3XSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVVWHDFKHU
DXWKRULW\DQGGLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRP
EHKDYLRXU
E\
*UHWH6¡UHQVHQ9DDODQG
7KHVLVVXEPLWWHGLQIXOILOPHQWRI
WKHUHTXLUHPHQWVIRUGHJUHHRI
3+,/2623+,$('2&725
3K'
1RUZHJLDQ&HQWUHIRU/HDUQLQJ(QYLURQPHQWDQG%HKDYLRXUDO5HVHDUFKLQ
(GXFDWLRQ
)DFXOW\RI$UWVDQG(GXFDWLRQ
8QLYHUVLW\RI6WDYDQJHU
16WDYDQJHU
125:$<
ZZZXLVQR
*UHWH6¡UHQVHQ9DDODQG
,6%1
,661
3K'7KHVLV8L61R
Acknowledgements
7KH ZULWLQJ RI WKLV WKHVLV KDV EHHQ RQH RI WKH PRVW VLJQLILFDQW DFDGHPLF
FKDOOHQJHV ,KDYH HYHU IDFHG ,ZRXOG QHYHU KDYH EHHQ DEOH WR FRPSOHWH P\
WKHVLVZLWKRXWJXLGDQFHSDWLHQFHDQGVXSSRUW
7KDQNVWRWKH&HQWUHIRU%HKDYLRXUDO5HVHDUFK1RUZHJLDQ&HQWUHIRU/HDUQLQJ
(QYLURQPHQW DQG %HKDYLRXUDO 5HVHDUFK LQ (GXFDWLRQ IRU WKH RSSRUWXQLW\ WR
FRPSOHWHWKLVWKHVLV7KDQNVWRP\OHDGHUVDQGP\FROOHDJXHV7KHVXSSRUWLYH
FOLPDWHWKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HVWKLVZRUNSODFHLVXQLTXHDQGYDOXDEOH
7R P\ VXSHUYLVRUV 3URIHVVRU (UOLQJ 5RODQG DQG 3URIHVVRU 7KRUPRG ,GVRH
7KDQN\RX<RXERWKGHVHUYHDJROGPHGDOIRU\RXUSDWLHQFH,WKDQN(UOLQJ
HVSHFLDOO\IRUVKDULQJFUHDWLYHLGHDVDQGKRXUVRIH[FLWLQJUHIOHFWLRQV7KRUPRG
7KDQN \RX IRU EHLQJ VR JHQHURXV ZLWK WLPH VKDULQJ \RXU VROLG FRPSHWHQFH
JXLGLQJPHDQGDQVZHULQJDOOP\TXHVWLRQVFRQFHUQLQJPHWKRGRORJLFDOLVVXHV
7KDQNVWRP\KXVEDQG7RUEM¡UQIRUDFDGHPLFDQGSUDFWLFDOVXSSRUWDQGIRU
EHLQJWKHUHDQGQHYHUOHWWLQJPHJLYHXS+RXUVRILQWHOOHFWXDOO\VWLPXODWLQJ
FRQYHUVDWLRQVDUHFDSWXUHGLQWKLVWKHVLV7R.DWDULQD5HEHNNDDQG(OLVDEHWK
$XURUDP\EHORYHGGDXJKWHUV\RXDUHDZHVRPH,DPJUDWHIXOIRU\RXU
JHQHURVLW\UHDGLQHVVWRKHOSLQVSLUDWLRQODXJKLQJDQGNHHSLQJPHRQWUDFN
LQFOXGLQJLQZD\VWKDWKDYHQRWKLQJWRGRZLWKP\WKHVLV
0\IDWKHU-RKDQQHV6¡UHQVHQKDVEHHQDQHYHUODVWLQJVRXUFHRIVXSSRUWDQG
LQVSLUDWLRQ,DSSUHFLDWHWKHZD\VKHKDVLQIOXHQFHGP\OLIH+LVPDMRU
SHGDJRJLFDOWDOHQWKLJKO\LPSDFWHGP\FDUHHUFKRLFH+LVH[WUDRUGLQDU\ZLOO
DQGGHGLFDWLRQLQWHUHVWDQGFXULRVLW\FDSDFLW\DQGVWUHQJWKKDYHEHHQ
LQVSLULQJWRPH
,DPDOVR YHU\ WKDQNIXO IRU VXSSRUW IURP P\ VLVWHUV.ULVWLQ DQG 6LGVHO DQG
IURP P\ IULHQGV ZKR KDYH EHHQ WKHUH FKHHUHG PH XS ZKHQ QHFHVVDU\ DQG
SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ GLVFXVVLRQV RQ P\ PRUH RU OHVV LQWHUHVWLQJ LGHDV ZLWK
HQWKXVLDVP
6WDYDQJHU0D\ *UHWH6¡UHQVHQ9DDODQG
L
Summary
Background3XSLOEHKDYLRXULVLPSRUWDQWIRUDFDGHPLFDQGVRFLDOOHDUQLQJLQ
VFKRRO'LVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXUFRQIOLFWVZLWKOHDUQLQJDQGPD\FDXVHWHDFKHUVWR
H[SHULHQFH VWUHVV DQG HYHQ EXUQRXW $OWKRXJK VRPH NQRZOHGJH LV DYDLODEOH
DERXWIDFWRUVWKDWLQIOXHQFHSUREOHPEHKDYLRXUZHQHHGWRNQRZPRUHDERXW
ZKDW LQGXFHV DQG PDLQWDLQV VXFK EHKDYLRXU LQ FODVVURRPV /LPLWHG UHVHDUFK
IRFXVHVRQIDFWRUVDIIHFWLQJGLVREHGLHQFHWRWHDFKHU0RUHRYHUSXSLOEHKDYLRXU
LV D FRPSOH[ SURGXFW RI IDFWRUV UHODWHG WR HDFK LQGLYLGXDO SXSLO DQG WKH
FODVVURRPFRQWH[WVXFKDVWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\ ,Q DGGLWLRQ WRFRQVLGHULQJHDFK
IDFWRU SUHYHQWLRQ DQG LQWHUYHQWLRQ WDUJHWLQJ EHKDYLRXUDO SUREOHPV LQ VFKRRO
PXVWWDNHLQWRDFFRXQWWKHLQWHUSOD\EHWZHHQDOOWKHIDFWRUVLPSDFWLQJSXSLOV¶
FODVVURRPEHKDYLRXU*LYHQWKLVFRPSOH[LW\WKLVWKHVLVDWWHPSWVWRVKHGOLJKW
