Grade 12
Unit 9
LANGUAGE ARTS 1209
ROMANTIC AND VICTORIAN POETRY
CONTENTS
I.
II.
III.
ROMANTIC REVOLUTION AND
VICTORIAN VARIETY ...................................................................
2
Political Revolution........................................................................
4
Industrial Revolution ....................................................................
4
Philosophical Revolution..............................................................
6
Poetic Revolution............................................................................
9
Victorian England...........................................................................
12
Victorian Literature .......................................................................
16
ROMANTIC POETS ........................................................................
21
William Wordsworth .......................................................................
22
Samuel Taylor Coleridge...............................................................
34
George Gordon, Lord Byron.........................................................
40
Percy Bysshe Shelley .....................................................................
51
John Keats ........................................................................................
60
VICTORIAN POETS........................................................................
72
Alfred, Lord Tennyson ...................................................................
73
Robert Browning.............................................................................
81
Elizabeth Barrett Browning.........................................................
86
Gerard Manley Hopkins ................................................................
87
GLOSSARY .......................................................................................
93
Author:
Editor:
Illustrator:
Noreen J. Reed, M.A.
Bridget Humphrey, M.Ed.
Alan Christopherson, M.S.
Alpha Omega Graphics
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ROMANTIC AND VICTORIAN POETRY
This LIFEPAC® continues the chronological study of English literature begun and developed in
Language Arts LlFEPACs 1205 through 1207. You will first examine the historical background of the
Romantic Age and the Victorian Age. The Romantic Age will be discussed in terms of the “romantic revolution,” a title that could appear ambiguous. The word romantic is used to describe a specific attitude or
philosophy; revolution is used primarily to indicate the drastic changes related to that attitude. The
Victorian Age will be discussed in terms of the variety and conflicts that characterize it.
The selected poems you will read are representative examples but by no means cover the broad
spectrum of the poetry of both periods. You are encouraged to become familiar with both romantic and
Victorian poets and poetry not discussed in this LIFEPAC.
Wordsworth
Queen Victoria
Tennyson
OBJECTIVES
Read these objectives. The objectives tell you what you will be able to do when you have successfully
completed this LIFEPAC.
When you have completed this LIFEPAC, you should be able to:
1.
Explain the influence of the French Revolution, the American Revolution, and the Industrial
Revolution on the development of English romanticism.
2.
Identify dates of the events that played a significant role in causing or determining the
characteristics of the romantic revolution in England.
3.
Identify and explain the seven major areas of emphasis characteristic of romantic philosophy.
4.
Define romanticism in relationship to neoclassicism.
5.
Identify and explain the four major characteristics of the romantic theory of poetry.
1
6.
Explain the significance of Lyrical Ballads and its Preface.
7.
Identify the kinds of prosperity and poverty characteristic of Victorian England and explain
their causes and effects.
8.
List traits characteristic of Victorian ideals and behavior.
9.
Identify the dates and major characteristics of Queen Victoria’s life and reign and identify
the dates of significant reforms that occurred during her reign.
10.
List the characteristics and themes of Victorian literature in general and poetry in particular.
11.
Name specific prose writers of the Victorian period.
12.
Identify the major events and characteristics of the lives of each selected romantic and
Victorian poet.
13.
Discuss the characteristics of the style and attitude of each selected romantic and Victorian
poet.
14.
Explain the subject(s) and theme(s) of each selected romantic and Victorian poem.
15.
Explain the development, form, and technique of each selected romantic and Victorian
poem.
16.
Name the titles of selected poems written by each selected romantic and Victorian poet.
17.
Identify, by poem title and poet, representative quotations from the major works of each
selected romantic and Victorian poet.
Survey the LIFEPAC. Ask yourself some questions about this study. Write your questions here.
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I. ROMANTIC REVOLUTION AND VICTORIAN VARIETY
Historically the romantic revolution in England occurred between 1798 and 1837. The term romanticism, however, refers to a comprehensive movement, or trend, in European thought and arts that began
at the end of the eighteenth century. In essence, romanticism was a reaction—a revolution—against the
eighteenth century’s neoclassical emphasis (see Section I of Language Arts LIFEPAC 1207) on reason,
rules, and restraint. Like the philosophical movements of other historical periods, Romanticism is difficult,
if not impossible, to define exactly. Specific characteristics, however, can be identified; among these characteristics are an emphasis on individualism, emotion, imagination, nature, simplicity, mystery, and
melancholy.
2
The major causes of the romantic revolution are best realized by examining the political, social, and
economical revolutions that either preceded or coincided with it. You will study these causes and their
effects in this section.
The Victorian Age of England—named after the queen who ruled from 1837 to 1901—was a period of
continuing change. Although generalizations about the variety of events and ideas that span two-thirds of
a century are difficult to make precisely, one can note these specific characteristics: material progress;
commercial prosperity; political, religious, and social reforms; scientific and mechanical developments; and
conflicting views concerning scientific progress.
In this section you will examine these Victorian characteristics and their influence on the era’s literature in general and poetry in particular.
SECTION OBJECTIVES
Review these objectives. When you have completed this section, you should be able to:
1.
Explain the influence of the French Revolution, the American Revolution, and the Industrial
Revolution on the development of English romanticism.
2.
Identify dates of the events that played a significant role in causing or determining the
characteristics of the romantic revolution in England.
3.
Identify and explain the seven major areas of emphasis characteristic of romantic philosophy.
4.
Define romanticism in relationship to neoclassicism.
5.
Identify and explain the four major characteristics of the romantic theory of poetry.
6.
Explain the significance of Lyrical Ballads and its Preface.
