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Physical Sciences
Chemistry Grade 10
Textbook and
Workbook
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Santie du Plessis • Carlien Fanoy
Marga Koelman • Patricia Lees-Rolfe
Judy McDougall • Hela Roux
Doret Spykerman • Clarisa Steyn
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Doc Scientia
Posbus 7011
Ansfrere
1711
www.docscientia.co.za
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For any queries and feedback:
[email protected]
Jacques Fanoy or Stephan Fanoy
Office: 011 472 8728
Fax: 086 546 1423
ISBN: 978-1-920537-13-5
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First edition December 2009
Second edition December 2010
Third edition December 2011
Revised edition December 2012; 2013; 2014; 2015
Graphic design: Helene Jonck
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form or by any means –
mechanical or electronic, including recordings or tape recordings and
photocopying – without the prior permission of the publisher.
INDEX
Unit
Page
KNOWLEDGE AREA
MATTER AND MATERIALS
13
Unit 1
MACROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER
13
Activity 1
15
Case study: Mopani worms
16
1.1
17
Mixtures
19
1.2
20
Pure substances
Activity 2
Practical activity 2
1.3
Names and formulae of substances
Activity 3
Exercise 1
Properties of materials
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1.4
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Practical activity 1
Unit 2
22
23
28
29
31
Practical activity 3
32
Activity 4
34
1.4.1
35
Electrical conductors and insulators
Experiment 1
35
1.4.2
37
Thermal conductors and insulators
Experiment 2
37
1.4.3
39
Magnetic and non-magnetic materials
Experiment 3
39
Exercise 2
41
Summary of Unit1
43
Mind maps of Unit 1
44
STATES OF MATTER AND THE KINETIC
MOLECULAR THEORY
45
2.1
45
States of matter
Practical activity 4
45
2.1.1
46
Different states
Practical activity 5
2.1.2
Determining the state of a substance by looking
at melting and boiling points
51
51
Exercise 3
52
Experiment 4
53
2.2
56
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Unit 3
21
The kinetic molecular theory
Exercise 4
57
Summary of Unit 2
60
Mind maps of Unit 2
62
THE ATOM: THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF ALL
MATTER
63
3.1
63
Atomic models
Activity 5
65
3.2
66
Atomic structure
Activity 6
68
3.3
69
Isotopes
Exercise 5
70
3.4
73
Electron configuration
Exercise 6
75
Summary of Unit 3
Mind maps of Unit 3
81
THE PERIODIC TABLE
83
4.1
Composition
83
4.2
Information
84
4.2.1
General information
84
4.2.2
Zigzag line
85
4.2.3
Valence electrons
85
4.2.4
Reactivity
86
4.2.5
Atomic mass and atomic number
86
4.2.6
Trends in the Periodic Table (periodicity)
Activity 7
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Unit 4
78
Atomic radius
4.2.8
Ionisation energy
4.2.9
Electron affinity
4.2.10
Electronegativity
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4.2.7
90
92
91
93
Exercise 7
94
Mind maps of Unit 4
98
101
CHEMICAL BONDS
103
5.1
104
Covalent bonds
Exercise 8
105
5.2
Ionic bonds
106
5.3
Metallic bonds
107
Practical activity 6
107
Exercise 9
108
Summary of Unit 5
110
MATTER IS COMPOSED OF PARTICLES
111
Experiment 5
112
Practical activity 7
113
6.1
Chemical bonds
114
6.1.1
Covalent bonds
114
6.1.1.1
Covalent molecular structures
114
Case study: The buckyball or buckminsterfullerene
114
6.1.1.2
Covalent network structures (macromolecules)
116
6.1.2
Ionic bonds
116
6.1.3
Metallic bonds
117
6.2
Different types of formulae
117
6.2.1
Molecular formulae
117
6.2.2
Empirical formulae
117
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Unit 6
