the sentence.
, da? `It is a house, is it not?’
, da? `Is the mountain
, da? `Small boy is smart. Isn’t he?
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
57
7. Sentences:
The syntax of the sentence in Shina is like the sentence
structure of Hindi and other major Indo Aryan languages. It
is primarily `subject, object, verb’ (SOV) type. For example:
(Note the abbreviations: S=Sentence; NP=Noun Phrase;
VP=Verb Phrase; S=Subject; O=Object; V=Verb;
Adj=Adjective; Adv=Adverb; N=Noun; SC=Subordinate
Clause
S
NP
S
bésu
We
VP
O
V
tu pʃʌnʌs
you
see
`We see you’
The extensions of the nouns, like the adjectives, occur
before the subject or object and the extensions of the verbs,
like the adverbs, occur before the verb. For example,
S
NP
S
VP
O
V
Adj N
Adj N
Adv V
ʧuɳo ba:l
syó: me:ʋá: ékbo kh
small boy
good fruit alone ate
`Small boy ate good fruit alone’
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Other words may occur anywhere in the sentence. They
are construed approximately.
The subordinate clauses, qualifying the noun or the verb
occur before them respectively. Examine the clause
qualifying the subject in the following example:
S
NP
SC
VP
N
Adv Adv
Copula
Adv
O V
S
ɦi:vvi krom thenek
no:kar bsko ʧh
with heart work does-who servant enough tired
`servant who works with heart is tired enough.’
.
is
In this way we can explain the sentences used in Shina
language.
7.1. Intonation of sentences:
There are some general features of intonation of
sentences. The statements have the falling intonation at the
end of the sentence whereas the questions have the rising
intonation at the end of the sentence. For example,
anu miʒúko ba:l bil
`He is the first boy.’
In the above sentence, the word miʒúko meaning `first’
is emphasized. The word, which is emphasized for meaning,
will have higher rise-fall intonation. Apart from the stress on
the second syllable in the above example, miʒúko, even if it
were with the stress on the first syllable as in tí:ɳi meaning
`sharp’, the general intonation of the emphasized word would
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
59
not have changed. In order to indicate the emphasized word
in the meaning, the word first is also shown with stress.
On the other hand, if the sentence ends with a
confirmative particle, da the intonation generally rises at the
end.
,
da? `It is a house, is it not?
On the other hand, even if there is no confirmative
particle, the terminal contour rises if the intention of the
speaker is to seek the information. For example,
tho: nom ʤok
bil? `What is your name?
In case of wonder or exclamation, the terminal contour
falls with an emphasis on the word having prominence. For
example,
músu knathe rʒem
`In what way should I tell!
In the above example, rʒem `(I) tell’ is the centre of
exclamation. Hence it has got the strong rise-fall intonation.
The word knathe `in what way’ has the next high rise and
fall intonation, which indicates the intension of the speaker.
ani syi mo:ʐi ne bil.
`This is not a good word!’
In the above sentence, the phrase syi mo:ʐi `good word’
is strongly emphasized, and hence it has strong rise and fall.
But ne bil `is not’ is having the next high rise and fall as that
phrase has the expression of exclamation of the speaker.
8. Writing system for Shina language:
The languages in India genetically belong to four
families: Indo Aryan, Dravidian, Austro Asiatic and Tibeto
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Burman. Out of these, the speakers of the languages
belonging to Indo Aryan and Dravidian families are in large
number. Most of these languages. except Kashmiri and Urdu,
use the descendants of Brahmi script, which was originally
used in the stone edicts of emperor Ashok, in the 3rd BC.
In the state of Jammu & Kashmir Urdu language in
Perso-Arabic script, has been accepted as the state language,
and due to its dominance, Perso-Arabic script is being used
for Kashmiri language also, although the language belongs to
Indo Aryan family.
Since Shina language is spoken in Ladakh district of
Jammu & Kashmir state, and as mentioned earlier, it belongs
to Dardic branch of Indo Aryan family, the Perso Arabic
script is recommended for Shina. However, the Devanagari
equivalents for every phoneme is also suggested, in case any
one intends to write Shina language in Devanagari script.
However, a number of modifications had to be suggested in
both Perso Arabic and Devanagari scripts, to represent the
phonemes of Shina correctly. It was noticed that fewer
modifications were necessary for Devanagari script than for
Urdu script. Since Shina is member of Indo Aryan family of
languages, it is not surprising that Devanagari script can
represent most of the phonemes of Shina, and the few
modified symbols suggested in the light of Parivardhita
Devanagari script (Extended Devanagari script) can represent
the other phonemes special to Shina.
8.1. Scripts recommended for Shina:
8.1.1. Perso Arabic script:
The sounds of Shina which could be represented by the
letters in Perso Arabic script are retained as they appear in
their usual initial, medial and final occurrences.
However, following seven graphs needed modifications
to represent the sounds specific to Shina. They are:
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
61
ɳ ŋ ʦ ʈʂ ʂ ʐ and ʒ
For short e and short o `ulʈa jazam’ and for ɛ: two
`nuktas’ below the letter are used. For ə and ə: the Kashmiri
way of writing is used. That is, `hamza’ over `alif’ for ə and
`hamza’ with length modification over `alif’ for ə: are used.
For stress, `khaɖi zabar’ and for nasalization, the `noon’
without the dot are used. The symbols used here are only the
recommendations. The stress and nasalization marks may be
found useful under special circumstances of writing words
which contrast in meaning the basis of these supra-segmental
features. The frequency of such words is however very low.
In the normal circumstances it may be written without these
marks. But in the circumstances of teaching Shina language
it would necessary to indicate these because the students will
have to know which syllable of the word is stressed. So, they
are indicated in the vocabulary, collected in the latter part of
the book.
The ideal script for the Shina language is that which
would be most phonemic. Hence the recommendations of the
script are in accordance with the list of phonemes, in the
following charts.
The shapes of the Perso Arabic letters in the three
positions, Initial, Medial and Final are shown. The variant
shapes of the graphs are shown by an oblique line. The
Modifications in the Perso Arabic script are shown below or
above a horizontal line to indicate whether the marks are to
be put below of above the graphs.
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
8.1.2. The following tables how the writing systems for
Shina language, in Perso Arabic and Devanagari Scripts:
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63
64
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
65
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
8.1.3. Alphabet for Perso Arabic writing:
The script suggested above for Perso Arabic writing is
arranged in the traditional alphabetical order below. The
name of each letter is written below them. The phonemes
represented by the letters are already given in the previous
charts.
The graphs are arranged below in the Perso Arabic
alphabet for Shina, on the basis of the similarity of shapes.
That is, the letters having similar shapes are grouped
together. The letter with less modifications are introduced
earlier than the ones with more modifications.
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67
Some of the words containing the sounds special to
Shina may be illustrated here. Other sounds are written in the
same way as they are done in Kashmiri and Urdu. However,
the teacher’s help may be necessary in order to learn this
writing system.
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
8.1.4. The Devanagari script:
The primary letters of the Devanagari vowels occur in
the initial position of the words, whereas the secondary
letters of vowels, which are also known as ligatures, occur
with the consonants in the non-initial position.
The primary letters of the consonants in Devanagari,
contain the inherent /a/ vowel. The secondary letters are used
for writing the clusters of consonants, as is done in the other
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
69
languages which use Devanagari script. The consonants, in
whose case the secondary letters are not indicated, do not
form them in the usual writing system. In case of their
occurrence, in exceptional circumstances, the first consonant
of the cluster could be indicated with a consonant marker
(halant mark).
8.1.5. The following tables show the writing system for
Devanagari Script:
In Devanagari script the modifications are not as many
as they were in Perso Arabic script. It may also be noted that
there is fairly a regular way of combining ligatures of vowels
with the consonants.
The fourteen vowel letters are arranged in the
Devanagari traditional order. The corresponding ligatures are
given below each letter. The modifications suggested by the
Central Hindi Directorate, (Government of India), to the
traditional Devanagari script, in the Parivardhita Devanagari
(Extended Devanagari) Alphabet, are accepted here also in
suggesting the modifications to the script. In case any
ambiguity was created in this process, then suitable different
modifications are suggested to avoid confusion. The ligatures
are shown below the primary letter.
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
In order to indicate the exact pronunciation and avoid
ambiguity, in contrasting words,
(ə ə:) and
(ɛ ɛ:) may
be necessary. Otherwise from practical point of view, it is
possible to merge
(ə ə:) in
(a a:) and
(ɛ ɛ:) in
(e e:). However, since length is maintained in case of
and it would be advisable to have and
as short
counterparts of their respective long vowels
and
.
Thirty six consonant letters may be arranged as follows.
It may be observed that the homorganity of the consonants is
maintained in the process of introducing the new symbols.
The phonetic values for the symbols have been shown in
the previous charts on the writing system.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
71
The graphs can be written with vowel ligatures also:
Similarly, the other consonants can also be written as:
The consonant clusters can be written as it is done in
Devanagari by making use of the secondary symbols.
Whenever there would be a case of modified symbol losing
their identity in clusters, the first consonant could be written
with `consonant marker’ or what is called in Hindi, `halant
mark’, just below the first letter. For example,
uʦyono can be written as
uʈʂyó:no can be written as
tarui can be written as
phaʈʋei can be written as
miʃaryó:no can be written as
ʧʌxaʈ can be written as
ʈʂhʌpáro can be written as
ʂiŋi can be written as
skdar can be written as
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Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
káɣu: can be written as
áyav can be written as
unéilo can be written as
The stress may be marked by a stroke on the stressed
syllable, as done on the word áyav
above, Since the
words would be contrasting on the basis of stress, it may be
obligatory to mark it at least on certain words which are
likely to cause the difference in meaning. It would be
mandatory while preparing the teaching material. In the cases
where the contrast between stressed and non-stressed words
is not created, marking stress in Shina script may be optional.
Some words contrasting in meaning on the basis of stress
are illustrated below:
`high’
`bridge’
`cloud’
`in, inside’
`wife’s brother’
`mountain’
`earth’
`cap’
The nasalization can be indicated by a `chandra bindu’
or `a moon with a dot inside’, on the letter which is nasalized.
`seed’
`cow shed’
`paddy’
`mouth’
`flame’
`sickness’
More examples cam be given to illustrate the writing of
diphthongs:
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
`rain’
`how’
`of burning’
`father-in-law’
`ram’
`room’
`water’
`sky’
`earth’
`wife’s brother’
73
The above brief grammar describes the Shina language
spoken in Dras area of Kargil District of Jammu and Kashmir
state.
74
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
9. Shina Language
Vocabulary
The data from Shina language spoken around Dras was
collected from different informants during the field trips, in
1971-75. It may be noticed that for many words, they gave
the Urdu, Persian or Balti words which are included here.
After every Shina word, its use in the language, either
masculine (m.) or feminine (f.) is indicated. Singular (sg.)
and plural (pl) forms are also indicated. A number of words
related to the main entry were supplied by the same
informant or different informants, which are given below the
main entry. Alternative pronunciations by the same or
different informant, are shown after word in (), after ‘~’
mark.
Transcription of vowels:
High
Front
i
Mid
ɨ
Back
u
(rarely)
Lower high
Higher low
Low
e
o
ɛ
ə
ʌɔ
a
All vowels can occur with length and stress which are
indicated by [:] and [ ]. Stressed vowels have a tendency to
be longer and of slightly higher pitch. Vowels in the words
with single syllable are optionally stressed. Voiceless vowels,
occurring at the end of words,
, below the
vowel: [ ].
Vowel Sequences: Vowel sequences appear as a result of
alternative pronunciation with a glide: i
, ĩ, áe, áo,
éə, i, :ə, éə, éi, úe, úi, ói, óə, uí, ué, aá, ei. Some of these
can be treated as diphthongs.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
75
Transcription of consonants:
(Note: vl=voiceless; un=unaspirated; as=aspirated;
vd=voiced.)
S
t
o
p
s
Bila- Labio- Den Alve- Retro- Pala- Ve- Uv- Globial dental tal olar flex tal
lar ular ttal
vl- p
t
ʈ
k
q
ʔ
unvl- ph
th
ʈh
kh
asvd- b
d
ɖ
g
un-
Af vlfr unic vlat ases vdun-
ʦ
ʈʂ
ʧ
ʦh
ʈʂh
ʧh
ʣ
ʤ
Nasals- m
n
Lateral
Approximant
l
Trill
r
Flaps
ɾ
ɽ
s
z
ʂ
ʐ
Frica- vl ɸ
tives vd β
f
Appro- w
ximants
ʋ
ð
ɳ
ɲ
ʃ
ʒ
y
ŋ
x
ɣ
χ
h
ɦ
76
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Notes:
1. Superscript [h] as [h] is used to indicate that the
consonant on which it occurs is aspirated. No cluster of a
consonant + [h] occurs in the data.
2. ʦ and ʧ, in gemination, are conventionally written as
[ʦʦ] and [ʧʧ] respectively. But, in pronunciation, they are [tʦ]
and [tʧ]. This pronunciation of [tʧ] is also confirmed in the
words with a word boundary between [t] and [ʧ]. For
example, in words like [aχrət ʧən], meaning north, there is a
word boundary between [aχrət] and [ʧən]. It may also be
written as [aχrət#ʧən], where # indicates the word boundary.
But we have used space here.
3. Approximants [ʋ, y] may occur with nasalization also.
They are marked with the superscript: , like [ ].
4. Approximants [w,y] stand for different sounds here,
than in the IPA. That is, [w] is a voiced labial-velar
approximant in the IPA whereas it is a bilabial approximant
here and [y] is a high front rounded vowel in the IPA
whereas it is a palatal approximant here.
5. For voiced velar fricative [ɣ] symbol is used here
whereas in IPA the symbol for voiced velar fricative is [ɣ]
6. [w,y] are used as superscript to indicate respectively
the labialized and palatalized pronunciation of the consonants
on which they occur. E.g. [kw] is labialized variety of [k] and
[py] is the palatalized variety of [p].
7. Sometimes consonants [r], [l] and [m]are used
vocalically. That is, for example in [ʌtṛ] meaning perfume, or
[ʃkṛ] meaning sugar, the stops [t] or [k] are released into [ṛ]
without any vowel. Similarly in [ʃkḷ] meaning shape, [l] is
released vocalically. Vocalic [l] is symbolized as [ḷ]. Further
in [nzṃ] meaning poetry, [m] is released vocalically. Such
cases of vocalic releases of [r], [l] and [m] are represented as
[ṛ], [ḷ] and [ṃ] respectively.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
9.1. Earth, sky, water etc.
1. Air,
[ó:ʃ] m.sg.; [ó:ʃe] m.pl.
2. Ash
[da:l]
3. Bank of the river, [ʧhúp] m.sg.; [ʧhúpe] m.pl.
[sínyo kʧe]
4. Brook,
[úʦ] m.
5. Cave
[bó] m.sg. [bóyé] m.pl.
6. Clay,
[ʧíʧel] m.sg. (~ [ʧíʧʧel])
7. Cloud,
[áʐo] m.sg.; [áʐe] m.pl.
8. Coast
[ʧhúp]
9. Cold,
[ʈʂʌyé] adj.
[ʈʂéəno] `to feel cold’
10. Comet
[lo:ʈʂhr]
11. Cyclone
[yʈʂʌ buró:]
12. Darkness
[thp] m.sg.
13. Dawn
[ló:thap] m.sg. `end of darkness’
[ʧɔl]
14. Desert
[siŋálo] m.sg.
15. Dew
[phúrus] m.sg. [phúruʦe] m.pl.
16. Dust
[udú:] m.sg. [udú:e] m.pl.
17. Earth
[kúi] f.sg.
18. Earthquake
[mya:l] f.sg.
19. Echo
[bʌʃóno] (From Urdu bʌʒa:na)
[bráki bʌʃóno]
20. Eclipse
[kó:ɳor] m.sg.
21. Flame
[gi] f.sg.
22. Foam
[phí:ɳ] f.sg.
23. Forest
[ʤe:l] m.sg.
24. Fire
[phu:]
25. Flood
[buʧe ʋázẽĩ] f.sg.
[mu:s] f.sg. [mu:ze] f.pl.
26. Fog
[kaɣú:] m.sg. (~ [kawú:])
[phrus]
27. Ground
[kúi] m.sg.
[da:s]
77
78
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
28. Hail
29. Heat
30. High fever
31. Hill
32. Hillock
33. Island
34. Ice
35. Isthmus
36. Lake
37. Lightening
38. Limestone
39. Mist
40. Moon light
41. Mountain
42. Morning star
43. Moon
44. Moss
45. Mud
46. Nature
47. Ocean
48. Peak
49. Pebble
50. Plain
51. Planet
52. Rain
53. Rainbow
54. Ray
55. River
56. Road
57. Rock
58. Rock
59. Sand
60. Satellite
[ɖóɾo] m.sg. [ɖóɾe] m.pl.
[hí:n]
[ʦht] m.sg.
[buχá:r] f.sg.
[ʃéi] m.sg.
[ʈhúko] m.sg. [ʈhuké] m.pl.
[kúi] (ground, land)
[so:r] m.sg. [so:re] m.pl. (~[so:ər])
[tóri] f.sg. [tóre] f.pl. (~ [torí:] f.sg.)
[díʃʧuɳi]
[bír
[bíre] f.pl.
[bíʧuʂ] f.sg. [bíʧuʐe] f.pl.
[móti] f.sg. [móte] f.pl.
[kaɣú:] m.sg.
[yu:n ʈʂaɦ] (yu:n=moon, ʈʂaɦ = light)
[ʃeí] f.sg. [ʃʌyé] f.pl.
[lo:ʈhr] m.sg.
[yún] f.sg.
[khʌɽk] m.sg. [khʌɽke] m.pl.
[dok] m.sg.
[kudrt]
[sr] m.sg.
[ʧhí:ʂ] f.sg. [ʧhí:ʐe] f.pl.
[kha:y] f.sg. [kha:ye] f.pl.
[da:s] m.sg.
[táro] m.sg.
[mi] f.sg.
[biʐón] f.sg.
[gálo] m.sg. [gále] m.pl.
[sin] f.sg. [sine] f.pl.
[pon] f.sg. [pone] f.pl.
[gi:ro]
[brʌk]
[gí:ro] m.sg. [gí:re] m.pl.
[síŋɛl] m.sg. (~ [síŋɪl])
[táro] m.sg. [táre] m.pl.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
61. Sea
62. Shade
63. Sky
64. Snow
65. Spring of water
66. Star
67. Stone
68. Storm
69. Stream
70. Sun
71. Sunshine
72. Thunder
73. Universe
74. Valley
75. Volcano
76. Water
77. Wave
78. Weather
79. Whirl pool
80. Wind
81. Wood
82. World
[sʌr] m.sg.
[ʧhóro] m.sg.
[aŋŋĩ] m.sg.(~[aŋi] ~ [aŋŋi])
[ɦín] m.sg.
[uʦ] m.sg.
[táro] m.sg. [táre] m.pl.
[bʌʈ] m.sg. [bʌʈi] m.pl.
[bʌláh] f.sg.
[tu:fan] f.sg.
[í:l] m.sg.
[gʌʋó:] `canal’
[sú:rɪ] f.sg.
[tílɪ]
[tílɛ] `twilight’
[bíʧʧuʂ] mf sg.
[bɽo aŋŋĩ] `big sky’
[ʈʂr] m.sg. `water falls’
[drŋ bóno] `breaking of rocks’
[ói] m.sg.
[óyeʋ ʧháʈi]
[ʧháʈi] `to vomit’
[mósɪm]
[ói kíkiri] `turning of water’
[ó:ʃ] m.sg.
[káʈo] m.sg.
[dunyát] f.sg.
9.2. Mankind, Sex, family, Relationship etc.
83. Adopted child
84. Ancestors
85. Baby
86. Bachelor
87. Blind
[púʂ] m.sg.
[púʂ thyó:no] `to adopt a child’
[dáðo málo]
[baál] m.sg.
[káʃ netheɦk ba:l]
`man who has not yet married’
[ʂé:ʋ] sg. [ʂé:ʋe] pl.
79
80
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
88. Boy
[bá:l]
89. Bridge
[ɖaŋó]
88. Bridegroom
[ɦilál] m.sg.