7.
Identify the kinds of prosperity and poverty of Victorian England and explain their causes
and effects.
8.
List traits characteristic of Victorian ideals and behavior.
9.
Identify the dates and major characteristics of Queen Victoria’s life and reign and identify
the dates of significant reforms that occurred during her reign.
10.
List the characteristics and themes of Victorian literature in general and poetry in particular.
11.
Name specific prose writers of the Victorian period.
VOCABULARY
Study these words to enhance your learning success in this section.
aridity
luxuriate
populace
deprivation
meager
preface
didactic
mesmerism
propriety
essence
myriad
radical
franchise
naiveté
symmetrical
imbue
noble savage
synthetic
impetus
perceptive
untainted
industrious
persona
urbane
inherent
phenomenon
wane
intuition
philosophy
3
POLITICAL REVOLUTION
One of the greatest political impetuses for the romantic revolution was the French
Revolution that began in 1789 with the storming of the Bastille prison by mobs of French
people—common people and peasants—who would no longer endure the economic and
social hardships imposed on them by an aristocratic society.
By this time in history, England had already lost control of her American colonies. The
results of the American Revolution had seemingly justified the colonies’ rebellion for the
cause of democracy: The independent nation formulated its new government on the principle that each individual has a right to participate in establishing the laws that govern
him. Thus, in 1789 a significant number of perceptive Englishmen, including many of the
romantic poets, enthusiastically supported the oppressed French who rebelled for the purposes of “Liberty, Equality, Fraternity.” The English initially viewed the French Revolution
as a cause for a new and better life for the common man. English enthusiasm waned,
however, when the revolution became violent and chaotic. Disgusted by the revolution’s
immense bloodshed, England and other European countries declared war on France. This
European alliance against France continued until Napoleon Bonaparte, who at the end of
the revolution started his intended conquest of Europe, was defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
Although disillusioned by the French Revolution, the English romantic poets still cherished
its spirit—the desire for equality and a new beginning.
✒
Answer true or false.
1.1
_________________ The French Revolution occurred before the American Revolution.
1.2
_________________ The French Revolution was basically a revolt of the oppressed common people
and peasants against the ruling class of aristocrats.
1.3
_________________ England continued its support of the French Revolution until its conclusion.
1.4
_________________ Obviously all Englishmen regarded the American Revolution as a large mistake
made by the American colonies.
1.5
_________________ The idea and goal of equality for all was a contribution of the French Revolution
to English thought.
INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
England itself at this time was undergoing radical changes, changes that could have
led to as bloody a revolution as that of France. The Industrial Revolution, begun around
1750, was a major cause of the myriad changes.
Advantages. The most obvious change was England’s transition from a rural, agricultural society to an urban, industrial society. Indeed, the Industrial Revolution changed the
working habits and lifestyles of many people and offered them new opportunities. Because
manpower was replaced by machine power, some people had more leisure time to pursue
various activities. Consequently, the new middle class took advantage of the opportunity for
education. The displaced rural poor found jobs in the cities’ factories. Because material
goods were machine-produced, they became more readily available to the populace.
Common people now shared many of the opportunities previously enjoyed only by the aristocrats: leisure time, education, cultural pursuits, and material possessions.
4
Disadvantages. The results of the Industrial Revolution, however, were not all positive; in fact, it created new social and economic ills. The displaced rural poor who found
jobs in the factories or the mines soon realized the desperateness of their situation. They—
men, women, and children—worked long, difficult hours in unsanitary and unhealthy environments for meager wages. Their living conditions were not better than their working
conditions; they lived in filthy, rat-infested slums because they could afford nothing else.
Also, the new middle class soon realized that their position was not as humanly significant as they knew it should be. The right to vote was reserved only for landowners; the
working class, merchants, and tradesmen were not allowed to elect members of Parliament
and thus had no representation in government.
Results. The pressing issues of the time resulted in a genuine concern for the rights of
the individual, the right to work and live in human decency and equality. Fortunately,
England chose a course of effective reform rather than bloody revolt to ensure these rights.
Under the pressure of reform groups and movements, England gradually recognized and
responded to its obligation to help and protect all its citizens, the poor as well as the rich.
Slowly prison conditions were improved, labor laws were passed (protecting especially the
rights and lives of children), and hospitals were built. Under pressure, the English
Parliament itself finally passed the first Reform Bill in 1832; this bill extended the franchise to all the middle class. Although the working class was not granted the right to vote
until the end of the nineteenth century, this first Reform Bill did provide, to some degree,
representation for many of the English people. English reform, though slow in actualization, was more realistically effective than violent revolution.
✒
Complete these statements.
1.6
A major change resulting from the Industrial Revolution was England’s transition from a
a. ________________________________ society to an b. ________________________________ society.
1.7
The rural displaced poor found jobs in the cities’ ________________________________ .
1.8
The living conditions of the poor were no better than their inhumane ____________________________
conditions.
1.9
The new middle class experienced inequality because they were not allowed _______________________
in their government.
1.10
In dealing with the inequalities that denied human rights, England fortunately chose a course of
effective a. _____________________________ rather than one of bloody b. _____________________________ .
✒
1.11
Complete these activities.
Name three opportunities that became more available to common people because of the Industrial
Revolution.
a. _____________________________________
c. _____________________________________
b. _____________________________________
1.12
Explain the significance of the 1832 Reform Bill.
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1.13
Read Matthew 25:34–45 in the Bible and list the numbers of the two specific verses that summarize the message of the passage and that might very well have motivated a Christian to be concerned about the masses of poor and neglected people.
