The art of the poster
Teacher’s resources
This resource for teachers looks at some of the most influential and important artists
and graphic designers of the 20th century, and their contribution to London Transport’s
design heritage.
The resource includes notes on artists and some of their works, and suggested activities
for the classroom. There is also a glossary which can be used with the Museum’s poster
browser at www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html
The activities are designed to be adapted for different Key Stages and
curriculum areas.
You can find out more about artists, designers and posters at
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html
For The art of the poster school sessions, see the Museum’s learning pages.
For Foundation and Key Stage 1, see www.ltmuseum.co.uk/learning/178.aspx
For Key Stage 2, see www.ltmuseum.co.uk/learning/173.aspx
For Key Stage 3 and 4, see www.ltmuseum.co.uk/learning/169.aspx
Supported by
www.ltmuseum.co.uk/learning
page 1 of 36
Introduction
In the early part of the 20th century, before television and the internet, posters were the
most effective way of communicating a message to a wide audience. Posters were used
to advertise and inform to great effect.
In 1908, Frank Pick was given the responsibility for all publicity at London Underground.
The Underground needed to increase passenger numbers and Pick’s decisions relating
to publicity were motivated by this consideration alone. He had been critical of previous
publicity: it contained too much text and was too complicated to effectively convey a
message.
Pick approached poster design from every angle, trying different methods until he
found a formula that would work. He realised that for a poster to work, it had to both
attract and hold attention, and convey a message that would influence the viewer. Pick
was no artist or designer; he was a businessman, albeit a very creative one. In 1908 he
commissioned his first pictorial poster, No Need to Ask a P’liceman by John Hassall.
This very simple and effective poster was an instant hit. Hassall was already known, and
his poster was not only in a new style, it also appealed to the public.
Pick began to commission artists and designers to create posters. The same criteria
applied to all of them – they had to have a simple and uncomplicated message. The
posters were popular with the public. By the 1920s, posters were no longer seen as
street furniture, but as an art form in their own right. This attitude towards posters has
remained constant since.
Pick did see that there was more to a poster than selling transport, although he
never wished to create some sort of art gallery. He could see that by commissioning
established artists and designers, he would be enhancing the daily lives of Londoners.
This use of art in a commercial and civil setting is familiar to us today: in Pick’s time it
was radical.
Two world wars meant that this visual form of communication was bought to the fore
as a means of propaganda, and information posters were produced on a scale not really
seen before or since.
Posters remain the most direct form of mass communication. Their messages are brief,
uncomplicated and focused, and reach the widest audience every day, but their function
remains the same: to inform and influence us.
You can find out more about artists, designers and posters at
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html
Supported by
www.ltmuseum.co.uk/learning
page 2 of 36
John Bellany
John Bellany was born in Port Seton, Scotland, in 1942. He was creative as a child
and decided very early on that he wanted to be an artist. He studied at Edinburgh
College of Art and the Royal College of Art in London, and later taught at the Royal
College of Art and Goldsmiths, among others.
Bellany’s work is very distinctive, intense and highly symbolic. His early work was
very much influenced by the sea and the fishing industry in Port Seton. His family
were very religious, and there is a strong moral message in his paintings. Themes
of good, evil and sexuality are often present.
Bellany’s work has been exhibited all over the world as a solo artist, and he was
the first person to have his own one-man show at the National Portrait Gallery
in 1986.
Bellany does not state the meanings behind his paintings; he prefers the audience
to look into them to find their own interpretation. He feels that this leaves plenty
of scope for imagination.
Bellany created two very different images for London Transport. The first,
advertising London’s Chinatown in 1988, was the subject of much debate for its
content. The second, Camden Lock (1990) was painted after a period of ill-health.
It has a much fresher, brighter feel.
You can find out more about John Bellany at the London Transport Museum
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html and see other works at:
National Galleries of Scotland
National Portrait Galleries
Royal Academy of Art
Southampton City Gallery
Tate Gallery
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 3 of 36
Supported by
Chinatown, 1988
John Bellany (born 1942)
Oil – 1987/214
This painting is probably
the most controversial of
all of London Transport’s
commissions, but the
controversy happened before the
poster was actually displayed on
the Underground system. There
was concern that the poster
would cause offence and focus
groups were set up to assess
the poster’s impact. In fact, the
poster ran for three years and
during that time there were only
six letters of complaint – two
to the Evening Standard and
four to London Underground
– although the public response
to the poster was as expected.
Some people found the poster
‘sinister’ and ‘scary’.
The poster advertises travel to
Chinatown by Tube. It depicts a
Chinese banquet and includes
Chinese symbolism, although
Bellany does not interpret his
work and the symbolism in it for
his audiences. While the painting
has been described as sinister
and scary, very few people
notice the fact the woman in the
bottom left corner is topless.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 4 of 36
Supported by
Tom Eckersley
Tom Eckersley was born in Lawton, Lancashire in 1914. He showed an interest in
art as a child, and spent much of his time drawing, and later studied art at Salford
School of Art from 1930–1934. He was very much inspired and influenced by the
work of Edward McKnight Kauffer and AM Cassandre, and likewise his own work
also became very distinctive.