90. Brother
[káko] (a term of endearment also)
91. Brother
[mʌyrmo ʐa:]
92. Brother (elder)
[bɽo káko ʐa:]
93. Brother (younger) [ʧúɳo káko ʐa:]
94. Brother-in-law
[ʃeirí]
[bʌréʋ] `husband’
95. Brother’s wife
[kákei ʧéi]
96. Child
[ʧúɳo bá:l]
97. Childhood
[bá:l ʧhá:l]
98. Cripple
[khiŋíro]
99. Daughter
[muli]
Daughter (step) [mʌyrmo muli]
100. Daughter-in-law [nú:ʂ]
101. Daughter-in-law’s
father
[billĩ1
102. Daughter-in-law’s
mother
[billé:ɳ]
103. Descendents
[mirá:fs]
104. Dumb
[ʧáʈo]
105. Deaf mute
[ɦúʈo]
106. Elopement
[na:ʃ thyó:no]
107. Embrace
[bó:ʃi] `call, cry of heart’
108. Eunuch
[né ɦólilok]
109. Family
[bʦih]
110. Fat
[thúlo]
111. Father
[bábo] m.sg.; [bábe] m.pl.
112. Father’s brother
(elder)
[bɽo babó]
113. Father’s brother
(younger)
[ʧúɳo babó]
114. Father’s sister [phapíh]
115. Father-in-law
[ʃéər]
116. Female
[s:ʈʂi]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
117. Friend
[dost]
[sa:ti]
118. Girl
[muli]
119. Grand daughter [pá:ʈʂi]
120. Grand father
[dá:do]
121. Grand mother [dʌdí:]
122. Grand son
[pó:ʈʂo]
123. Great grand
daughter
[pʌɦó:ʈʂi]
124. Great grand
father
[dá:do bábo]
125, Great grand
mother
[ddí áʤe]
126. Great grand son [pʌɦó:ʈʂo]
127. Hunch back
[gurú:]
128. Husband
[bʌréʋ]
129. Husband’s
brother
[ʃeirí]
130. Husband’s brother’s
wife
[bʌréʋ ʐʌʋei ʧĩ]
131. Husband’s sister [bʌréi sʌs]
132. Husband’s sister’s
husband
[bʌréi sʌzó: bʌréʋ]
133. Infant
[kótte ʤá:lɔ]
[ʤúk ʤá:lok]
134. Lean
[khaʧí:lo]
135. Left handed
[khúʃo]
136. Maid
[kʃnethek muli]
137. Male
[bíro]
138. Man
[mʌnúʐo]
139. Marriage
[kʃ] f.sg. [kʒe] f.pl.
140. Master
[ma:ʂʈər]
141. Maternal aunt [ʧúɳi á:ʒe]
142. Maternal aunt’s
daughter
[ʧúɳi a:ʒéi muli]
143. Maternal aunt’s
81
82
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
husband
[ʧúɳi a:ʒéʋ bʌréʋ]
144. Maternal aunt’s
son
[ʧúɳi á:ʒo ba:l]
145. Maternal grand
father’s home
[momyá:l]
146. Maternal uncle [mó:mo]
147. Maternal uncle’s
daughter
[mó:mei muli]
148. Maternal uncle’s
son
[mó:mo bá:l]
149. Maternal uncle’s
wife
[mó:mei ʧĩ]
[phʌpi:] f.sg., [phʌpyé:] f.pl.
150. Mother
[á:ʤe]
151. Mother’s brother [á:ʤo ká:ko]
[mó:mo]
152. Mother’s sister
(elder)
[bɽi á:ʒe]
153. Mother’s sister
(young)
[ʧúɳi á:ʒe]
154. Mother-in-law [ʃʂ]
155. Nephew
[káko: bá:l]
156. Niece
[kákei muli]
157. Old
[ʤáro]
158. Old man
[ʤáro manúʐo]
[ʤáro dádo]
159. Old woman
[ʤári dádih]
160. Orphan
[ʒʌró:] m.sg., [ʒʌró:e] m.pl.
161. Parents
[mo:má:lo]
[á:ʒe bábo]
162. Paternal aunt
[phapíɦ]
163. Paternal aunt’s
daughter
[phapeí muli]
164. Paternal aunt’s
husband
[phapyó bʌréʋ]
165. Paternal aunt’s
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
son
[phapyó bá:l]
166. Paternal uncle’s
daughter
[phapeí muli]
167. Paternal uncle’s
son
[ʧúɳo bá:bo bá:l]
168. Paternal elder
uncle’s wife
[bɽo babei ʧĩ]
169. Paternal younger
uncle’s wife
[ʧúɳo babei ʧĩ]
170. People
[ʤk] sg. [ʤkeɦ] pl.
171. Person
[mʌnúʐo]
172. Pregnancy
[surapi]
[ʧó:no ɦ k]
173. Pregnant woman [ʧó:no ɦ k ʧĩ]
174. Race
[dʌrbk]
175. Relatives
[tóəme]
176. Sister (elder)
[bɽi káki]
[bɽi sʌs]
177. Sister (younger) [ʧúɳi káki]
[ʧúɳi sʌs]
178. Short
[khúʈo]
179. Sister-in-law
[ʧĩ sʌs]
180. Son
[bá:l]
181. Son-in-law
[ʤʌmʌʈʂó]
182. Stammerer
[ʧʌkhʈ]
183. Spinster
[kʃnethek muli]
184. Spoon
[ʧʌmʧá:]
185. Step mother
[á:ʒe]
186. Step son
[bá:l]
187. Step sister
[sʌs]
188. Tall
[ɖáŋo]
189. Twin
[yói]
190. Vessel
[za:ŋs]
191. Widow
[kʌgú:ɳi]
192. Widower
[kʌgú:no]
193. Wife
[ʧĩ]
83
84
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
194. Wife’s brother
195. Wife’s sister
196. Wife’s sister’s
husband
197. Woman
198. Young
199. Youth
[ʃeirí:] sg. [ʃeiryé] pl.
[ʧĩ sʌs]
[ʧĩ sʌzeʋ bʌréʋ]
[ʧĩ]
[ʧúɳo]
[ʧobúr]
[ʤʌʋá:ni]
9.3. Animals, birds etc:
200. Animal (tame)
201. Ant
202. Antilope
203. Antelope’s cub
204. Ass
205. Monkey
206. Bat
207. Beak
207. Bear
208. Beast
209. Bed bug
210. Beetle
211. Bill
212. Bird
213. Bitch
214. Boar
215. Buffalo (he)
(she)
216. Bull
217. Butterfly
218. Cage
219. Calf
220. Camel
221. Cat (male)
[ɦe:ʋán]
[philí:li] f.sg. [philí:lo] m.sg.
[mʌyáro] m.sg. [mʌyári] f.sg.
[kili]
[ʐʌkúɳ] m.sg. [sʈʂi ʐʌkúɳ] f.sg,
[ʐʌkúɳi] m.pl.
[ʃʌdí:] sg. [ʃʌdyé:] pl.
[rta ʧĩ]
[musú:ʈi]
[iʂ] m.sg. [kʂ] f.sg.
[ɦe:ʋá:n]
[ph:ʃe] f.sg. [ph:ʃi] f.sg.
[lurĩ]
[musú:ʈi]
[ʧʌʧuí]
[sʈʂi ʃúŋ] sg. [sʈʂi ʃúŋi] pl.
[sú:r] sg. [sú:re] pl.
[bí:ro miʂ] sg. [bí:ro miʂe] pl.
[sʈʂi miʂ] sg. [sʈʂi miʐi] pl.
[dó:no] `cattle’
[phaʈʋi]
[takʃá:] sg. [takʃé:] pl.
[bʌʦhr] f.sg. [bʌʦhá:r] m.sg.
[:ʈ]
[píʃu] m.sg. [píʃe] m.pl.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
(female)
222. Caterpillar
223. Cattle
85
[píʃi] f.sg. [piʃyé:] f.pl.
[kr:] `insect’
[dó:ne]
[lʂ dó:ne]
224. Centipede
[ʃʌlpó] m.sg. [ʃʌlpé] f.sg.
225. Chicken
[ʧʌy:]
226. Claw
[nó:r] f.sg. [nó:re] f.pl.
227. Cobra
[ʤón] f.sg.
228. Cobra hood
[ʤúnyo ʂiʂ]
229. Cock
[kokó:]
230. Cockatoo
[ʧʌmúʈo] m.sg.
231. Colt
[phaʈá:] mf.
232. Cow
[gá:ʋ] sg. [gáʋe] pl.
233. Crab
[nɛzm] sg. [nɛzme] pl.
234. Crane
[ʧhíme khá:mo]
235. Crocodile
[gʌlʈhós] sg. [zgʌlthós] (from Balti lge.)
236. Crow
[kórkus] sg. [kórkuʦe] pl.
237. Cuckoo
[kʌyú:ni] `raven with red beak’
238. Deer
[ró:ŋs] sg. [ró:ŋse] pl.
239. Dog
[ʃúŋ] sg. [ʃúŋe] pl.
240. Donkey
[ʐkuɳ]
241. Duck
[ói bʌruʂ]
242. Earth worm
[ʧhí:mo kr] sg. [ʧh
] pl.
h
243. Egg
[ʈ ú:l]
244. Elephant
[ɦsto]
245. Sheep (female) [eʃ]
246. Feather
[pʈe]
247. Fire fly
[ʈʂá: kr]
248. Fish
[ʧhí:mo] sg. [ʧhí:me] pl.
249. Fly
[hʌbú:]
250. Fox
[lói] f. [ʋʌfr] m.
251. Frog
[mʌɳók] sg. [mʌɳóke] pl.
252. Fur
[bʌphúr] f.
253. Gnat
]
h
254. Goat (he)
[ʧ ətí:lo]
Goat (she)
[ʔái]
86
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
255. Goose
256. Grass hopper
257. Hare
258. Hawk
259. Hen
260. Hyde
261. Hind leg
262. Honey bee
263. Hoof
264. Horn
265. Hornet
266. Horse
267. Insect
268. Jackal
269. Kid
270. King fisher
271. Lamb
272. Leech
273. Leopard
274. Lion
272. Lion’s cub
276. Live stock
277. Lizard
278. Louse
279. Mane
280. Mare
281. Mongoose
282. Monkey
283. Mosquito
284. Mouse
285. Mule
286. Myna
287. Nest
288. Owl
[buló:] mf.sg. [bulóe] mf.pl.
[yʈʂʌlóh]
]
[ryŋ] (A Balti word)
[úkpa] (A Balti word)
[sʈʂi kokó]
[ʃó:rde ʧom] `processed leather’
[pətí:ne pé]
[mʌʈʂí:]
[biyri] f.
[khó:r] sg. [khó:re] pl.
[ʂíŋo] m.sg. [ʂíŋe] m.pl.
ri]
[ʃup] sg. [ʃpe] pl.
[kr:]
[ʃyó:l] mf.
[ʧaál]
[ʧhíme khá:mo]
[oró:ɳ] sg. [oró:ɳe] pl.
[durká:] f.sg. (Kashmiri word)
]
[ʃé:re bəbr]
[ʃe:ró bá:l]
[lʂ dó:ne]
[ʂe:ʋ khikílo]
] pl.
[bé:l]
[só:ʈʂi ʃup]
[gʌlthós] (Balti word)
[ʃʌdí:]
] pl.
[mʐi] sg. [mʐe] pl.
[khʧər] (from Urdu)
]
[ɦaló:l] sg. [ɦaló:le] pl.
[ɦú:] sg. [ɦúe]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
289. Vulture
290. Parrot
291. Paw
292. Peacock
293. Pheasant
294. Pig
295. Pigeon
296. Pincer
297. Pony
298. Puppy
299. Python
300. Rabbit
301. Ram
302. Rat
303. Raven
304. Scorpion
305. Sheep
306. Snail
307. Snake
308. Sparrow
309. Spider
310. Stallion
311. Sting
312. Stork
313. Squirrel
314. Swan
315. Tail
316. Tiger
317. Toad
318. Tortoise
319. Trunk
320. Tusk
321. Venom
322. Vulture
323. Wasp
324. Wing
87
[bríŋ]
[to:ta:] (from Urdu)
[no:ryé] pl.
[mʌyú:n]
[kkəs] sg. [kkəʦe] pl.
[sú:r] (from Urdu)
[kuɳú:lo] m.sg. [kuɳú:li] f.sg.
[phúguɳo:h]
[phʈa:]
[khukúr] sg. [khukúri] pl.
[ʤón]
[ʃy: ]
[kʌráelo]
[mú:ʂ] sg. [mú:ʐe] pl.
[kó:rkus] sg. [kó:rkuʦi] pl.
[gʌlthós] (same Balti word: crocodile)
[ʔilo]
[ʧɲʧul] sg. [ʧɲʧuli] pl.
[ʤón]
]
[ʈʂʌʐá:] m.
[ʃpa:l]
[dón]
[oi broʂ] sg. [oi broʐe] pl.
[truʃúɳi]
[oi broʂ] sg. [oi broʐe] pl.
[lʌmúʈi] sg. [lʌmúʈe] pl.
[d:]
[mʌɳók] (same as frog)
[ŋʌls] (Balti word, [ŋʌlls])
[ʦuʦúi] sg. [ʦuʦúe] pl.
[ɦásto]
[ʣɦʌr]
[rózunu:n]
[buló:]
[p:ʈo] sg. [p:ʈe] pl.
88
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
325. Wolf
326. Wood pecker
327. Worm
328. Young one
[úruk] sg. [úrke] pl.
[káʈo phuʈének]
] pl.
[ʧúɳo] sg. [ʧúɳe] pl.
9.4. Parts of the body, body conditions and functions:
329. Alive
330. Anemia
331. Ankle
332. Anus
333. Arm (right)
(left)
334. Arm pit
335. Asthma
336. Back
337. Bald
338. Bandage
339. Beard
340. Belch
341. Belly
342. Birth
343. Bladder
344. Blind
345. Blister
346. Blood
347. Body
348. Boil
349. Bone
350. Brain
351. Breast
352. Breath
353. Buttock
[ʤóno]
[serpó]
[khríʦ] sg. [khríʦi] pl.
[pó:ɳi] sg. [pó:ɳe] pl.
[dʌʂʈíno ʃáko]
[kháo ʃáko]
[gikíti]
[dm]
[ɖá:ke]
[phaɽáro] sg. [phaɽáre] pl.
[paʈí:]
[dái]
[obóki]
[ɖé:r] sg. [ɖé:re] pl. (~ [ɖé:ər])
[ʤó:no]
[ʧá:lo] `to give birth’
[muʈʂó:ʈo]
[ʂé:ʋ] sg. [ʂé:] pl.
[wʌyʋ]
[lé:l]
[ɖím]
[dʌʤó:no]
[k:əno]
[áʈʈi] (~ [áʈi])
[móto]
[mámu] sg. [máme] pl.
[ʂ:]
[phoŋs]
[sʌŋáy]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
354. Calf of the leg.
355. Cancer
356. Canine tooth
357. Cheek
358. Chest
359. Chickenpox
360. Chin
361. Cholera
362. Constipation
363. Corpse
364. Cough
365. Death
366. Diabetes
367. Diarrhea
368. Diet
369. Disease
370. Dwarf
371, Ear
372. Ear ache
373. Ear lobe
374. Ear wax
375. Elbow
376. Epidemic
377. Epilepsy
378. Eye
379. Eye brow
380. Eye lash
381. Eye lid
382. Face
383. Fat
384. Fever
385. Finger
386. Finger (index)
387. Finger (middle)
388. Finger (ring)
389. Finger (little)
89
[pí:ɳye]
[ʌʂínoró:k](ʌʂíno=inside,ró:k=disease)
[muʈʂíno dón] sg. [muʈʂíne dóni] pl.
[ɦʌrá:m]
[kro:] sg. [kroe] pl.
[ʈhúke]
[muʦú:ʈi]
[ɖeryó ró:k]
[gorʈ]
[kúɳo] sg. [kúɳe] pl.
[khú:zi] sg. [khú:zye] pl.
[móət]
[ʃkṛ díʒe nék]
[ds]
[ʒi rəʧó:no]
[ró:k]
[ʧú:ʈo]
[koɳ]
[kóɳo ró:k]
[kóɳo ʃúʧo]
[nʌkzér]
[bʌkhúɳi] sg. [bʌkhúɳe] pl.
[ʋʌbá:]
[káinyɛno]
[ʌʈʂí:] sg. [ʌʈʂé:] pl.
[ʌʈʂó: gálo] sg. [ʌʈʂé: gále] pl.
[ʌʈʂó: bále]
[ʈʂe pó:ʈʂe] pl.
[muk]
[thúlo]
[ʦhʌt]
] sg. [ʌŋẽ] pl.
[mʌʒíni
]
[ʐíŋŋ
]
]
]
90
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
390. Finger joint
391. Finger nail
392. Fist
393. Flesh
394. Fomentation
395. Forehead
396. Goiter
397. Gout
398. Grave
399. Gullet
400. Gum
401. Guts
402. Hair
403. Hand
404. Head
405. Head ache
406. Health
407. Heart
408. Heart disease
409. Heel
410. Hernia
411. Hiccough
412. Hip
413. Hospital
414. Human
Excrement
415. Hemp baked
416. Ill (to fall)
417. Insanity
418. Intestine
419. Itch
420. Jaundice
421. Jaw
422. Joints
423. Kidney
[khriʦ]
[nó:r]
[múʂʈo]
[mo:s]
[ʈʌkóra]
[yó:ŋ] sg. [yó:ŋe] pl.
[sʌŋyo gʌʈ]
[ʃuʒóno] ([suʒóno] `known person’)
[mʌzr]
[mʌnyé]
[dóno ml]
[ʔʂ] sg. [ʔʐi] pl.
[ʒʌkú:] sg. [ʒʌkúe] pl.
[ɦʌt]
[ʂíʂ] sg. [ʂíʐe] pl.
[ʂíʂo ro:k]
[siɦt] (from Urdu)
[ɦi:ʋ]
[ɦi:ʋ ro:k]
[thúri]
[ʔʐo zúrmo]
[ɦukíʦe]
[phóŋs]
[ɦspita:l]
[gu:] (from Urdu)
[zgúru] (~[gúru])
[ʃulyó:no]
[zurmó]
[yʈʂə:lo]
[ʐi] sg. [ʐe] pl.
[khá:ʒi]
[ʃuʃrók]
[ɦʌrʌmo: ʧhi]
[khriʦ] sg. [khriʦí] pl.
[ʐúk] sg. [ʐúki] pl.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
424. Knee
425. Knee cap
426. Lazy
427. Lean
428. Leg
429. Leprosy
430. Life
431. Ligament
432. Lips
433. Liver
434. Lung
435. Marrow
436. Medicine
437. Mole
438. Moustache
439. Mouth
440. Mucus
441. Muscle
442. Naked
443. Nausea
444. Navel
445. Neck
446. Nerve
447. Nipple
448. Nose
449. Nostril
450. Ointment
451. Pain
452. Palate
453. Palm (of hand)
454. Patient
455. Penis
456. Phlegm
457. Pigtail
457. Piles
458. Pill
[kúʈo]
[kúʈo phúli]
[ʋʌʂiʤílo]
[khaʧílo]
e] pl.
[khʧurók]
[ʒí:]
[nár]
[ó:ʈo] sg. [ó:ʈe] pl.
[yú:ŋ] sg. [yú:ŋe] pl.
[ɖó:ro] sg. [ɖó:re] pl.
[miyó:]
[rʌbáʈi]
[ʈíko]
[phúŋɛ] (~ [phúŋe])
[:zo] (~[:ŋ zo])
[khuɳó:]
[pí:ɳi] sg. [pí:ɳye] pl.
[nó:no]
[bɪʐʌbá:] (~[bɪʐbaá:])
[tuɳ]
[ʧháɣɛn] ([gʌɳɖúri]`Adam’s apple’
[nár]
[mámu] (for breast also)
[nóto] sg. [nóte] pl.
[nətə ʂó:li]
[mʌrʌɦm] (~ [mʌrʌɦm paʈʈí:])
[zurmó]
[tálo]
[ɦʌtʌtá:ʋ]
[rugyáʈ]
[máɳo]
[thúki]
[ʧʌmúʈi] (~ [ɖulú:] `plaited hair’)
[bʌʋa:sír]
[go:lí:]
91
92
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
459. Pupil
460. Purgative
461. Puss
462. Rib
463. Saliva
464. Scab
465. Shoulder
466. Sick
467. Skeleton
468. Skin
469. Skin disease
470. Skull
471. Smallpox
472. Smile
473. Sneeze
474. Spit
475. Sole
476. Soul
477. Spine
478. Spleen
479. Stomach
480. Stomach ache
481. Sweat
482. Tears
483. Testicle
484. Thigh
485. Thirst
486. Thirsty
487. Throat
488. Toe
489. Toe nail
490. Tongue
491. Tooth
492. Tooth ache
493. Treatment
494. Tuberculosis
[ʌʧhó: lá:l]
[ds bɦenɛk rʌbáʈi]
[páʂ]
[prʃu] sg. [prʃe] pl.