RQVRPHUHOHYDQWHOHPHQWVDQGFRQQHFWLRQV
Aims 7KH JHQHUDO DLP RI WKLV VWXG\ ZDV WR LQFUHDVH WKH NQRZOHGJH DQG
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI SXSLO DJJUHVVLYHQHVV GLVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV VRPH DVSHFWV RI
WKHLUUHODWLRQVKLSVDQGWKHLUUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
7KHILUVW DLP ZDV WR FRQFHSWXDOL]H SXSLO GLVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHUV ZLWKLQ WKH
ILHOGRIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXUWRGHYHORSDVFDOHPHDVXULQJWKLVFRQFHSWDQGWR
UHYHDO ZKHWKHU UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV FDQ SUHGLFW VXFK
EHKDYLRXU$VWKLVGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXULQWHUIHUHVZLWKWKHUROHRIWKHIRUPDO
OHDGHUDQGWKHWHDFKHUSXSLOUHODWLRQVKLSLWZDVODEHOOHGDVGLVREHGLHQFH
1H[W ZH VWXGLHG SRVVLEOH UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ SXSLO DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUZKRLVQHZWRWKHP7KH
DLP ZDV WR H[SORUH ZKHWKHU UHDFWLYH DQGRU SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZHUH
UHODWHG WR SXSLOV¶ SHUFHSWXDO WHQGHQF\ WKDW FRXOG PDNH WHDFKHUV HVSHFLDOO\
YXOQHUDEOHLQWKHVWDUWXSSHULRGRIQHZFODVVHV
)LQDOO\ WKH WKLUG SDSHU DLPHG WR LQYHVWLJDWH DSSURDFKHV WKDW H[SHULHQFHG
SUDFWLWLRQHUV SUHVHQWHG DV HIIHFWLYH WR WXUQ DURXQG KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH VFKRRO
FODVVHV WKDW ZHUH RXW RI WKH WHDFKHUV¶ FRQWURO %HFDXVH WKLV ILHOG LV UDUHO\
GHVFULEHG ZH EXLOW RQ SUDFWLFDO H[SHULHQFH WR WU\ WR UHYHDO FRQFHSWV DQG
IUDPHZRUNVWKDWFRXOGEHXVHIXOWRGHVFULEHDQDO\VHDQGGLVFXVVDSSURDFKHVWR
DGGUHVVLQJKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHVFKRROFODVVHV,QWKHVHFODVVHVWKHWHDFKHUVKDG
ORVW FRQWURO DQG QHHGHGH[WHUQDO KHOS WRUHHVWDEOLVKDXWKRULW\ %DVHG RQ WKH
LL
FDVHV ZH H[SORUHG WKH VLPLODULWLHV DQG GLIIHUHQFHV LQ DSSURDFKHV WR WXUQLQJ
DURXQGKDUGFODVVHV
Methods4XDQWLWDWLYHDQGTXDOLWDWLYHDSSURDFKHVZHUHIROORZHG3DSHUVDQG
EXLOW RQ GDWD IURP TXHVWLRQQDLUHV WKDW ZHUH SDUW RI WKH QDWLRQZLGH UHJXODU
School environment studies FRQGXFWHGE\WKH&HQWUHIRU%HKDYLRXUDO5HVHDUFK
&%57KHVHGDWDZHUHFURVVVHFWLRQDODQGFROOHFWHGE\XVHRISXSLOUHSRUWHG
TXHVWLRQQDLUHV 'DWD ZHUH DQDO\VHG XVLQJ VWUXFWXUDO HTXDWLRQ PRGHOOLQJ ZLWK
FRQILUPDWRU\IDFWRUDQDO\VHVDQGVWUXFWXUDOPRGHOV0XOWLJURXSDQDO\VHVZHUH
XVHG WR WHVW ZKHWKHU JHQGHU PRGHUDWHG WKH VWUXFWXUDO UHODWLRQVKLSV 3DSHU SUHVHQWV D TXDOLWDWLYH VWXG\ EDVHG RQ VHYHQ FDVHV FRPSULVLQJ PRGHOV IRU
DSSURDFKHVDGGUHVVLQJKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV'DWDFDPHIURPSUHVHQWDWLRQV
DQG GLVFXVVLRQV GXULQJ ZRUNVKRSV DUUDQJHG SDUWO\ IRU WKLV SXUSRVH 7KH
LQVWUXPHQWDO PXOWLFDVH VWXG\ LQFOXGHG ZLWKLQFDVH DQG FURVVFDVH DQDO\VHV
,QIRUPDQWVZHUHH[SHULHQFHGSUDFWLWLRQHUVZKRKDGZRUNHGZLWKWXUQDURXQGV
LQ KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV DQG WKH FDVHV FRQWDLQHG WKH SUDFWLWLRQHUV¶
DFFXPXODWHGH[SHULHQFHLQWKHUROHDVH[WHUQDOH[SHUWVDVVLVWLQJVFKRROV
Results:HLGHQWLILHGDVWDWLVWLFDOO\DQGWKHRUHWLFDOO\UREXVWFRQFHSWLHSXSLO
GLVREHGLHQFH ,W UHIHUV WR EHKDYLRXU WKDW WKH SXSLO NQRZV LQWHUIHUHV ZLWK
LQVWUXFWLRQV RU VWDQGDUGV VHW E\ WKH WHDFKHU $V K\SRWKHVL]HG WKH VWUXFWXUDO