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PHILOSOPHICAL REVOLUTION
Romanticism—simply defined as a reaction against neoclassical emphasis on reason,
rules, and restraint—was more a state of mind than a literary movement. The themes and
ideas of the times caused poetry to take certain forms, but the ideas themselves are what
determined romanticism. The romantic poets, in fact, did not seek to create a new kind of
poetry; they simply sought a way to express new ideas, feelings, and beliefs characteristic
of the nineteenth-century philosophy.
Individualism. The effect of the American, French, and Industrial revolutions generated a genuine concern for the rights and dignity of the individual that became characteristic of the romantic movement in England. The eighteenth century, with its neoclassical
emphasis on rules and restraints, had generally regarded the individual as a limited being
who existed within certain boundaries beyond which he could not go. The romantics, on the
other hand, saw the individual as capable of seemingly limitless achievements. In a break
with the eighteenth-century belief that a person’s value was determined by his social status
and financial wealth, the romantics insisted that each individual is important in and of
himself.
Emotion. In the aftermath of political revolution and in the process of social reform,
the sensitivities of perceptive people were sharply awakened. The neoclassical emphasis on
reason had left little room for feeling or fanciful flights of the imagination. In the last half
of the eighteenth century, responsible thinkers began to realize the aridity of life lived
without much regard for feeling (you may wish to review Section IV of Language Arts
LIFEPAC 1207). Definitely the romanticism of the early nineteenth century encouraged
necessary and meaningful expressions of emotion.
Imagination. Likewise, romanticism exalted the imagination of the individual. The
romantic concept of imagination is somewhat complex, yet an understanding of it is
important for the study of certain poets. As it is generally used by the romantics, the term
imagination refers to the total working of the mind, to the mind’s synthetic action. It
allows one to perceive the similarity of things, to perceive that everything that exists is part
of an entire whole. Imagination is a process of insight and understanding that eventually
brings a person to an ultimate truth. Imagination is the opposite of reason, which analyzes
objects and ideas and breaks them down into parts so that they can be studied.
Imagination, in contrast, is the sudden intuition, or awareness, of all that one can know
about something. To perceive through the imagination is to know at one time an entire body
of knowledge on some subject, a knowledge that brings one to a new truth. Imagination is
comprehension gained not by study but by meditation; by opening one’s entire mind to
existing realities. The romantics believed that imagination allowed an individual to intuit
certain knowledge and thus to gain insights otherwise not easily obtained.
6
Nature. The technological progress of the time contributed to the gradual destruction
of the natural beauty of the English countryside. Romanticism, with its appreciation of
beauty wherever it may be found, reacted with an undaunted expression of sincere love for
nature. Though the views toward nature varied among the romantics, most saw in it some
significance beyond its physical existence—although they took great delight in that alone—
and perceived it to belong to the realm of the spirit. On one level, some romantics viewed
nature as having human characteristics, of acting with intent. For example, when a phenomenon of nature occurred, the event was seen as a deliberate action that was done for
some reason. This attitude was largely a rejection of the eighteenth-century scientific view
of nature as nothing more than a well-functioning machine. To many romantics, nature was
a source of meaningful comfort; through communing with nature, an individual could temporarily escape harsh realities and could experience both a physical and spiritual harmony
with God and the world. Finally, to some romantics, nature not only revealed God but was
identical with—inseparable from—God. This extreme view is an expression of pantheism,
the belief that God is not a distinct personality but that, instead, all forces and manifestations of the universe are God. To the pantheist, a flower, an ocean, a mountain, a human
mind, all equally share the essence of a “unifying soul,” of a Supreme Being. In simple
terms, pantheism is the belief that God is everything and everything is God.
✒
1.14
1.15
Complete these activities.
Write NC on the blank before each phrase that characterizes neoclassicism; write R before each
phrase that characterizes romanticism.
a.
_________
emphasizes reason
b.
_________
emphasizes rules
c.
_________
emphasizes emotion
d.
_________
views nature as a well-functioning machine
e.
_________
views the individual as a limited being
f.
_________
relies on meditation and intuition
g.
_________
relies on analysis and study of the parts of a whole
h. _________
views nature as a source of spiritual experience
i.
_________
enjoys nature for its physical beauty
j.
_________
relies on social status and wealth to measure individual worth
Explain the difference between the Christian and the pantheistic views of nature.
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7
Simplicity. Coinciding with the romantic return to nature was an emphasis on simplicity. To the urbane neoclassicist, nature had meant the precisely planned garden with its
neat rows of hedges and symmetrically designed flower beds. The romantics, in turn, were
more interested in the natural beauty of untamed nature; the turbulent ocean, the lonely
forest, the jagged mountain. In their art, architecture, clothing, and manners, the romantics
disregarded the eighteenth century’s artificiality and strove for simplicity and naturalness.
Mystery. Although the many social and technological changes occurring in England at
the turn of the century brought new opportunities and improved ways of life for some, the
changes also created problems such as the overcrowding of cities, poor working conditions,
industrial pollution, and the destruction of villages. These negative effects often made the
romantics wish they could return to a better time. The neoclassicist had looked to ancient
Greece and Rome for inspiration and ideal models, but the romanticists concentrated their
attention on more mysterious, distant cultures. Medieval times became a popular subject
of the romantic movement that sought out the strange, wondrous, and fanciful aspects of
the world. The romanticists delighted in the medieval atmosphere with its sense of mystery
and the supernatural. Some romantic poets, rejecting neoclassical rules and restrictions,
established a new interest in the medieval ballads and their truly human themes of
heroism, adventure, death, and love.
This interest in the medieval expressed itself in a change in architectural models.