[lálo]
[sŋó:] (from Balti)
[phíʤo] sg. [phíʤe] pl. (~ [phíʒo])
[ʃul ]
[ɖímo á:ʈʈi]
[ʧóm] sg. [ʧóme] pl.
[ʧó:mo ró:k]
[ʂiʂó kəpri]
[phóye]
[mɪk]
[ʧhĩ:]
[thú:k]
[pá:ʈ]
[ʤi:]
[ɖá:khaʈi]
[phusuló]
:] pl.
[ɖeryó zúrmo]
[ɦúluk]
[ʈʂh ]
[ʈʂo:] sg. [ʈʂwe] pl
[ʃsna:] sg [ʃsne] pl.
[unyá:l]
[unyéilo]
[ʂó:ʈo] sg. [ʂó:ʈe] pl.
[péʋ ʌŋú]
[péʋ ʌŋú nó:r]
[ʤip]
[dón] sg. [dóni] pl.
[dóno rók]
[ilá:ʧ]
[ʃuʃuró:k]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
495. Tumor
496. Urine
497. Vagina
498. Vein
499. Vertigo
500. Vomit
501. Waist
502. Weeping
503. Wound
504. Wrinkle
505. Wrist
506. Yawn
[ʈhó:ki]
[míko]
[gáti]
[na:r]
[tiríʋ]
[ʧhá:ʈi]
[ɖʌxʌʈí:]
[ró:no]
[gá:l] sg. [gá:le] pl.
[brko] sg. [brke] pl.
[khrís]
[ɦa:]
9.5. Food, Drinks, cooking, utensils etc.:
507. Ashes
[dá:l]
508. Bag
[bʌstá:] (from Urdu)
509. Beef
[dó:no mó:s]
510. Beer
[biyər]
511. Biscuit
[biskú:ʈ]
512. Blade
[khurú:] (barber’s blade)
513. Boiled rice
[rá
]
514. Boiled vegetable [ráðo ʃá:]
515. Bottle
[bo:tól]
516. Bowl
[muɣúr] sg. [muɣuréh] pl.
517. Bread
[ʈí:ki]
518. Breakfast
(morning)
[ʧhinn]
(noon)
[dʌzó:]
(evening)
[bʌzúki]
519. Brew
[ʌym] sg. [ʌyʌméh] pl.
520. Broth
[pʌkʧá:]
521. Butter
[ʤú:li]
522. Buttermilk
[méəl] (~ [mé:l])
523. Cake
[ke:k]
524. Cheese
[burús]
93
94
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[ʈʂhʌpáro] sg. [ʈʂhʌparéh] pl.
[ʧiʈini]
[ká:ro]
[kɔphí:]
[bái the:nek]
[zá:ŋs]
[bóɳ]
531. Cream
[ʃʌml] sg. [ʃʌmʌléh] pl.
532. Cup
[Koréh]
533. Curds
[múʈo dú:t]
534. Curry
[pʌkʧá:]
Curry (meat)
[mozó: pʌkʧá:]
Curry (potato) [əló: pʌkʧá:]
Curry (veg.)
[ʃeʋ pʌkʧá:]
535. Dish
[bái]
536. Dough
[á:ʈe]
537. Egg
[ʈhú:l] sg. [ʈhuléh] pl.
538. Essence
[ʌrk] sg. [ʌrʌkéh] pl.
539. Fat
[ʈhú:lo] Adj.
540. Fish
[ʧhímo]
541. Flesh
[mó:s]
542. Food
[bai]
543. Fruit
[me:ʋá:]
544. Fruit juice
[me:ʋá: ói]
545. Frying pan
[toqlé:]
546. Fuel
[dino káʈe]
547. Ghee
[dálo ʤú:li]
548. Glass
[gilás]
549. Grinding stone [yʐa bʈi]
550. Heat (of sun)
[ʦht]
(kitchen) [t:to]
551. Honey
[mʌʈʂí:]
552. Jar (earthen pot) [ʈekér] sg. [ʈekeréh] pl.
553. Kerosene
[sʌtél] (sʌ `earth’, tél `oil’)
554. Kettle
[kítt(ʌ)li]
555. Kitchen
[bái thenek gó:ʂ]
525. Churning rod
526. Chutney
527. Coal
528. Coffee
529. Cook
530. Cooking pot
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
556. Knife
557. Ladle
558. Lid
559. Liquor
560. Loaf of bread
[kəɽá:r] sg. [kəɽá:reh] pl.
[ɖóri]
[kh:ʈo] sg. [kh:ʈe] pl.
[ʃʌráp]
[bʌɣái]
[lʌp]
[sill]
[bʌi]
[mós]
[ʌŋ ]
[əiná:]
561. Match stick
562. Meal
563. Meat
564. Milk
565. Mirror
566. Narrow necked
pitcher
[ʈekér]
567. Nutrition
[ta:kʌtyó bái]
568. Nut cracker
[ʌmbú:r] sg. [ʌmbú:reh]
569. Oil
[num]
570. Opium
[ʈʂʌŋúl] sg. [ʈʂʌŋúle] pl.
571. Pakoda (an eatable) [pʌkó:ɽa]
572. Pan
[toqlé:h]
[za:ŋluk] (Balti word)
573. Papad
[pa:p:ɽ]
574. Parched rice
]
575. Pen knife
[ʧúɳi kʌɽár]
576. Pestle
ŋó])
577. Pickle
]
578. Pitcher
[ʈó:ki] (~ [ʈóki])
579. Plate
[tʌbk]
580. Poison
[zhər]
581. Pot (earthen)
[ʈekér]
582. Powder
[po:ɖór]
583. Rice
]
584. Saffron
[kurkúm]
585. Salt
[lúɳi]
586. Saucer
[pʌlé:ʈ]
587. Scissors
[dukʈ] sg. [dukʈeh] pl.
588. Seer (measure) [se:r] (1 kg.)
95
96
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
589. Shell
590. Sieve
591. Smoke
592. Soup
593. Spice
594. Spoon
595. Steam
596. Stove
597. Strainer
598. Squash
599. Stale
600. Sugar
601. Sugar candy
602. Tea
603. Tiffin
604. Tin
605. Tobacco
606. Tongs
607. Utensils
608. Vinegar
609. Water
610. Wine
611. Winnowing pan
612. Yolk
613, Yarn
[vaʈí:] (2 kg.)
[əpóŋya] (no pl.)
[dʌlí:ʂ] sg. [dʌlí:ʐe] pl.
[duúm]
[ʌzúm] sg. [ʌzuméh] pl.
[mʌsála]
] pl.
[lhʌŋs] (from Balti)
[siʈóp]
[ʦháks] sg. [ʦhákse] pl.
[sukwá:ʃ]
[pró:ni]
[khɳ]
[ʃél ʃəkr]
[ʧa:]
[bái]
[ɖʌbá:] sg. [ɖʌbé:] pl.
[tmbaku]
[mɛln] sg. [mɛlɛnéh] pl.
[záŋs]
[ʌtr] `scent’
[oi]
[dʃo oi] ([dʃo]=grapes,[oi]=water)
[b:ʈʂɛn] (~[b:ʈʂhɛn])
[ʈhlyó ló:lli] (~[ʈhlyó ló:li])
[eryó:no]
9.6. Clothing, ornaments, care etc.:
614. Anklet
615. Armlet
616. Arrow
617. Axe
618. Bag (big)
619. Banian (under
wear of shirt)
[paʧuí]
[ka:]
[ko:ɳ]
[gʌɽá:]
[bʌstá:]
[bʌniyán]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
97
620. Bell
[gʌɳʈí:]
621. Belt
[kʌʃkí:]
622. Blanket
[ʤó:li]
623. Blouse
[kurté:ni] (?)
624. Bow
[trʌkúm]
625. Bracelet
[ká:v] sg. [ká:] pl.
626. Button
[ʈʌk]
627. Cap
[khói] sg. [khóe] pl.
628. Chappals
(foot-wear)
[khɽʌk] sg. [khʌɽʌké] pl.
629. Cloak
[ʈʂhí:li] sg. [ʈʂhí:le] pl.
630. Cloth
[ʤəmáli]
631. Clothing
[ʧhɪlikhwe] (~[ʧhɪlukhwe])
632. Coat
[ko:ʈ] sg. [ko:ʈéh] pl.
633. Collar
[gombá:]
634. Comb (men)
[kaŋí:]
(ladies) [kóŋo]
635. Cotton
[kupás]
636. Crutch
[ɖɪŋári] sg. [ɖɪŋárye] pl.
637. Cymbal
[dó:l] (leather drum beaten with sticks)
638. Dhoti
[do:tí:]
639. Diamond
[yʌkú:t]
640. Dress
[ʧhilukhwé]
641. Drum
[zem] (wooden barrel)
642. Ear ring (small) [kʌɳ(ə)wá:ʤi]
(big)
]
(hollow)[ʤuró:ŋe]
643. Emerald
[yu:] sg. [yu:e] pl.
644. Fiber
[ʤʌʈ] sg. [ʤʌʈe] pl.
645. Flute
[tʌruí] sg. [tʌrué] pl.
646. Frock
[phirák]
647. Fur
[bʌɸúr]
[ʤʌʈ]
[pʌʂ]
648. Gem
[tɪŋ]
649. Glove
[htʌ kú:te]
98
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
650. Gown
651. Handkerchief
652. Hand towel
(napkin)
653. Iron
654. Jewel
[ʧhílo]
[bʌʈʂhó] (goat-skin gown worn by the
Ladakhis)
[lʌkphís]
[rumá:l]
[tolyá:]
[ʧímer] sg. [ʧímere] pl.
[ʤova:hí:r]
[hí:r]
655. Knife
[kʌɽá:r] sg. [kʌɽa:réh] pl.
656. Lace
[ʧhʌɣá:]
657. Leather
[ʧom]
658. Linen
[li:lén]
659. Loin cloth
[kʌʧhá:] (~[kʌʧʧá:])
660. Loom
[ʈʂó:ʂ] sg. [ʈʂó:ʐe] pl.
661. Lungi (under cover) [dotí:]
662. Mirror
[á:yna]
[ʃiʃá:]
663. Necklace
[ʃʌríʂo] sg. [ʃʌríʐe] pl.
664. Needle
[su:] sg. [sue] pl.
665. Nose ring
[nʌtíŋ] sg. [nʌtiŋéh] pl.
666. Ornaments
[bá:leka:]
667. Pyjama
[ʦʌléni] sg. [ʦʌlen(i)yé] pl.
668. Pearl
[motík] sg. [motikéh] pl.
669. Pocket
(men’s dress)
[ʧʌndá:]
(women’s dress) [ʂtur] sg. [ʂʌturéh] pl.
670. Rain hat
[áʐo khói]
671. Razor
[khurú:] sg. [khuruéh] pl.
672. Ring
[aŋéilo]
673. Ruby
[ló:lo tíŋ]
674. Sandals
[ʦ:pi] sg. [ʦ:pye] pl.
675. Sapphire
] sg. [nɪlɪméh] pl.
676. Sari
[dʌχón] sg. [dʌχonéh] pl.
677. Scarf
[gulbn] sg. [gulbʌnéh] pl.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
678. Shawl
679. Sheath
680. Shirt
681. Shoe
682. Shorts
683. Silk
684. Sleeve
685. Sling
686. Soap
687. Sock
688. Spear
689. Spectacles
690. Spindle
691. Stick
692. Sword
693. Toe ring
694. Tool
695. Towel
696. Toy
697. Trousers
698. Turban
699. Umbrella
700. Veil
701. Waist coat
702. Whip
703. Wool
704. Wreath
[bɽi dʌχón]
[khŋaro théko] `keeper of sword’
[kurté:ni] sg. [kurte:néh] pl.
[buʈé:]
[kʌrʌ pʌtéh]
[ki:ʈ]
]
[boi] sg. [boe] pl.
[pʌʈí:]
[sʌbón] sg. [sʌbonéh] pl.
[pʌyó:]
[bʌrʧ í:]
[nizá:] (Urdu word)
[ʤále]
[ʈʂku] sg. [ʈʂʌké] pl.
[ɖki] sg. [ɖʌkéh] pl.
[ɖiŋá:ri]
[khʌŋá:r] sg. [khʌŋa:ré] pl.
[pév ʌŋélo]
[lkʧha:]
[bɽo tolyá:]
[ʦukwé:] (~[ʦuké:])
[ʦʌléni]
[pʌʂó:] sg. [pʌʂé] pl.
[ʃé:lo]
[burká:]
[wa:skʈ]
[ʈʂh ]
[pʌʂ]
[púʂo gáɳo]
9.7. House and parts of it etc.:
705. Arch
706. Attic
707. Bathroom
99
[tʌɣó:] (from Balti?)
[gó:ʂ] sg. [gó:ʐe] pl.
[ɣósul khaná]
100 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
708. Beam (of light)
(of building)
709. Bed
[ʈʂa:]
[bʌml] sg. [bʌmʌléh] pl.
[bʌtháre]
[ʧrpa:i]
710. Bed bug
[phʃi] sg. [phʃe] pl.
711. Bedroom
[so:na go:ʂ]
[so:nek lit]
712. Bed sheet
[ʦʌzr]
713. Bench
[beɲʧ]
714. Blanket
[kʌmbl] sg. [kʌmbʌléh] pl.
715. Bolster (pillow)
[unó:] sg. [uné:h] pl.
(to lean back) [tɛn]
716. Bolt
[ʧirkiníh]
717. Box
[groms]
718. Brick
[diʂʈík] sg. [diʂʈikéh] pl.
719. Broom
[ló:ʃi] sg. [lo:ʃyéh] pl.
720. Bucket
[ba:ɭʈí:n]
721. Building
[liti] sg. [lite] pl.
722. Camp
[kemp]
723. Carpet
[ka:lí:n](~[qa:lí:n])sg. [ka:lí:ne]pl.
724. Castle
[kó:ʈ]
725. Ceiling
[uɭʈá ʧht]
726. Chair
[kurʧí:] sg. [kurʧéh] pl.
727. Cot
[ʧarpi]
728. Court yard
[dá:ʂʈ]
729. Cow shed
:l]
730. Cupboard
[ʌlmarí:]
731. Curtain
[pʌrdá:]
732. Door
[dr]
733. Easy chair
[a:rá:m kurʦí:]
734. Fan
[pʌŋká:]
735. Floor
[pʌthá:r]
736. Fountain
[khúro]
737. Gate
[tʌɣó:]
738. Hall
[ha:l]
739. Hearth (fire place) [ʈʂʌŋú:l]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
740. Hinge
742. House
743. Hut
744. Key
745. Ladder
746. Lamp
747. Latch (lock-on)
Latch (moving part)
748. Lantern
749. Lock
750. Mat (general)
(made of grass)
(made of goat skin)
751. Mattress (cotton)
(wool)
752. Marble
753. Mosquito net
754. Nail
755. Pendal (tent)
756. Peg
757. picture
758. Pillar
759. Pillow
760. Plinth
761. Quilt
762. Rafter
763. Roof
764. Room
765. Rope
766. Ring
767. Scream
768. Sofa
769. Shed
770. Stable (horse-shed)
771. Staircase
101
[kʌbzá:] sg. [kʌbzé:] pl.
[go:ʂ]
[ɖú:kur] sg. [ɖu:kuréh] pl.
[ʧhʌí]
]
[ʦʌŋú:]
[kuʦúr] sg. [kuʦuréh] pl.
[hʌŋkl]
[la:ɭʈí:n]
[ʧhʌyló:l] sg. [ʧhʌylo:léh] pl.
[ʧhʌrí:] sg. [ʧhʌryéh] pl.
[ʧhʌstn] sg. [ʧhʌstʌn[zʌŋgóʂ]] pl.
[zʌŋgóʂ] sg. [zʌŋgoʂéh] pl.
[gʌdéla] sg. [gʌdéle] pl.
[hʌrút] sg. [hʌrutéh] pl.
[sŋgʌ mʌrmr]
[ʈʂʌʐá:] sg. [ʈʂʌʐé:] pl.
[kí:li] sg. [kí:l yéh] pl.
[gut]
])
[kʌʈé:li kíli]
(kʌʈé:li=wooden, kíli=nail)
[nʌkʃá:]
[thúɳ]
[unó:] sg. [unó:e] pl.
[khúro] sg. [khúre] pl.
[gʌdéla] sg. [gʌdéle] pl.
[bo:ʃ] sg. [bo:ʃe] pl.
[ʃʌró:ɳ] sg. [ʃʌro:ɳéh] pl.
[lit] (~[léit])
[ráʒu] sg. [ráʒe] pl.
[ʤó:li] sg. [ʤó:le] pl.
[krív] sg. [kríve] pl.
[sofá:]
[ʤossál] sg. [ʤossále] pl.
] pl.
]
102 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
772. Storey
773. Swing
774. Table
775. Tap
776. Teapoy
777. Tent
778. Terrace
779. Thrashing floor
780. Threshold
781. Tile (roof)
782. Tower
783. Tube
784. Verandah
785. Wall
786. Wax candle
787. Well (water)
788. Window
789. Yard (measurement)
[póro] sg. [póre] pl.
[ʤu:lá:] sg. [ʤu:léh] pl.
[me:s] sg. [me:ze] pl.
[nʌlká:]
[ʧúɳi me:s]
])
[ʃəró:ɳ]
[khʌl]
[khrini drba:ʈi]
[ʃəró:ɳ]
[ʧóki diʃ] (ʧóki=high, diʃ=place)
[na:lí:] sg. [na:lyéh] pl.
[bʌrʌɳɖá:]
]
[mo:mbʌttí:]
[bíri]
[trái]
[diʂʈ] sg. [diʂʈe] pl.
9.8. Farming, gardening, trees, vegetables, fruits, flowers:
790. Ajawan
(Bishop’s weed)
791. Almond
792. Apple
793. Areca nut
794. Arum
795. Axe (big)
(small)
(carpenter’ tool)
796. Bamboo
797. Banana
798. Bark (of tree)
799, Barley
800. Barn
801. Barrow
[kúmboq són] (són= seed)
[bá:dʌm]
[pʌló:]
[supá:ri]
[xáʃxaʃ] (~ [kháʃkhaʃ])
[gʌɽá]
[ʧhʌɽl
[táʈʂi]
:s]
[ké:la] sg. [ké:le] pl.
[dílo] sg. [díle] pl.
[yo:]
[swá:] ([khaliha:n] in Hindi)
[ré:ɽa]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
802. Beans
802. Black gram
803. Black pepper
804. Branch (of tree)
805. Brinjal (egg plant)
806. Bud
807. Cabbage
808. Canal (small)
(big)
809. Cane
810. Cardemom
811. Carrot
812. Cashew nut
813. Cassia
814. Cauliflower
815. Champa flower
816. Chilly
817. Cinnamon
818. Clove
819. Coconut
(cover)
(kernel)
(oil)
820. Cotton plant
821. Creeper
822. Crow bar
823. Cucumber
824. Cumin seed
825. Dall (pigeon-pea)
826. Dam
(small)
827. Date palm
828. Dentist
829. Fallow land
830. Farm
103
[muʈhú:]
[ʧins]
[kíɳo mruʂ] (black round seed)
[ló:o mruʂ] (red chilly)
[b:ko] sg. [b:ke] pl.
[va:ŋgn]
[ʧhʌʈúl] sg. [ʧhʌʈuléh] pl.
[bn góbi]
[yʌp]
[i:l]
[dílo]
[ela:ʧí:] sg. [ela:ʧyé] pl.
[ga:ʤr] sg. [ga:ʤʌréh] pl.
[ka:ʒú:]
[da:lʧí:ni] ([da:lʧí:ni] in Hindi)
[phúl gó:bi]
[iʂké:pʌr púʂi]
[mruʃ] ([mʌró:ʂ]=black grapes)
[alá:]
[zerúh] ([lo:ŋ] in Hindi)
[khopá:]
[khópo dílo]
[khopá:]
[khópo té:l]
[kupáso thok]
[khríh]
[ʤʌbl] sg. [ʤʌbʌléh] pl.
[mú:lo] sg. [mú:le] pl.
