Journal of Leisurability
Volume 27
Number 2
Spring 2000
Computer Game Play as a Potential Catalyst for the Social Integration of
People With High Physical Support Needs
Jason Liverton*
Journal of Leisurability, Volume 27, No. 2 (2000), pp. 35-44
Introduction
While physically active leisure pursuits such as camping in the outdoors, athletics, and other physical sports have
been shown to significantly contribute to the social integration of those with intellectual, sensory, and mild physical
disabilities, it is important to recognize that many "people by the nature of their disability are often prevented from
competing or participating with able bodied people" (Roarty, 1986, p.11). One such group often prevented from
engaging in physically active leisure pursuits with able-bodied peers are people with high physical support needs.
Therefore, to facilitate the social integration of people with high physical support needs, it is important to examine the
potential effect of other inclusive leisure activities such as the playing of computer games.
Leisure Preferences of People With High Support Needs
Research conducted by Hedrick (1986) into the effect of integrating peers with, and without, disabilities through
instructional tennis programs, found that during the initial stages of integrated participation, subjects without
disabilities perceived their disabled peers to be less competent than themselves. As a consequence, it is important to
investigate the potential of an activity, which, while facilitating socially integrated leisure intervention, delivers a
successful experience for people, with and without high physical support needs.
According to Roarty (1986), many people with disabilities enjoy playing computer games, painting, playing a
musical instrument, communicating, playing chess, and gambling, all of which are considered to be passive leisure
activities. This conclusion was also supported by research studies conducted by Rosen and Burchard (1990), and
Crapps, Langone, and Swaim (1985) who both found that the majority of the leisure activities engaged in by people
with disabilities tended to be passive in nature and home based. Lockwood and Lockwood (1991) found that
watching television, going to the movies or theatre, and attending social activities with family and friends were
amongst the most frequently engaged leisure activities of people with high support needs. Hanley (1996) also
identified listening to music (35%), watching television (35%), going to the movies or drive in (26.8%), reading
(16.9%), arts and crafts (14.2%), and playing computer games (12.6%) to be among the most frequently engaged
leisure activities of people with disabilities. Similarly, a study by Liverton and Patterson (1997) of a small sample of
Australians and New Zealanders with neuromuscular disorders (i.e., a group with high support needs) found
physically passive leisure activities such as spectating sport (50%), playing computer games (41%), listening to
music (34%), watching movies (31 %), watching television (25%), gambling (18%), and the use of computer
applications other than games (15%) to be amongst the most highly favoured of leisure activities.
These findings suggest that many people with high support needs are unable to engage in physically active
leisure pursuits with able-bodied peers, and as a result of their level of disability, prefer to engage in physically
passive leisure activities. Thus, it seems important to investigate the effect of one of the cited passive leisure
activities for facilitating social integration, computer game play as a catalyst for facilitating socially integrated leisure
experiences.
Computer Game Play's Potential as a Catalyst for Socially Integrated Leisure
Several authors have identified that the playing of computer games is one of the most important passive leisure
activities frequently engaged in by people with disabilities (Hanley, 1996; Liverton & Patterson, 1997; Roarty, 1986).
A study by Liverton and Patterson (1997), found that over 70% of people in his study between the ages of 15 and 30
years with a neuromuscular disorder, preferred playing computer games to fishing in the outdoors. In addition,
Journal of Leisurability
approximately 40% of people with high support needs regarded playing computer games to be one of their most
favoured leisure activities, with all participating at least once a week, either alone (80%) or with friends (50%)
(Liverton & Patterson, 1997).
Whilst the findings of these studies s. suggest that computer game play is popular with many people with high
support needs, unless able-bodied people also seek the same leisure experiences, computer game play does not
have the same potential as a facilitator of social integration. Therefore, it is important to examine the findings of
leisure participation studies to ascertain if computer game play is also popular with the able bodied populations.
According to pediatricians from the Frazier Rehabilitation Centre (USA), all children are inherently attracted to
and highly motivated by computer games, especially those which occur in virtual reality settings (Klein, Mehl, Mehl, &
Gupta, 1996). McClure (1985) found, in an attitudinal study of adolescents and older adults, that younger players
enjoyed playing computer games and were more likely to have home access to a personal computer than older
adults. From an Australia wide perspective, the National Recreation Participation Survey (1991) found that 11 %
(n=2103) of the sample, that is subjects aged 15 years and over, played computer games (Veal, 1993). In addition, a
national telephone survey conducted by McNair (1996) concluded that 41 (n=2055) of the sample, that is, subjects
aged 18 years and over, had access to a personal computer in their own homes.