90
Activity 8
Summary of Unit 4
Unit 5
87
89
Practical activity 8
117
6.3
118
Models of molecules
Activity 9
119
Exercise 10
121
Summary of Unit 6
122
Mind maps of Unit 6
123
Question paper
124
KNOWLEDGE AREA
CHEMICAL CHANGE
131
Unit 1
PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGE
131
1.1
Separation of particles
131
1.1.1
Physical change
131
1.1.1.1
Change of condition (state)
132
Practical activity 9
134
1.1.1.2
Change of shape
135
1.1.1.3
Colour change
136
Exercise 11
136
1.1.2
138
Chemical change
Practical activity 10
139
1.1.3
140
Experiment 6
Experiment 7 (demonstration)
Exercise 12
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Change in particles and mass
1.2
Laws
1.2.1
Law of constant composition
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Practical activity 11
Unit 2
141
143
144
144
145
1.2.2
Law of conservation of mass
146
1.2.3
Law of volume relationships in gas reactions
146
Practical activity 12
147
Experiment 8
148
Experiment 9
148
Exercise 13
150
Summary of Unit 1
151
Mind maps of Unit 1
153
WRITING AND BALANCING CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
155
2.1
155
Balancing of chemical reactions
Exercise 14
2.2
Energy changes
158
159
Exercise 15
160
Summary of Unit 2
161
Mind maps of Unit 2
162
REACTIONS IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
163
3.1
Ions in aqueous solutions
163
3.1.1
Dissociation and ionisation
164
3.1.2
Hydration
165
3.1.3
Chemical equation for the dissolution process
165
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Unit 3
140
Practical activity 13
166
Case study: Hard and soft water
167
Case study: Acid rain
168
Exercise 16
170
3.2
Electrolysis and the extent of ionisation as a
measure of conductivity
171
Experiment 10
172
Exercise 17
173
3.3
Precipitation reactions
174
3.3.1
What is a precipitation reaction?
174
3.3.2
Method of writing equations for the precipitate
reactions
175
3.3.3
Tests for anions
175
Experiment 11
176
Exercise 18
178
3.4
Other chemical reactions in aqueous solutions
181
3.4.1
Ion exchange reactions
181
A. Precipitation reactions
181
B. Gas formation
181
C. Acid base reactions (transfer of protons)
182
Redox reactions
184
3.4.2
Experiment 12
185
Summary of Unit 3
Mind maps of Unit 3
191
193
4.1
The mole concept
193
4.1.1
Atomic mass
4.1.2
Molar mass and formula mass
196
196
Exercise 20
198
4.2.1
The relationship between mole, mass and molar mass
199
4.2.2
Empirical formula
200
Exercise 21
202
4.3
Determining the composition of compounds
204
4.3.1
Determine the amount of mol water of crystallisation in
copper(II)sulphate
204
4.3.2
Percentage composition of a compound
204
Exercise 22
205
4.4
Molar gas volume and concentration
206
4.4.1
Molar gas volume
206
Exercise 23
207
4.4.2
210
Concentration
Exercise 24
211
4.5
Stoichiometric calculations
212
4.5.1
Calculations based on balanced equations
212
Exercise 25
215
Summary of Unit 4
218
Mind maps of Unit 4
220
Question paper
221
CHEMICAL SYSTEMS
227
HYDROSPHERE
227
1.
Why is water important?
228
2.
The water cycle is necessary because...
228
3.
Processes in a hydrosphere
230
4.
The distribution of water
231
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KNOWLEDGE AREA
189
QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL CHANGE
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Unit 4
187
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Exercise 19
Exercise 26
232
5.
Systems on earth
235
6.
How does sunlight influence the water cycle?
237
7
The hydrosphere’s interaction with
238
7.1
Atmosphere
238
7.2
Biosphere
238
7.3
Lithosphere
239
8.