[əyáv] (it may be `zeera’)
[mózur] sg. [mózure] pl.
[bʌn] sg. [bʌne] pl.
[bʌni]
[khórma:] sg. [khrméh] pl.
[dó:no ɖákʈʌr]
[da:s]
[ʈʂhé:ʂ] sg. [ʈʂhé:ʐe] pl.
104 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
831. Farmer
832. Fence
[zʌmindá:r] sg. [zʌminda:réh] pl.
[ʤa:lí:] `mesh, net’ [ʤa:léh] pl.]
[ʧimíro tár] `barbed wire]
833. Fig
[ʈáŋ]
834. Field (farm)
[ʈʂhe:ʂ]
835. Flour
[á:ʈe]
836. Flower
[púʂo] sg. [púʂe] pl.
837. Fodder
[ʧhʌk] sg. [ʧhʌké] pl.
838. Fruit
[me:vá:] sg. [me:vé:] pl.
839. Furrow (small canal) [yʌp]
(big canal) [i:l]
840. Garden
[bá:k] sg. [bʌkéh] pl.
841. Garlic
[gokpá:] sg. [gokpé:] pl.
842. Ginger
[áʐi]
[ʃiŋŋér]
843. Godown(wearhouse) [díʃ]
844. Gourd
[kʌdú:]
845. Gram
[ʧʌná:]
846. Grape
[dʌʃ] sg. [dʃe] pl.
847. Grass
[kʌʂ] sg. [kʌʂe] pl. (many grasses)
848. Greens
[ní:li]
849. Green coconut
[ʔó:mo khopá:]
850. Green gram
[ʧins] sg. [ʧinʌséh] pl.
851. Ground nut
[mumphli]
852. Green peas
[kwé:]
853. Guava fruit
[əmrú:d] sg. [əmrutéh] pl.
854. Hawk
[thók] sg. [thoké] pl.
855. Hay
[súku kʌʂ]
856. Herb
[ʧhilíʂ] sg. [ʧhiliʂéh] pl.
[búre]
857. Horse gram
[swáh]
858. Jasmine
[puɳr] sg. [puɳʌré] pl.(~ [púɳʌr])
859. Jute
[borá:] sg. [boréh] pl.
860. Kidney beans
[muʈhú:] (no plural)
861. Lady’s finger
[ʂómo]
862. Land
[kúi]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
863. Leaf
864. Lemon
865. Lilly
866. Long pepper
867. Lotus
868. Maize
869. Mace
870. Mango (fruit)
(pit)
(tree)
871. Manure
872. Market
873. Marsh
874. Melon
875. Mushroom
876. Mustard
877. Nut
878. Oil cake
879. Onion
880. Orange
881. Paddy (crop)
882. Paddy (plant)
883. Palm tree
884. Pasture
885. Pea
886. Petal
887. pigeon pea
888. Pine tree
889. Plain
890. Plant
891. Plantain (tree)
(flower)
(fruit)
(leaf)
[p:ʈo] sg. [p:ʈe]pl.
(~[p:ʈo],~[p:ʈʈo])
[lémʌn] (no pl.)
[oi púʂo] (`water flower)
[lo:ŋ] `clove’
l]
[məki] sg. [məkie] pl.
[ɖophós] sg. [ɖophoséh] pl.
[a:m]
[a:m ɖóko]
]
[pa:ʂ]
[hʌʈyé:]
[nʌmbél] sg. [nʌmbeléh] pl.
[ɣon]
[ʃɪɳʈí:li] sg. [ʃɪɳʈi:lyé] pl.
(~[ʃʌɳʈí:li])
[yuŋskr] (~[yu:ŋskr])
[káli] sg. [kálye] pl.
[pʌʧá:]
[ʦoŋ]
(ə)rá:] (~[sʌntʌrá:])
[dʌy:]
[dʌy: thók]
[kh
]
[yu:t] sg. [yu:té:] pl.
[khúkuɳ]
[púʂo p:ʈe]
[khúkuɳ] sg. [khúkuɳé] pl.
]
[da:s]
[thók] sg. [thoké] pl.
])
[keló: púʂo]
[keló: me:vá:]
[keló: p:ʈe]
105
106 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
892. Plough
893. Plough share
894. Pomegranate
895. Potato
896. Pond
897. Pot for plant
898. Pulley
899. Pumpkin
900. Radish
901. Rice
902. Road
903. Roof
904. Rose
905. Sago
906. Sandal wood
907. Saw
908. Seed
909. Shovel
910. Sickle
911. Spade
912. Spiked small harrow
913. Spiked millet
914. Stalk
915. Stone of fruit
916. Straw
917. Sugarcane
918. Sun flower
919. Sweet potato
920. Tamarind tree
921. Tank
922. Teak
923. Tea plant
924. Tomato
925. Trade
926. Tree
[hʌl]
[phá:l]
[dʌɳó:]
[ʌlú:]
]
[kʌrí:] sg. [kʌryé:] pl
[gɽa:ri] sg. [gʌɽa:ré:] pl.
[kʌdú:]
[mú:lo]
]
[pon]
[ʧhilíʂ] sg. [ʧhilíʂéh] pl.
[gulápo púʂo]
[bʌdyá:n] (~[bʌðyá:n])
[ʦʌndn]
[ʌr]
:]
h
[p y:li] sg. [phy:lye] pl.
[ʔóŋo] sg. [ʔóŋe] pl.
[kʌlámi]
[brʌt]
[pʌŋká:]
[kʌŋ]
[dóɳo]
:]
[ʃúku kʂ]
[ɖambú:]
[gulé ʌstáp]
[ʃkər kɳɖ]
]
]
[ʤó:ʐi] sg. [ʤó:ʐe] pl.
[ʧé:v thók]
[paɣm]
[ʦhóŋ]
]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
927. Trunk (of tree)
928. Turmeric
929. Twig
930. Vegetable
931. Walnut
932. Watermelon
933. Water wheel
934. Wheel
935. Wheat
936. Yoke
107
[ɖím]
[hʌlí:ʐi]
[b:ko] sg. [b:ke]
[ʃa:]
[ʌʈʂhó:] sg. [ʌʈʂhé:] pl.
[bowár] (no pl.)
[kopúh] sg. [kopúe] pl.
[girí:] sg. [giryé:] pl.
[gu:m]
[ná:l] sg. [nalé] pl.
9.9. Professions and professional equipments:
937. Anvil
938. Artist
939. Artisan
940. Astrologer
941. Author
942. Axle
943. Baker
944. Balance
945. Barber
946. Basket
947. Beggar
948. Blacksmith
949. Book
950. Book seller
951. Bottle
952. Broker
953. Brush
954. Butcher
955. Carpenter
956. Chisel
957. Clay
958. Clay mould
[m:to] sg. [m:te] pl.
[mistrí:] (home builder)
[ʃiŋkhn] sg. [ʃiŋkhʌné] pl.
[hʌr reʈʂ kenek] (palmist)
[kitá:p likhének]
[eksél]
[nan bá:yi] (Kashmiri word)
[trʌkéɽi] (no pl.)
[ʈhʌkúr] sg. [ʈhʌkuréh] pl.
[ʈúkuri]
[biʈʂá:lo] (~[biʈʂá:no])
[ʌká:r]
[kitáp]
[kitáp krinének]
[bo:tól]
[dʌlá:l]
[burúʃ] sg. [burúʃéh] pl.
[kʌsáyi] (~[kʌsái]) (from Urdu)
[ʃiŋkhn]
[rzuŋ] (rod for making hole [só:r])
[ʧiʧél]
[kʌpr]
[pʌr]
108 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
959. Clerk
960. Confectioner
961. Coppersmith
962. File
963. Fisherman
964. Fowler (hunter)
965. Gardener
966. Glass
967. Goldsmith
968. Grocer
969. Groom
970. Gum
971. Hammer
(sledge)
972. Jeweler
973. Labourer
974. Magician
975. Mason
976. Merchant
977. Metal cast
978. Midwife
979. Milkman
980. Money lender
981. Needle
982. Net
983. Nurse
984. Oilman
985. Paint
986. Painter
987. Painting
988. Pan seller
989. Perfume seller
990. Pincers
991. Porter
992. Postman
[munʃí:]
[miʈhái krinének]
[ʌká:r] (same as blacksmith)
[sʌkdár] (~[sʌqdár])
[ʧhíme rʌʈének]
(~[ʧhíme khʌlének])
[ʃikarí:]
[ba:gbá:n]
[gilá:s]
[so:n pr:nɛk] (~same as [ʌká:r])
[hʌʈí:pa:]
[dʌrzí:]`tailor’,[tʌrzí:]`horse rider’
[go:n]
[əʈhó:ra] sg. [əʈhó:réh] pl.
[thwa:]
[ʤʌvá:hir krinének]
[krom thének]
[ʤʌdúgʌr]
[mistrí:]
[hʌʈí:pa]
[ʌká:r] (same as blacksmith etc)
[khídmʌtgár]
[dút krinének]
[su:t khó:r]
[su:]
[ʤalí:]
[nʌrs]
[tel krinének]
[róŋ]
[róŋ thének]
[róŋ thyóno]
[pa:n krinének]
[ʌtṛ krinének]
[ʌmbú:r]
[mʌzdú:r]
[ɖakpá:]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
993. Potter
994. Printer
995. Rope dancer
996. Sailor
997. Sculptor
998. Shepherd
999. Shoe maker
1000. Shop keeper
1001. Shuttle
1001. Spindle
1002. Spinning wheel
1003. Statue
1004. Surgeon
1005. Sweeper
1006. Tailor
1007. Tin plate
1008. Touch stone
1009. Thread
1010. Washer man
1011. Weaver
109
[kulá:l]
[kitá:p khalének]
[ráʒugi nʌʈé:k]
[kiʃtí: yʌzé:nek]
[bʌʈi oknek]
[pʌyá:lo]
[mo:ʧí:]
[hʌʈí:pa]
[mʌʈhó:r]
[ʈʂ:ku] sg. [ʈʂke] pl.
[indér]
[ku:] sg. [kue] pl.
[ʌpréʃʌn thének ɖákʈʌr]
[ʂá:r thének]
[dʌrzí:]
[ʈinó thá:n] (?)
[páli] sg. [palyé] pl.
[gú:ɳi] sg. [gú:ɳe] pl.
[dobí:]
[ʈʂʌʐá:] sg. [ʈʂʌʐé:] pl.
9.10. Road, Transport:
1012. Aeroplane
1013. Boat
1014. Bridge
1015. Bullock cart
1016. Rickshaw
1017. Bus
1018. Conveyance
1019. Engine
1020. Ferry boat
1021. Lane
1022. Litter
1023. Mast (of flag etc)
1024. Motor car
[hʌvái ʤʌház]
[kiʃtí:]
[ɖaŋó:] sg. [ɖaŋé:] pl.
[dóno ga:ɽí:]
[rikʃá:]
[bʌs]
[ga:ɽí:] sg. [ga:ɽyé:] pl.
[iɲʤén]
[kiʃtí:]
[dá:ʂʈ]
[ʧhám]
[ɖáki] sg. [ɖákye] pl. (~[ɖáke])
[moʈṛ ká:r]
110 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1025. Palanquin
1026. Path
1027. Rudder
1028. Saddle
1029. Ship
1030. Street
1031. Train
1032. Way
1033. Whip
[zʌmpá:na]
[pón]
[kiʃtyó: phy:li]
[pʌló:n]
[sʌmʌndʌrí ʤʌhá:z]
[pon]
[ré:l]
[pon]
] pl.
9.11. Adverbs and adjectives:
1034. All
1035. Alone
1036. Bad
1037. Big
1038. Blunt
1039. Brave
1040. Broad
1041. Busy
1042. Careful
1043. Charm
1044. Cheap
1045. Circle (line)
1046. Clever
1047. Cold
1048. Costly
1049. Crooked
1050. Cross
1051. Curved
1052. Curl
[bú:ɽe] (~[búɽe])
[ékbo]
[ʌʦhko]
[b:ɽo]
[mun]
[bʌhádur]
[bistí:ɳi]
[mʌʃgú:l] (~[mʌʒgú:l])
[láv krom] `many work’
[huʃyá:r]
[mʌhsu:s] (Urdu word)
[ʂʌó:ko]
[sʌstá:]
[kɪʂí:]
[huʃyá:r]
[ʧalá:k]
[ʈʂe:]
[ʈʂʌŋú:]
[me:ŋá:]
[kó:lo]
[lʌŋ]
[bʌráʦi]
[khiŋíro]
[ʤʌkuí]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1053. Damp
1054. Dead
1055. Deep
1056. Delight
1057. Difficult
1058. Dirty
1059. Drenched
1060. Dry
1061. Empty
1062. Enough
1063. Equal
1064. False
1065. Famous
1066. Fat
1067. Fault
1068. Few
1069. Fear
1070. Fine
1071. Flat (plain)
1072. Fold
1073. Foolish
1074. Full
1075. Funny
1076. Fresh
1077. Generous
1078. Good
1079. Great
1080. Greatness
1081. Greedy
[bʌt]
[mu:k]
[guɽúmo]
[ʃuryá:]
[khoʃí:]
[muʃkí:l]
[ʌʦhko]
[biʐyó:no] (~[biʒyó:no])
[ʃúko]
[gú:ʧo]
[buʧhé:]
[pʌrúlo]
[ʧo:ʈ] (noun), [ʧóɽe] (adj)
[nó:m]
[mʌʃhú:r]
[thúlo]
[kusú:r]
[gʌltí:]
[zá:sek] (uncountable)
[ʈʂé:k] (countable)
[biʒí:]
[syó:] (men, texture)
[tʌltlo]
[tah]
[bevkú:f]
[puré:]
[hʌzú:ʈo]
[ta:zá:]
[saχí:]
[syó:]
[sí:]
[bɽo]
[bɽyár]
[bɽ
]
[tʌmá:]
[la:liʧ]
111
112 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1082. Hard
1083. Heavy
1084. High
1085. Hole
1086. Hollow
1087. Honest
1088. Hot
1089. Horizontal
1090. Innocent
Inside
1091. Kind
1092. Kindly
1093. Lame
1094. Lean
1095. Light
1096. Little
1097. Long
1098. Loud
1099. Loudly
1100. Low
1101. Mad
1102. Many
1103. Miser
1104. Mixture
1105. More
1106. Much
1107. Narrow
1108. Naughty
1109. Neatness
[kúro]
[hʌzá:lo]
[ʌŋú:ro]
[ɖŋo]
[ʈʂur]
[gú:ʧo]
[dyʌnʌtí:] (~[dnʌti])
[dá:na:]
[tto]
[kuro] (=Hindi sakhat)
[bʌrʧo] (~[bʌrʦo])
[ma:sú:m]
[aʐó]
[mehṛbá:n]
[ʤúʤu]
[khúɳo]
[khaʧí:lo]
[ʈʂa:] (light)
[ló:ko] (weight)
[ʧuɳo]
[zá:sek]
[ɖŋo]
[ʌlí:the]
[hilíŋ]
[ʧhút]
[yʈʂəlo]
[buʧhe] (~[buʧʧhe])
[ʤá:pek]
[kʌɲʤú:s]
]
[buʧʧhe]
[bsko] `enough’
[bsko]
[ʌrú:no]
[roʐáʈo]
[sʌfái]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1110. New
1111. Notorious
1112. Open
1113. Old
1114. Pale
1115. Partiality
1116. Patient
1117. Permanent
1118. Poor
1119. Price
1120. Raw
1121. Ready
1122. Rectangle
1123. Rich
1124. Right
1125. Ripe
1126. Rogue
1127. Rotten
1128. Rough
1129. Round
1130. Shallow
1131. Shape
1132. Sharp
1133. Short
1134. Shut
1135. Shy
1136. Sign (gift)
1137. Similar
1138. Size
113
[na:v]
[khʌʧunó:m] (~[kh:ʧunom])
[bʌdná:m] (from Urdu)
[bʌs]
[pró:no] (thing)
[ʤá:ro] (man)
[gúro]
[khá:r]
[rugyá:t] (~[rogyá:t])
[qá:yʌm]
[gərí:p]
[ba:v]
[ʔó:mo]
[nerádok]
[dulílo]
[tayá:r]
[ʧʌrkúʈo]
[əmí:r]
[rʌʋí:s]
[dʂʈi boŋkhíŋ] (opp. of wrong)
[si:] (side)
[p:ko]
[ʌʦhko]
[krído]
[ʧhído]
]
[lá:to:]
[ʃkḷ] (~[ʃkʌl])
[nʌkʃá:]
[tí:ɳi]
[khúʈo]
[bʌn]
[lʌʃ bó:no]
[séəl] (~[sé:l]~ [se:l])
[pʌrú:lo]
[eki ká:lo] (?)
114 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1139. Slow
1140. Slowly
1141. Small
1142. Smart
1143. Smooth
1144. Sober
1145. Soft
1146. Solid
1147. Sphere
1148. Square
1149. Straight
1150. Stingy
1151. Stout
1152. Strength
1153. Strong
1154. Stupid
1155. Such
1156. Tame
1157. Terrible
1158. Thick
1159. Thickness
1160. Thin
1161. Thinness
1162. Tired
1163. True
1164. Truly
1165. Ugly
1166. Uncivilized
1167. Useful
1168. Various
[thú:tbo]
[thú:tthe]
[ʧúɳo] sg. [ʧúɳe] pl.
[ʧalá:k]
[s:ʈʂo]
[nóto ʂʌʧó:no]
[tiyá:r]
[hʌzá:lo]
[nrʌm] (from Urdu)
[kúru]
[ɖuɽú:ro]
[ʧʌrkú:ʈo]
[ʈʂʌlá:]
[kúɲʤú:s]
[mʌʒbú:t]
[ta:kʌtwa:r]
[ta:kʌt]
[ta:kʌtwa:r]
[ʌχmq]
[əná:v]
[rʈʂinek]
[biʒá:ʈo]
[phʌɽó:ro]
[phʌɽo:ryá:r]
[tʌlú:no]
[tʌlunyá:r]
[ʧhí:do] (verb)
[ʂó:mo] (adj.)
[dəmn]
[dəmngi]
[əʦhko]
[zosta nuʃik] (?)
[ʤʌgenepəʃa:k]
[króm ʔe:nek]
[phyaaydá:man]
[buʧhé] (~[buʧʧhé]) `many, much’
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1169. Vertical
1170. Vice
1171. Virtue
1172. Weak
1173. Weakness
1174. Wealth
1175. Weight
1176. Wet
1177. Wicked
1178. Wide
1179. Wild
1180. Wise
[ʤápek]
[ʧóko]
[əʦhko]
[syo:]
[khaʧílo]
[khaʧilyá:r]
[má:l do:lt]
[ʌŋú:ro] (adj.)
[ʌŋuryá:r] (Noun.)