To highlight the magnitude of computer game usage, in 1993 the worldwide computer game market was
valued at an estimated 10 billion U.S. dollars (Jolivalt, 1994 cited in Samuel, 1996). Of that figure, the U.S.A market
alone accounted for 5.3 billion dollars. In the same year, it was estimated that approximately 50 million households in
the U.S.A., and 7 million households in France were equipped with a computer game machine. This equates to
approximately one in three families with children in each of these nations being equipped for computer game play. In
addition, children from the U.S.A, who own a computer game machine, on average, play one and a half hours a day
(Jolivalt, 1994 cited in Samuel, 1996).
Collectively, these findings suggest that computer game play is a popular leisure activity, which has strong
catalytic potential for the fostering of socially integrated leisure participation between people with and without
disabilities. However, unless both parties stand to benefit on a personal and social level from engaging in computer
game play, shared enthusiasm for an activity is insufficient reason for it to be used as a catalyst.
The Benefits of Playing Computer Games
According to Galbally (1990), any form of technology, which serves as a catalyst for greater community integration
and equitable leisure, education, and employment opportunities should be utilized. In particular, recent advances in
computer and communication based technology present a great opportunity for people with disabilities to attain equal
access to all lifestyle opportunities (Langer, 1985). Hedbring (1985) and Progner (1995) also claimed the importance
of computer technology in the facilitation of social interaction of people with disabilities.
Based on several years of direct observation and work with people who have profound learning and multiple
disabilities, Pronger (1995) noted that feelings of success and challenge have often been exhibited through the
playful application of computers. Hedbring (1985) supported these observations stating that advances in computer
hardware, software, communication, and input devices have enabled many children with disabilities to interact more
fully with their social environment. Durkin (1995) regarded computer game play to be a highly active, interactive, and
involving social activity which can be shared by adults, children, and families alike. Computer game play should be
viewed as an enthusiastic contest through which a sought goal can be accomplished rather than a highly competitive
and addictive activity (Durkin, 1995). Although the findings of some research studies have suggested that computer
game play incites violent or aggressive behaviour amongst children (Kinder & Page, cited in Samuel,1996), other
research findings have suggested that computer game play can also contribute to the alleviation of stress and
violence (Prezeau cited in Samuel,1996).
To substantiate the benefits of computer technology based play for people with and without disabilities,
several authors (Braun & Giroux, 1989; Hedbring, 1985; Elliot, 1987; Mitchel, 1985; Morlock, Yando, & Nigolean,
1985; Pronger, 1995) claimed a range of social and individual benefits. In terms of research on the social benefits of
computer play applications, increased social interaction emerged as the most important outcome. Both Elliot's (1987)
study of pre-school children and Progner's (1995) research with children with disabilities, found that playing problemsolving computer games acted as an excellent catalyst for the elements of socially interactive behaviour such as
talking, sharing, and co-operation. Mitchel's (1985, cited in Braun & Giroux, 1989) study found that increased family
ties and social interaction can be attributed to playing computer games. Research conducted on adolescent
Computer Game Play as a Potential Catalyst for Social Integration
computer game players by Morlock, Yando, and Nigolean (1985) and Braun and Giroux (1989) also supported the
argument that frequent game play can be attributed to the opportunity to participate and compete with others. In
addition, Prezeau (1994, cited in Samuel, 1996) has observed, by means of the communicative networking of
teenage computer game players, that social reintegration occurred for many who had previously moved to the
fringes of society, that is individuals who had demonstrated behaviour of an antisocial nature.
In addition to facilitating social benefits, the interactive nature of computer technology also contributes to the
benefits associated with solitary play experiences. Consequently, increased cognitive competence, independence,
and personal satisfaction have emerged as individual benefits. A research study by Morlock, Yando, and Nigolean
(1985) revealed that an important motive for solitary play is to master complex games. Braun and Giroux (1989)
stated that computer games, "promote tremendous mental exertion in a sort of perpetual cognitive motor
gymnastics" (p.100). Thus, according to Elliot (1987) and Progner(1995), a significant outcome of solitary computer
game play is increased cognitive competence. In addition, Barnes (1980, cited in Elliot, 1987) found that pre school
children who engage in solitary computer game play exhibited a greater desire for individual achievement,
independence, and personal satisfaction.
Based on the findings of these research studies, and comments from several authors, participating in
computer game play can be highly beneficial for people with high support needs, both on a personal and social level.
Thus, the playing of computer games may be regarded as an appropriate catalyst for the facilitation of socially
integrated leisure participation.