It was at college that Eckersley met Eric Lombers, a fellow student. They went
into business together as freelance designers. They were introduced to Frank Pick
in 1935, and their first commission for London Transport was for a panel poster
advertising London Zoo. Eckersley Lombers became a successful partnership until
the outbreak of war, when Eckersley joined the RAF and Lombers the army.
During the Second World War, Eckersley became a cartographer for the RAF, in
addition to designing posters for agencies such as the Ministry of Information and
the General Post Office.
In 1945, Eckersley and Lombers did not renew their partnership. Eckersley returned
to teaching and continued to freelance as a commercial designer.
Eckersley’s work became very popular after the war. His designs were simple, often
abstract, but the messages were always clear. He continued to gain commissions
from London Transport, Shell, BP and RoSPA, mainly due to the simplicity and
timeless nature of his work.
You can find out more about Tom Eckersley at the London Transport Museum
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html and see other works at the University
of the Arts, London.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 5 of 36
Supported by
Cup Final, 1938
Tom Eckersley (1914–1997) and
Eric Lombers (1914–1978)
Gouache (airbrush & stencil) 1995/4036
This artwork was for a poster for the 1938 FA Cup final between Huddersfield
Town and Preston North End. This cup final was an event, as it was the first to be
screened live on television, and drew an audience of around 10,000 viewers.
Eckersley and Lombard used gouache, but rather than painting with it, used it with
an airbrush and stencils. This changes the overall effect of the image, with the hard
lines of the dark stencilled areas softened by an aura of light blue.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 6 of 36
Supported by
But not in a Non-Smoker, 1945
Tom Eckersley (1914–1997)
Gouache – 2005/17396
This design was unused.
Eckersley cleverly used a
cigarette as the chimney of a
steam train. The art work is for
an information poster about
smoking in trains, but reminds
passengers that they may only
do so in smoking carriages. This
whole concept of smoking on
public transport seems alien to
us today, but it was very much
accepted until recent years.
Smoking was banned on London
Underground trains in 1984,
and banned across the whole
Underground network in 1987.
Smoking on buses was not
banned until 1991.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 7 of 36
Supported by
Boat race, 1951
Tom Eckersley (1914–1997)
Gouache – 1987/130
The annual Boat Race between Oxford and Cambridge rowing teams has been a
common subject for transport posters. This one shows two oars with scarves,
caps and megaphones in the colours of the two teams, Oxford in dark blue on the
right and Cambridge in light blue on the left.
The simple content of this poster says far more than any words can. Eckersley has
used the oars in place of people, adding the simplest of facial expressions. The
fringes of the scarves form hands to hold the megaphone. He has also used the
same light blue to symbolize the water and the Cambridge team, and the same
dark blue for the roundel and Oxford’s colours.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 8 of 36
Supported by
Abram Games
Abram Games was born Abraham Gamse in Whitechapel 1914, the son of a Latvian
photographer. His father later anglicized the family name to Games, and Abraham
became Abram.
Games studied at St Martin’s in London, but left after two terms, partly due to the
expense and partly because he felt he wasn’t learning very much. He continued
studying art, taking life classes in the evenings and working for his father during
the day. Games was hired by an art studio, but was dismissed in 1936 for
misbehaviour. He then won £20 after entering a poster designing competition and
made the decision to work as a freelancer.
As a freelance designer, Games’ career took off. He won commissions from
London Transport, Shell and the General Post Office and became known for his
simple, straightforward designs. He was a designated draughtsman during the
Second World War, creating over 100 posters for the war effort. After the war, he
returned to his career, and landed the commission for one of the most recognized
symbols of post-war Britain – the Festival of Britain logo. This symbol was seen
everywhere and was extremely popular with the public.
Games was influenced by Futurism, Surrealism and Abstraction, but always
kept his designs simple. Although he is best known for his posters, Games also
designed stamps, book covers and, strangely for an artist perhaps, a coffee
percolator and a vacuum cleaner. He also remained interested in photography, and
collected a raft of photographic images for source material.
Games was involved in all stages of production of his posters, from the concept
to the layout. He was a committed designer who was very much in touch with the
messages his work would be sending out. Games began designs in small scale,
thinking that as a finished poster would be seen from a distance, it had to work
small. He also applied a personal philosophy to designing, ‘maximum meaning,
minimum means’. By stripping his designs back to their most basic, he could get
across the message more effectively.
You can find out more about Abram Games at the London Transport Museum
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html and at the Design Museum, London.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 9 of 36
Supported by
Festival of Britain, 1951
Abram Games (1914–1996)
Gouache – 1995/4055
This iconic image was commissioned by London Transport for passengers
travelling to the Festival of Britain. The event was opened in May 1951, 100 years
after the Great Exhibition, and its purpose was to motivate and inspire Britain in
the post-war years. It was a national event, but its main centre was in London.
The image here is based on Games’ logo for the festival, and shows four red, white
and blue arrows pointing in different directions, with bunting on the arrows’ shafts.