[vzʌn]
[ʐo]
[kʌmzá:t]
[bʌdzá:t]
[bostí:no]
[ʤʌŋg(ʌ)lí:]
]
[da:ná:]
9.12. Directions and measurements:
1181. Across
1182. Area
1183. Bottom
1184. Breadth
1185. Centre
1186. Corner
1187. East
1188. Edge
1189. End
1190. Far
1191. Far away
[pa:rí:]
[khʌrkhór]
[ʈóni] (~[ʈó:ni])
[ta:v]
[bistiɳyá:t] (~[bistiɳyá:r])
[mʌʒá:]
[kurú:]
[khʌrthe]
[súri bé:nek vri]
[súri khzenek vri]
[ʧhúp]
[mukh]
[mo:]
[ʧhúp]
[du:r]
[mɣʌ dúr]
115
116 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1192. Left side
1193. Length
1194. Maund
1195. Middle
1196. Mile
1197. Near
1198. North
1199. Out
1200. Part
1201. Place
1202. Point
1203. Right side
1204. Right hand
1205. Sight
1206. South
1207. Span
1208. Top (of the body)
(a play tool)
1209. Triangle
1210. Upwards
1211. West
1212. Yard
[khái bómkhíŋ] (~[khái bóŋkhíŋ])
[ʐiŋyá:r]
[ɖʌŋyá:r]
[mʌn]
[mʌʒí:no]
[mi:l]
[ʔé:li]
[ʔé:lo]
[aχrət ʧən] (~[akhrət ʧən])
[dʌró:]
[hisá:]
[diʃ]
[ʈíko]
[dʂʈi bókhiŋ]
[dʂʈino hat]
[nəzr]
[pʌybóm]
[pʌráh] (~[pʌrá])
[ʂi:ʂ]
[ʈhó:ki]
[ʈʂekúʈo]
[ʔónthe] (~[ʔómthe])
[aʤá:] or [aʤí:no] `on, above’
[súri byé:nek vri]
[súri ʤílbe:nek vri]
[mʌɣrʌb] (from Urdu)
[gʌs]
9.13. Numerals and ordinals:
1213. First
1214. Second
1215. Third
1216. Number
1217. One
1218. Two
[miʒúko]
[dumó:go]
[ʈʂemó:go]
[tedá:t]
[ek]
[du:]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1219. Three
1220. Four
1221. Five
1222. Six
1223. Seven
1224. Eight
1225. Nine
1226. Ten
1227. Eleven
1228. Twelve
1229. Thirteen
1230. Fourteen
1231. Fifteen
1232. Sixteen
1233. Seventeen
1234. Eighteen
1235. Nineteen
1236. Twenty
1237. Thirty
1238. Forty
1239. Fifty
1240. Sixty
1241. Seventy
1242. Eighty
1243. Ninety
1244. Hundred
1245. Thousand
1246. Lakh (100x1000)
1247. Crore (ten million)
1248. Quarter
1249. Half
1250. Three quarters
1251. One and a quarter
1252. One and a half
1253. One and three
[ʈʂe:]
[ʧa:r]
[põ:ʃ]
[ʂa:]
[sʌt]
:ʂʈ]
[nʌu]
[dai]
[ʌkái]
[bwai] (~[boi])
[ʈʂõ ]
]
]
]
[sʌttá:i]
]
[kũnní:]
[bi:]
[ʈʂi:]
[du byo:] `2x20’
[du byo:ɣʌ dai] `2x20+10’
[ʈʂe byo:] `3x20’
[ʈʂe byo:ɣʌ dai] `3x20+10’
[ʧar byo:] `4x20’
[ʧar byo:ɣʌ dai] `4x20+10’
[ʃʌl]
[sa:s]
[la:kh]
[kʌro:ʈ]
[ʧa:r khp]
[muk]
[bʌɣái]
[ʈʂe hise] `three shares’
[ek ɣʌ ʧa:r hise]
[ek ɣʌ bʌɣái]
117
118 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
quarters
1254. Last
[ek ɣʌ mu:ki ʈʂé:]
[pto]
9.14. Time, months and seasons:
1255. Afternoon
1256. Afterwards
1257. Again
1258. Already
1259. Always
1260. Autumn
1261. Age
1262. Before
1263. Century
1264. Clock
1265. Daily
1266. Day
1267. Day (noon)
1268. Day before
yesterday
1269. Day after tomorrow
1270. Date
1271. Evening
[dʌzó:]
[lʌŋs] ?
[pʌtó:]
[phere] (~[phɛrɛ])
[baɽá:]
[mé:ʒe]
[dé:zo]
[ʃáre]
[bʌríʂ]
[mé:ze]
[ʃʌl bʌriʂ]
[bɽi gʌɽí]
[dé:zo]
[de:s]
[sú:ri bʌɣái]
[ʌʂʈí:]
[ʈʂí:rye]
[tarí:k]
[bas]
[ʃya:m] (from Urdu)
1272. Fast (quick)
[urpó]
[ló:ko]
1273. Fortnight
[[pʌʂ]
[mo:s bʌɣái] `half of the month’
1274. Full moon day
[pú:ɳo]
1275. Hour
[gʌɳʈá:]
1276. In time
[vk(ʌ)te:ʒa]
Names of the months:
1277. January
[ʤʌnevʌri]
1278. February
[phʌrvari]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
119
1279. March
[ma:riʧ]
1280. April
[əprel]
1281. May
[me:]
1282. June
[ʤun]
1283. July
[ʤulʌi]
1284. August
[ʌgʌsʈ]
1285. September
[sʌpʈʌmbʌr]
1286. October
[ʌktu:bʌr]
1287. November
[nʌvʌmbʌr]
1288. December
[ɖʌʃʌmbʌr]
Local names of the months and seasons:
1289. Summer quarter
[vá:lo ʈʂé:mos]
1290. Winter quarter
[yó:no ʈʂé:mos]
1291. Autumn quarter
[ʃʌró: ʈʂé:mos]`leaves-falling 3
months’
1292. Spring quarter
[bʌzó:no ʈʂé:mos]`hot days after
winter’
1293. First month
[ʧe:t]
1294. Second month
[bɛsa:k]
1295. Third month
[ʣe:ʈ]
1296. Fourth month
[ha:ʈ]
1297. Fifth month
[sa:vʌn]
1298. Sixth month
[ba:drun] (~[bʌha:drun])
1299. Seventh month
[a:su:ʧ]
1300. Eighth month
[kʌʈʈk]
1301. Ninth month
[mʌrɣ:r]
1302. Tenth month
[po:]
1303. Eleventh month
[a:k]
1304. Twelfth month
[pha:ɣʌn]
1305. Drama staging
[nau]
1306. Ild(Muslim festival) [i:d]
1307. Ramzan
(Muslim festival)
[ro:za]
1308. Mohram
(Muslim festival)
[ma:tʌm]
1309. Local festival
[dakyó]
120 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1310. Late
1311. Midnight
1312. Moment
1313. Month
1314. Morning
1315. New moon day
1316. Night
1317. Noon
1318. Often
1319. Rainy season
1320. Season
1321. Spring
1322. Sometimes
1323. Soon
1324. Suddenly
1325. Summer
Week days
1326. Sunday
1327. Monday
1328. Tuesday
1329. Wednesday
1330. Thursday
1331. Friday
1332. Saturday
1333. Sunrise
1334. Sunset
[ʧhu:t]
[ráti bʌɣái]
[ʤú:kek]
[lʌmha:] (from Urdu)
[mo:s]
[ʧwʌl]
[ʈʂi:ŋ] (~[ʈʂhí:ŋ])
[ráti]
[dʌzó:]
[súri bʌɣái]
[pheré pheré]
[ʤú:gga ʤú:k]
[áʐo: dé:zi]
[mo:sɪm]
[bʌzó:no] (after winter)
[uʦ] (of water]
[ʤʌbélek]
[ló:ko]
[mʒa:]
[beih:k]
[ʌʧá:nʌk]
[vá:lo] (three months)
[ʌdít]
[ʦʌndrá:l]
[ʌŋgá:ro]
[bó:do]
[brésput]
[ʃúkru]
[ʤúma:] (from Urdu]
[ʃĩ:ʃé:r]
[bɛʈʌvá:r] (~[bʌʈʌvá:r])
[ʤil] (coming)
[ʤʌl] (past)
[bé:ʈi]
[byóno]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1335. Time
1336. Today
1337. Tomorrow
1338. Turn
1339. Week
1340. Winter
1341. Year
1342. Yesterday
[vʌks]
[ʔʌʃ]
[ló:ʂʈe]
[go:ɳ]
[hʌftá:]
[yó:no] (three months)
[ʌvé:o]
[bʌríʂ]
[byʌlá:]
9.15. Sense of perception:
1343. Acidity
1344. Bitter
1345. Black
1346. Blind
1347. Blue
1348. Bright
1349. Brown
1350. Coldness
1351. Dark
1352. Deaf
1353. Dim
1354. Green
1355. Hot
1356. Light
1357. Noise
1358. Red
1359. Rosy
1360. Scent
1361. Sound
1362. Sour
[khʌʃ]
[ʈʂíʈo]
[kíɳo]
[ʂe:v]
[ní:lo]
[rʌʃ]
[ʈʂa:]
[nʌsʌvári]
[ʈʂe:]
[thʌp]
[kú:ʈo]
[po]
[ní:li]
[tto] (milk etc.)
[ʧhʌt] (Sun)
[lóko] (weight)
[hilíŋ]
[ló:lo]
[gulá:bo róŋ]
[gon]
[ʌtṛ]
[mʌʂó]
[ba:ʂ]
[ʈʂíʈo]
121
122 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1363. Sweet
1364. Taste
1365. Touch
1366. Vermilion
1367. Violet
1368. White
1369. Yellow
[míʂʈo]
[mʌzá:]
[hat dyó:no]
[ló:lo]
[gúro]
[yú:ŋŋo rõŋ]
[ʃo:]
[hʌlíʒo: rõŋ]
9.16. Emotion: Temperamental, moral and aesthetic:
1370. Affection
1371. Anger
1372. Anxiety
1373. Alas!
1374. Attachment
1375. Blame
1376. Cause
1377. Censure
1378. Cowardice
1379. Courage
1380. Danger
1381. Dear
1382. Deceit
1383. Despair
1384. Doubt
1385. Envy
1386. Flattery
1387. Fury
[ʃirá:ʈo]
[ro:ʂ]
[gun(i)yá:l]
[hív kumyó:no]
[ʌfsú:s]
[éilo] (~ [éili]~[é:lo])
[bʌdná:m]
[vʒa]
[gunyé sʌmé:]
[sõ:ʧ sʌmz]
[biʒé:ʂ]
[hi:v bɽo]
[dilhé:r] (from Urdu)
[χʌt(ʌ)ra:]
[ʃirá:ʈo]
[do:ká:]
[nfa:]
[hi:v ʧhinyó:no]
[kailʌk bo:no] (out of sense)
[na: ume:t] (from Urdu)
[ʃʌk]
[dʌʤé:ʃ]
[dʌʒó:no]
[tikyó:no]
[ro:ʂ]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1388. Grief
1389. Habit
1390. Happiness
1391. Hatred
1392. Hunger
1393. Hungry
1394. Hush (silence)
1395. Idea
1396. Idle
1397. Insult
1398. Intellect
1399. Intension
1400. Jealousy
1401. Labourer (coolie)
1402. Labour (pain)
1403. Love
1404. Memory
1405. Mercy
1406. Merry
1407. Obscure
1408. Pain
1409. Passion
1410. Pity
1411. Praise
1412. Proud
1413. Pride
[duk]
[a:dt]
[ʃuryá:r]
[a:ra:m] (from Urdu)
[nʌfrt]
[unyá:lo] (~[unyá:no])
[unyá:lo] (~[unyá:no])
[unyá:l] `thirsty’
[ʧup] `silent’
[ʧúbo] `silence’
[guɳyá:l]
[χʌya:l] (from Urdu)
[be:ka:r] (from Urdu)
[ʧo:t]
[ʧo:dyó:no] (=[ʧo:t+dyó:no])
[ʧo:de] `abuses’
[dima:k] (from Urdu)
[guɳyá:l] (~[guɳiyá:l])
[dʌʤé:ʃ]
[dʌʒó:no] `to feel jealous’
[króm thenék]
[kulli] (from Urdu)
[ʃú:le]
[muh(ʌ)bt]
[yadgá:r]
[ʤuʤu]
[rʌhm]
[ʃuryá:r]
[hí:ʒa ne byó:no]
[zurmó]
[ʃʌhvát]
[nirá:v]
[tarí:p]
[tʌkʌbú:r]
[gurú:r]
[tʌkʌbúri]
123
124 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1414. Reason
1415. Ridicule
1416. Regard
1417. Respect
1418. Secret
1419. Selfishness
1420. Shame
1421. Sorrow
1422. Suspicion
1423. Sympathy
1424. Temper
1425. Thirst
1426. Timid
1427. True
1428. Truth
1429. Wish
1430. Wonder
[vʒa] sg. [vʒe] pl.
[muʐwá:lo]
[izzt] (~[iʤʤt])
[izzt]
[ra:s] (from Urdu [ra:z])
[χot gʌrʌs] (~[χoð ɣʌrʌs])
[lʌʃ] sg. [lʌʒé] pl.
[hi:ʂ] sg. [hi:ʐe] pl.
[ʃʌk]
[kha:r]
[ro:ʂ] sg. [ró:ʐe] pl.
[unyá:l]
[biʒá:ʈo]
[dmʌn]
[dmʌngi]
[ʌʒó:no]
[gunyó:no]
[ʌʤí:p]
9.17. Education:
1431. Blotting paper
1432. Chalk
1433. Criticism
1434. Dictionary
1435. Education
1436. Envelope
1437. Examination
1438. Examine
1439. Examiner
1440. Grammar
1441. Ignorant
1442. Illiterate
1443. Ink
[syaʧú:s] sg. [syaʧú:ze] pl.
[ʧa:k]
[dmʃi]
[guftʌgo] (Urdu)
[lo:gt]
[ta:lí:m]
[sʌbʌk rʌʤa:k] (Urdu)
[lifá:fa:] (Urdu)
[imtɪhá:n] (~[imtɪyá:n]) (Urdu)
[imtɪhá:n de:nék]
[imtɪhá:n gíɳenek]
[gremʌr]
[ʤége ne dʂʈenɛk]
[ʤége ne raʒák]
[mil] sg. [míle] pl.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1444. Ink pot
1445. Letter
1446. Lesson
1447. Library
1448. Line
1449. Literature
1450. Mail
1451. Map
1452. Notebook
1453. Novel
1454. Nib
1455. Page
1456. Paper
1457. Pen
1458. Pencil
1459. Poetry
1460. Postage
1461. Post card
1462. Post office
1463. Prose
1464. Publisher
1465. Pupil
1466. Scholarship
1467. School
1468. Science
1469. Slap
1470. State
1471. Standard
1472. Stanza
1473. Story
1474. Student
1475. Success
[dʌvá:t] sg. [dʌvá:te] pl.
[ʤu:ʂ] sg. [ʤu:ʐe] pl.
[sʌbk] sg. [sʌbʌkéh] pl.
[le:brri]
[kiʂí] sg. [kiʂyé] pl.
[kitá:be]
[ɖa:k]
[nʌkʃá:]
[ka:pí:]
[na:vl]
[nip] sg. [nibé] pl.
[p:ʈe]
[muk]
[ʤu:s]
[kʌlm]
[pɛn]
[pensíl]
[nzṃ]
[ɖa:k]
[posʈ ka:ʈ]
[ɖakhá:na:]
[dʌlí:l]
[kitá:p khʌlé:nek]
[sʌbʌkyá:r]
[vazí:fa:] (Urdu)
[mʌdʌrsá:] (Urdu)
[sainés]
[ɖwʌk]
[riya:st] (Urdu)
[ʤʌmá:t]
[pó:i]
[ʃiló:k]
[kʌhni]
[sʌbʌkyá:r]
[ka:mya:bi] (Urdu)
[pa:s]
125
126 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1476. Tablet
1477. Teacher
1478. Telegram
1479. Voice
1480. Word
[ʈíki] sg. [ʈíke] pl.
[ma:stʌr]
[ta:r]
[mʌʂó:]
[mo:ʂ]
9.18. Government:
1481. Boundary
1482. Capital
1483. City
1484. Country
1485. Crown
1486. District
1487. Emperor
1488. Empire
1489. Flag
1490. Freedom
1491. Glory
1492. Governor
1493. Government
1494. Hand cuff
1495. Harem
1496. Inspector
1497. King
1498. Kingdom
1499. Member
1500. Minister
1501. Office
1502. Officer
1503. Palace
1504. Peon
1505. Prime minister
1506. President
[bʌná] sg. [bʌné] pl.
[da:ru khʌlá:fa:] (Urdu)
[ʃʌhṛ]
[ʐuŋ]
[ta:ʃ] (~[ta:ʒ])
[zíla] (~[zilá:])
[ba:ʈʂá:] (~[bá:ð(ə)ʃa:]) (Urdu)
[sʌtʌnt]
[ʤʌɳɖí:]
[a:zá:di]
[ʃa:n]
[gɔrnʌr]
[hukúmʌt]
[hʌtgʌɽi:]
[mulʌló: láit]
[mulʌló: go:ʂ]
[ʈʂʌké:nek]
[ba:ðʃa:]
[sʌltʌnt]
[hukúmʌt]
[mʌnúʐo]
[vʌzí:r] sg. [vʌzí:re] pl.
[dʌftʌr] sg. [dʌftʌre]~[dʌftʌri] pl.
[əfsər] sg. [əfsəre]~ [əfsəri] pl.
[ko:ʈ (mʌhḷ)]
[ʧʌprasí:]
[vʌzíre :la]
[preziɖeɳʈ]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1507. Prince
1508. Police
1509. Police station
1510. Province
1511. Ruler
1512. Secretary
1513. State
1514. Taluk
1515. Throne
1516. Village
[ba:dʃó: ba:l]
[puli:s]
[ʈha:ná:]
[ʧo:kí:]
[so:ba:] `division’ (?)
[ba:ðʃa:]
[sekiʈ(ʌ)ri]
[riya:st]
[ta:sí:l]
[taχ(ʌ)t]
[gá:m]
[mó:za:]
[kui]
9.19. War:
1517. Air raid
1518. Armour
1519. Army
1520. Artillery
1521. Arrow
1522. Attack
1523. Battle
1524. Battle axe
1525. Battle ship
1526. Bayonet
1527. Blow
1528. Bomb
1529. Booty
1530. Bow
1531. Breast plate
1532. Bullet
1533. Cannon
1534. Cavalry
[bʌmbá:ri]
[ʤʌrʌ bʌqtr]
[phó:ʤi]
[yazí:]
[ko:ɳ]
[hʌmlá:]
[ʤʌŋ]
[ʧhʌɽi]
[ʤŋo ʤʌhá:z]
[bʌrʧí:]
[muʂʈko]
[bʌm]
[lu:ʈyó: ma:l]
[trʌkúm]
[trʌŋkúm]
[ʤu:]
[phʌlí:]
[go:lí:]
[to:p]
[risá:la:]
127
128 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1535. Cease fire
1536. Collision
1537. Chain
1538. Chariot
1539. Club (Gada:)
1540. Cudgel
1541. Dagger
1542. Defeat
1543. Destroyer
1544. Drum
1545. Enemy
1546. Enmity
1547. Fleet
1548. Fort
1549. Fortress
1550. Friendship
1551. General
1552. Gun
1553. Gun powder
1554. Helmet
1555. Imprisonment
1556. Infantry
1557. Lock up
1558. March
1559. Navy
1560. Peace
1561. Pistol
1562. Plot, conspiracy
1563. Prison
1564. Prisoner
[phóʤi]
[ʤʌŋ bʌndí:]
[diʒó:no]
[ʃŋʌli]
[ʃʌŋá:li]
[rʌth]
[ɖophós]
[ɖophós]
[kʌɽá:r]
[nékkuryo:no]
[tʌba: the:nék]
[zen]
[zem]
[ɖʌɽʌm]
[duʃmn]
[duʃmʌní:]
[sʌmʌndʌrí: ʤʌháʤ]
[kílla]
[kíla] (~[kílla]) sg. [kíle] pl.
[sa:tí:] (~[sá:ti]) sg. [sa:tyé:] pl.
[ʤʌrné:l]
[tubk]
[ʃóra:] (~[ʃorá:h]) sg. [ʃoré:] pl.
[ʤʌŋó: khói] `war cap’
[kɛ:tthyó:no] (~[kaitthyó:no])
(note word juncture in tth)
[yá:zek]
[p:dʌl phó:ʒ]
[hʌvá:lat] (~[hʌvalá:t])
[yá:to]
[sʌmʌndʌrí: phó:ʒ]
[ʔəmn]
[pistó:l]
[bʌɣavt]
[ke:tkha:na:]
[qɛdí:] sg. [qaidyé:] pl.
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1565. Quiver
1566. Retreat
1567. Shield
1568. Siege
1569. Soldier
1570. Spear
1571. Sword
1572. Surrender
1573. Trumpet
1574. Victory
1575. War
1576. Warrior
1577. Weapon
1578. Wrestling
1579. Whistle
[kóɳo thé:ko]
[pʌʈó:re sʌryó:no]
[phʌlí:] sg. [phlie] pl.
[hʌmlá:]
[ʤʌvá:n]
[nezá:]
[khŋʌr]
[né kuryó:no]
[byú:gul]
[kuryó:no]
[phta]
[ʤŋ]
[ʤŋ the:nék]
[miʃé:nek]
[hʌtyá:r]
[kuʃtí:]
[sʌlá:m] sg. [sʌlʌméh] pl.