Influence of dams on the environment
240
241
Project: Quality and purity of water
242
Exercise 27
243
Summary of Knowledge Area
248
Mind maps of Knowledge Area
250
Question paper
253
Information sheets
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Work cited
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Activity 10
257
259
Name
Teacher
Assessment
Term
Term 1
Activity
Control test
Mark
Parent
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Experiment
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Class/Combination
Term 2
Class test
Experiment
Exam
Term 3
Control test
Project
Term 4
Class test
PROGRAM OF FORMAL ASSESSMENT FOR GRADE 10
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ASSESSMENT TASKS (25%)
TERM 1
TERM 2
TERM 3
20% Experiment
20% Experiment
20% Project
10% Control test
20% Mid-year
Examination
(1½ hours)
10% Control test
Total: 30 marks
Total: 40 marks
Total: 30 marks
Total = 400 marks
Final mark = 25% Assessment tasks + 75% Final exam
END-OF-YEAR
ASSESSMENT (75%)
TERM 4
2 × Final Examinations –
Paper 1 and 2
(2 × 150 marks = 300
marks)
Total: 300 marks
KNOWLEDGE AREA:
MATTER AND
MATERIALS
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Matter and materials
Macroscopic
properties of matter
Matter is composed
of particles.
The atom
Periodic Table
Chemical bonds
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States of matter
and the kinetic
molecular theory
UNIT 1
MACROSCOPIC PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Mixtures
Pure substances
Macroscopic
properties of matter
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Names and formulae
Properties
Electrical conductors
and insulators
Thermal conductors
and insulators
Magnetic and nonmagnetic materials
Matter is everything that:
has mass and
occupies space.
Matter consists of three states, namely: solid, liquid and gas.
All matter is made up of small particles of elements from the Periodic Table. These small particles
determine the properties and reactivity of the substance.
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matter and materials
The properties of matter can be divided as follows:
Macroscopic properties
Microscopic properties
Cannot be experienced by your senses.
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Can be experienced by your senses.
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Properties of matter
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Examples
Strength of material
Thermal properties
Electrical properties
Magnetic properties
Solubility
Brittleness, ductility and malleability
Tensile strength
Melting and boiling points
Examples
• Constituent atoms
• Types of bonds
• Intermolecular forces
Matter is used to manufacture items essential to humans (food, clothes, accommodation, transport,
security systems, etc.).
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The properties of matter are determined by its composition.
A substance is chosen for a purpose according to its properties. A few examples:
• Steel is chosen for construction due to its strength.
• Metals are ductile and can be pulled into wires, which are then used for:
-- security systems.
-- conducting wires, since metals are good conductors of electricity.
• Metals are malleable. They can be reshaped into sheets, which are then used to produce pots and
pans, for example.
• Substances that have magnetic properties are used to produce magnets and electromagnets. Iron
and steel are examples of this.
• Handles of pots and pans are made out of wood or rubber as they are good thermal insulators.
• Aluminium is light and does not rust, so it can be used for window frames and door frames.
• Rubber is used to make wetsuits, as it is waterproof. A layer of air is trapped between the diver and
the suit, which acts as a good thermal insulator and keeps the diver warm.
• Plastic is used for raincoats and umbrellas, as it is also waterproof.
• Wool can trap air between its fibres and is therefore a good thermal insulator. Wool is used to
produce blankets, jerseys, jackets and other warm clothing.
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matter and materials
Activity 1Date:
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Work in groups of two and look at the labels of five products, for example: instant coffee, potato crisps,
tinned vegetables, apricot jam and packets of pasta and sauce.
Complete the following table.
Product
Ingredients
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Instant coffee
Potato crisps
Tinned vegetables
Apricot jam
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Packet of pasta and sauce
1.
What do the different ingredients tell you about the product?
___________________________________________________________________________
2.
Why are the ingredients mentioned on the label?
___________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________
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matter and materials
Quick facts
A substance that is added in small quantities
to improve the flavour, e.g. MSG.
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Additive: Preservative: Substance used to preserve and protect, e.g. sulfur dioxide.
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Ingredients: The substances of which the product is composed.
Case studyDate:
Mopani worms
Read the following passage and then answer the
questions:
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Certain indigenous South Africans use Mopani worms
as a source of protein. This has developed into a
profitable industry with low costs, few overheads and a
protein-rich food source.
