Using Argument and Evidence to Support a Claim:
Some Teaching Strategies and Techniques
1.Evidence-Rule: The beginning step of data gathering and argument analysis. (Hillocks)
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Evidence
Rule
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2.___________________________________________________________________________________
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2. Claim-Evidence-Warrant: A deeper step into data-gathering and argument analysis. (Hillocks)
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Claim
Evidence
Warrant(Explanation/Analysis)
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2.___________________________________________________________________________________
3.___________________________________________________________________________________
3. The Believing/Doubting Game: A checklist to help students read critically and think aloud while
examining an issue from more than one perspective. After reading a selection, the teacher thinks aloud
while students mark a plus when the teacher indicates something for the Believing game. On a second
day, using the same reading selection, the teacher thinks aloud from the perspective of doubt while
students mark a minus in the Doubting column as the teacher discusses those indicators. Some
indicators may be marked BOTH plus and minus. (Fletcher, adapted)
Believing (+)
Checklist
Summarize writer's argument
Paraphrase key claims
Identify important examples/evidence
Clarify key terms
Notice text structure and organization
Notice key transitions
Question relevance of evidence
Identify underlying assumptions
Question writer's reasoning (holey logic)
Suggest potential counterarguments
Disagree with the writer
Effectiveness of writer's rhetorical choices
Doubting (-)
Using Argument and Evidence to Support a Claim:
Some Teaching Strategies and Techniques
4. Believing, Doubting, Transforming! Helps students determine their position by responding to each
question in each column below. Especially helpful for beginning students and as a scaffolding/support
technique to use for both reading and writing. (Fletcher, 41)
Believing
Doubting
Which claim(s) do you Which claim(s) do you
believe?
doubt?
Transforming
Which claims could be
changed or modified to
better represent how
you think?
What is your position overall?
5. Annotation Cue Cards: Comments and questions prepared by the teacher ahead of time on cards or
slips of paper and handed out to students, who can use them during class discussion of an argument.
Some are general comments/questions; others would be specific to the selection. Good for establishing
protocols and for scaffolding. This can also be adapted to develop specific questions about each
rhetorical strategy (pathos, ethos, logos) to help students clarify and solidify their understandings of
rhetorical strategies. A few examples: (Fletcher, adapted)
Comment: That’s a pretty strong claim.
Question: Is the writer contradicting himself here?
Comment: I think she’s using the rhetorical strategy (pathos, ethos, logos) here because….
Question: What’s the best evidence the writer gives for that claim?
Question: Whose views are NOT being addressed?
Question: What has been left out?
Question (Pathos): What is the emotional impact of the solution the writer offers?
Question: (Logos): Does this statement seem logical?
Comment (Logos): That statement seems to be illogical because….
Question (Ethos): How does the tone of this piece contribute to the argument?
Comment (Ethos): I wonder if there is something in the writer’s background or life that leads him to
say…
Using Argument and Evidence to Support a Claim:
Some Teaching Strategies and Techniques
6. Descriptive Outlining Graphic Organizer: After reading, students highlight or underline the
introduction and conclusion, then chunk the piece (outlining) into sections according to rhetorical
strategy or purpose (descriptive). This helps students quickly examine how a text works in developing a
solid, sound argument, documenting claims, evidence, and other information. (Fletcher,
SAYS:
Paragraph(s)
Paragraph(s)
SAYS:
DOES:
DOES:
adap
ted)
7. PAPA Square for Rhetorical Writing: Students complete this quick graphic organizer to prepare for
their own writing by answering questions about the Purpose, Audience, Persona and Argument for
their writing. (Fletcher, adapted)
PURPOSE
(What’s the reason for writing? What outcome do I want?)
Paragraph(s)
Paragraph(s)
SAYS:
Rhetorical Strategies: Pathos, Ethos,
Logos
SAYS:
Evidence, Figurative Language, Tone,
Text Structure
DOES:
MAIN ARGUMENT:
AUDIENCE
ARGUMENT
(Who will be reading this (What’s the message?
or listening to this?)
Why is this important?)
DOES:
Using Argument and Evidence to Support a Claim:
Some Teaching Strategies and Techniques
PERSONA
(How do the tone and language choices create the “image” I want to portray?)