[siʈi bʌʃryó:no] (with whistle)
[ʂi:v] (~[ʃi:v]) (human whistle)
[ʂo:ki]
9.20. Law:
1580. Accused
1581. Adultery
1582. Advice
1583. Agreement
1584. Allowance
1585. Appeal
1586. Argument
1587. Assembly
1588. Attorney
1589. Bail
1590. Bargain
1591. Case
129
[mulzím]
[doká:]
[nʌsiyt]
[puryó:no]
[ʤo:k dyó:no]
[tʌrkí:] `promotion’
[ʌpí:l]
[thá:pʃe]
[əsumbli]
[vʌkí:l]
[zʌmant]
[pʌrbó:tye] (~[bʌrbutéh])
[moqddima:]
130 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1592. Caste
1593. Charge
1594. Civil court
1595. Confession
1596. Conflict
1597. Conscience
1598. Contract
1599. Defense
1600. Debt
1601. Debtor
1602. Divorce
1603. Estate
1604. Evidence
1605. Fee
1606. Fine (penalty)
1607. Guilty
1608. Hanging
1609. Hill people
1610. Instalment
1611. Interest
1612. Innocent
1613. Judge
1614. Judgment
1615. Language
1616. Law
1617, Law suit
1618. Lawyer
1619. Lie
1620. Liar
1621. Loss
[za:t]
[yó:no] (?)
[ʌdá:lʌt]
[ikrá:r] (~[ekrá:r])
[rʌʒau]
[sa:f]
[miʃó:no]
[thá:pʃi]
[sʌmbá:]
[khʌya:l]
[ʈhéka:]
[bʌʧʌrí]
[bʌʧá:v] `protection’
[u:ʂ] sg. [u:ʐe] pl.
[uʂyá:r] sg. [uʂya:réh] pl.
[tʌláqna:ma:]
[ba:k] (?)
[subú:t]
[phi:s]
[ʤúrma:na:]
[gunahga:r]
[ph :sí:]
[ʃeyó: ʤʌk]
[kiʃt]
[su:t]
[sʈʂo:]
[ʧúɳo]
[ʤʌʤ]
[phsla:]
[bá:ʃ] sg. [bá:ʃe] pl.
[kanú:n]
[ʌrzí:]
[vʌkí:l]
[ʧóɽe] (no pl.)
[ʧoɽá:lo] (note personifier suffix)
[nuksá:n]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1622. Message
1623. Murder
1624. Murderer
1625. Oath
1626. People
1627. Petition
1628. Pick pocket
1629. Profession
1630. Procession
1631. Protest
1632. Publicity
1633. Public
1634. Punctual
1635. Secretary
1636. Secure
1637. Rape
1638. Recommend
1639. Recover
1640. Reduce
1641. Reign
1642. Reject
1643. Remedy
1644. Report
1645. Represent
1646. Republic
1647. Reputation
1648. Resign
1649. Retire
1650. Robber
1651. Royal
1652. Security
131
[bo:t] sg. [bó:de] pl.
[qʌtḷ]
[mʌnúʂ má:ro] (~[mʌnúʐ má:ro])
[kɛsm]
[ʤk]
[ʌrzí:]
[ʧʌndʌ ʧó:ri thenék]
[ka:r]
[ʤulú:z]
[ʤlsa:]
[ʔózur] sg. [ʔózure] pl.
[pʌruʤʌryó:no] `to publicize’
[ʤʌk]
[pa:bn]
[sekʈrí:]
[ra:s] (~[ra:z)
[hi:v o:no]
[gív uʈʂyó:no]
[dó:kʃi] `torture’
[suparíʃ]
[pharyó:no]
[km thyó:no]
[hukumt thĩ]
[ne giɳyó:no]
[phal th ]
[ilá:ʧ] (from Urdu)
[rʌpó:ʈ]
[ʌrzí:]
[azá:t]
[mʌʃhú:ri]
[istifá:]
[pensíl]
[pínʃin]
[ɖakú:]
[ba:ʧhó:] (~[ba:diʃó:])
[bʌʧʌ ʤiryó:no]
132 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1653. Suicide
1654. Tax
1655. Theft
1656. Thief
1657. Treaty
1658. Trial
1659. Tribal people
1660. Truth
1661. Vote
1662. Witness
1663. Wrong
[khut kʌʃí:]
[su:t]
[ʧorí:]
[ʧo:r]
[moháyda]
[bʌyá:n]
[ʃeyó: ʤʌk]
[hʌkíkʌt]
[vo:ʈ]
[gʌvahí]
[ʃʌhʌbbt]
[ʃʌhadt]
[ɣʌlt]
9.21. Religion:
1664. Alter
1665. Atheist
1666. Bell
1667. Birthday
1668. Blessing
1669. Camphor
1670. Church
1671. Clergyman
1672. Curse
1673. Demon
1674. devil
1675. Fairy
1676. Fast (go without
food)
1677. Festival
[kurba:n thé:nek diʃ] sg.[..diʃe] pl.
[kurba:nga:]
[kafír]
[χoðai nuʃek]
[gʌɳʈí:] sg. [gʌɳʈyé:] pl.
[ʤá:lok de:s]
[mu:k de:s] `day of death’
[mubárek]
[muʃki tú:li]
[giɲʤá:]
[padrí:]
[ʃʌvé]
[ʧo: dyó:no:]
[ʃeitá:n]
[ʃeitá:n]
[pʌrí:]
[niryó:no:]
[syó: de:s] (~[syódde:s]) (note
juncture)
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1678. Garland
[púʂo ha:r]
1679. Ghat (flight of steps
leding to the river) [ga:ʈ]
1680. Ghee lamp
[ʤú:lyo ʦʌŋú:]
1681. Ghost
[yʌʂ] sg. [yʌʈʂé:] pl.
1682. Giant
[yʌʂ] sg. [yʌʈʂé:] pl.
1683. God
[khudái] (~[χudái])
1684. Heaven
[ʤʌnnt]
1685. Hell
[ʤʌhʌnnm]
[do:zq]
1686. Hermitage
[ʧilá:] sg. [ʧilé:] pl.
1687. Holy place
[si: diʃ]
1688. Holy water
[zʌmzʌm]
[taβʌrúk] `something’
1689. Hymn
[a:yá:] (~[a:yt])
1690. Idol
[astá:n]
1691. Immortality
[hʌyá:t]
1692. Incense
[muʃki tú:li]
1693. Magic
[ʤadú:]
1694. Matted hair
[bw:no:]
[bóile ʤʌkú:]
1695. Merit
[sʌvá:p]
1696. Monk
[lamá:]
1697. Mosque
[mʌʒít]
1698. Nun
[ʧomó:] sg. [ʧomé:] pl.
1699. Offering
[kheirá:t]
1700. Omen
[ʃʌk]
1701. Pilgrim
[haʒí] (~[háʒi])
1702. Pilgrimage
[ʤʌrát]
[háʒ]
1703. Pious
[pák]
[syo:]
1704. Purity
[dw:no]
1705. Prayer
[dwya:r]
[nimá:s]
1706. Preceptor
[qazí:]
133
134 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1707. Priest
[mo:lvi]
[ima:m]
[diʤó:no]
[pɛɣʌmbr]
[mʌzhp]
[tʌzbí:]
[ʃeitá:n]
[hʌɖí:s]
[guná:h]
[ʤzba:]
[vʌsvʌsá]
[tʌlatún]
[mʌndr]
[momín]
[gunɛ:nɛk]
[gunyó:no]
[ebaðt]
1708. Prejudice
1709. Prophet
1710. Religion
1711. Rosary
1712. Satan
1713. Sermon
1714. Sin
1715. Spirit
1716. Superstition
1717. Temple
1718. Thirst
1719. Worship
9.22. Games and sports:
1720. Acrobatics
1721. Amusement
1722. Ball
1723. Bat
1724. Chess
1725. Dice
1726. Doll
1727. Exercise
1728. Gambling
1729. Games
1730. Gymnastics
1731. Hide and seek
1732. Kabaddi (a sport)
[sʌrks]
[ʃur]
[hʌvá:s]
[ʈhóki] sg. [ʈhóke] pl.
[be:ʈ]
[ʃʌtrɲʤ]
[ʧholó:]
[ʦuké:] sg. [ʦuké:e] pl.
[vʌrʤís]
[ʤuwá:]
[ʧholó:]
[ʦuké:]
[thúli bó:no]
[khʌró:no]
[liʈi piʈí:]
[kʌpʌɽí:]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1733. Skate
1734. Medal
1735. Puzzle
1736. Race
1737. Rest
1738. Wrestling
[sisilí:]
[ʐiliʒó:no]
[tʌgmá:]
[iná:m]
[sʌvá:l]
[ʤá:pe] `taunt’
[dʌrbk]
[hu:ʂ]
[kuʃtí:]
[sʌlám]
[sʌlʌmó dyó:no]
9.23. Entertainment, music, dance drama etc.:
1739. Act
1740. Acting
1741. Actor
1742. Actress
1743. Ballad
(of happiness)
(of sorrow)
1744. Concert
1745. Drama
1746. Dancer
1747. Dramatist
1748. Drama artist
1749. Drum
1750. Drumstick
1751. Flute
1752. Green room
1753. Lullaby
1754. Music
1755. Musical tone
[si:n]
[pré:] (~[préh])
[pré: thének]
[pré: thének]
[kʌsí:da]
[mʌrʦyá:]
[tʌlmó]
[ɖra:ma:]
[noʈének] (~[noʈé:nek])
[ɖra:ma: likhnɛk]
[ɖra:ma: thének]
[dʌrm]
[ɖol]
[ɖólo ɖáki]
[ɖólo dének ɖáki]
[tʌruí]
[bnʦʌri]
[ʧʌs thének láit]
[aló:]
[dáɳi] sg. [dáɳye] pl.
[gɛ: mʌʂó:] (~[gʌyá: mʌʂó:])
135
136 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1756. Player
[dópa:] sg. [dópe:] pl.
1757. Sarangi
(a musical instrument) [sʌrʌŋgí]
1758. Shahanai
(a musical instrument) [sur(u)má:]
1759. Scene
[si:n]
1760. Sight
[nʌzára]
1761. Singer
[g :l]
1762. Sitar
[sitá:r]
1763. Spectator
[tʌlmó ʈʂʌkénɛk]
1764. Stage
[siʈe:]ʤ]
1765. Tanpura
(a musical instrument) [tʌmbú:ra]
1766. Tempo
[ʃóŋo] sg. [ʃóŋe] pl.
1767. Theatre
[ha:l]
1768. Tune
[ba:ʃ]
1769. Veena
(a musical instrument) [tʌtʌrúi]
1770. Village show
[tlmo]
[na:v]
9.24. Metals:
1771. Alum
[phʌʈkr]
1772. Aluminum
[gilé:t]
1773 Ammonium chloride [gɛsá:]
1774 Asafoetida
[ʌyáv]
[hiŋ]
1775 Bell metal
[khʌrbá:]
1776 Brass
[ri:l]
1777 Copper
[zŋs]
1778 Glass
[ʃiʃá:]
1779 Gold
[so:ɳ]
1780. Iron
[ʧímer]
1781. Ivory
[hásto don] `elephant’s tooth’
1782. Lead
[səŋgá:]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1783. Lime
1784. Magnet
1785. Marble
1786. Metal
1787. Mercury
1788. Mica
1789. Mine
1790. Mineral
1791. Money
1792. Paper
1793. Quartz
1794. Silver
1795. Steel
1796. Sulphur
1797. Tin
1798. Tinsel
1799. Zinc
[ʧúna]
[pholá:t]
[ŋʌr pholá:t]
[sŋŋʌ mʌrmr]
[dehá:t]
[ʧʌɣ(ʌ)ríks]
[pʌrá:]
[əbrk]
[ʌʈʂúr]
[bo:]
[ka:n]
[rupi]
[ʤu:s]
[ʃó:bʌʈ] `white stone’
[ru:p]
[pholá:t]
[gendk]
[ʧʌskr]
[mozí:]
[səŋgá:]
25. Functional words:
1800. Across
1801. After
1802. Against
1803. Always
1804. Amidst
1805. And
1806. Around
1807. At
1808. Away from
1809. Because
[parí]
[pʌtó:]
[moká:bila:]
[khʌlá:f]
[dé:zo]
[hʌmé:ʃa:]
[mʌʤá:] (~[mʌʒá:])
[ga:]
[baɽá:]
[khʌrkhór]
[á:se]
[du:r]
[ké: thyónto]
137
138 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1810. Before
1811. Behind
1812. Besides
1813. Between
1814. By
1815. But
1816. Down
1817. During
1818. Even
1819. Even though
1820. Except
1821. For
1822. From
1823. He
1824. Here
1825. How
1826. If
1827. In
1828. Into
1829. Like
1830. Meanwhile
1831. Opposite
1832. Other
1833. Otherwise
1834. Or
1835. Out of
1836. Over
1837. Near
[mé:ʒe]
[pʌtó:]
[bʌɽá:]
[bʌɣair]
[mʌʤá:] (~[mʌʒá:])
[gi]
[lé:kin]
[khʌri]
[vʌkt] (~[vʌkta])
[bílito]
[bíli tóga] (note juncture tó#ga)
[bʌɣ:r]
[karyó:]
[ká:re]
[ɣo]
[ʐo]
[á:ni] (~[á:nni])
[kʌnáu]
[kʌnáthe] `in what way’
[ʌgr]
[ʌʐó:]
[mʌʒá:] `in between’
[ʌʐó:]
[phʌʂ]
[sdeɽʌk]
[khilá:f]
[dumó:gi]
[t:to]
[ya:]
[ʤe]
[ʤo]
[dʌró:]
[tʌfrík] (Urdu)
[ʌʤá:]
[ʔéili]
[nʌlá:]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1838. Not
1839. So
1840. Some how
1841. Some one
1842. Some times
1843. Still
1844. Than
1845. Then
1846. There
1847. Through
1848. Till
1849. To
1850. Towards
1851. Thus
1852. Under
1853. Until
1854. What
1855. When
1856. Where
1857. Which
1858. Who
1859. Why
1860. With
1861. Without
[nuʃ]
[əná:v]
[ke: thyó:nto]
[kʌnithétoga]
[ʤe:]
[ʤʌbélekek]
[kótte]
[á:seʤo]
[t:to]
[pʌrá:de]
[mʌʒ(i)nó]
[ɖʌk]
[sádeɽʌk]
[re]
[se] (?)
[vári]
[khiŋ]
[t:to]
[phʌʂ]
[khri]
[sádeɽʌk]
[ʤok]
[kʌré:]
[kóne]
[kʌnáv]
[kʌní]
[ʤok]
[koi]
[ke:] (~[ké:h])
[nʌlá:]
[gi]
[núʃo]
[núʃto]
[négi]
[négili]
[bʌɣ:r]
139
140 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1862. Yet
[kóteɽʌk]
9.26 Verbs:
1863. Abound (germs)
1864. Abandon
1865. Able (to be)
1866. Accuse
[krĩ: pó:no]
[phat thyó:no]
[bó:no]
[zulúm thyó:no]
móʐ(i) dyó:no]
1867. Accompany
[sa:t dyó:no]
[nʌlá: dyó:no]
1868. Ache
[ʃulyó:no]
[zʌrmu ó:no]
1869. Acquit
[pht bó:no]
1870. Act (drama)
[pré: thyó:no]
1871. Admit (to school) [aʧ(ʌ)ryó:no]
(to confess) [mʌnyó:no]
1872. Adopt (an idea)
[ʌkíno thyó:no]
(child)
[púʂ thyó:no]
1873. Advise
[pʌruʒʌryó:no]
[nʌsí:yʌt thyó:no]
1874. Agree
[mʌnyó:no]
1875. Aim (at)
[nzʌr giɳyó:no] (~[...ginyó:no])
1876. Alight
[vʌʒó:no]
[diʒó:no]
1877. Allow (to work)
[thyó:dyó:no] (~[thó:ndyó:no])
(to come inside) [ó:ndyó:no]
(to go)
[bó:ndyó:no] (~[boʒó:dyó:no])
1878. Amuse
[ʃurʌryó:no]
1879. Annoy
[hi:v ʧhinyó:no] `heart breaking’
1880. Answer
[moʂ phʌryó:no]
1881. Appear
[pʌʃó:no]
1882. Approach
[eilyó:no] (~[elyó:no])
[elilyó:no]
1883. Approve
[mʌnyó:no]
1884. Arrange
[sí:te ʧoryó:no](~ [sí:the...])
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
141
[phó:no]
[ʤʌŋ thyó:no]
[miʃó:no]
1887. Ascend (hill etc)
[khʌʒó:no]
1888. Ask
[khoʒó:no]
1889. Avenge
[kle phʌryó:no]
[bʌdla: gyó:no]
1890. Avoid
[huná:re thyó:no]
[bʌhna: thyó:no]
1891. Bark
[bʌʃó:no]
1892. Bathe
[nó:ʂ(i) dyó:no]
1893. Bear (fruit)
[giɳyó:no]
1894. Beat (drum)
[kuʈyó:no]
1895. Beckon
[hó: thyó:no]
1896. Become
[dulyó:no]
(make some one) [dulʌryó:no] (note causative suf.)
1897. Beg
[biʈʂyó:no]
1898. Begin
[mó: giɳyó:no]
[ʃuru thyó:no]
1899. Belch
[obó:ki thyó:no] (~[əbó:ki ...])
[obó:ki ó:no]
1900. Believe
[yʌki:n thyó:no]
1901. Bend (passive)
[khiŋíro thyó:no]
(active)
[khiŋíro bó:no]
1902. Betray
[kharígi dyó:no]
1903. Betroth
[ʌyó:no]
1904. Bewitch
[ʃuʐyó:no] (~[ʃuʒyó:no])
[suró:mo]
1905. Bind
[gʌɳyó:no]
1906. Bite (with teeth)
[ʧhinyó:no]
(snake, dog)
[rʌʈyó:no]
[ʐʌɳ thyó:no]
1907. Bleach
[ʃyó: thyó:no]
1908. Bleed (nose)
[nʌlʌpá vʌʒó:no]
(general)
[le:l khʌʒó:no]
(menses)
[he:s vʌʒó:no]
1885. Arrive
1886. Attack
142 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1909. Bless
1910. Blink
1911. Bloom
1912. Blow (wind)
(breath)
(flute)
(horn)
(nose)
1913. Praise
1914. Boil
1915. Bore (hole)
1916. Borrow
1917. Bounce
1918. Braid (plait)
1919. Bow (salute)
1920. Break
1921. Breathe
1922. Brew (bear)
1923. Bring
1924. Brood
1925. Bubble
1926. Build
1927. Burn
1928. Bury
1929. Buy
1930. Cackle (cock)
(hen)
1931. Call
1932. Carry
1933. Carve
1934. Castrate
[ʃʌpé dyó:no]
[ʧa:pé thyó:no]
[ʌʧhé nilyó:no]
[phuɳyó:no]
[o:ʃ dyó:no](~[..thyó:no]~[..ó:no])
[phu: thyó:no]
[tʌrúi bʌʃó:no]
[phu: thyó:no] (~[phu: bʌʃó:no])
[khuɳó: vʌʒó:no]
[tik yó:no]
[kairyó:no] (Tr.)
[kayó:no] (Intr.)
[aʈʂúr pʌyó:no]
[aʈʂúr khʌlyó:no]
[u:ʂ ʌryó:no]
[prik bó:no]
[bʌyó:no]
[kó:lo bó:no]
[phoʈyó:no] (Tr.)
[phoʈ(i)ʒó:no] (Intr.)
: thyó:no]
[ʃʌráp pó:no] `drink liquor’
[ʌryó:no]
[gunyó:no]
[bó:iki ó:no]
[prʌyó:no]
[dʌyó:no] (Tr.)
[dʌʒó:no] (Intr.)