Eighteenth-century aristocratic homes had been designed to imitate the dignity and symmetry of the columns and domes of ancient Greece and Rome. Romantic architects, however,
found inspiration in the Gothic spires, the high, vaulted ceilings, and the arched columns
and windows that characterized the mysterious atmosphere of the late Middle Ages.
Melancholy. Although the romantic revolt expressed an attitude that may be
described as subjective, unconventional, and idealistic, it also conveyed a persistent tone of
melancholy. Awed by the beauty of nature, the potential of the individual, the power of
imagination, and the need for human improvements, the romantics were distressed by the
belief that life was relatively brief and that they would not have time, therefore, to realize
their ideals and fulfill their dreams. This insight created the prevailing tone of melancholy.
✒
1.16
Complete this activity.
Write NC on the blank before each phrase that characterizes neoclassicism; write R before each
phrase that characterizes romanticism.
a. ___________
imitated symmetry of Greek architecture
b. ___________
imitated medieval architecture
c. ___________
appreciated well-planned flower beds
d. ___________
enjoyed the mysterious and strange
e. ___________
preferred untamed nature to rule-conscious society
f. ___________
renewed interest in the ballad
g. ___________
expressed a tone of melancholy because time does not permit full realization of
ideals
h. ___________
imposed restrictions on artistic creations
8
POETIC REVOLUTION
The political, industrial, and philosophical revolutions just discussed culminated in the
poetic revolution of the early nineteenth century. As mentioned earlier, the romantic poets,
in their search to find ways to express the new feelings and ideas of their times, did, indeed,
create a new poetry that represented a significant departure from neoclassical literary
standards.
The first edition in 1798 of Lyrical Ballads, a volume of poetry written by William
Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge, is the first significant publication of characteristically English romantic poetry and, as such, documents the reality of the romantic revolt
in English literature.
A precise statement of the theory of romantic poets is not possible, for they were a
diverse group who did not view themselves as “romantic poets.” They were given that title
several years later. The Preface William Wordsworth wrote for the second edition of
Lyrical Ballads (published in 1800), however, provides an excellent summary of romantic
poetic theory. In the Preface, Wordsworth explained the theories that he and Coleridge had
followed in writing their poems.
Wordsworth and Coleridge had attempted to write poetry that was free of what they
considered the artificial restrictions of earlier poetry. For some time, opposition to the neoclassicism of the eighteenth century had been growing; no longer were witty poetry, verse
essays, and satires appreciated. In writing the Preface, however, Wordsworth did not
produce a simple list of grievances; instead, he wrote a coherent explanation of the new
theory of poetry. Although not all romantic poets either accepted or used all the elements
of Wordsworth’s theory, the Preface does provide a general guide to romantic poetry.
The concept of poet and poetry. Neoclassic poetry was basically an imitation of
human life that intended to instruct the reader and to please him. The characters created
in such poetry were to represent, or to mirror, all men and were to serve as examples of
acceptable or unacceptable behavior. Wordsworth believed, on the other hand, that good
poetry is “the spontaneous overflow of powerful feelings.” Poetry comes from within the
poet’s own feelings and thoughts. This concept is shared by all romantic poets and is basic
to the romantic movement. All the romantic poets were concerned that their poetry should
emerge from their own minds, expressing individual ideas and feelings. The subject matter
of romantic poetry, then, was often the personal experience of the writer.
Complying with the theory of individualism, the subject of the poem is frequently the
poet and is presented in the first person. In order to best suit the subject, the lyric poem
was frequently used. Until this time it had often been considered a minor form. The speaker
in such a poem is actually the poet, not a persona, an event, or a narrator of events. He is,
as Wordsworth says in the Preface, “a man speaking to men.” Many critics object to the frequent use of the first person singular in romantic poetry and accuse the poet of being too
subjective, too self-centered. Subjectivity, however, was what the romantics sought. They
wanted others to experience their thoughts, not out of conceit, but because they believed
their position as individuals made their ideas significant.
The spontaneity of poetic creation. Another of the tenets presented in
Wordsworth’s Preface is that poetry be spontaneous. Neoclassic poets viewed poetry as an
art to be studied and perfected; they followed specific rules in writing. The romantics were
different. Many of them expressed the belief that unless it flowed naturally and spontaneously from the poet, true poetry was impossible.
One should not assume, however, that the poetry of the romantic period now appears
as it first came to the poets. Indeed, the worksheets of the poets indicate that they reworked
9
their poems many times until the results were finally satisfactory. The concept of spontaneity as stated was more a reaction against neoclassic inflexibility than a literal
statement of romantic principles.
The theory of spontaneity is further, and more realistically, explained later in the Preface:
I have said that poetry is the spontaneous
overflow of powerful feelings; it takes its
origin from emotion recollected in tranquility:
the emotion is contemplated till by a species of
reaction the tranquility gradually disappears,
and an emotion, kindred to that which was before
the subject of contemplation, is gradually produced,
and does itself actually exist in the mind. In this
mood successful composition generally begins…but
the emotion… is qualified by various pleasures…
In other words, the poet has a thought or experience that causes in him some great
emotion, but he does not immediately and spontaneously create a poem. Instead, he recollects in tranquility the experience and the emotion and creates a similar emotion in his own
mind. Yet he does not simply record objectively the experience and emotion; they are “qualified by various pleasures.” The poet presents not what is (the objective view) but what
exists as he sees it, as it is colored by his own thoughts and feelings (the subjective view).