Mopani worms are the edible species of the caterpillar
Gonimbrasia belina. Other traditional names for the
Mopani worm are: mashonja (Botswana: Kalanga), phane (Botswana: Setswana), mašotša (South
Africa: Sepedi), mashonzha (South Africa: Tshivenda), finkubala (Zambia), mcimbi (Zimbabwe:
Ndebele) and omagungu (Namibia).
The worms are usually found in Mopani trees, which are predominately found in grassland and
bushveld.
When the worms are collected, the tail is cut off and the slimy green innards are squeezed out
like toothpaste.
The worms can be preserved in the following ways:
• Squashed flat and dried in the sun.
• Smoked, which results in a very different flavour.
• Industrially pickled and bottled.
The dried worms can be eaten just as they are. They do not have much flavour, and taste like
dried leaves. They are often marinated and served with tomato or chilli sauce.
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They can also be marinated and roasted until crisp. Nowadays they are served as a speciality
dish in some upmarket restaurants.
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Questions:
1.
Name and discuss three types of preservation that are mentioned in the case study.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
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_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
2.
Name and discuss two other types of preservation used in industry.
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
3
What is a preservative?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
Name one preservative mentioned in the case study.
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4.
_____________________________________________________________________
Matter can be classified as mixtures or pure substances (consists of a single element or compound). This
is revision of work done in Grade 9.
1.1
Mixtures
Mixtures are common in our everyday lives: we breathe a mixture of gases in the air; we eat fruit salad;
boerewors is a mixture of meat, fat and spices.
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There are two types of mixtures.
Mixtures
Homogeneous mixture
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What are the properties of a mixture?
• The components are not in a fixed ratio.
• The components keep their own properties.
• The components can be separated easily by physical means.
Heterogeneous mixture
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A homogeneous mixture is a mixture with a uniform composition (that will remain constant for a period
of time).
This means that the components of a homogeneous mixture:
• cannot be distinguished from each other.
• are in the same state.
Examples
-- Air is a mixture of different gases – all in the same state.
-- Alloys are mixtures of metals.
-- Cool drink concentrate in water consists of two liquids that are mixed.
Quick facts
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The following alloys consist of:
brass: mixture of copper and zinc
steel: mixture of iron and carbon
bronze: mixture of copper and tin
stainless steel: mixture of iron, chrome and nickel
A heterogeneous mixture is a mixture with a non-uniform composition. Particles can be
distinguished.
This means that the components of a heterogeneous mixture:
•
are not in the same state.
Examples: mud, smoke from a fire
•
are easily distinguishable.
Examples: cool drink and ice cubes, potjiekos (meat, vegetables and gravy)
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matter and materials
Quick facts
Examples
Examples of mixtures:
Components
Type of mixture
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Example
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Blood is a heterogeneous mixture because it consists of different
particles (like platelets, plasma, etc.) that are not necessarily spread
uniformly.
Air
Nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide
An alcoholic drink
Alcohol in water
Brine
Salt in water
Steel
Carbon in iron
Smoke from a fire
Soot and ash in air
Salad dressing
Oil, vinegar, water and herbs
Mud
Sand in water
Orange juice
Fruit pulp in fruit juice
Dough
Flour, eggs and milk
Carbonated (fizzy) cool
drink
Carbon dioxide in cool drink
Practical activity 1
Homogeneous mixture:
Uniform composition (will remain
constant for a period of time).
Heterogeneous mixtures:
- Particles are not uniform.
- Can be distinguished.
Date:
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Work in a small group and make the following mixtures:
• Sand and water
• Potassium dichromate crystals (K2Cr2O7) and water
• Iodine and ethanol
• Iodine and water
Complete the following table.
Mixture
Heterogeneous or
homogeneous?
Are the constituent particles
distinguishable?
Sand and water
Potassium dichromate crystals
(K2Cr2O7) and water
Iodine and ethanol
Iodine and water
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matter and materials
1.
What is a homogeneous mixture?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
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2.
What is a heterogeneous mixture?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
1.2 Pure substances
Pure substances can be elements or compounds. They are substances with one type of constituent
particle.
Pure substances
Elements
Examples: Na, Fe, O2
Compounds
Examples: H2O, NaCℓ
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Pure substances
Composed of only one type of particle. They can be elements or
compounds (different elements bonded together by a chemical
reaction).