It also features London Transport’s logo, the roundel, which appears in the top
centre of the painting. Games’ original festival design shows the head of Britannia,
compass points and bunting. The colour and use of arrows give a real sense of
movement in the design, which support the idea of Britain moving forward after
the war and the following years of austerity.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 10 of 36
Supported by
John Hassall
John Hassall was born near Deal in Kent, in 1868, the son of a naval officer. He
twice failed to get into Sandhurst and in 1888 emigrated to Canada. During his
time there he had some drawings accepted by design magazine The Graphic, and
decided to return to England two years later. He studied art in Antwerp and Paris,
and became an illustrator.
In 1900 he opened an art school in Kensington, which closed in 1914. After the
war, he ran a very successful correspondence school.
John Hassall was much influenced by Alphonse Mucha, even though their styles
differ greatly. Both used black lines to outline blocks of colour, but Hassall’s
work is far bolder. This technique lends itself to illustrating children’s books and
Hassall himself decided that fine art was never going to pay the bills so he began
illustrating books. In 1895, he began working as an advertising artist.
Hassall produced an enormous number of posters, at one point creating eight
per week. He was commissioned by Frank Pick and London Underground in 1908,
and created the first pictorial poster for the Underground – No Need to Ask a
P’liceman. This poster was a hit with the public. His work was already known as
he designed for household products (Colman’s Mustard, for example), theatre
productions and railway companies. His most famous work is the Jolly Fisherman
poster, with the tagline ‘Skegness is so Bracing’, which he also created in 1908 for
the Great Northern Railway. The poster is known the world over and there is even
a statue of the Jolly Fisherman in Skegness, but Hassall only visited the town once,
in 1936 when he was awarded the freedom of the foreshore. The Jolly Fisherman is
considered to be one of the most successful advertisements of all time.
For an artist whose work was known and liked by the public, it is sad that he died
penniless in 1948 at the age of 80.
You can find out more about John Hassall at the London Transport Museum
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html and see other works at the
V&A Museum.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 11 of 36
Supported by
No Need to ask a P’liceman, 1908
John Hassall (1868–1948)
Gouache – 1995/4093
This was the first pictorial poster
commissioned by Frank Pick
for the Underground. Previous
publicity was very wordy, but
this image changed the way the
public viewed publicity.
The poster that resulted from
this design is slightly different
from this image. The wall is
shortened and we can see
more of the ticket office behind
the policeman. The map also
includes the Underground
lettering at the top. The message
of this poster is shockingly
simple – maps tell you all you
need to know about where to go.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 12 of 36
Supported by
Edward McKnight Kauffer
Edward McKnight Kauffer was born in Montana in 1890. He was a prolific designer
for London Transport, designing around 140 posters over 25 years, and is known as
one of the most significant designers of the 20th century.
As a young man, Kauffer worked in a San Francisco bookstore during the day and
studied art in the evenings. In 1913, he left America and travelled to Europe to
continue his studies in Germany and Paris. In 1914 he arrived in London where
he met John Hassall, who referred him to Frank Pick. He was commissioned as a
poster designer in 1915, and produced as series of gouache landscapes.
Influenced by various art movements, he produced ‘Flight’, his first Cubist poster
in Britain. He continued to move through different movements, and changed
techniques and materials in order to keep his work fresh.
In 1940, he returned to the United States on the last passenger ship on the
transatlantic route: as an ‘alien’ he was unable to help with the war effort in
Britain. While he had been a celebrated artist and designer in Europe, he was
largely unknown in America until he returned.
Kauffer became one of the most influential designers of his time, producing
posters, book illustrations, theatre costume, textiles and carpets. He designed
posters for Shell, the General Post Office and the Great Western Railway, but is
probably best known for his prolific work for London Transport.
You can find out more about Edward McKnight Kauffer at the London Transport
Museum www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html, the V&A Museum and the
Design Museum, London.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 13 of 36
Supported by
Flowers of the Riverside, 1926
Edward McKnight Kauffer (1890–1954)
Gouache – 1995/4090
Kauffer worked in different
styles and media to produce the
desired effect. This image was
painted using gouache, which is
an ideal medium for large areas
of flat colour. The combination
of flowering plants and water
are reminiscent of Chinese and
Japanese design, East Asian art
forms having had some influence
in Art Deco design. This is the
artwork for a poster depicting
aspects of the river Thames. It
is accompanied on the actual
poster by lines from a Percy
Bysshe Shelley poem.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 14 of 36
Supported by
Power, 1930
Edward McKnight Kauffer (1890–1954)
Gouache – 1991/138
This is perhaps the most well
known of Kauffer’s designs
for London Transport. It is in
typical Art Deco style, though
very industrialized, with subtle
and clever usage of the London
Transport roundel within a
wheel at the end of the forearm.
The power station in the top
right corner is often mistaken
for a stylized representation
of Battersea Power Station;
Battersea had not been built at
this time. The hand is closed in
a fist, with two jagged struts like
lightening bolts which remind
the viewer of electricity.