Hence, a poem is not purely spontaneous in that it does not burst from the poet the moment
he experiences emotion. Still, a poem is somewhat spontaneous in that, though it is premeditated, it emerges from recollected and recreated emotion and from the artist’s perceptions. It is neither planned nor forced to fit external rules, but it is pondered and reshaped
by the author’s values before it emerges as a poem. Such poetry is significantly more spontaneous than the structured and objective work of the neoclassics.
✒
1.17
Write the letter of the correct answer.
One type of revolution that is not directly linked to the romantic movement in England is a
_________ revolution.
a. political
b. religious
1.18
Lyrical Ballads was first published in _________ .
a. 1776
b. 1798
1.19
c. Samuel Coleridge
d. neither man
Romantic poetry is sometimes criticized because it is _________ .
a. too objective
b. too subjective
1.21
c. 1880
d. 1832
The author of the Preface to Lyrical Ballads is _________ .
a. William Wordsworth
b. both men
1.20
c. philosophical
d. industrial
c. neither a nor b
d. both a and b
Wordsworth’s theory is that poetry is the spontaneous overflow of _________ .
a. ideas
b. values
c. rhythm
d. feelings
10
1.22
According to the romantic theory, a poet creates a poem _________ .
a.
b.
c.
d.
✒
1.23
by following certain rules of writing
when the experience or emotion first appears to him
after meditating on the subject
by being as objective as possible
Complete these activities.
Explain how the romantic theory of poetry reflects the early nineteenth century’s emphasis on
individualism.
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1.24
Explain the difference between a neoclassical objective approach to poetry and a romantic subjective approach.
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The significance of nature. Among the best known features of romantic poetry is its
use of nature. Romantic poetry is, in fact, often called “nature poetry.” Elements of this
feature are the detailed images and descriptions inherent to romantic poetry. Writers of
this period were quite attentive to detail; it fills their poetry with exact objects. Many
readers appreciate “nature poetry” for this quality alone; however, the use of nature often
has much more significance. According to Wordsworth, nature could be enjoyed for its own
sake, yet it frequently provides a means to an end rather than an end in itself. The ultimate
end is some new perception. Nature serves as a “starting point” in nearly all romantic
poetry. Generally some scene or event in nature triggers the thoughts of the poet; in nature
he sees some emotional conflict relevant to his own life. Ultimately, the thoughts of man as
well as nature itself constitute the subject of the poem. Nature is often a vehicle for the true
subject.
The use of the commonplace. The romantic interest in simplicity and naturalness
manifested itself in a belief that the commonplace and humble life were suitable subjects
for poetry. In his Preface, Wordsworth explained that the principal purpose in writing the
poems in Lyrical Ballads was “to choose incidents and situations from common life, and to
relate or describe them … in a selection of language really used by men....” A popular
romantic theory was that those who lived close to nature were more innocent than the
people who were corrupted by society. This concept of the noble savage goes back to the
Renaissance and is found in nearly all romantic-type writing.
11
The concept of the innocence of life untainted by society has been greatly criticized for
its naiveté; even some of the romantics refused to use rustic people and settings as subjects. Wordsworth’s intention, however, was not simply to present commonplace subjects
exactly as they are found. The preceding statement from his Preface continues to say, “…at
the same time, to throw over them a certain coloring of imagination, whereby ordinary
things should be presented to the mind in an unusual aspect....” The purpose of using the
commonplace in poetry was to add freshness, to show that even in the most trivial elements
of life the human mind and heart can experience wonder.
The use of the supernatural. At the other end of the spectrum, the romantics also
made use of the supernatural. The poet would use unnatural, unfamiliar events—often
from the medieval past—to create a sense of wonder. At the same time, some poets explored
those unusual experiences such as mesmerism that others considered foolish or trivial.
Those who used such subject matter responded to the social situation in which new possibilities were present. They viewed nothing as unworthy of exploration. Sometimes this
proved unfortunate, yet at other times it may have been beneficial. Whatever the result, the
goal was to achieve a sense of newness and wonder in poetry.
✒
Answer true or false.
1.25
_______________
A goal of romantic poetry was to write about nature only in general terms.
1.26
_______________
Romantic poetry does not regard nature as a subject to be enjoyed simply for
its physical beauty.
1.27
_______________
Many romantic poets regard nature as means of gaining new insights into life.
1.28
_______________
Wordsworth believed that one of the best subjects for poetry was the beauty
and order of life in a well organized and technically advanced society.
1.29
_______________
As a “man speaking to men,” Wordsworth believed the poet should write in a
language easily understood by common people.
1.30
_______________
All romantic poets believed poetry should be limited to the subjects of nature
and the individual poet’s experiences and feelings.
✒
Complete this activity.
1.31
Explain what elements prevented the use of the commonplace from simply resulting in poetry
that is dull and boring.____________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
VICTORIAN ENGLAND
The variety of Victorian thought and lifestyles rests primarily on the dramatic contrast
between the period’s welcomed prosperity and undesirable poverty. In 1851 England
hosted the “Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations,” a magnificent
tribute to the progress and prosperity resulting from the Industrial Revolution.
12
Approximately 6 million people from England and the rest of the world attended the
splendid exhibition in London’s Crystal Palace, an architectural giant of iron and glass
built for the occasion. A contrasting attitude toward industrialism was presented by
Charles Dickens in his 1854 publication of Hard Times, a novel that condemns the undeniable evils wrought by industrial progress. Dickens described a town that symbolized
the effects of industry:
It was a town of machinery and chimneys, out of which interminable serpents of smoke trailed themselves for ever and ever, and never got uncoiled.
It had a black canal in it, and a river that ran purple with ill-smelling dye,
and vast piles of buildings full of windows where there was a rattling and
trembling all day long… [The town was] inhabited by people … who all went
in and out at the same hours, with the same sound upon the same pavements, to do the same work, and to whom every day was the same as yesterday and tomorrow.