Elements
Compounds
A pure substance consisting of
only one type of atom.
20
A pure substance consisting of
two or more types of atoms that
are chemically bonded.
Mixture
Composed of different elements
and/or compounds.
CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
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matter and materials
Pure substances
Composed of only one type of particle. They can be elements or
compounds (different elements bonded together by a chemical
reaction).
Elements
Compounds
A substance that can be broken
down into simpler particles.
Can be separated mechanically.
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A substance that cannot be
broken down into simpler
substances.
Mixture
Particles cannot be broken down.
Particles can only be broken
down by chemical means.
Can be separated by physical
means (hand sorting, separating
funnel, distillation, evaporation,
etc.).
Smallest particle is either an
atom, a diatomic element (e.g.
H2), a molecule of the same atom
(e.g. S8) or a positive ion (metallic
bond).
Smallest particle is a
molecule (covalent bond) or
an ion (ionic bond).
Particles are according to
composition of mixture.
Examples:
Mg, Cu, Zn, S, F2, S8
Examples:
H2O, HCℓ, NaCℓ
Examples:
Air, mixed vegetables, sugar
solution
Activity 2Date:
1
Classify the following as pure substances or mixtures.
Substance
Pure substance or mixture
Blood
1.2
Dyes
1.3
Self-raising flour
1.4
Muesli
1.5
Copper wire
1.6
Distilled water
1.7
Table salt
1.8
Milk
1.9
Bronze
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1.1
1.10 Tea
1.11 Oxygen
1.12 Air
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matter and materials
Classify the following as homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures, or pure substances. If it is a pure substance, state whether it is an element or a compound.
Substance
Sugar
2.2
Magnesium ribbon
2.3
Vegetable soup
2.4
Bath oil
2.5
Tin of assorted biscuits
2.6
Peanuts and raisins
2.7
Copper wire
2.8
Bicarbonate of soda
(Baking soda)
Pure substance:
element/compound
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2.1
Mixture:
homogeneous/
heterogeneous
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2
Practical activity 2
Date:
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Work in a small group.
• Cut some filter paper into long thin strips.
• Use four test tubes containing a small amount of water each.
• Wet a red Smartie and make a mark with it on one strip of filter paper.
• Place the strip in a test tube so that the bottom end of it just touches the water. The top end should
hang over the edge of the test tube. The mark should just be above the water level.
• Repeat these steps with the brown, green and blue Smarties.
• Allow the test tubes to stand for a while, allowing the filter paper to absorb some water.
• Make observations.
• This experiment can also be done with ink from non-permanent markers, e.g. koki’s.
red dot
22
brown dot green dot
blue dot
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matter and materials
Observations:
________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________
Conclusions:
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
1.3 Names and formulae of substances
All matter consists of elements. Elements can be grouped as follows:
Elements
Metalloids
Metals
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Left of dividing line,
e.g. Na, Mg, Zn, Pb
On either side adjacent
to the dividing line, e.g.
Si, Ge
Non-metals
Right of the line,
e.g. S, O2, Cℓ2, Br2
Interesting facts
In 1869 two scientists – the Russian, Dmitri Mendeleev and the German, Julius Lothar Meyer –
arranged the elements in a Periodic Table. Mendeleev used chemical reactivity, and Meyer the
physical properties. The two tables were suprisingly quite similar. These were the first versions of
the Periodic Table that we use today.
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matter and materials
1
2
13
14
15
16
17
18
He
H
Be
Na
Mg
K
Ca
B
C
N
O
F
Ne
Aℓ
Si
P
S
Cℓ
Ar
Ge
As
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Li
Te
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Sb
Po
At
Each element has a unique name. When compounds are formed, the name must reflect the components.
The following table applies to the naming of compounds:
Description
Example
Elements on the left of the Periodic Table are
usually named first.
NaCℓ
Sodium chloride
Names of elements on the right of the Periodic
Table change by adding -ide at the end.
CO
Carbon monoxide = oxygen changed to oxide.