PRGHOV FRQILUPHG UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ DOO WKUHH LQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOHV
UHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVSURDFWLYHSRZHUUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGSURDFWLYH
DIILOLDWLRQUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGWKHGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHGLVREHGLHQFHLQ
ERWK ER\V DQG JLUOV *HQGHU PRGHUDWHG WKH UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH ,Q VXP WKH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV YDULDEOHV
SUHGLFWHG QHDUO\ HTXDO DPRXQWV RI GLVREHGLHQFH LQ ER\V DQG JLUOV +RZHYHU
GLIIHUHQFHV ZHUH IRXQG ZKHQ W\SHV DQG VXEW\SHV RI DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZHUH
FRQVLGHUHG
3HUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQ D QHZ WHDFKHU ZDV PHDVXUHG E\
VWDWHPHQWVUHJDUGLQJZKDWSXSLOVORRNIRUZKHQWKH\DUHVFKHGXOHGWRPHHWD
QHZ WHDFKHU %RWK UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZHUH UHODWHG WR D
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVV)RUUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVWKHEHWD
YDOXHV ZHUHVPDOODOWKRXJK VLJQLILFDQW IRUJLUOV7KH PRUH DODUPLQJILQGLQJ
1HZ QDPH 1RUZHJLDQ &HQWUH IRU /HDUQLQJ (QYLURQPHQW DQG %HKDYLRXUDO
5HVHDUFKLQ(GXFDWLRQ
ZDV WKH VXEVWDQWLDO DQG VLJQLILFDQW UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGDSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHU
*HQGHUGLGQRWPRGHUDWHWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQWKHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVYDULDEOHV
DQGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ
&KURQLF GLVUXSWLRQV SRRU OHDUQLQJ DQG WHDFKHUV ZKR KDYH ORVW FRQWURO
FKDUDFWHUL]HVRPHVFKRROFODVVHV7KLVLPSOLHVFRQWLQXHGLJQRUDQFHRIWHDFKHUV¶
LQVWUXFWLRQV DQG VWDQGDUGV &DVHV UHIOHFWLQJ VHYHQ H[SHULHQFHG SUDFWLWLRQHUV¶
DSSURDFKHV WR VXFK FODVVHV UHYHDOHG EURDG KRPRJHQHLW\ UHJDUGLQJ WKH LVVXHV
HPSKDVL]HG $OWKRXJK WKLV OHG WR D VHW RI FRPPRQ FRQFHSWV IRU GHVFULELQJ
WXUQDURXQGVFURVVFDVHDQDO\VHVUHYHDOHGGLIIHUHQWZD\VWRKDQGOHWKHFRPPRQ
LVVXHV 7KH UHVXOWV VKRZHG WZR PDLQ VWUDWHJLHV LQ DSSURDFKHV WR KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV 2QH ZDV D FRJQLWLYH VWUDWHJ\ ZLWK OHDUQLQJ DV D SRZHUIXO
WRRO7KHRWKHUZDVDV\VWHPVVWUDWHJ\ZLWKDSRZHUWDNHRYHURQWKHSDUWRIWKH
WHDFKHU7KHVHVWUDWHJLHVGUDZDWHQWDWLYHFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUNIRUDSSURDFKHV
WRKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHVFKRROFODVVHV
Conclusion %RWK SURDFWLYH DQGUHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DUH FRQQHFWHG WR WKH
OLNHOLKRRGRIGLVUXSWLYHSXSLOEHKDYLRXULQWHUPVRIEHKDYLRXUWKDWWKHSXSLOLV
DZDUHRIFRQIOLFWVZLWKWKHVWDQGDUGVRULQVWUXFWLRQVJLYHQE\WKHWHDFKHU6XFK
EHKDYLRXULQWHUIHUHVZLWKWHDFKHUSXSLOUHODWLRQVKLSVDQGPD\WKUHDWHQWHDFKHU
DXWKRULW\$QRWKHUWKUHDWWRWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\PD\VWHPIURPWKHIDFWWKDWVRPH
SXSLOVDUHSURQHWRVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVHVZKHQWKH\H[SHFWWRPHHWDQHZWHDFKHU