Prosperity. Revolutionized by the use of new kinds of machinery and by advanced
means of operating it, England’s industry provided a previously unparalleled source of
material prosperity for England’s rising middle class in the first half of the Victorian Age.
The leaders of industry—owners of the factories and mines—luxuriated in the fine lifestyle
that their money could buy. At the same time, this powerful middle class established strict
standards of what was “proper and right.” Victorian conduct was based on a confident and
seemingly inflexible adherence to the virtues of self-reliance, industriousness, temperance, piety, propriety, and moral sincerity. In brief, the major Victorian principle was a
practical one: hard, honest work was an honorable means of success.
Not only did individuals experience prosperity during the Victorian Age; the country
itself was in a comfortable position. During the nineteenth century, England enjoyed long
periods of international peace and established itself as one of the greatest commercial
empires in the modern world. In that century of expansion, England gained control of the
Suez Canal and either acquired or developed territories in Egypt, India, Australia, Canada,
New Zealand, and South Africa.
One of the major contributions to the Victorian “golden age” came from the field of
science. Technological inventions and intellectual developments not only revolutionized
industry, but also revolutionized medicine, communication, transportation, and traditional
philosophies and beliefs. Some scientific theories led to confusion for the common people.
Many sincere people believed that they had only three alternatives: to live in doubt, to
reject science completely, or to abandon their faith completely. This dilemma initiated the
sense of doubt—not only of religion but of many traditional beliefs and values—that characterized the second half of the Victorian Age.
The first half of the Victorian Age, however, knew no such doubt. It was an era of
progress and prosperity, of peace and piety, and of confidence and optimism.
✒
Answer true or false.
1.32
_______________
All Englishmen of the nineteenth century agreed that only good effects
resulted from the Industrial Revolution.
1.33
_______________
The “Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations” was held in
England in 1851.
1.34
_______________
Both the Crystal Palace and the publication Hard Times offered a tribute to
the progress resulting from the Industrial Revolution.
13
1.35
_______________
Victorian conduct was based on the principle that a person should use any
means—honest or not—to achieve success.
1.36
_______________
England expanded her commercial empire in the nineteenth century.
1.37
_______________
Industry was only one segment of society that was revolutionized by technological inventions and intellectual developments during the Victorian Age.
1.38
_______________
A sense of doubt characterizes the entire Victorian Age.
1.39
_______________
Optimistic is a word that could characterize the first half of the Victorian Age.
✒
Define these words.
1.40
industrious ________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.41
propriety __________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
Poverty. Not all of Victorian England’s citizens enjoyed the benefits of progress;
indeed, some keenly felt its cruel sting. The poor barely existed. The working conditions and
the living conditions of the laborers were deplorably inhumane and presented a sharp contrast with the material well-being of the middle class. Reforms came very slowly.
The social and economic ills of Victorian England were rooted in a kind of political
poverty, or deprivation. Denied the right to vote, the lower classes had no effective means
of helping themselves and had to rely on the good intentions and actions of groups and
writers that advocated reform. The Victorian era is characterized by harsh political conflicts
between the liberal Whig Party and the conservative Tory Party to win credit for improving
the social, economic, and political conditions of all English citizens. Finally, Parliament
extended the franchise to urban laborers in 1867 and to agricultural workers in 1885.
Because of these acts and subsequent political reforms, England was well established as a
modern democracy by the beginning of the second decade of the twentieth century.
Perhaps the most destructive poverty that England experienced in the nineteenth
century was not material, but spiritual. Thomas Carlyle, a respected essayist and critic of
the early Victorian era, had warned of the devastating effects of the Industrial Revolution:
“Not the external and physical alone is now managed by machinery, but the internal and
spiritual also.... Men are grown mechanical in head and in heart, as well as in hand.”
Beset by a philosophy of progress and materialism and the accompanying sense of greed
as well as religious doubts resulting from scientific discoveries, persons of sincere faith recognized that the era was gradually losing a sense of the spiritual. The Anglican Church
itself did little to provide spirituality at a time when such support was desperately needed.
In some respects, the Anglican Church seemed to be dominated by the English government.
Some small religious groups struggled to keep the faith alive in England. Followers of
Wesley’s Methodism continued in their evangelical and reform efforts. The
Fundamentalists worked zealously for reform both in the lives of individuals and in the
actions of the government. Another important effort to alleviate the spiritual poverty of the
time was made by the Oxford Movement. Originating at Oxford in the 1830s, the
movement, under the leadership of E.B. Pusey, John Keeble, and John Henry Newman,
endeavored to reinforce the doctrine of early Christianity, to restore to the Anglican Church
its original spiritual leadership and, thus, to allow the church to become once again something “more than a merely human institution.”
14
✒
Write the letter of the correct answer.
1.42
People who most benefited from the Industrial Revolution were the _________ .
a. middle class
b. working class
c. poor
1.43
Social reforms in nineteenth-century England came _________ .
a. quickly
b. slowly
c. early
1.44
The lower classes could not help improve their conditions during the first half of the nineteenth
century because they _________ .
a. had lost the desire to struggle for improvement
b. had no voice in the government
c. were a minority
1.45
Parliament extended the franchise to the urban working class in _________ .
a. 1832
b. 1876
c. 1867
1.46
England had established herself as a democracy by _________ .
a. 1885
b. 1911
c. 1850
1.47
England’s poverty during the nineteenth century was one of _________ .
a. material deprivation
b. spiritual deprivation
c. both material and spiritual deprivation
1.48
The most effective contributions toward alleviating England’s nineteenth-century spiritual
poverty were made by _________ .
a. the Anglican Church
b. small religious groups and movements
c. neither a nor b
1.49
The primary goal of the Oxford Movement was to reform the _________ .
a. Anglican Church
b. English government
c. both a and b
✒
1.50
Answer this question.