Background to the Study
Aim Of Study
To determine whether computer game play can legitimately claim to be utilized as a catalyst for the socially
integrated leisure participation, however, an investigative study needs to be conducted on the effect that computer
game play has upon the fundamental leisure concepts which underpin leisure socialization (the perceived leisure
competence and control) and integration process. As such, the remainder of this paper will focus its attention upon a
recently conducted study which examined the effect that a computer games social play setting (integrated/solitary),
and resultant game play outcome (win/loss), has upon the perceived leisure competence and control of individuals
with and without high support needs.
Theoretical Framework
Leisure socialization is a life long process through which individuals continually acquire basic knowledge about
leisure and recreation, form fundamental leisure attitudes and values, and learn various leisure skills and motives
(Iso-Ahola, 1980). Iso-Ahola (1980) further demonstrated the process of leisure socialization through his social
involvement model. This model postulated that individuals' levels of perceived competence and perceived control
were determined by their personal repertoire of experiences, and the imposed influence of social agents that occur
through engagement in leisure activities. Inevitably, these acquired perceptions collectively determine individuals'
levels of leisure involvement and the success of future experiences. Therefore, if individuals perceive themselves to
be incompetent or controlled while at leisure, due to the influence of internal or external factors, the corresponding
level of leisure functioning is also likely to be substantially lower.
According to Seligman (1975, cited in Iso-Ahola, 1980), diminution of perceived competence, perceived
control, and leisure functioning can result in the psychological state known as learned helplessness. Symptoms of
helplessness include a lack of desire to participate in leisure activities, apathy, depression, chronic boredom, and the
loss of self-esteem. For those who have experienced the effects of social deprivation, such as people with
disabilities, the symptoms associated with helplessness are often present (Ellis & Niles, 1985; Iso-Ahola, 1980;
Patterson, 1992).
For people with disabilities, the causes of leisure incompetence and control diminution relate directly to the
"wounding" practices exhibited by society (Wolfensberger cited in Thompson, 1990). Several authors have supported
this notion, citing that negative attitudes, segregation, and labeling are amongst the most common practices that
discriminate against people with disabilities (Iso-Ahola, 1980; Thompson, 1990; Yucker, 1977). Yuker (1977) further
stated that these practices can only serve to reinforce society's misconceptions of difference and deny social agents
the ability to relate effectively, learn similar things, and develop the same interests as people with disabilities.
To assist people with disabilities in the restoration of their psychological and social skills, especially those relating to
diminished perceptions of competence and control, a number of authors have supported intervention through socially
Journal of Leisurability
integrated leisure participation (Elliot, 1987; Hedrick, 1985; Iso-Ahola & Mannell, 1985; Kelly, 1978; Roarty, 1986;
Shewchuk & Elliott, 1995; Yuker, 1977). While there is strong support for the restoration of perceived competence
and control of people with disabilities through socially integrated leisure participation, the majority of these studies
have neglected to address several factors. Firstly, none of the cited studies have taken into account the specific
needs of different groups of people with disabilities, especially those with high support needs. Secondly, the cited
studies have concentrated on leisure intervention through outdoor camping and physically active sporting pursuits,
activities which could be regarded as inappropriate for people with high support needs due to the physical demands
of an activity and the difficulties associated with gaining convenient access to an activity. Thirdly, according to Roarty
(1986, p.11) many "people by the nature of their disability are often prevented from competing or participating with
able bodied people" on an equal basis. As such, it is important to investigate the effect that a more appropriate form
of socially integrated leisure intervention will have upon the perceived competence and control of people with high
physical support needs.
Several authors have identified computer based play as being one of the most highly sought after and
beneficial of all leisure activities, especially for those with high support needs (Galbally, 1990; Hedbring, 1985;
Langer, 1985; Liverton, 1997; Progner, 1995; Roarty, 1986). In addition, the present demand for computer game play
by people with and without disabilities would suggest that would suggest that computer game play offers a great
potential for facilitating socially integrated leisure participation (Jolivalt, 1994 cited in Samuel, 1996; McNair, 1996;
Veal, 1993).
Significance of the Study
Research has suggested that participation in socially integrated leisure activities assists in the restoration of a
person's perceived leisure competence and leisure control. Therefore, it is important to investigate how this process
can be best facilitated. Leisure intervention which takes into account the specific needs and limitations of people with
high support needs and encourages socially integrated participation therefore needs to be explored. After
considering the frequency of engagement, the physical demands, the convenience of access, and the nondiscriminatory social application of the activity, computer game play was selected as the most appropriate form of
leisure intervention. Due to the absence of studies pertaining to the specific leisure needs of people with high support
needs, and their use of integrated computer game play as a facilitator of increased perceived leisure competence
and leisure control, a comprehensive study of this kind would provide a significant contribution to the existing body of
knowledge.