3XSLOV ZKR VFRUH KLJKO\ RQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV UHSRUW D SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVLQQHZWHDFKHUV5HDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
LVZHDNO\FRQQHFWHGWRWKHVDPHSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQLQJLUOV7XUQDURXQGVLQ
KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV LPSO\ WKDW WKH WHDFKHU UHHVWDEOLVKHV DXWKRULW\ $
IUDPHZRUN RI WZR VWUDWHJLHV WR DSSURDFKLQJ VXFK FODVVHV LQFOXGH D FRJQLWLYH
VWUDWHJ\ IRFXVLQJ RQOHDUQLQJ DQGWUDLQLQJ QHZ EHKDYLRXUDQG DV\VWHPV
VWUDWHJ\IRFXVLQJRQUHGLVWULEXWLQJVRFLDOSRZHULQWKHFODVVURRP
List of papers
7KLV3K'WKHVLVLQFOXGHVWKHIROORZLQJSDSHUV
Paper 1
9DDODQG * 6 ,GVRH 7 5RODQG ( $JJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
GLVREHGLHQFHScandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 55
Paper 2
9DDODQG * 6 5RODQG ( 3XSLO $JJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGV ZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHU ZKRLVQHZ WR WKHFODVV Teaching
and Teacher Education, 29, Paper 3
9DDODQG*66XEPLWWHG %DFNRQWUDFN$SSURDFKHVWRPDQDJLQJKLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHVFKRROFODVVHV
Contents
,QWURGXFWLRQ
7KHRUHWLFDOIUDPH
7HDFKHUDXWKRULW\
&RQFHSWXDOPHDQLQJRIDXWKRULW\
$XWKRULW\LVDQWLDXWKRULWDULDQ
$KLVWRULFDOYLHZRIWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
3UHOLPLQDU\FULWLFLVPRIDXWKRULW\
7HDFKHUDXWKRULW\DQGFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQW
$JJUHVVLRQ
&RQFHSWXDOPHDQLQJRIDJJUHVVLRQDQGDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
)RUPVRIDJJUHVVLRQ
)XQFWLRQVRIDJJUHVVLRQ
'LVUXSWLRQ
5HOHYDQFH
5HOHYDQWFRQFHSWV
3UHYDOHQFHDQGFKDOOHQJHV
5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV
0HWKRG
4XDQWLWDWLYHVWXGLHV
3URFHGXUHDQGVDPSOHV
0HDVXUHPHQWV
$QDO\VHV3DSHUDQG3DSHU
&RQWUROOLQJIRUFOXVWHULQJLQWKHGDWD
7KHTXDOLWDWLYHFDVHVWXG\
'HVLJQDQGVDPSOH
'DWDFROOHFWLRQ
YLL
9DOLGLW\
(WKLFDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQV
5HVXOWV
6XPPDU\RI3DSHU
6XPPDU\RI3DSHU
6XPPDU\RI3DSHU
'LVFXVVLRQ
0HWKRGRORJLFDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQV
&RQVLGHUDWLRQVUHJDUGLQJWKHTXDQWLWDWLYHVWXGLHV
&RQVLGHUDWLRQVUHJDUGLQJWKHTXDOLWDWLYHVWXG\
9DOLGLW\
'DWDDQDO\VHV
5HVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVGLVFXVVHG
3DSHU
3DSHU
3URYLGLQJWHDFKHUVZLWKDXWKRULW\
3DSHU
2YHUDOOGLVFXVVLRQ
,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUSUDFWLFH
)XWXUHGLUHFWLRQV
5HIHUHQFHV
YLLL
Introduction
1 Introduction
A mother, who was also a 1st grade teacher, was engaged ensuring small
children’s traffic safety on their way to school. During a discussion, all parties
agreed that a six-year-old child can be taught and trained how to cross the road
safely. The mother then asked some further questions: given that it is safe for
one 1st grader to cross the road, is it also safe if two children are together?
Three? Four? Five? Six? The point is that there may be some differences
between six single pupils crossing the road independently and a group of six
children crossing together. If the risk for accidents increases due to group