Everything about this poster
is designed to suggest power
and strength, from the blue
veins running up the arm, to the
beautifully designed lettering
of ‘power’.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 15 of 36
Supported by
Spring in the Village, 1939 (unused)
Edward McKnight Kauffer (1890–1954)
Gouache – 1987/184
Not all designs for posters make
it to the final stage. This design
of Kauffer’s, to promote spring
time trips to the countryside,
was probably shelved due to
the outbreak of the Second
World War.
The painting shows a rural scene
of a house and outbuildings.
There are blocks of fairly flat
colour, which gouache is perfect
for, and Kauffer has painted a
sunny spring day, using light and
shadow to produce a peaceful
scene with a warm and hazy
atmosphere.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 16 of 36
Supported by
Eric Henri Kennington
Eric Henri Kennington was born in 1888, the son of artist Thomas Benjamin
Kennington. He studied at the Lambeth School of Art, followed by the City and
Guilds School in Kensington. In 1908, Kennington exhibited his work at the
Royal Academy.
Like many young men, Kennington fought in France in the First World War, but
was invalided out in 1915. In 1916, he returned to the trenches, but this time as an
official war artist. Much of his work portrayed ordinary men as heroic.
Kennington was also commissioned as a war artist from 1940–1943, one of only
a few who covered both World Wars. During this time, posters in Britain were
increasingly used as a form of propaganda and London Transport posters were
no exception. Kennington designed a series of posters for London Transport in
1944, entitled ‘Seeing It Through’. The series depicted real London Transport staff
continuing to do their jobs in spite of the difficulties of living in wartime London.
They were motivational images, designed to boost morale among both staff and
passengers. It does seem that Kennington much preferred to paint men rather than
women: while his images of male staff show quiet courage, the women he painted
come across as clownish and almost vulgar.
Kennington regarded himself as a sculptor and is known for his memorials,
including TE Lawrence, as well as for his portraits and posters.
You can find out more about Eric Henri Kennington at the London Transport
Museum www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html and see other works at:
Courtauld Institute of Art
National Galleries of Scotland
National Portrait Gallery
Tate Gallery
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 17 of 36
Supported by
Seeing it through: Station Woman, 1944
Eric Henri Kennington (1888–1990)
Pastels – 1991/177
Kennington was commissioned
to design a series of posters
depicting the work of London
Transport staff in the War.
This is one of the series,
and the eventual poster was
accompanied by a poem by
AP Herbert.
Pastels are an unusual choice of
media for posters, but for this
series they work perfectly. The
colours are bold and are almost
paint-like.
This is a portrait of station
porter Elsie Birrell, one of the
first women recruited as a porter.
The portrait was drawn from
a photograph, but Miss Birrell
also posed in the studio for this,
holding the pose for an hour.
Kennington did not like painting
women wearing make-up: his
daughter once said that he felt
that his work was already done.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 18 of 36
Supported by
Christopher Richard Wynne
(CRW) Nevinson
Christopher Nevinson was born in London in 1899, the son of war correspondent
HW Nevinson. He studied at St John’s School of Art and the Slade School, where
he was told that he lacked the talent to become an artist.
After leaving, Nevinson travelled to Paris to continue his studies. He shared a
studio with Modigliani, and became influenced by Cubism, Futurism and PostImpressionism.
As a pacifist, Nevinson joined the Red Cross during the First World War. In France
he worked as a stretcher bearer, driver and orderly before joining the Royal Army
Medical Corps. After suffering rheumatic fever in1916, he was invalided out of
the army, but returned to France as a war artist in 1917. Much of his work at this
time was stark and very industrial in its portrayal of war. He felt that he could not
honestly show what was really happening due to the constraints of the War Office.
One of his paintings in particular, Paths of Glory, was censored, and he received a
reprimand.
Immediately after the War, Nevinson’s work was bold, with hard lines and jagged
edges, but it soon softened. He introduced more landscapes into his work, with
the results being far gentler.
Nevinson was appointed as a war artist again in the Second World War, but
suffered a stroke in 1942 and died in 1946.
A large collection of his work is held by the Imperial War Museum and the Tate.
You can find out more about Christopher Richard Wynne Nevinson at the London
Transport Museum www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html and see other
works at:
Birmingham Museums and Art Gallery
Bristol City Museums and Art Gallery
Manchester City Art Gallery
Museum of London
Southampton City Gallery
Tate Gallery
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 19 of 36
Supported by
Essex, 1924
Christopher Richard Wynne Nevinson (1889–1946)
Oil – 1994/22
This landscape scene of an
Essex location is typical of
Nevinson’s later work. Where
his earlier scenes were stark
and uncompromising, his style
softened and he produced fine
landscapes. Here, Nevinson
has used oil paint to produce
a tranquil scene of light and
shadow, an effect that would
be difficult to achieve using
gouache (also called poster
paint). Oils give a less harsh
effect, unlike gouache, which can
be flat and heavy.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 20 of 36
Supported by
Edward Wadsworth
Edward Wadsworth was born in West Yorkshire in 1889. He studied engineering
in Munich, where his interest in industrialism was piqued. He returned to England,
and attended the Slade School of Art until 1912, where he became interested
in Vorticism.