Considering that both people with, and without high support needs alike seek out computer game play
experiences, it can be hypothesized that integrated computer game play holds the catalytic properties necessary to
increase the levels of perceived competence and control of individuals with high support needs. In an effort to
substantiate this claim, the direct effect of computer game play upon levels of leisure competence and control was
investigated. In addition, due to a dearth of information pertaining to the specific computer usage, behaviour of
individuals with and without high support needs also prompts further exploration.
Methodology
A purposive sample of 60 subjects was selected, of which 30 had high physical support needs and 30 were able
bodied. The subjects were between the ages of 12 and 35 years, and resided within South East Queens land,
Australia. A quasi experiment of pretest-posttest-control group-design was conducted. Based on the functional ability
and the researcher's assignment of interventionist treatments (integrated computer game play, solitary computer
game play, and no computer game play), subjects were randomly assigned into one of the six test groups of ten. To
effectively measure the anticipated changes to perceived leisure competence and leisure control, modified versions
of Witt and Ellis' (1989) 20-item perceived leisure competence Likert scale, and 16 item perceived leisure control
Likert scales were utilized. From these, pre and post intervention scores were obtained and the difference between
each calculated. Likewise, a 3-point Likert scale was utilized to measure game outcome. In addition, a self
administered survey questionnaire of closed ended and open-ended questions attained further data that related to
the socio-demographic characteristics, and computer usage behaviours of subjects (Liverton, 1997).
Computer Game Play as a Potential Catalyst for Social Integration
Table 1: Socio-demographic Characteristics of Subjects
Results
The study found that neither integrated nor solitary computer game play (nature of participation) significantly
increased (at the 0.5 level of variance) the perceived leisure competence (f = 0.60; d.f. = 2,54; ns) and or the
perceived leisure control (f =.45;d.f. = 2,54; ns) of people with, or without high physical support needs (the functional
ability of computer game players). In addition, it was found that the outcomes of computer game play were not
significantly predictive of changes to either perceived leisure competence or leisure control. Finally, although the
perceived leisure competence and control scores within gender, computer game play preference, and the primary
source of computer varied significantly pre and post test, they did not have a significant effect upon the perceived
leisure competence or control scores when added to each of the assigned factors (nature of participation, the
functional ability of computer game players) (Liverton, 1997). In addition, a summary of the more noteworthy findings
that relate to both the sociodemographic characteristics and the Computer Usage Behaviour of the study's subjects
are outlined respectively in Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 2: Computer Usage Behaviour of Subjects
Discussion
Leisure Intervention Catalyst: Computer Game Play
Previous research studies have supported the positive relationship between leisure participation and perceived
control (IsoAhola, 1980; Thompson,1990; Witt & Ellis,1989), and leisure intervention and perceived competence (IsoAhola,1980). To substantiate these findings, this study utilized computer game play as a form of leisure intervention.
As previously identified, computer game play was selected on the basis that it is a frequently engaged passive
leisure activity (Jolivalt, 1995 Cited In Samuel, 1996; Klein et al., 1996; McClure, 1985; McNair, 1996; Veal, 1993)
which offers substantial benefits for all members of the community, especially those with high support needs
Journal of Leisurability
(Hanley,1996; Hedbring,1985; Langer,1985; Liverton & Patterson, 1997; Progner,1995; Roarty,1986). These benefits
have increased social interaction (Braun & Giroux, 1989; Durkin, 1995; Elliot, 1987; Mitchel,1985; Morlock et
al.,1985; Progner,1995), increased cognitive competence (Elliot,1987; Morlock et al., 1985; Progner, 1995),
increased independence, and personal satisfaction (Elliot, 1987).
Contrary to the previous findings however, this study found that as a form of leisure intervention, computer
game play did not have a significant effect upon individuals' ability to increase their level of perceived leisure
competence or control.
Although computer game play, whether engaged in with or without another person assisted in maintaining
levels of perceived competence and control, not playing computer games had the same effect. Therefore, whereas
the playing of computer games can be regarded as an appropriate catalyst for the facilitation of the aforementioned
benefits, the results of this study suggest that computer game play is not necessarily an appropriate catalyst for
increased levels of perceived leisure competence or perceived leisure control. As such, computer game play, as a
leisure interventionist treatment, may be ineffectual for increasing levels of either perceived leisure competence or
leisure control.