behaviour, can this problem be solved through further individual training?
7KHFRUHRIWKHTXHVWLRQVOLVWHGDERYHLVQRWQHZDQGLVQRWW\SLFDOO\UHODWHGWR
WUDIILF,QVKRUWWKHLVVXHWKDWWKHVHTXHVWLRQVUDLVHUHJDUGVZKHWKHUDQGKRZ
LQGLYLGXDODQGFRQWH[WXDOIDFWRUVLQIOXHQFHKXPDQEHKDYLRXU,QWKHVWKH
SV\FKRORJLVW .XUW /HZLQ SURSRVHG DQ DQVZHU KXPDQ EHKDYLRXU % LV D
IXQFWLRQRIWKHSHUVRQ3LQWKHHQYLURQPHQW(VXFKWKDW% f 3(+DOO
/LQG]H\ /HZLQ /HZLQ SURSRVHG WKDW D G\QDPLF LQWHUDFWLRQ
EHWZHHQQDWXUHDQGQXUWXUHSHUVRQDQGHQYLURQPHQWVKDSHVEHKDYLRXU6LQFH
WKHQ WKH LVVXH KDV EHHQ UHSHDWHGO\ GHEDWHG 'LVDJUHHPHQWV GR QRW SULPDULO\
FRQFHUQ/HZLQ¶VEDVLFVWDWHPHQWUDWKHUWKH\FRQFHUQWKHHPSKDVLVSODFHGRQ
HDFK RI WKH WZR IDFWRUV $GGLWLRQDO TXHVWLRQV FRQFHUQ WKH LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI
GHWDLOVDERXWWKHSHUVRQDQGHQYLURQPHQWWKDWLPSDFWEHKDYLRXUDQGWKHUHODWLYH
LQIOXHQFH RI HDFK DVSHFW 6HH HJ %DQGXUD %RXFKDUG %URQIHQEUHQQHU &RVWD 0F&UDH 0F&UDH &RVWD 0LVFKHO7UHPEOD\9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
7KLV WKHVLV DGGUHVVHV GLVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV SXSLO DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG VRPH
DVSHFWV RI WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WKH WZR ZLWKLQ D FODVVURRP FRQWH[W
$OWKRXJKWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\ZKLFKLVDQDVSHFWRIWKHFODVVURRPFRQWH[WLVQRW
HPSLULFDOO\ PHDVXUHG LQ WKH WKUHH VWXGLHV RI WKLV WKHVLV LW FRQVWLWXWHV D
WKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWRILQWHUHVWLQHDFKRIWKHVHVWXGLHV'XHWRWKHVWXG\UHVXOWV
LW VHHPV UHDVRQDEOH WR GLVFXVV WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ DV D FRQWH[W WKDW PD\ ERWK
LQIOXHQFHDQGEHLQIOXHQFHGE\WKHDFWLYDWLRQRISXSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVV
Introduction
7KH WKHVLV GRHV QRW DSSURDFK WKH UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV ZLWK D SHUVRQ [
HQYLURQPHQWLQWHUDFWLRQGHVLJQ+RZHYHUDWKHRUHWLFDOSHUVSHFWLYHLQVSLUHGE\
DQLQWHUDFWLRQPRGHOLVDSSOLHGWRWKHGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHUHVXOWV,QWKDWOLJKWWKLV
WKHVLV IRFXV RQ RQH W\SH RI EHKDYLRXU RQH DVSHFW RI WKH SHUVRQ DQG RQH
HQYLURQPHQWDODVSHFW'LVREHGLHQWGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXULVLQYHVWLJDWHGUHODWHG
WRSXSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGWKHFRQWH[WWKDWLVFRQVWLWXWHGE\WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
+HQFH WKH HPSLULFDO UHVXOWV DUH GLVFXVVHG LQ UHODWLRQ WR WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\
%HFDXVHWKHWKUHHSDSHUVRXWOLQHWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\WRRQO\DOLPLWHGH[WHQWWKH
SKHQRPHQRQLVVXEPLWWHGWRDEURDGHUWKHRUHWLFDOLQYHVWLJDWLRQLQFKDSWHU$Q
RYHUYLHZRIWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVLVSUHVHQWHGLQVHFWLRQ
Theoretical frame
2 Theoretical frame
7KLVVHFWLRQKLJKOLJKWVWKHWKUHHWRSLFVWKDWFRQVWLWXWHWKHWKHRUHWLFDOIRXQGDWLRQ
RIWKHWKHVLVWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\SXSLODJJUHVVLRQDQGSXSLOGLVUXSWLRQ
7RHQVXUHWKHLQFOXVLRQRIUHOHYDQWUHVHDUFK,SHUIRUPHGOLWHUDWXUHVHDUFKHVIRU
SXEOLFDWLRQV ZLWKLQ WKH ILHOG RI DJJUHVVLRQ DQG GLVUXSWLRQGLVREHGLHQFH