[khaʈyó:no]
[giɳyó:no]
[bʌʃó:no]
[króki dyó:no]
[ho: thyó:no]
[giɳyó:no] (~[ginyó:no])
[khoyó:no]
[ʧá thyó:no]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1935. Catch (chase)
[lomyó:no]
(for a while)
[rʌʈyó:no]
(an animal)
[lomyó:no] (~[rʌʈyó:no])
1936. Celebrate
[dé:s thyó:no]
1937. Challenge
[moqá:bila thyó:no]
1938. Change (alter)
[prbutyó:no]
(money)
[prbutyó:no]
1939. Chant (mantra etc.) [vá:s thyó:no]
[pʌruʒʌryó:no]
1940. Chase
[ʈis thyó:no]
1941. Chatter
[moʐi dyó:no]
1942. Cheat
[khrigi ʌ
[do:kha dyó:no]
1943. Check
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
1944. Chew
[ʧʌpyó:no]
1945. Chirp (birds)
[ʧĩ bʌʃyó:no]
1946. Choke
[ʃõ: ʂʌʧó:no]
1947. Choose
[dmʃi thyó:no]
1948. Chop
[tʌʧó:no] (~[tʌʈʂyó:no])
1949. Circumcise
[bá: ʧuryó:no]
1950. Clean
[sáf thyó:no]
1951. Clear
[ʂr thyó:no]
[sáf thyó:no]
1952. Climb (tree etc.)
[khaʒó:no]
[thúli bó:no]
(horse etc.) [pʌnyó:no]
1953. Cling to
[ʂʌʧó:no]
1954. Clap
[hʌtʌʧá:ʈi dyó:no]
1955. Close
[ʧʌp thyó:no]
1956. Coagulate
[korʌʈyó:no]
1957. Collapse (humans) [vzibuʒó:no]
(non humans) [ɖúp bó:no]
1959. Collect
[siŋʌlyó:no]
1960. Collide
[diʒó:no]
1961. Comb
[ʧʌyó:no]
1962. Come
[ó:no]
143
144 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
1963. Command
1964. Commit suicide
[húkum dyó:no]
[kʌʈú boʒó:no] (~[kʈu boʒó:no])
[χotkʌʃi thyó:no]
1965. Compare
[dú:ri thyó:no]
[pʌrúlo thyó:no]
1966. Compel
[əkáʃo thyó:no]
[mʌʒbúr thyó:no]
1967. Complain
[móʐi dyó:no]
[móʐi vyó:no]
1968. Conceive (idea)
[gunyó:no]
(child)
[ɖim duguno bó:no]
1969. Confirm
[mʌnyó:no]
1970. Conspire
[ú:ʧe vyó:no]
1971. Consume
[bʌɽyó:no]
[ʧhm thyó:no]
1972. Continue
[thy: byó:no]
1973. Condemn
[pht thyó:no]
1974. Cook (food)
[bi thyó:no]
(meat)
[mós rʌnyó:no]
1975. Cool (food etc.)
[ʈʂʌyó:no] (Intr.)
[ʈʂiryó:no] (Tr.)
1976. Cough
[khu:ʒó:no]
[khu:zi ó:no] (note z ; ʒ )
1977. Count
[kʌlyó:no]
1978. Court (woo)
[hu: bʌʃó:no]
[hi:v boʒó:no]
1979. Cover
[ʈʌkó:r thyó:no] (~[thekó:r thyó:no]
1980. Crawl
[tó:pure dyó:no]
1981. Cringe (due to cold) [komyó:no] (~[kʌmyó:no])
1982. Cross (over)
[pa:r thyó:no]
(breed)
[miʃ(ə)ryó:no]
[phʌkyó:no]
1983. Cry (weep)
[krí:ve dyó:no]
[ró:no]
1984. Cultivate
[kúi vó:no]
[bá:n thyó:no]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
145
[ilá:ʧ thyó:no]
[syo: thyó:no]
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
1986. Curse
[ʃʌvé dyó:no]
[la:nt vyó:no]
1987. Cut
[ʧhinyó:no]
1988. Dance
[noʈé dyó:no]
1989. Dare
[hí:v thyó:no]
[himmt thyó:no]
1990. Decay (rot)
[kriʒó:no]
1991. Decide
[mó:ʂ ʧinyó:no]
1992. Decorate
[ʂʌbóko thyó:no]
1993. Decrease
[ápe thyó:no] (Tr.)
[ápe bó:no] (Intr.)
1994. Defeat
[nékurʌryó:no] (Tr.)
[nékuryó:no] (Intr.)
1995. Defend
[ʌkí rʌʧhó:no]
1996. Defy
[néʃuɳyó:no]
1997. Demolish (house) [pʌʈ thyó:no]
(take away) [zʌl thyó:no]
1998. Deny
[ɖá:m thyó:no]
[inka:r thyó:no]
1999. Describe
[rʌʒó:no]
2000. Destroy
[vʌlʌvyó:no] (~[vʌlevyó:no])
[tʌbá: thyó:no]
[n:no] (~[nʌyó:no])
2001. Die
[miryó:no]
2002. Drink
[pyó:no]
2003. Dig
[ok:no] (causative)
[okyó:no] (non-causative)
2004. Dilute
[miʃ(ʌ)ryó:no]
2005. Dislike
[ʌʧe khʌri ne əryó:no](~[..ʧhʌri na)
2006. Dip (into)
[ɖup thyó:no] (clothes etc.)
[ʧʌk thyó:no] (pen etc.) (~[ʧʌq...])
2007. Disappear
[nuʃyó:no] (~[noʃyó:no])
2008. Disarrange
[ʧhuryó:no]
1985. Cure
146 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2009. Discuss
2010. Disagree
2011. Despair
2012. Disperse
2013. Dissolve
2014. Divide
2015. Divorce
2016. Do
2017. Doubt
2018. drag
2019. Draw (picture)
(water from well)
2020. Dream
2021. Dress
2022. Dwell (live in)
2023. Drink
2024. Drip
2025. Drive (motor etc.)
(cattle etc.)
2026. Drop (water)
2027. Drown
2028. Dry (in sun)
2029. Dye
2030. Earn
2031. Eat
2032. Echo
2033. Embrace
2034. Embroider
2035. Empty
2036. Encourage
[si: thyó:no]
[hun thyó:no]
[thpʃ(i) thyó:no]
[ʧo:de dyó:no]
[be:zt thyó:no]
[hi:v ʧhinyó:no]
[khápo bó:no]
[bulyó:no] (~[bulyá:no])
[bʌɣyó:no] (~[bʌgyó:no])
[phʌt thyó:no]
[thyó:no]
[ʃʌk thyó:no]
[hi:v ne preiʒó:no
[ʌlyó:no]
[nʌkʃa: khʌlyó:no]
[oi khʌlyó:no]
[sá:ʈʂo pʌʃó:no]
[bunyó:no]
[bʌyó:no]
[pyó:no]
[thukó: vʌʒó:no]
[vʌʒró:no]
[bolyó:no] (~[bʌlyó:no])
[ʦʌʈ bó:no]
[thuko bó:no]
[oi ʤagi miryó:no](~[..phat bó:no]
[ʃuʃyó:no] (~[ʃuʃryó:no])
[roŋyó:no]
[krʌmyó:no]
[kʌmai thyó:no]
[khó:no]
[koraʧhn ó:no]
[bó:ʂi dyó:no]
[púʂi ʧhinyó:no]
[gú:ʧo thyó:no] (~[gú:ʧi thyó:no])
[hi:v b:ɽo théiryó:no]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2037. Endure
2038. Enjoy
2039. Enter
2040. Equal
2041. Erase
2042. Escape
2043. Escort
2044. Exaggerate
2045. Examine
2046. Excel
2047. Expect
2048. Explain
2049. Extinguish
2050. Fade
2051. Fail
2052. Faint
2053. Fall down
(inanimate)
((animate)
2054. Fan
2055. Fasten
2056. Fear
2057. Feed
2058. Feel (-ing) (touch)
2059. Ferment
2060. Fetch (from far)
(from near)
2061. Fight
[tiyó:no]
[bʌrda:ʃ thyó:no]
[éiʂ thyó:no]
[əʧó:no]
[bó:no dyó:no]
[pʌrúlo]
[nʌyó:no] (Tr.)
[ʃikʃi thyó:no] (Intr.)
[uʈʂyó:no]
[nʌlá: bó:no]
[sá:t thyó:no]
[ʧúɳogi bɽo thyó:no]
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
[thoʃó:no]
[gunyó:no]
[intʌza:r thyó:no]
[rʌʒó:no]
[niʃ(ʌ)ryó:no]
[phu:t thyó:no]
[tha:p(i) thyó:no]
[vzi boʒó:no]
[phe:l bó:no]
[kʌí nʌyó:no] (~[kʌí n:no])
[ɖil bó:no]
[ɖíri bó:no]
[ó:ʃ(i) aryó:no]
[gʌɳyó:no]
[biʒó:no]
[khiryó:no]
[dʌʂʈyó:no]
[ʧurkyʌryó:no]
[ʦuká: vyó:no]
[gi ó:no]
[aryó:no]
[miʃó:no]
147
148 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2062. Fill
2063. Find
2064. Finish
2064. Finish
2065. Fish
2066. Flash
2067. Flatten
2068. Flatter (self)
(other)
2069. Flicker
2070. Float
2071. Flow
2072. Fly
2073. Fold
2074. Follow
2075. Forbid
2076. Forget
2077. Forgive
2078. Freeze
2079. Frighten
2080. Gamble
2081. Gather
2082. Gargle
2083. Germinate
2084. Gesture
2085. Get
[puryó:no]
[leʒó:no]
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
[bʌɽyó:no] (Tr.)
[bʌɽiʒó:no] (Intr.)
[bʌɽyó:no] (Tr.)
[bʌɽiʒó:no] (Intr.)
[ʧíme lomyó:no]
[ʧíme khʌlyó:no]
[biʧúʂ dyó:no]
[sʌmʌlúo thyó:no]
[ŋá:r thyó:no]
[ʈikyó:no]
[niʃó:no]
[ʂʌʧó:no]
[ói áʤe ʂʌʧó:no]
[uʈʂyó:no]
[yʌʒó:no]
[tʌluí dyó:no]
[uta:l dyó:no]
[tʌp thyó:no]
[ʈis thyó:no]
[mna: thyó:no]
[ʌmʃó:no] (~[ʌmuʃó:no])
[phat thyó:no]
[só:r bó:no]
[biʒryó:no]
[ʧholó: vyó:no]
[siŋʌlyó:no] (~[sʌŋʌlyó:no])
[kroʃí: thyó:no]
[gʌrgʌrá: thyó:no]
[pháli khʌʒó:no]
[pʌʃryó:no]
[iʃá:ra dyó:no]
[ʌryó:no]
[giɳyó:no]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2086. Get angry
2087. Get up
2088. Get well (from
illness)
2089. Give
2090. Go
2091. Go away
2092. Go out
2093. Go through
2094. Gossip
2095. Grab
2096. Grasp
2097. Grate (rub on)
2098. Graze
2099. Greet
2100. Grind
2101. Grip
2102. Grit (teeth)
2103. Groan
2104. Grow
2105. Growl
2106. Grunt
2107. Guard
2108. Guide
2109. Hammer
2110. Hang up
2111. Happen
2112. Harrow
[ro:ʂ ó:no]
[ro:ʂ ʌryó:no]
[huthyó:no]
[bʌyó:no]
[dyó:no]
[boʒó:no]
[duráre boʒó:no]
[daró: boʒó:no]
[ʂʌr boʒó:no]
[ʧorevé dyó:no]
[ʧhotʌryó:no]
[moʐ(i) dyó:no]
[muʂʈi thyó:no]
[hí:ʒe vʌʒó:no]
[khaʂ thyó:no]
[ʧʌryó:no]
[sʌlá:m thyó:no]
[piʐó:no] (~[peʒó:no])
[lomyó:no]
[do:ni ʧʌpyó:no]
[ʤuɣryó:no]
[ʤuriŋyó:no]
[bɽo bó:no]
[bɽo ʤó:no]
[ró:no]
[hʌsto bʌʃó:no]
[rʌʧhó:no]
hɛfázʌt thyó:no]
[pʌʃno] (Intr.)
[pʌʃiryó:no] (Tr.)
[ʧukuʈyó:no]
[kuʈyó:no]
[phíl(i)thyó:no]
[bó:no]
[dálo dyó:no]
149
150 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[lé:ʈʂ(i) thyó:no](~[lé:ʧ(i) thyó:no])
[ʧĩ khalyó:no]
[ʈhule vyó:no]
2115. Hate
[ʦʌk(o) thyó:no]
[dʂʈyó:no]
2116. Heal
[bʌyó:no] (~[bʌyá:no])
2117. Hear
[pʌruʒó:no]
2118. Heat
[tʌpyó:no] (~[ʦhʌt dyó:no])
2119. Help
[hʌt dyó:no]
[hʌt gyó:no]
2120. Herd
[kíli thyó:no]
2121. Hiccup
[hukʌʦyó:no]
2122. Hide
[liʃyó:no] (Intr.)
[liʃ(i)ryó:no] (Tr.)
2123. Hinder
[rʌʈyó:no]
2124. Hire (to give)
[mʌzuri dyó:no]
(to take)
[mʌzuri gyó:no]
2125. Hiss
: thyó:no]
2126. Hitch (hiccup)
[huʦiki ó:no]
2127. Hold
[rʌʈyó:no]
[lomyó:no]]
2128. Hope
[ume thyó:no]
[tʌma: thyó:no] `desire’
[gunyó:no]
2129. Howl
[ho: thyó:no]
2130. Hum
[bʌʃó:no]
2131. hunt
[hiŋs thyó:no]
[dʌrú: thyó:no]
[duré: thyó:no]
2132. Hurry
[lóko thyó:no]
2133. Ignore (no attention)[ne pʌʃá:v lʌgiʒó:no]
2134. Imagine
[sʌba: thyó:no]
[gunyó:no]
2135. Incite
[króm ginyó:no]
[siʧ:no]
2136. Increase
[bʌɽo bó:no] (Intr.)
2113. Harvest
2114. Hatch
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2137. Inflate
2138. Initiate
2139. Injure
2140. Insist
2141. Insult
2142. Invite
2143. Iron (press)
2144. Irrigate
2145. Itch
2146. Jerk
2147. Joke
2148. Jolt (jar etc.)
2149. Jump
2150. Keep
2151. Kick
2152. Kill
2153. Kindle
2154. Kiss
2155. Knead
2156. Kneel
2157. Knit
2158. Knock
2159. Know
2160. Lack
2161. Last
[bʌɽo thyó:no] (tr.)
[ʧhinyó:no]
[gɨɳyó:no]
[ʃuru thyó:no]
[diʒó:no] (one self. Intr.)
[diʒ(ə)ryó:no] (others. Tr.)
[goʈhk thyó:no]
[zit thyó:no]
[ʧo:ʈ dyó:no]
[gé:lire ho: thyó:no]
[ho: thyó:no]
[istri: thyó:no]
[oi dyó:no]
[khá:ji ó:no]
[biʈhyó:no]
[tha:ŋ bó:no]
[hʌʒryó:no]
[ha:ʒ thyó:no]
[jʌrgt thyó:no]
[tha:ŋ thyó:no]
[hirge dyó:no]
[ʧhryó:no]
[piʂʌʈó: dyó:no]
[mʌryó:no]
[kuʈyó:no]
[ʂy:no]
[ma: thyó:no]
[ʌmryó:no]
[kuʈiʤa: bó:no]
[b:no] (~[bʌyó:no])
[[kuʈyó:no]
[ɖil thyó:no]
[dʌʂʈyó:no]
[gunyó:no]
[pʌtó ʂʌʧó:no] `lag behind’
[dé:zla:v byó:no]
151
152 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2162. Laugh
2163. Lay
2164. Lead
2165. Leak
2166. Lean
2167. Learn
2168. Leave
2169. Lend
2170. Let go
2171. Lick
2172. Lie
2173. Lie down
2174. Lift
2175. Like
2176. Link
2177. Limp
2178. Listen
2179. Load
2180. Long for
2181. Look at
2182. Look back
2183. Lose
2184. Love
2185. Make
2186. Massage
2187. Measure
2188. Meet
2189. Melt
2190. Mend
[próni khaʒó:no] `climb down’
[hʌʒó:no]
[dyó:no]
[muʧhó:no]
[méʒe boʒó:no]
[boʒó:no]
[téni bó:no]
[tinyó:no]
[siʧó:no] (~[suʧó:no])
[pht thyó:no]
[u:ʂ dyó:no]
[phrɛ dyó:no]
[boʒó:n dyó:no] (~[buʒó:n ...])
[piʧəlyó:no]
[lik thyó:no]
[ʧoɽé dyó:no]
[tʌɳiʒó:no]
[ginyó:no]
[ʌʤó:no] (~[aʤó:no])
[thut dyó:no] (~[thut thyó:no])
[ʂʌk thyó:no]
[koɳ dyó:no] `give ear’
[geyó:no]
[puryó:no]
[gunyó:no]
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
[pʌtó ʈʂʌkyó:no]
[noʃyó:no]
[hi:v dyó:no](~ [hi:v vyó:no])
[muhbbat thyó:no]
[prʌyó:no] (~[pr:no])
[ma:liʃ thyó:no]
[tolyó:no]
[ɖukyó:no]
[bulyó:no] (~[buly:no])
[prʌyó:no] (~[pr:no])
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2191. Milk
2192. Mimic
2193. Miss
2194. Mix
2195. Mould
2196. Mourn
2197. Move
2198. Mutter
2199. Name
2200. Need
2201. Neglect
2202. Net
2203. Nod (yes)
(no)
2204. Notice
2205. Nurse
2206. Obey
2207. Offend
2208. Offer
2209. Open
2210. Ought, should
2211. Overflow
2212. Overtake
2213. Own
2214. Pack
2215. Paddle
2216. Paint
2217. Pant
153
[ʈʂhau thyó:no] (~[ʌɳũ thyó:no])
[pre: thyó:no] (~[prei thyó:no])
[nʌyó:no]
[phʌt bó:no]
[miʃ(i)ryó:no]
[pʌr khʌlyó:no]
[ro:no]
[duk thyó:no]
[sʌró:no] (Intr.)
[sʌrʌry:no] (Tr.)
[rĩsu moʐi dyó:no]
[ʌkíyakóʤa moʐi dyó:no]
[no:m ʧhuryó:no]
[ʌʒó:no] (~[aʒó:no])
[ne gunyó:no]
[na: muʃó:no]
[rʌʈyó:no]
[mʌnyó:no]
[ne mʌnyó:no]
[hí:ʒe ginyó:no]
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
[mʌnyó:no]
[bʌkiʒó:no]
[(χaira:t) dyó:no]
[bʌs bó:no] (Intr)
[bʌs thyó:no] (Tr.)
]
h
[ʧ ol bó:no]
[muʧhó:no]
[ʌkíno] (adj. no verb)
[puryó:no]
[bʌn thyó:no]
[yʌʒ(ʌ)ryó:no]
[roŋ khaʂ thyó:no]
: dyó:no]
: ó:no]
154 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2218. Pass by
2219. Patch
2220. Pay
2221. Pack
2222. Peddle
2223. Peel
2224. Persist
2225. Persuade
2226. Pick
2227. Pierce
2228. Pile up
2229. Pinch
2230. Pity
2231. Plan
2232. Plant
2233. Plaster
2234. Play
2235. Plough
2236. Plug
2237. Plunder
2238. Point
2239. Point out
2240. Poison
2241. Polish
2242. Pound
2243. Pour
2244. Praise
2245. Pray
2246. Predict
[nʌlá: buʒó:no]
[aŋei vyó:no] (~[aŋŋei vyó:no])
[dyó:no]
[uʧó:no] (~[uʈʂyó:no])
[yʤiryó:no]
[dilyó:no]
[guʈhk thyó:no] (~[goʈhk...])
[theiryó:no]
[uʧó:no]
[ʈʂuk thyó:no]
[a:ʒék vyó:no]
[kuʈ dyó:no]
[ʧurúʈ thyó:no]
[hi:v dʌʒó:no]
[grʌps thyó:no]
[ʈʂuk dyó:no]
[bĩ ʈʂuk dyó:no]
[ʤʌlá: thyó:no]
[ʦuké thyó:no]
[nʌʈyó:no]
[ban thyó:no]
[thut thyó:no]
[lu:ʈ thyó:no]
[pʌʃ:no] (~[pʌʃó:no]) (Intr.)
[pʌʃryó:no]) (Tr.)
[rʌʈyó:no]
[zʌhṛ dyó:no]
[pa:lis thyó:no]
[ʦukuʈyó:no]
[kuʈyó:no]
[phʌryó:no]
[nigʌʈyó:no]
[ta:rip thyó:no]
[dwá: thyó:no]
[nimá:s thyó:no]
[dʌʂʈyó:no]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2247. Prefer
2248. Prepare
2249. Press
2250. Pretend
2251. Prick
2252. Promise
2253. Protect
2254. Pull
2255. Punish
2256. Push
2257. Put
2258. Put on
2259. Put out
2260. Put up
2261. Quarrel
2262. Race
2263. Raid
2264. Rain
2265. Raise
2266. Rape
2267. Rattle
2268. Reach
2269. Read
2270. Reap
2271. Rebel
2272. Recite
2273. Recover (illness)
(money)
[dʌmʃí thyó:no]
[pʌsʌn thyó:no]
[tʌyár thyó:no]
[nʌyó:no] (~[nyá:no])
[né dʌʂʈé:k kʌliʒó:no]
[ʈʂuk bó:no] (Intr.)