However it is noted that prior to group assignment, those who preferred to play computer games maintained
significantly higher levels of perceived competence between the pre and post test. Likewise, those who already had
home access to a computer also maintained significantly higher levels of perceived leisure control between the pre
and post test. Thus, these findings suggest that previous involvement with computers and game play (ie.
experienced versus novice) is likely to have already facilitated increased levels of perceived leisure competence and
control. If this is the case, a "ceiling effect" may have been present during the intervention stage, that is irrespective
of whether a subject received the intervention or not, a maximum level of perceived leisure competence and control
had been established previously (Boston University School of Medicine, 1997).
Functional Ability
Based on the findings of previous studies, people with disabilities, especially those with high support needs, are
perceived to be less competent than able bodied peers (Hedrick,1986), feel controlled by others (Thompson,1990),
and differ in their desire to learn about the same things or develop the same interests, leisure or otherwise, as people
without disabilities (Thompson,1990; Yucker,1977).
Contrary to these findings, however, this study found that the levels of perceived leisure competence and
control do not differ significantly amongst people of differing functional abilities, either before or after playing a series
of computer games. Therefore, both for people with or without high support needs, the playing of computer games
whether that be with, or without another person, appear to maintain an individual's level of perceived competence
and control. Thus, it seems that the physical abilities of individuals do not necessarily determine the perception that
they hold about their corresponding level of leisure competence and control.
Nature of Participation
Based on the previous findings, socially integrated leisure is highly beneficial for people with disabilities, especially
those with high support needs (Crilley,1994; Hawkins & Freeman,1993; Hutchison & McGill, 1998). For the purpose
of this study however, feelings of control (IsoAhola,1980; Kurtz & Propst,1991; Thompson,1990; Witt & Ellis,1989)
and greater perceived competence (Hedrick, 1985; Iso-Ahola,1980; Searle et al., 1995) were found to be amongst
the benefits attributed directly to participation in socially integrated leisure.
Contrary to these findings, this study found that the levels of perceived leisure competence and control do not
differ significantly between differing types of participation, or social settings, either before or after playing a series of
computer games. Therefore, whether the person has a disability or is able bodied, computer game play merely
serves to maintain levels of perceived competency and control, and it does so similarly for people who do, or do not
(control setting) play a computer game with (integrated setting) or without another person (solitary setting). As such,
the social setting that computer game play occurs in does not necessarily determine the perceptions that people hold
about their level of leisure competence and control.
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, it could be deduced that regardless of a person's functional ability or the
participatory setting that computer game play experiences occur in, neither factor alone or combined, significantly
Computer Game Play as a Potential Catalyst for Social Integration
increases levels of perceived leisure competence or perceived leisure control. In addition, although computer game
play is regarded by many researchers to be highly beneficial as a form of intervening leisure treatment, it also does
not appear to have the catalytic qualities necessary for raising the levels of either perceived leisure competence or
perceived leisure control.
While these findings appear to repudiate the findings of other leisure research literature, it is evident that
regardless of the participatory setting that computer game play experiences occur in, it equitably contributes to the
maintenance of perceived leisure competence and perceived leisure control, for people with and without high support
needs alike. Bearing this in mind, as a leisure activity that is frequently engaged in for its own sake, computer game
play can still claim to assist in the elimination of many of the physical barriers which have previously prevented
people with high support needs and people who are able bodied from participating together in an socially integrated
environment.
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*
Jason Liverton, (BA Honours (Leisure Management)) is currently a part-time Griffith University scholar
undertaking a PhD (Leisure Management) thesis in the area of serious leisure as a vocational option for people with
serious illnesses and disabilities. In addition, Jason works in the Therapeutic Recreation field in Brisbane, Australia,
Computer Game Play as a Potential Catalyst for Social Integration
working part-time as a disability awareness presenter for Access Arts Inc. and, voluntarily developing his own
Disability & Leisure Consultancy Service and its associated web page (url;
http://www.geocities.com/CollegePark/Lab/5515/). He has had several journal articles published and has been
granted awards for both academic writing and community services.
Other articles from this issue:
The UN Convention as a Basis for Elaborating Rights of Children in Sport
Kristine De Martelaer, Paul De Knop, Marc Threeboom, and Lies Van Heddegem
Understanding Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:
Strategies and Consideration for Inclusion of Youth
Barbra Litner and Lisa Ostiguy
Recreation Programming for the Adolescent with Cancer
Orazio Caroleo
Leisure Education as a Rehabilitative Tool For Youth in Incarcerated Settings
Brenda Robertson
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