Wadsworth joined the Navy in the First World War and designed dazzle camouflage
for battleships, a natural progression for an artist interested in Futurism and
Vorticism. Dazzle camouflage consists of disjointed linear patterns painted on
ships to conceal their exact size and position.
Nautical themes remained in his work after the War, and for a time his work
became more representational. He often worked in tempera, and his later work
became more surreal and abstract at times.
His interest in industrialism is apparent in his design for the Lord Mayor’s Show
poster in 1936. This painting is stark, with images of two industrialised guns
in front of red and blue ribbons. It was considered highly inappropriate and
withdrawn after a very short time.
In 1933, he was commissioned to create some decorative panels for Cunard’s new
ocean liner, the Queen Mary. These panels have a maritime subject.
You can find out more about Edward Wadsworth at the London Transport Museum
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html and see other works at:
Bristol City Museums and Art Gallery
Museum of London
National Galleries of Scotland
National Maritime Museum
Tate Gallery
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 21 of 36
Supported by
Lord Mayor’s Show, 1936
Edward Wadsworth (1889–1949)
Gouache – 2005/1486
This image was commissioned for the Lord Mayor’s Show of 1936, the theme of
which was ‘Defence and Rearmament’. The design shows two modern weapons,
the Vickers heavy machine gun and the Lewis automatic rifle.
The posters were displayed for a short time before they were removed. The media
had complained that it glorified war, but the fact that the show was to be in effect
a military parade was not taken in to account. It seemed strange to Wadsworth
that there should be such a reaction to the subject matter given the military nature
of the procession. He said, “If people object to this poster, they must object to the
Lord Mayor’s Show. Better cancel the whole thing.”
Wadsworth use of gouache makes a bold image, with blocks of flat colour. The
poster itself was far more muted than the original artwork, with its bright blue and
red ribbons.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 22 of 36
Supported by
Suggested activities
These are suggested activities for the classroom.
These activities are designed to be adapted by teachers for different Key Stages
and curriculum areas.
Look at Abram Games’ Festival of Britain work.
What does it say about Britain in 1951?
Do you think that the same could be said of Britain today?
Design a new image for today’s Britain – imagine there will be another Festival
of Britain in 2011. What do you want to say about modern Britain? (You will
need to forget about the 2012 Olympics.) Remember that your work would
be used for posters, so you must remember the rules of poster design – think
about messages, colour, potential text, font, white spaces and distance.
Edward Wadsworth’s work for the Lord Mayor’s show in 1936 was
controversial and was only used for a brief period.
Why do you think it caused controversy then? Think about the national and
world events of the time.
Would a similar image be acceptable in today’s Britain? Are the reasons for
your answers the same as they would have been in 1936?
Walter E Spradbery and Paul Catherall use iconic images of London in their works.
See these works at www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html
As a group choose a landmark building – it could be one known locally or
nationally. Examine the building from different angles, at different times of the
day, and in different weather conditions. Draw or photograph the building, and
note the main details and features of it.
Using any medium, design an image of the building that could be used on a
poster. Concentrate on the main features of the building.
Ask the class to find examples of good and bad poster design. What makes
a poster effective or ineffective? Collect a range from different sources,
magazines or photos of billboards, any kind of poster, public information or
adverts. Discuss what makes them work, or not. Who is the audience? Does
everyone in the group like or dislike the same images? Ask class to come up
with reasons why.
What emotions do these posters play on? How does that influence or inform us?
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 23 of 36
Supported by
Suggested activities
Ask each student to choose a poster image and copy it to A3 size. Ask
students to cut out each part of the image, and then move them around to
create a different poster for the same product, event etc. Are they able to
produce a more effective image by doing this? Ask them to explain why the
image is more/less effective.
Give each student an image of a poster. Using photo editing software, ask
students to change the look/feel of the poster by changing:
Colours
Medium
Light and shadow
Position of text, image and white spaces
Ask students to design the artwork for a poster.
When the artwork is complete, ask students to create the same design in
another media (collage, photomontage, oils, pastels etc).
Which image will work best as a poster? Will the texture of the artwork have
an effect on the finished poster?
Change the text on any poster. Write more or less, and see how text can
change the message, look and feel of a poster.
Ask students to create images using different printing methods, such as
relief (for example, lino cut or wood block), intaglio (such as etching) and
screen printing.
How do the methods differ? Is it possible to achieve the same results if you
repeat the process?
Try printing with different objects. For example, string patterns make
wonderful prints. Again, is it possible to repeat the process to achieve the
same result?
Watch a short film showing the process behind Paul Catherall’s linocut poster,
West End from Primrose Hill www.ltmcollection.org/posters/interact.html
Posters are one of the most effective ways to communicate with an audience
quickly. Why is this?
What is the purpose of a poster? Try to think of as many reasons as possible.
How does the audience (the public) respond to posters? Observe public
movement around a place where posters are used in a public setting. Does
anyone stop and look, or read, or pay any notice to them?