LQGLVFLSOLQH IURP WR 6HDUFKHV UHJDUGLQJ GLVUXSWLRQ HWF ZHUH
SHUIRUPHGLQ2ULD(5,&DQG*RRJOH6FKRODUDQGOLPLWHGWRSXEOLFDWLRQVZKRVH
DEVWUDFWV FRPELQHG WKH ZRUGV GLVUXSWLRQ GLVREHGLHQFH LQGLVFLSOLQH ZLWK WKH
ZRUGVFKRRO6HDUFKHVUHJDUGLQJDJJUHVVLRQZHUHGRQHLQ(5,&DQG3V\F,QIR
ZLWK WKH IROORZLQJ WHUPV ³SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DQG UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ´
5HOHYDQWSXEOLFDWLRQVDUHLQFRUSRUDWHGLQWKHWH[WWKDWIROORZV
2.1 Teacher authority
,RXWOLQHWKHFRQFHSWXDOPHDQLQJRIDXWKRULW\DQGLWVDSSOLFDWLRQZLWKLQVFKRRO
QDPHO\ WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ $WWHPSWLQJ WR EHWWHU XQGHUVWDQG FKDOOHQJHV WKDW
DXWKRULW\ ILJXUHV LQ WRGD\¶V VFKRRO IDFH , SUHVHQW D GHYHORSPHQWDO YLHZ
FRYHULQJDIHZGHFDGHV*HQHUDOO\DEDVLFSRVLWLYHDWWLWXGHWRZDUGVFODVVURRP
DXWKRULW\ FKDUDFWHUL]HV WKH SUHVHQWDWLRQ DQG WKH WH[W UHYHDOV DUJXPHQWV
VXSSRUWLQJWKLVYLHZ
2.1.1 Conceptual meaning of authority
7KHVRFLRORJLVW0D[:HEHUGHYHORSHGDQLPSRUWDQWWKHRUHWLFDOIRXQGDWLRQIRU
WKHSKHQRPHQRQRIDXWKRULW\ZLWKOHJLWLPDF\DVDEDVLFHOHPHQW$FFRUGLQJWR
:HEHUDXWKRULW\LVSRZHUWKDWERWKWKRVHZKRSRVVHVVWKHSRZHU
DQGWKHSRZHUOHVVDFNQRZOHGJHDVOHJLWLPDWH,QRWKHUZRUGVDXWKRULW\UHIOHFWV
WKH SUREDELOLW\ WKDW D SHUVRQ JDLQV RWKHUV¶ YROXQWDU\ REHGLHQFH 3DFH +HPPLQJV:HEHU7KLVLPSOLHVWKDWQRWDOONLQGVRISRZHU
RU LQIOXHQFH VDWLVI\ WKH FULWHULD IRU DXWKRULW\ $XWKRULW\ LV OHJLWLPDWH SRZHU
ZKLFK LV SRZHU WKDW RQH RU PRUH RWKHU SHUVRQV YROXQWDULO\ JLYH WR D SHUVRQ
:KHQJLYHQDXWKRULW\RQHFDQDFFRPSOLVKJRDOVDFURVVWKHLPPHGLDWHLQWHUHVW
Theoretical frame
RI RWKHUV EXW QRW DFURVV WKHLU ZLOO :KHQ DQ LQGLYLGXDO YROXQWHHUV WR JLYH D
SHUVRQDXWKRULW\KHRUVKHDFFHSWVWKDWSHUVRQ¶VULJKWWRPDNHGHFLVLRQVHYHQ
ZKHQKHRUVKHGRHVQRWDJUHHWRWKHGHFLVLRQ:HEHUGHILQHGWKUHH
GLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIDXWKRULW\DQGWKHLPSRUWDQWGLVWLQJXLVKLQJFULWHULRQZDVWKH
HOHPHQWRIOHJLWLPDF\Traditional authority LVOHJLWLPDWHGE\ZHOOHVWDEOLVKHG
WUDGLWLRQVDQGVWUXFWXUHV7\SLFDOO\WKLVSHUVRQLVDVXSHULRUZKRVHFRPPDQGV
VHUYHWUDGLWLRQDQGVXERUGLQDWHVDUHH[SHFWHGWRUHVSRQGZLWKOR\DOW\$SSOLHG
WRWKHUROHRIDWHDFKHUKHLVDQH[SHUWZKRVKRXOGEHREH\HGGXHWRWKHUROHDV
DWHDFKHU3DFH+HPPLQJVCharismatic authority LVOHJLWLPDWHGE\D
SHUVRQ¶V H[FHSWLRQDO SHUVRQDO TXDOLW\ DQG DELOLW\ WR LQVSLUH OR\DOW\ DQG
REHGLHQFH IURP RWKHUV :HEHU $ FKDULVPDWLF WHDFKHU LQGXFHV
SXSLOVWRIRUPHPRWLRQDODWWDFKPHQWVWRKLP7KHLQIOXHQFHLVQRWGXHWRRIILFLDO
UXOHVVXFKWHDFKHUV¶OHJLWLPDF\KROGVDVORQJDVSXSLOVDUHLQVSLUHGWRPDLQWDLQ
WKHLUFRPPLWPHQW3DFH+HPPLQJV7KLUGlegal-rational authority
DOVRFDOOHGEXUHDXFUDWLFDXWKRULW\LVOHJLWLPDWHGE\EHOLHILQWKHFRQWHQWRIWKH
ODZRUQDWXUDOODZDQGLPSOLHVWKDWLQGLYLGXDOVREH\DVHWRIXQLIRUPSULQFLSOHV
UDWKHUWKDQDVSHFLILFOHDGHUUHJDUGOHVVRIZKHWKHUWKHOHDGHULVWUDGLWLRQDORU
FKDULVPDWLF:HEHU$QLQGLYLGXDOSRVVHVVHVWKLVW\SHRIDXWKRULW\
UHSUHVHQWLQJDQRIILFHRUHVWDEOLVKPHQWWKDWOHJLWLPDWHVJLYLQJFRPPDQGVDQG
WDNLQJ DFWLRQV WR VXSSRUW WKH HVWDEOLVKHG RUGHU :LWKLQ WKLV SHUVSHFWLYH WKH
WHDFKHULVDVXSHULRUDQGWKHSXSLOVDUHVXERUGLQDWHVDQGWKHWHDFKHUSRVVHVVHV
WKHULJKWWRSXQLVKDQGUHZDUG/HJDOUDWLRQDODXWKRULW\LVW\SLFDOO\DFFHSWHGDV