8. 2 x 2 Speech: Helps students 1)distinguish between purposes for specific audiences and 2)consider
the needs of different audiences in their approach to presenting information. Students write two
specific speeches to two distinct audiences on the same topic. Examples: Explain how to advance levels
in Call of Duty to 1) your friend and 2) your grandmother. OR Discuss the importance of practicing
basketball drills to 1) a college scout and 2) a group of third graders. (Kelly Gallagher, adapted)
9. Dead Words and Holey Logic (Zombie Fallacies and the Gordion Knot): Helps students begin to notice
and be able to develop counterclaims and counterarguments by becoming aware of words that lead to
“holey” logic; helps students see the holes in logic. Cohesive writing makes logical connections between
ideas/claims and evidence; relevant evidence directly, effectively, and objectively supports claims.
(Fletcher, adapted)
Dead Words List: always, never, everyone, everybody, everywhere, all, none, good, bad, no one,
everything, anything, perfect, nobody, obviously, totally, completely, no matter what, absolutely, any,
“recent research,” “research shows…”
Holey Logic: Holey Logic sends up red flags in the logic radar. Holey Logic warning signals:

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








times when you think, ‘Wait a minute! What?”
“That doesn’t exactly make sense.”
“But what about….?”
convoluted logic twists facts or distorts facts to suit the claim
makes demands of the reader
asks the reader to make giant leaps of logic that seem unrealistic
asks the reader to blindly believe just because
evidence uses personal attacks, bias, stereotypes
evidence is from unproven or questionable sources
conclusion is unexpected or illogical
uses twisted syllogisms (illogical “If, then..” statements)
10. How to Play Devil’s Advocate: Teaches students to consider opposing viewpoints or alternate
perspectives. (ReadWriteThink)
1.Ask incisive questions
How can you be sure…
What are the exceptions?
What examples are provided?
Which evidence best supports
the claim?
2. Consider other perspectives.
3. Think of ways to refute the claim(s).
4. Pose hypothetical situations to clarify
or expand evidence.
5. Offer alternate explanations or
solutions.
6. Point out a flaw in the reasoning,
evidence, or logic.
7. Offer an exception.
8. Identify hidden or underlying
assumptions (point out what the speaker
ASSUMES to be true)
9. Provide evidence that is NOT stated or
that is available but ignored or
overlooked.
10. State what might go wrong; state the
worst that could happen.
Using Argument and Evidence to Support a Claim:
Some Teaching Strategies and Techniques
11. Data Tree: Students gather information, facts, and quotes about a topic/issue on a blank tree
diagram. After examining all the data, at the bottom, they write an Argument Question and Possible
Arguments to help them organize their approach to preparing a piece of writing or speech. (Kelly
Gallagher)
Argument Question:
Possible Arguments:
12. Favorite 5: Students generate a list of their Favorite 5 in several topics (best action movies, best
baseball players of all time, candy bars, book characters, etc.) They choose one list to prepare a short
piece of writing or a short speech to defend the choices on their lists with sound evidence.
13. 4 x 4 Debate: After thoroughly researching a topic/issue, the teacher places 4 chairs in the center of
the room. Announce that all students who support the issue should stand behind these 4 chairs. Place
an identical row of 4 chairs facing the first set of chairs in the center of the room and announce that all
students who do not support the issue should stand behind these chairs. Announce that students will
be randomly chosen to fill the seats but that students can work together to consider their side’s main
argument points, counterarguments, and how to respond to the counterarguments. Only THREE
students will participate on each side. The fourth chair will be the wild card seat that can be filled by
any of the remaining students who wish to engage in the debate. People in the fourth seat will come
and go. Each side follows the basic rules of debate: Side A makes an opening statement followed by
Using Argument and Evidence to Support a Claim:
Some Teaching Strategies and Techniques
Side B with no comments; Side A can then speak for up to 2 minutes on their argument or refute Side B.
Side B then gets time to refute. Repeat. Side A makes a closing statement; Side B makes a closing
statement. Class discusses which side provided the most solid claim and most effective supporting
evidence. (Kelly Gallagher, adapted)