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“Mono” means one, “di” means two and “tri” means CO
three, showing the number of atoms of that element. carbon monoxide – 1 O
CO2
carbon dioxide – 2 Os
NO2
nitrogen dioxide – 2 Os
SO3
sulfur trioxide – 3 Os
Some substances have common names, too.
H2O
hydrogen oxide = water
HCℓ
hydrogen chloride = hydrochloric acid =
swimming pool acid
Polyatomic ions, which always consist of the same
ratio of elements.
Na2SO4
sodium sulphate
CaSO4
calcium sulphate
MgSO4
magnesium sulphate
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matter and materials
To write a formula you need to take into account the constituents as well as the ratio in which they are
combined.
• Water consists of hydrogen and oxygen in the ratio 2:1. Therefore the formula is H2O. Two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom.
H2O
2H
E
+
+
1O
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• The number written at the bottom (subscript) refers to the preceding element. Na2SO3 has two
sodium, one sulfur and three oxygen atoms. Na:S:O are in the ratio 2:1:3
+
Na2SO3
+
+
2 Na
+
S
3O
• When there is a bracket then a subscript, the subscript refers to everything inside the bracket.
(Polyatomic ions will be discussed in more detail later.) Example: magnesium nitrate is Mg(NO3)2.
This indicates one magnesium (Mg) and two nitrate ions (NO3), in total giving two nitrogen atoms (N)
and six oxygen atoms (O).
If the brackets were left out it would have meant 32 oxygen atoms, which is impossible.
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+
Mg(NO3)2
Mg
+
+
2N
+
6O
• The formula can represent a molecule, as in H2O (water), or it could be the empirical formula, as in
NaCℓ, which represents the smallest ratio of the components in a crystal.
• Positive ions are written first and negative ions second.
+
H+
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+
Cℓ-
HCℓ
CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
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matter and materials
The following are names of ions that are used often.
Negative ions (anions)
Monoatomic ions
(the suffix of the name
changes to -ide)
OH-
Hydroxide
SO42-
Sulphate
NO3-
Nitrate
SO32-
Sulphite
NO2-
Nitrite
S2O32-
MnO4-
Permanganate
CℓO3-
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Polyatomic ions
Fluoride
Cℓ-
Chloride
Thiosulphate
Br-
Bromide
O22-
Peroxide
I-
Iodide
Chlorate
MnO42-
Manganate
S2-
Sulphide
HCO3-
Hydrogen carbonate
HPO42-
Hydrogen phosphate
N3-
Nitride
HSO3-
Hydrogen sulphite
CrO42-
Chromate
O2-
Oxide
HSO4-
Hydrogen sulphate
Cr2O72-
Dichromate
P3-
Phosphide
H2PO4-
Dihydrogen phosphate
CO32-
Carbonate
CℓO-
Hypochlorite
C2O42-
Oxalate
CH3COO-
Acetate
PO43-
Phosphate
M
PL
F-
Positive ions (cations)
Ammonium
Cu2+
Copper(II)
Aℓ3+
Aluminium
H+
Hydrogen
Ca2+
Calcium
Cr3+
Chromium(III)
K+
Potassium
Be2+
Beryllium
Fe3+
Iron(III)
H3O+
Hydronium/oxonium
Ba2+
Barium
Co3+
Cobalt(III)
Cu+
Copper(I)
Sn2+
Tin(II)
Cr6+
Chromium(VI)
Hg+
Mercury(I)
Pb2+
Lead(II)
Mn7+
Manganese(VII)
Na+
Sodium
Zn2+
Zinc(II)
Ag+
Silver
Mg2+
Magnesium
Li+
Lithium
Cr2+
Chromium(II)
Mn2+
Manganese(II)
Fe2+
Iron(II)
Co2+
Cobalt(II)
Ni2+
Nickel(II)
SA
NH4+
Be careful of the spelling of the ions. It is important that if it ends in “te” or “de” this changes the
composition of the ion.
“-ate” and “-ite” refer to the different number of oxygen atoms present.
26
CHEMISTRY textbook and workbook - Grade 10
Doc Scientia