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 24 of 36
Supported by
Suggested activities
Identify the power of suggestion in a selection of posters. What is the
suggestion and who is it targeted at?
What purpose does a poster serve in an organization such as TfL? Remember
that posters don’t always advertise something.
Posters as propaganda – how do posters work as propaganda material?
Compare WWII posters from the UK with posters from a different era or
country (for example, Germany’s war posters, the USA’s posters from Vietnam,
China’s Cultural Revolution).
What is the difference between art and posters? Is there a difference? Consider
where the line between art and posters might be.
There was a time when people would not have considered decorating their
rooms with a poster. Why not? What is a poster’s life span? Does it differ from
other forms of visual interpretation?
How important is art and design in a civil setting? London Transport has used
art and design in its public spaces for a century. Is it important that art and
design is open to the public as posters, regardless of whether the public wants
to see it or not?
Is it important to use well known artists and designers or unknown artists and
designers? Are the people who produce poster artworks designers or artists?
Whose perception is this? And does it really matter?
Should design in public areas challenge its audience? This comes back to the
question of art versus design – we expect art to challenge and sometimes
offend, but is the same true for design and should it be? For example, in
February 2008, the Royal Academy exhibited works by Lucas Cranach, a
German Renaissance artist. The advertising used his depiction of a naked Eve,
and the poster was nearly banned from the Underground in case it caused
offence. Find out about this news story and discuss London Underground’s
position.
What is art? Does it require a response from the viewer? Should it and if so,
what does that make a poster?
You can find out more about artists, designers and posters at
www.ltmcollection.org/posters/index.html
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 25 of 36
Supported by
Poster design tips
There are as many posters as there are things to say, so what makes a really great
poster? Here are some basic design tips to help students to create an effective
poster.
Know your message
A poster has to convey its message in a few seconds, so it’s important to stick to
the message. What are you trying to say? If there is one thing you want the viewer
to take away with them, what is it?
Many posters fail because they have too many messages and that confuses the
audience. Keeping it all simple helps the audience to remember the key message.
Plan your poster
Posters are a visual method of communication, so you must think about how and
where the poster will be seen. Will it be on a wall in a building or outside on a
billboard? Who will the main audience be – commuters, children, students, adults?
Image
Think about the image or images you would like to use. Remember that the whole
point of a poster is to convey a message quickly. If the audience needs to spend
time working out what the image is or what it means, then the poster may not
be effective, but some posters can work precisely because people need to think
about the image.
Text
People tend to see posters when they are on the move, so any text needs to
reflect the fact that people don’t actually stop to look at posters. Too much text
means that people will not take the time to read it, but you need to make sure
that whatever you do say gets the message across quickly. Less can be more when
it comes to text. Make sure you have a good contrast between your text and the
background; it makes it much easier to read.
Colour
Colour can and should be used to great effect in posters. Think about the way
colour works. It can create a mood, identify something and be symbolic. It can
be bold or muted depending on the subject. It can enhance the overall feeling of
a poster.
Colour has to be used carefully. It’s very easy to overdo it and end up with
something unattractive and garish. Likewise, not using enough colour could make
your poster look insipid and boring.
Remember to think about contrast. Some colours work well together, others will not.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 26 of 36
Supported by
Poster design tips
Font
Font makes an incredible difference to the impact of a poster. Make sure your font
is readable from a distance. Too many curly serifs make text difficult to read. Use a
font size that people will be able to read. Posters can fail because people will not
take the time to read them, or the font too difficult to see or read.
White space
White space does not literally mean white spaces. It refers to areas where there
is no text or no image, so it’s more of a blank space. Most good posters have a
balance of white space, text and image. If you have no white space, your poster
may look too cluttered. Too little, and your poster may not grab the audience’s
attention.
Distance
The last thing you need to remember is that many posters have to work from a
distance. A design might look brilliant close up, but you need to look at it in the
same way the audience are going to look at it.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 27 of 36
Supported by
Techniques
Airbrush
An airbrush is a small hand held tool that sprays paint, stain, ink, dye or glaze. It is
operated by a source of compressed air. Used most often by commercial artists,
airbrushes create smooth gradations of colour and tone. A stencil can be used to
create sharply defined outlines.
Collage
Collage comes from the French word coller, to stick. Popular with amateurs
and children, it first became an accredited artistic technique in the early 20th
century. Almost any material can be applied to a collage, from card and paper
to found objects and textiles. When photographs are used, this is referred to as
‘photomontage’.
Stencil
A stencil is a template used to draw or paint an exact letter, symbol or shape. Early
examples of stencilling in poster design involved applying paint through the stencil
with a dry brush. In the 1930s the airbrush was becoming popular and stencils
were often used to ensure sharply defined outlines.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 28 of 36
Supported by
Format
Composite poster
Composite poster is the collective name used for posters that can be displayed in
sequence. Each component part can stand alone as a poster, but when displayed
together they create one large design.
Double crown
Double crown is the descriptive size for posters that are 30 x 20 inches. This is
slightly smaller than the standard double royal size, which is the most commonly
used by the Underground. Double crown posters were originally displayed on the
front panel of buses and the side panels of trams.