OHJLWLPDWHQHYHUWKHOHVVWKHWKUHDWRIEHLQJSXQLVKHGZLWKSRRUJUDGHVQHJDWLYH
UHPDUNV GHWHQWLRQ HWF PD\ LQGLFDWH WKDW SXSLOV¶ DSSURYDO LV EDVHG RQ
FRPSOLDQFHUDWKHUWKDQFRQVHQW3DFH+HPPLQJV
([SDQGLQJ EH\RQG :HEHU¶V FDWHJRULHV VRFLRORJLVWV KDYH LQWURGXFHG WKH
FRQFHSW RI professional authority. 7KLV VRXUFH WR OHJLWLPDF\ FRYHUV WKH
LQGLYLGXDO¶VH[SHUWLVH,QWKHFDVHRIWHDFKHUVH[SHUWLVHUHIHUVWRVXEMHFWPDWWHU
NQRZOHGJHDQGSHGDJRJLFDOVNLOOV3DFH+HPPLQJV
$FFRUGLQJ WR :HEHU WKH IRUPV RI DXWKRULW\ GR QRW RFFXU LQ SXUH IRUPV
FRPSOHWHO\ GLVWLQJXLVKHG IURP HDFK RWKHU UDWKHU DXWKRULWLHV RIWHQ DSSHDO WR
PL[HG OHJLWLPDWLRQ :HEHU 7HDFKHUV FDQ EXLOG RQ DOO WKH
PHQWLRQHG VRXUFHV RI OHJLWLPDF\ WR REWDLQ DXWKRULW\ (PPHU (YHUWVRQ
Theoretical frame
7KH DQFLHQW SKLORVRSKHU $ULVWRWHOHV DGGUHVVHG TXHVWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ DXWKRULW\
ZKHQKHGLVFXVVHGUKHWRULFDQGLGHQWLILHGHWKRVSDWKRVDQGORJRVDVFULWHULDIRU
FRQYLQFLQJRWKHUV$ULVWRWHOHVWUDQV(WKRVUHIHUVWRWKHVSHDNHU¶VRZQ
FUHGLELOLW\DQGLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\EHLQJWUXVWZRUWK\UHJDUGLQJWKHLVVXHDWKDQG
EHLQJDSHUVRQRIJRRGFKDUDFWHUDQGFDUU\LQJDJRRGUHSXWDWLRQ(WKRVFDQEH
VWUHQJWKHQHG E\ORJRV ZKLFK UHSUHVHQWVWKHDELOLW\WREH FRQYLQFLQJWKURXJK
DUJXPHQWV IDFWV DQG NQRZOHGJH DQG E\ SDWKRV ZKLFK LV WKH DELOLW\ WR
HPRWLRQDOO\ WRXFK WKH UHFLSLHQW $ULVWRWHOHV WUDQV $ULVWRWHOHV¶
FRQVLGHUDWLRQV FRQFHUQHG KRZ WR VSHDN FRQYLQFLQJO\ UDWKHU WKDQ WR DFKLHYH
JHQHUDO SHUVRQDO DXWKRULW\ <HW ZH PD\ DSSO\ VRPH RI KLV SHUVSHFWLYHV WR
WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\7HDFKHUV¶VWURQJUKHWRULFVKRXOGWKHQEXLOGRQWKHLUSHUVRQDO
H[SHUWLVH LQ VXEMHFWV DQG FRPPXQLFDWLRQ VNLOOV DQG JHQHUDO FUHGLELOLW\ ERWK
SHUVRQDOO\DQGGXHWRWKHUROH7KHWHDFKHU¶VJHQHUDODXWKRULW\LQWKHFODVVPD\
WRVRPHH[WHQWUHIOHFWKLVUKHWRULFDOTXDOLWLHV3DUDOOHOWRDOOPDQDJHUVRUOHDGHUV
WHDFKHUV PXVWEH DEOHWR VSHDNWR WKHLU SXSLOV LQ ZD\V WKDW EXLOGDQG VXVWDLQ
FUHGLELOLW\ WUXVWZRUWKLQHVV HWF &RQVHTXHQWO\ D WHDFKHU FDUULHV DXWKRULW\ RU
QRQDXWKRULW\WRVRPHH[WHQWDVDSHUVRQDOVWUHQJWKRUZHDNQHVVZLWKLQDFODVV
DQGSRWHQWLDOO\ZLWKLQDVFKRRORUWRWKHGHJUHHWKDWKLVUHSXWDWLRQDOORZV
2.1.2 Authority is anti-authoritarian
$QDXWKRULW\LVIROORZHGIUHHO\,WLVQRWVLPLODUWRDGHPDQGRUDGHFUHHPDGH
E\ WKH SROLFH ,QVWHDG LW LV DV DQ DFNQRZOHGJHPHQW RI WKH WUXWK%U\QLOGVHQ
7KLV FRUUHVSRQGV ZLWK OHJLWLPDF\ DV RXWOLQHG E\ :HEHU &RQVLGHULQJWKLVQRWLRQLWIROORZVWKDWDXWKRULW\LVDQWLDXWKRULWDULDQ
$FFHSWLQJ DQ DXWKRULW\ ILJXUH LPSOLHV DQ HOHPHQW RI VXEPLVVLRQ DQG LW LV
UHDVRQDEOH WR DVN ZKHWKHU DXWKRULW\ LV FRPSDWLEOH ZLWK KXPDQ IUHHGRP DQG
DXWRQRP\ %U\QLOGVHQ GLVFXVVHG WKLV EDVHG RQ WKH SUHPLVH WKDW WKH
KXPDQGHVLUHIRUIUHHGRPDQGDXWRQRP\ZKHWKHULQUHJDUGVWRUHOLJLRQHWKLFV
LQWHOOHFWXDO LVVXHVRUVRFLDO OLIHLVWKHVWURQJHVW DQGPRVW LPSRUWDQW SRVLWLYH
IHDWXUHLQUHFHQWKLVWRU\+RZHYHUKHVWDWHGWKDWHDFKLQGLYLGXDOPXVWEHSDUW
RIDKLJKHUKDUPRQLFIHOORZVKLSWKDQWKHELRORJLFDORQH8QOHVVDKXPDQLW\WKDW
LVone LQeverybody H[LVWVLQGLYLGXDODXWRQRP\ZLOOOHDGWRFKDRVILJKWVDQG
GLVFRUG$FFRUGLQJWR%U\QLOGVHQWKHRQO\WUXHDXWKRULW\WKDWGRHVQRW
FRQIOLFW ZLWK WKH GHPDQG IRU IUHHGRP LV WKH DXWKRULW\ QHFHVVDU\ LQ OHDUQLQJ