Considering the fact that most members of the Victorian middle class were sincere, pious
Christians, what do you see as a possible obstacle that could prevent materially comfortable
Christians from leading the full life of the Gospel? Write your response on a separate sheet of paper
and ask another student to review and discuss it with you.
Adult Check
___________________
Initial
Date
15
Prudence. The Victorian Age of variety and contrasts demanded prudence—the ability
to judge soundly and to act sensibly—of the individual who desired to succeed personally
and publicly. Certainly England had a model of such prudence in the person of her queen,
Victoria. Succeeding to the throne when she was only eighteen, Victoria acknowledged her
youth and inexperience but expressed confidence that “few have more real good will and
more real desire to do what is fit and right than I have.” Indeed, in her sixty-four-year reign
she illustrated that her confidence had been well founded.
As a child, Victoria had been imbued with the virtues of piety and proper social
conduct. As a woman, she practiced these virtues in her court and in her home. A capable
sovereign and a dedicated wife and mother of nine children, Victoria deserved and received
the respect, love, and loyalty of her subjects.
✒
Answer these questions.
1.51
How old was Victoria when she became queen? ___________________________________________________
1.52
How long did Queen Victoria reign?_______________________________________________________________
1.53
What does the word prudence mean? _____________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.54
What does the word imbue mean? ________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.55
With what was Victoria imbued as a child? _______________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.56
How many children did Queen Victoria have? ____________________________________________________
1.57
Why did Victoria’s subjects love and respect her? _________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
✒
1.58
Complete this activity.
Relying on the encyclopedia(s) and/or other resources, write an essay in which you summarize the
life and reign of Queen Victoria. Do not simply copy the resource material; write the essay in your
own words and style. In your research and writing utilize the skills of effective reading and writing
that you studied in Language Arts LlFEPACs 1202 and 1203. At the end of your essay, list the
resources you have used.
Adult Check
___________________
Initial
Date
VICTORIAN LITERATURE
The Victorian writers were contemporary; they wrote about the current social problems
and philosophies that marked the complex variety of the age. In general, the Victorian
writers looked to the present, rather than the past, and sought ways to comment on it or to
improve it. Thus, the typical Victorian writer was realistic, objective, didactic, moralistic,
and purposeful.
Prose. The Romantic Age was primarily an age of poetry; the Victorian Age was primarily an age of prose. Although you will not study Victorian prose in this LIFEPAC, you
should become familiar with its types and significant authors.
16
Victorian essays offer serious critical evaluations of the period. Although the major
essayists—Thomas Carlyle, Thomas Babington Macaulay, Matthew Arnold, John Henry
Newman, and John Ruskin—differed in personalities, backgrounds, subjects, and styles,
they were similar in their goal: to analyze and help solve the problems of their day.
The dominant literary form of the Victorian Age is usually considered to be the novel.
Public libraries, improved and cheaper-to-run printing presses, and novels published in
inexpensive monthly paperbacks or by installments in magazines provided the eager public
with easy access to the talents of the Victorian novelists.
Although Victorian novelists offered a wide variety of subjects and attitudes, many of
them concentrated on the issues of the nineteenth century. Chief among those who exposed
and protested present problems was Charles Dickens. To suppose, however, that Dickens
was simply a contemporary protester would be a mistake. An imaginative genius, Dickens
created versatile characters and stories that attracted universal concern and interest. Your
education should include the reading of such Dickens’ classics as Oliver Twist, David
Copperfield, Great Expectations, and A Tale of Two Cities to become acquainted with some
of the most colorful characters in English literature.
William Makepeace Thackeray was a novelist who shared Dickens’ purpose but not his
approach. Thackeray’s subjects, unlike Dickens, were drawn from the more advantaged
middle class. His intent, however, was to expose the inequalities and hypocrisies of his
society. One of his best known work is Vanity Fair, a Novel without a Hero (not to be confused with the “Vanity Fair” of Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress).
Another novelist who discussed contemporary social and moral issues was Mary Ann
Evans. Writing and publishing under the pen name of George Eliot, she is best known for
the novels Adam Bede, Mill on the Floss, and Silas Marner.
Eliot was not the only woman novelist of the period. Well known for their depiction of
English rural life are the Brontë sisters, Charlotte (author of Jane Eyre) and Emily (author
of Wuthering Heights). Relying heavily on personal experience and emotion, the Brontës
created novels that are exciting, touching, and imaginative.
Certainly, the Victorian novel is the genre that most dramatically illustrates the variety—
of characters, settings, narratives, and authors themselves—characteristic of the age.
Poetry. That the Victorian Age is often considered the Age of the Novel does not minimize the era’s poetic contribution. The Victorian poets more than adequately compensated
for their relatively small quantity with superb quality.
To cope with the contrast between progress and prosperity on the one hand, and social
and spiritual questions on the other, poets of the Victorian Age frequently experienced what
today is often called an “identity problem.” Indeed, the position and role of the poet in
society was one of the dominant themes in Victorian poetry. In an age that tended to
evaluate according to contributions made toward progress or solutions, the poet needed to
have a purpose or a function. Sometimes he was viewed as a prophet who was to project the
present into a balanced perspective with the future. At other times the poet was viewed as
a teacher who was to instruct his readers in proper behavior and social values. The roles of
the poet were demanding and sometimes frustrating. Frequently the poet, concerned about
his roles but not completely confident that he could fulfill them, felt isolated from the
society he was supposed to help improve.