Double royal
Double royal has been the standard poster size used by the Underground since
1908. This 40 x 25 inch format has been used almost exclusively by railway
companies.
Four sheet
Four sheet is the descriptive size for posters that are 60 x 40 inches. Four times
bigger than the standard double royal, this is largest of the poster formats. Four
sheet was the most commonly used size for Art on the Underground posters.
Pair poster
When one design is made up of two posters, we call this a pair poster. In the
1940s, London Transport’s Publicity officer, Harold F Hutchison, standardised
the format so that one half presented text and the other displayed an image. Pair
posters were used on prime sites such as Underground station entrances.
Panel posters
Panel posters were produced for display in Underground car interiors, as well as
on the inside and outside of buses and trams. Because they did not have to fit a
standard frame or wall space, they are smaller than other poster formats and vary
slightly in size.
Quad royal
Quad royal is the descriptive size for posters that are 40 x 50 inches. It is the
standard size used by the Underground for maps and is most commonly used in
posters for designs requiring fine detail, such as decorative maps.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 29 of 36
Supported by
Medium
Acrylic
Acrylic paint is a versatile medium, first used in the 1940s. Like watercolour, it can
be used as a thin wash, is quick drying, and soluble in water. Like oil, it can also be
used thickly in a concentrated form. Acrylic can be applied to a variety of surfaces
and offers a matt or gloss finish.
Acrylic ink
Acrylic ink is a water resistant, acrylic based ink. It is resistant to fading over
prolonged exposure to light, making it ideal for pictures intended for permanent
display. Acrylic ink is not commonly used for poster design, which is an essentially
ephemeral practice.
Bronze
Since antiquity, bronze has been the most commonly used metal in cast sculpture
because of its strength, durability and the fact that it is easily workable. At the
beginning of the 20th century, modern sculptors moved away from the use of
bronze. This means that today, the medium has a renewed sense of tradition.
Card
Card, or very thin paper, can be cut into unvarying, uniform blocks of colour. In
the early 20th century, poster artists used black and white card to create the
appearance of intricate silhouettes. From the 1970s, larger blocks of coloured card
were employed. This technique, sometimes referred to as ‘paper cut-out’, was
favoured by Tom Eckersley.
Conté crayon
Conté crayon is a very hard, grease-free type of crayon, available in a wide range of
colours. It was named after Nicolas-Jacque Conté, who invented it.
Gouache
Gouache is an opaque paint. It is one of the most popular media for poster design
because it dries quickly, creates bold blocks of matt colour and allows mistakes to
be painted over. Gouache is sometimes referred to as poster paint.
Letra-film
Letra-film, made by Letraset, comes in very thin coloured sheets. It is adhesive
on one side and easy to cut with a knife. Before computer graphics software was
developed, Letra-film offered graphic designers a means of producing unvarying,
uniform blocks of colour.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 30 of 36
Supported by
Medium
Linocut
Linocut is a traditional printmaking technique in which a knife or engraving tool is
used to cut an image into a piece of linoleum. Ink is applied to the remaining raised
surfaces and then printed onto paper. Colours can be built up by overprinting with
a different block for each colour.
Lithograph
The lithographic printing process is based on the principle that oil and water do
not mix. An image is drawn in an oily medium onto stone or metal. The surface is
then treated so that the image will absorb ink and the background will repel it. It
can then be printed onto paper.
Mixed media
Poster artworks can be executed in a combination of different media. Unlike in fine
art, the constancy or status of a medium is unimportant. The finished design is
essentially an ephemeral stage in the production of a printed poster; the ultimate
medium is lithography. Artists use whatever mix of media necessary to achieve the
perfect effect.
Mosaic
Mosaic is an ancient decorative art using inlaid glass, stone or ceramic fragments.
The technique was first used for a poster design in the 1960s. By this time,
photography was the principle method for transferring artworks into printed
posters. This gave artists freedom to work in more varied, textured and even
three-dimension media.
Oil paint
Oil paint has been the dominant medium in fine art since the 16th century.
Although it is extremely versatile, oil paint take a long time to dry. In poster design,
oil has only been used when the artist is commissioned solely to produce a
painting. This is then transformed into a printed poster with the addition of text.
Pastel
Pastel is a powdered pigment, like that used in paint, bound together in the form
of a stick. The type of binder used dictates the hardness or softness of the pastel
and the character of the stroke. Pastels are favoured for their wide range of
colours and immediacy in application.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 31 of 36
Supported by
Medium
Pen and ink
Historically, pen and ink involved applying ink with a quill pen made from a large
feather or hollow reed. Metal pens succeeded the quill in the 19th century. The
technique enables an artist to achieve intricate yet clearly defined outlines, which
translates well into printed posters. Pen and ink is commonly used for cartoons.
Pencil
Pencil is often used to draw the outlines of a poster design before filling with
colour. In preparatory work, pencil is used for sketching out and annotating ideas
for designs. After the design is finished pencil can be used to give instructions to
the printers.