[ʈʂuk thyó:no] (Tr.)
[va:da: thyó:no]
[rʌʈʂyó:no]
[ʌlyó:no]
[sʌza: dyó:no]
[ʈha:ŋ thyó:no]
[ʧhuryó:no] (~[ʧhoryó:no])
[bunyó:no]
[sairyó:no]
[phu: thyó:no]
[ʧhuryó:no]
[nʌlas byó:no]
[miʃyó:no]
[dʌrbʌk thyó:no]
[ʤʌŋ thyó:no]
[mei vʌʒó:no]
[khʌlyó:no]
[ginyó:no]
[gi:v uʈʂyó:no]
[phʌkyó:no]
[bʌʃó:no]
[phó:no]
[rʌʒó:no]
[lyó:no]
[dilyó:no]
[bʌgá:vʌt thyó:no]
[uʈʂó:no]
[rʌʒó:no]
[ʈhik bóno]
[niʃʌryóno]
155
156 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2274. Refresh
2275. Refuse
2276. Regret
2277. Rejoice
2278. Release
2279. Remember
2280. Remove
2281. Repair
2282. Repay
2283. Repeat
2284. Rescue
2285. Resemble
2286. Resent (regret)
2287. Respect
2288. Rest
2289. Return
2290. Ride
2291. Redicule
2292. Rinse
2293. Ripen
2294. Rise (sun)
(man)
2295. Roar
2296. Roast
2297. Rob
2298. Roll (fall)
2299. Rub
2300. Rule
2301. Run
[huʂ khʌʒó:no]
[ne mʌnyóno]
[inka:r thyó:no]
[gyotpá bó:no]
[ʌfsú:s thyó:no]
[ʃuryó:no] (Intr.)
[ʃur:no] (Tr.) (~[ʃurʌryó:no])
[khʌlyó:no]
[phʌt thyó:no]
[hi:ʒe thyó:no]
[ya:t thyó:no]
[khʌlyó:no]
[pr:no] (~[prʌyó:no])
[phʌryó:no]
[phʌrɛ rʌʒó:no] (~[phɛre rʌʒó:no])
[phʌt thyó:no]
[ekbó:no]
[ʌfsó:s bó:no]
[iʣʣʌt thyó:no]
[huʂ thyó:no]
[phʌré dyó:no]
[pʌɳyó:no]
[hʌʒó:no]
[bilyó:no]
[ziri thyó:no]
[pʌʧó:no]
[khʌʒó:no]
[hutyó:no]
[gér ʌryó:no] (~[ɣr thyó:no])
[ʤʌʒʒó:no] (~[dʌʒó:no])
[pʌluʒó:no] (~[pʌliʒó:no])
[ɖiribó:no]
[khʌʂ thyó:no]
[hukúmʌt thyó:no]
[dʌrbʌk thyó:no] (Intr.)
[bolyó:no] (Tr.)
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2302. Sacrifice (give)
(oneself)
2303. Satisfy
2304. Save
2305. Saw
2306. Say
2307. Scatter
2308. Scratch (itch)
2309. Scrape
2310. Scream
2311. Season
2312. Search for
2313. Seduce
2314. See
2315. Seem
2316. Sell
2317. Send
2318. Separate
(oneself)
2319. Serve (food)
(someone)
2320. Set (trap etc.)
(on edge)
(up right)
2321. Settle
2322. Sew
157
[kurba:ni dyó:no]
[kurba:ni bó:no]
[híʒe vʌʒó:no] (Intr.)
[híʒe vʌʒiryó:no] (Tr.)
[tʌslí: bó:no] (Intr.)
[tʌslí: thyó:no] (Tr.)
[ʧhuryó:no]
[rʌʧhó:no]
[ʂʌʧó:no]
[ʌrʌ kʌʃiʃ thyó:no]
[rʌʒó:no]
[phʌt thyó:no]
[kʌɳyó:no]
[giɳyó:no]
[thar bó:no]
[krí:ve dyó:no]
[áʐothe ʃuʐó:no] (~[...ʃuʒó:no])
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
[m:kʌre thyó:no]
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
[pʌʃyó:no]
[pʌʃyó:no]
[krinyó:no]
[ʈʂinyó:no]
[di: thyó:no] (Tr.)
[di: bó:no] (Intr.)
[huru bó:no] (Intr.)
[ʌryó:no]
[bai dyó:no]
[ʈʂʌkyó:no] `to see, to look after’
[tʌɳyó:no]
[sʌrʌmyó:no](~[surʌmyó:no])
[ʧo:ko dyó:no]
[puryó:no] (Intr.)
[purʌryó:no] (Tr.)
[syó:no]
158 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[biʈharyó:no]
[bʌɣyó:no]
[tiɳʌryó:no]
[tiɳʌʐyó:no]
2326. Shatter
[thre: bó:no]
(into pieces) [ʧhinyó:no]
2327. Shave
[ʤʌku thyó:no]
[dai thyó:no]
2328. Shed
[ʌʈʂ(e) vyó:no]
2329. Shine
[ʈʂa: dyó:no]
2330. Shiver
[ʃʌlé aryó:no]
2331. Shoot
[tubʌkó dyó:no]
2332. Shout
[krív(e) dyó:no]
2333. Show
[pʌʃno] (Intr.)
[pʌʃiryó:no] (Tr.)
2334. Shrink
[khumʃó:no]
[khuʈi(o) bó:no]
2335. Shut (door etc.)
[bʌn thyó:no]
(mouth, eyes) [nilyó:no]
2336. Sift (change)
[dʌlí:ʈʂo: dyó:no]
[pʌrb(u) thyó:no]
2337. Sigh
[hi:ʂ thyó:no]
2338. Signal
[iʃa:ra dyó:no]
[iʃa:ra thyó:no]
2339. Silent (to be)
[ʧuβo thyó:no]
2340. Sin (to commit)
[guná: thyó:no]
To do bad work
[ʌʦhʌko krom thyó:no]
2341. Sing
[gi dyó:no]
2342. Sink
[ɖub bó:no]
[ɖup thyó:no]
2343. Sit
[byó:no]
2344. Skim
[ʃʌml ginyó:no]
2345. Skin
[ʧom khʌlyó:no]
[phʌt theiryó:no]
2346. Skip
[phʌt thy: rʌʒó:no]
2347. Slide
[hiná:l vʌʒó:no]
2323. Shake (head etc.)
2324. Share
2325. Sharpen
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
159
[ʐili dyó:no]
[ʐʌr bó:no]
[tiʂ bó:no]
2349. Sleep
[só:no]
2350. Smear
[khʌʂ thyó:no]
2351. Smell
[gon ʈʂʌkyó:no]
2352. Smile
[mikbó:no]
(~[migbó:no]~[mukbó:no])
2353. Smoke
[tʌáku pyó:no]
2354. Snap
[gunyó:no]
2355. Sneeze
[ʧh: vʌʒó:no]
2356. Sniff
[ʂur thyó:no]
2357. Snore
[χor thyó:no]
2358. Soak
[ɖup thyó:no]
2359. Sort
[dʌmʃi thyó:no]
[hu:re thyó:no]
[bʌɣyó:no]
2360. Sow (seed)
[ba:n thyó:no]
2361. Speak
[rʌʒó:no]
2362. Spear (to pierce)
[ʈʂuk thyó:no]
[vyó:no]
2363. Spill
[pha:v thyó:no]
2364. Spin (top)
[phʌryó:no]
(thread)
[kʌʈyó:no]
[khʌʒó:no]
2365. Spit
[thú thyó:no]
2366. Splash (make lines) [kriʂí: khʌʒó:no]
2367. Split
[phoʈyó:no] (~[phuyó:no])
2368. Spoil
[ʃikʃi bó:no] (Intr.)
[ʃikʃi thyó:no] (Tr.)
2369. Spread
[tʌɳiʒó:no] (Intr.)
[tʌɳyó:no] (Tr.)
2370. Sprinkle
[ʦhʌr thyó:no]
2371. Sprout
[put khʌʒó:no]
2372. Squeak
[bʌʃó:no]
2373. Squeeze
[zíri thyó:no]
2348. Slip
160 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[bi:ʒ dyó:no]
[phi:ʈ thyó:no]
[hiʈ thyó:no]
2375. Stab
[kʌɽre dyó:no]
[kʌɽá:r vyó:no]
2376. Stagger (sound)
[bʌʃiryó:no]
2377. Stalk (hunting)
[dʌr ú thyó:no]
2378. Stamp
[móhṛ dyó:no] (~[múhṛ dyó:no])
2379. Stand up
[hutyó:no]
(erect)
[hutiryó:no]
[ʧó:ko thyó:no]
2380. Stay
[byó:no]
[ʂʌʧó:no]
2381. Steal
[ʧorí thyó:no]
2382. Step on
[pa: ʧhuryó:no]
2383. Step over
[ʌʒíthe boʒó:no]
2384. Stick to
[ʂʌʧí: byó:no]
2385. Sting
[dón dyó:no]
[aʧó:no]
2386. Stink
[gón ó:no]
2387. Stir
[gʌr gʌr thyó:no]
2388. Stoop (bend)
[kó:lo bó:no]
2389. Stop
[rʌʈyó:no] (Tr.)
[rʌʈʌʒó:no] (Intr.)
2390. Strain (exert)
[ʧiʒó:no]
2391. Strangle
[pʌyó:no]
[ʂoʈo p:no] (~[ʂoʈo pʌyá:no])
2392. Stray
[ekbu ʂoʧó:no]
2393. Stretch
[ʌlyó:no]
2394. Strike (with hand) [kuʈyó:no]
(with weapon) [gʌʒó:no]
2395. String (beads)
[minyó:no] (~[iminyó:no])
2396. Strip off (bark etc.) [dilyó:no]
(dress)
[khʌlyó:no]
2397. Study
[ʧó:ko bó:no]
[tʌya:r bó:no]
2374. Squint
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2398. Stumble
2399. Stutter
2400. Succeed
(in exam)
2401. Suck
2402. Surrender
2403. Surround
[vʌzí: buʒó:no]
[ʧʌʈyó:no]
[khʌʒó:no]
[paz bó:no]
[ʌlyó:no] (same as stretch)
[phʌt the ó:no]
[ge:ra: vó:no]
[mʌʒá: dyó:no]
2404. Suspect
[ʃʌk thyó:no]
2405. Swallow
[gurúʈ thyó:no]
2406. Sway (take away) [hʌryó:no]
2407. Swear
[kʌsm khó:no]
2408. Sweep
[ʂʌr thyó:no]
2409. Swell
[ʃuʒó:no]
2410. Swim
[no:ʂ vyó:no]
2411. Swing
[phili bó:no]
2412. Take care of
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
2413. Take down
[likhyó:no]
2414. Take off
[tʌlui dyó:no]
[phuri bó:no]
2415. Talk, converse
[moʐi dyó:no]
2416. Tan (leather)
[roŋyó:no]
2417. Tangle (with rope) [gon dyó:no]
2418. Tap (door etc)
[bʌʃryó:no]
2419. Taste
[ʈʂʌkyó:no]
2420. Teach
[siʧ:no]
[rʌʒryó:no]
2421. Tear
[ʧhinyó:no]
2422. Tease
[dokʃi thyó:no]
2423. Tell
[rʌʒó:no]
2424. Tempt
[tʌma: ó:no]
[la:liʧi bó:no] (Intr.)
[la:liʧi thyó:no] (Tr.)
2425. Tender
[rʌʧhó:no]
[ʧhuryó:no]
2426. Thank
[otʒú: thyó:no]
161
162 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2427. Thicken
2428. Think
2429. Thread (needle)
2430. Threaten
2431. Thrash
2432. Throw
2433. Tie
2434. Tighten
2435. Tire
2436. Torture
2437. Touch
2438. Track
2439. Trade
2440. Translate
2441. Transplant
2442. Trap
2443. Travel
2444. Treat (medically)
2445. Trim
(hair-cut)
2446. Trip (make fall)
2447. Try
2448. Turn (around)
(aside)
[tʌlunyó:no]
[ʈʂimeryó:no]
[gunyó:no]
[s:ʃ thyó:no]
[(i)minyó:no]
[biʒiryó:no]
[dʌmʃí thyó:no]
[kuʈyó:no]
[vyó:no]
[phʌl thyó:no]
[gʌɳyó:no]
[bʌn thyó:no]
[gon dyó:no]
[ʧhiʒó:no]
[ʂomyó:no]
[hi:v khó:no] `lose heart’
[ɖukyó:no] (Intr.)
[ɖukiryó:no] (Tr.)
[pon ʧhinyó:no]
[alyó:no]
[tiʒárʌt thyó:no]
[ʧhoŋ thyó:no]
[phʌryó:no]
[tʌrʒumá: thyó:no]
[poʂ(i) thyó:no]
[rʌʈyó:no]
[yʌʒó:no]
[sʌfʌr thyó:no]
[rʌbá:ʈi dyó:no]
[ila:ʃ thyó:no]
[prʌyó:no]
[krʌp thyó:no]
[kʌŋkhʌʈó dyó:no] (~[kʌŋkhʌʈé ...)
[ko:ʃiʃ thyó:no]
[phiryó:no]
[phʌryó:no]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
[phʌryó:no]
[kikíri phiryó:no]
[khʌlyó:no]
[pʌruʒó:no]
[khʌlyó:no]
[oɽuryó:no]
2453. Unroll
[tʌɳyó:no]
2454. Untie
[vʌʂyó:no]
2455. Urge
[theiryó:no]
2456. Urinate
[myó:no]
2457. Use
[istimá:l thyó:no]
2458. Visit
[ʈʂʌkyó:no] `to see’
2459. Vomit
[ʧhʌʈyó:no]
[uɭʈa: thyó:no]
2460. Wade
[khʌlyó:no]
[pon dyó:no] `give way’
2461. Wait for
[intʌʒá:r thyó:no]
2462. Wake up
[hutyó:no] (Intr.)
[hutiryó:no] (Tr.)
2463. Walk
[yaʒó:no] (Intr.)
(make walk)
[yaʒʌryó:no] (Tr.)
2464.Wallow (roll in mud) [miʃryó:no]
2465. Wander
[phiryó:no]
2466. Want
[gunyó:no]
[aʒó:no]
2467. Warm
[tʌpyó:no]
[tto dyó:no]
2468. Warn
[vá:rnŋ dyó:no]
2469. Wash (clothes
[doyó:no] (~[dw:no])
(hands)
[hʌt dw:no]
(utensils)
[dw:no]
2470. Waste
[zá:ya: thyó:no]
2471. Watch
[ʈʂʌkyó:no] `to see’
2472. Wave
[bithryó:no]
2473. Wean (change)
: dyó:no]
[hʌryó:no]
(over)
2449. Twist
2450. Uncover
2451. Understand
2452. Unravel
163
164 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2474. Wear (clothing)
(shawl etc.)
(wear out)
2475. Weave (cloth)
(basket)
2476. Wed
2477. Weed
2478. Weigh
2479. Welcome
2480. Wet
2481. Whip
2482. Whisper
2483. Whistle (men)
(police)
2484. Win
2485. Wind (clock)
2486. Wink (eyes)
2487. Winnow
2488. Wipe off (sweep)
2489. Wish for
2490. Wither (fade)
2491. Work
2492. Worry
2493. Work
2494. Worship
2495. Wound (cause it)
2496. Wrap up
[bunyó:no]
[ʒʌl thyó:no]
[pronyó:no]
[eryó:no]
[bʌyó:no] (~[bw:no])
[kʌʃ thyó:no]
[khʌlyó:no]
[tolyó:no]
[ʃurɛ thyó:no]
[bilyó:no]
[áʐo bó:no]
[ʈʂhũ dyó:no]
[ʃuprʌʃuprʌ thyó:no]
(~[ʃupreʃupre..])
[ʃiv thyó:no]
[siʈi: bʌʃryó:no]
[kuryó:no]
[phʌryó:no]
[ʧa:βi dyó:no]
[ʌʧhe hiʈ thyó:no]
[milyó:no]
[ʤl thyó:no]
[ʂr thyó:no]
[gunyó:no]
[ʌʒó:no]
[ʃuʃó:no] (Intr.)
[ʃuʃró:no] (Tr.)
[krom thyó:no]
[hi:ʂ bó:no]
[hi:ʂ thyó:no]
[krom thyó:no]
[nimá:s thyó:no]
[pú:ʒa: thyó:no]
[diʒ(ʌ)ryó:no]
[kuʈyó:no]
[ʈópul thyó:no]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2497. Wrestle
2498. Wring (Squeeze)
2499. Write
2500. Yawn
165
[sʌlʌméh lomyó:no]
[sʌl(ʌ)mó dyó:no]
[ziri thyó:no]
[likhyó:no]
[ha: thyó:no]
[ro:ʂ ó:no]
9.27. Miscellaneous vocabulary, specific to the area:
Grains:
2501. Barley
[yo:]
2502. Wheat
[gum]
2503. Millet (Dhal)
[mozúr] (`masu:r daal’ of Hindi.)
2504. Mutter
[khúkun]
2505. Trumba (Hindi)
bʌrá:v]
Trees:
2506. Apple tree
[pʌlo bĩ]
2507. Grapes
[dʌʃo: bĩ]
2508. White trunk tree
[ph:s]
2509. Mountain tree
[brok ʧʌŋ]
2510. Tall tree
[yulá:t]
2511. Mountain tree (2nd) [mʌl ʧʌŋ]
2512. Red fruit tree
[ʤúʒo bĩ] `khubani’ in Hindi.
Birds:
2513. Sparrow
[vyo ʧĩ]
2514. Night bird
[rʌtʌ ʧĩ]
2515. Mountain bird
[ʃe:v ʧĩ]
2516. Black & white bird [ʃiɳʈiki ʧĩ]
2517. Water bird
[ve:v ʧĩ]
2518. Small black bird
[ddi ʧĩ]
Wild animals:
2519. Wolf
[urúk]
2520. Fox
[loi]
2521. Snake
[ʤon]
2522. Tiger
[serípa bʌbr]
2523. Wild cat
[dĩ:]
166 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
2524. A wild animal
[mʌyʌró]
2525. Deer
[kili]
2526. Another animal
[ko:rʈ]
2527. Wild cat animal
[ʃɲʧi]
Tamed animals:
2528. Horse
[ʃup]
2529. Cow
[gá:wo]
2530. Animal like cow
[zúmo]
2531. Buffalo
[mais]
2532. Ox
:ʈi
House-hold things:
2533. Vessel
[za:ŋs]
2534. Big cup sans hands [kore] `pya:la’ in Hindi.
2535. Spoon
[ʧmʧa:]
2536. Vessel (bigger)
[dakʧa:]
2537. Kettle
[kitli:]
2538. Tea-strainer
[o:ʦáks]
2539. Meat cooking vessel [bʌló:s]
2240. cup (`lo:ʈa:’ type) [muɣúr]
Agricultural equipments:
2541. Plough
[hʌl]
2542. Plough’s long shaft [hʌlyé:ʃ]
2543. Iron peg of plough [pha:l]
2544. Yoke
[na:l]
Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
167
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(Collected from various sources)
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25:140
Bailey, T. Grahame. 1924. Grammar of the Shina London:
The Royal Asiatic Society (Royal Asiatic Society
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Bailey, Thomas Drahame. 1924. “Notes on Dilgit Phonetics
by Col. Lorimer.” London. Journal of the Royal
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Bailey, Thomas Drahame. 1922. “Are the Four Series (Front
t, d, r, n; Back t, d, r, b; Aspirates and Non-Aspirates)
Found in Shina?”. London. Journal of the Royal Asiatic
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Bailey, Thomas Drahame. 1922. “Dentals and Cerebrals in
Shina.” London. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
497-8
Bailey, Thomas Drahame. 1922. “The Sounds of Shina.”
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Bailey, Thomas Drahame. 1927. “West Himalayan ‘bohri’
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Bailey, Thomas Grahame. 1938. Studies in North Indian
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Bashir, Elena. 2003. “Dardic.” Deorge Cardona & Dhanesh
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Berger, Hermann. 1924. “Eine eigentümliche
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168 Grammar of Shina Language and Vocabulary
Berger, Hermann. 1961. “Die mit -ar- erweiterten Verben
des Shina. Shina Verbs augemted by -ar-.” Wien.
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