Victorian poetry exhibits a variety of techniques and themes. The age is characterized
by the development and use of symbols, by the growth of the dramatic monologue, by an
interest in tragedy, and by a continuation of the romantic interest in nature and the
medieval. Of course, Victorian poetry depends primarily on themes realistically related to
contemporary subjects: science, technology, religion, and reform.
17
✒
Match the work to its appropriate author.
1.59
____________
Charles Dickens
a. essays
1.60
____________
Emily Brontë
b. Vanity Fair
1.61
____________
William Makepeace Thackeray
c. Oliver Twist
1.62
____________
Thomas Carlyle
d. Jane Eyre
1.63
____________
George Eliot
e. Wuthering Heights
1.64
____________
Matthew Arnold
f. Silas Marner
1.65
____________
Charlotte Brontë
✒
Answer true or false.
1.66
_________________ Victorian writers generally concentrated on the present rather than the past.
1.67
_________________ The main purpose of Victorian literature is to entertain rather than to instruct.
1.68
_________________ The dominant prose form of Victorian literature was the essay.
1.69
_________________ The subjects of all Victorian novels were the underprivileged lower classes.
1.70
_________________ The general public had easy access to the many novels published in the nineteenth century.
Review the material in this section in preparation for the Self Test. The Self Test will check
your mastery of this particular section. The items missed on this Self Test will indicate specific
areas where restudy is needed for mastery.
SELF TEST 1
Select the appropriate words from the column at the right to complete this sentence (each
answer, 2 points).
1.01
The a. ____________________________ revolutions against tyranny
poetic
in America and France and the b. ____________________________
political
Revolution in England, with its subsequent social and eco-
industrial
nomic inequalities, motivated a (an) c. ____________________________
philosophical
revolution in England that emphasized the rights and potential
of the individual and that logically resulted in a(an)
d. ____________________________ revolution in English literature.
18
Write NC before each word that relates to neoclassicism. Write R before each word that relates
to romanticism (each answer, 1 point).
1.02
_________
ballads
1.012
_________
didactic poetry
1.03
_________
objectivity
1.013
_________
spontaneity
1.04
_________
reason
1.014
_________
medieval
1.05
_________
emotion
1.015
_________
analysis
1.06
_________
restrictions
1.016
_________
rules
1.07
_________
Greek
1.017
_________
artificiality
1.08
_________
simplicity
1.018
_________
supernatural
1.09
_________
intuition
1.019
_________
status
1.010
_________
individual
1.020
_________
symmetry
1.011
_________
urbane
1.021
_________
subjectivity
Circle the letter of the word that best defines the italicized word (each answer, 2 points).
1.022 aridity
a. heavenly
b. dullness
c. sweetness
d. sickly
1.023 myriad
a. jumbled
b. varied
c. many
d. few
1.024 didactic
a. simple
b. deadly
c. instructive
d. holy
1.025 wane
a. sick
b. healthy
c. increase
d. decrease
1.026 inherent
a. basic
b. productive
c. mysterious
d. simple
Answer true or false (each answer, 1 point).
1.027 _________________ The publication of Lyrical Ballads marks the definitely recognizable beginning
of the romantic movement in English literature.
1.028 _________________ Englishmen became so disillusioned with the French Revolution that they
eventually rejected all the goals and ideals it presented.
1.029 _________________ England was fortunate in that it never experienced social and economic
problems similar to those that caused the French Revolution.
1.030 _________________ The first reform bill in England extended the franchise to the middle class but
not to the working class.
1.031 _________________ The living conditions of England’s poor at the beginning of the nineteenth
century were good in comparison with their working conditions.
1.032 _________________ The Industrial Revolution resulted in advantages for some as well as disadvantages for many.
19
1.033 _________________ Neoclassicism generally viewed nature as a well-functioning machine.
1.034 _________________ Romantic poets generally believed that nature offered a purpose and meaning
beyond its physical appearance.
1.035 _________________ Romanticism proposed that nature could and should be enjoyed simply for its
beauty.
1.036 _________________ A Christian and a pantheist, by definition, have identical views of God and His
relationship to nature.
Match the letters of the dates to the appropriate event (each answer, 2 points).
1.037 ___________
beginning of the French Revolution
a.1776
1.038 ___________
publication of Wordsworth’s Preface
b.1789
1.039 ___________
publication of first edition of Lyrical Ballads
c. 1798
1.040 ___________
passing of the first reform bill in England
d.1800
1.041 ___________
granting of the franchise to urban laborers
e.1832
f. 1867
List the six major areas of emphasis, other than melancholy, that are characteristic of the
romantic philosophy (each answer, 3 points).
1.042 a. __________________________________________
d. ___________________________________________________
b. __________________________________________
e. ___________________________________________________
c. __________________________________________
f. ___________________________________________________
Supply the appropriate names (each answer, 3 points).
1.043 Name one Victorian essayist. _____________________________________________________________________
1.044 Name the Victorian novelist who wrote Oliver Twist. _____________________________________________
1.045 Name the Victorian novelist who wrote Vanity Fair. ______________________________________________
1.046 Name the Victorian novelist who used a pen name._______________________________________________
1.047 Give the last name of two sisters who were Victorian novelists. __________________________________
Answer this question (this answer, 5 points).
1.048 How does the role of the poet in the Victorian Age differ from the role of the poet in the
Romantic Age? ____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________________________
77
Score
96
Adult Check
_______________
___________________
Initial
20
Date