Photography
By the 1970s, a photograph often provided the principal image on a poster.
Photography has also been used in preparatory work, before execution of the
final design in another medium. Some artists have submitted a photograph of an
artwork as their final design.
Plastic
In the second half of the 20th century, the printing of posters became dependant
on photographic processes, rather than traditional lithography. This gave poster
artists more freedom to work in more varied, textured and even three-dimension
media. Moulded plastic was used for the first time in a poster design in 1986.
Screen printing
Screen printing is a technique which involves forcing ink through a fine screen of
fabric. Areas of the screen are blocked off by a non-permeable stencil. Screen
printing can be applied to a wide range of surfaces, including paper, fabric, metal
and plastic. It has been used in commercial and fine art since the 1900s.
Textiles
Since the printing of posters has depended on photographic processes, rather
than traditional lithography, the materials used to design them have become more
varied. Texture, depth and even three dimensionality no longer posed a problem.
Textiles, including collage with material, needlework and appliqué were used in
designs from the 1960s.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 32 of 36
Supported by
Medium
Watercolour
Watercolour is a traditional medium, favoured in 18th and early 19th century
England for landscapes. Lighter tones are obtained by thinning the paint with
water, rather than by adding white pigment. It is the paper beneath that gives the
appearance of light. In 20th century poster designs, watercolour has also been
combined with ink, pastel and pencil.
Wood engraving
Wood engraving is a traditional printmaking technique in which an image is cut
into the polished surface of a block of wood. Ink is applied to the block and then
printed onto paper. Colours can be built up by overprinting with a different block
for each colour.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 33 of 36
Supported by
Stylistic influence
Art Deco
Art Deco, which flourished in the 1920s and 1930s, is a style more associated
with the decorative arts than fine art. At its peak, the style was referred to as
‘art moderne’, or simply ‘modernistic’. The term ‘Art Deco’ was adopted in the
mid-1960s, when the style was re-evaluated. Characterised by sleek, stylized form,
simplicity of line, geometric patterns, abstract shapes and sweeping curves, the
style lent itself perfectly to modern poster design.
Cubism
Avant-garde movements, such as Cubism (c1908–1919), found expression in many
poster designs, particularly in the late 1920s and 1930s. In Cubist artworks objects
are broken up, analyzed, and re-assembled to depict the subject from multipal
viewpoints. The poster artist appropriated these formal qualities of Cubism to
striking effect.
Futurism
Futurism (c1909–1917), and its British counterpart Vorticism (c1914–1919), can
be seen to have influenced a number of Underground poster designs. The formal
expression of dynamism and speed is a characteristic of Futurist painting that lent
itself to cutting edge developments in poster design, particularly in the 1920s.
Surrealism
The use of Surrealist imagery in posters is uncommon. Frank Pick believed
Surrealism obscured the clarity of a poster’s message. However, some dreamlike
imagery, associated with the Surrealist aesthetic, can be found in Underground
poster designs from the last 100 years.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 34 of 36
Supported by
Stylistic approach
Abstraction
Abstract imagery has been a common feature of Underground poster design.
The simplification and distortion of form can be extremely striking, although an
element of representation is usually necessary to communicate a clear message.
Geometric abstraction, inspired by avant-garde art movements, was particularly
popular in designs from the 1920s and 1930s.
Cartoon
Cartoons have regularly featured in Underground posters over the last 100 years.
The cartoon style has been primarily adopted for instructional posters, lending a
friendly tone to the necessary conveyance of rules and regulations. The travelling
public would have been familiar with the work of many of the leading cartoonists
commissioned.
Flat colour
The use of bold flat colour had become a key characteristic of poster design by
the 1920s. The paring down of forms led to striking designs that could be quickly
grasped and easily remembered. The reduced number of colours, applied with
minimal tonal range, also made the printing of posters easier and less expensive.
Traditional art
Some Underground poster designs take a traditional fine art approach. This more
conventional, naturalistic representation of a subject is not common in posters,
nor is it deemed as effective at communicating as cutting edge graphic design.
However, the inclusion of traditional art lent the poster programme the necessary
range in styles to cater for all tastes.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 35 of 36
Supported by
Design stage
Concept sketch
Many artists produced concept sketches to help them work out an idea for a
poster design. These could be produced before the artist was commissioned, as a
proposal, or afterwards, in response to a brief.
Preparatory work
Poster artists would have carried out preliminary work in preparation for
executing their final design. Preparatory work may consist of annotated sketches,
photographs or focused studies of specific details.
Proof
A proof is a trial impression, made before the final printing of a poster. They are
used by artists and printers to correct any errors, make alterations, or work out the
stages of colour printing. Sometimes an artist’s proof is submitted to the printers
as a finished artwork.
Unused
Not all poster designs submitted to London Transport were used. Some were
not seen as relevant, appropriate or of a sufficient standard. Artists often had to
produce 3 or 4 designs before they met the requirements of a brief. Sometimes
designs were not used for other reasons, such as the onset or restrictions of war.
www.ltmuseum.co.uk
page 36 of 36
Supported by