Theoretical frame
SURFHVVHV (DFK LQGLYLGXDO FDQ IUHHO\ DFNQRZOHGJH WKLV DXWKRULW\ EHFDXVH LW
OHDGVWRDSRLQWDWZKLFKSHRSOHFDQUHFRJQL]HWKHWUXWK7KLVDXWKRULW\GRHVQRW
FODLPDEHOLHYHU¶VVXEPLVVLRQEXWUDWKHUDQLQGHSHQGHQWFULWLFDODWWLWXGHZKLFK
FRQWLQXRXVO\EUHHGVWKHZLOOWRXQGHUVWDQG7KHDERYHXWWHUDQFHE\%U\QLOGVHQ
LVOLNHO\PRUHUHODWHGWRWKHOHDUQLQJFRQWHQWUHSUHVHQWHGE\WKHWHDFKHUWKDQWR
WKH WHDFKHU DV SHUVRQ 7KH DSSOLFDWLRQ RI :HEHU¶V DXWKRULW\ FDWHJRULHV WR
%U\QLOGVHQ¶VGHVFULSWLRQZLOOOLNHO\LPSO\WKDWWKHWHDFKHU¶VDXWKRULW\VKRXOGEH
WUDGLWLRQDO $FFRUGLQJ WR $ULVWRWHOHV WUDQV D WHDFKHU FRXOG DFKLHYH
DXWKRULW\ E\ VSHDNLQJ ZLWK HWKRV EHFDXVH KH LV FRQVLGHUHG WUXVWZRUWK\ DQG
FUHGLEOHLQWKHUHOHYDQWVXEMHFWDQGZLWKORJRVZKHQWKHFRQWHQWLVORJLFDOO\DQG
FRQYLQFLQJO\ SUHVHQWHG 'DOH PDGH DQ LPSRUWDQW VWDWHPHQW UHJDUGLQJ
DXWKRULW\ LQ VFKRRO DQG NQRZOHGJH QDPHO\ WKDW DXWKRULW\ LV D WHPSRUDU\
VXEVWLWXWHIRUSXSLOV¶RZQYDOLGDUJXPHQWV7KHUDWLRQDOHLVWKDWFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJ
FDQ EH DFKLHYHGRQO\WKURXJK NQRZOHGJH DQGDUJXPHQWV ZKLFKWDNH WLPH WR
DFKLHYHDQGWKDW GXULQJWKLVSURFHVVWHDFKHUVFDQSRVVHVVDXWKRULW\ZLWKWKH
SXUSRVHRIEHLQJUHGXQGDQW
0RGHUQ VFKRROV DSSUHFLDWH WKH YDOXHV RI GHPRFUDF\ DXWRQRP\ IUHHGRP RI
FKRLFHVHWF'DOH1HYHUWKHOHVVUHJDUGOHVVRIKRZKLJKO\ZHUDQNWKHVH
YDOXHVVFKRROVDUHGHSHQGHQWRQDVHWRIUXOHVVWDQGDUGVDQGVWUXFWXUHVWKDW
FRQVWLWXWHIUDPHVIRULQWHUDFWLRQVEHWZHHQSXSLOVWHDFKHUVDQGRWKHUVWKDWVKDUH
WKHSK\VLFDODUHDDQGZRUNWRIXOILOSODQVFXUULFXODDLPVDQGVRRQ'DOH
(PPHU(YHUWVRQ6FKRROVDUHQRWGLIIHUHQWIURPRWKHURUJDQL]DWLRQV
DQG VRFLHWLHV LQ WKLV UHJDUG 7KHUHIRUH DOWKRXJK DXWKRULW\ GLIIHUV IURP
DXWKRULWDULDQLVP LW LV QRW FRPSDWLEOH ZLWK XQFRQGLWLRQDO LQGLYLGXDO IUHHGRP
)RU VFKRRO LQWHUDFWLRQV WR ZRUN HIIHFWLYHO\ SXSLOV PXVW DFFHSW D OHJLWLPDWH
DXWKRULW\ RWKHUZLVH SRRU WHDFKLQJ OHDUQLQJDQG SXSLO VDIHW\FRQGLWLRQV ZLOO
SUHVHQW'DOH(PPHU(YHUWVRQ7KHVHXQGHUVWDQGLQJVPD\EH
HODERUDWHG E\ WKH LGHD RI FODVVURRP DXWKRULW\ DV D VRFLDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ
$FFRUGLQJWR3DFHDQG+HPPLQJVFODVVURRPDXWKRULW\LVFRQVWLWXWHGE\
FRPSOH[ VRFLDO UHODWLRQV WKDW IRUP D VRFLDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ ,W LV G\QDPLFDOO\
QHJRWLDWHG WKURXJK VHULHV RI LQWHUDFWLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH WHDFKHU DQG WKH SXSLOV
DQGFRQIOLFWV±ERWKRYHUWDQGVXEWOH±DUHQRWXQFRPPRQ3DFHDQG+HPPLQJV
VWDWHG WKDW ³&ODVVURRP DXWKRULW\ LQ LWV WUXHVW IRUP GHSHQGV RQ WHDFKHUV¶
OHJLWLPDF\VWXGHQWV¶FRQVHQWDQGDPRUDORUGHUFRQVLVWLQJRIVKDUHGSXUSRVHV
YDOXHVDQGQRUPV´3DFH+HPPLQJVS'HVSLWHSRVVLEOHFRQIOLFWV
Theoretical frame
DXWKRULW\FDQKDYHSRVLWLYHHIIHFWVRQVRFLDOUHODWLRQVLQDFODVVRUDVFKRROZKHQ
LW LV D FXOWXUHLQWHJUDWLYH YDOXH 1MHJRYDQ 9XFDGLQRYLü 1HãLü &XUUHQWWDONVRQWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\RIWHQUHODWHWRWKHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKHUROHDQG
WKH SHUVRQ 7KLV PD\ FRUUHVSRQG WR WKH FRQFHSW RI DXWKRULW\ DV D WULSDUWLWH
UHODWLRQVKLSFRQVWLWXWHGE\WKHEHDUHURIDXWKRULW\WKHVXEMHFWDQGWKHUHOHYDQW
ILHOG%RFKHQVNLUHIHUUHGLQ7LUUL3XROLPDWND
2.1.3 A historical view of teacher authority
7KHJHQHUDOUDWHRIFKDQJHLQPRGHUQVRFLHW\LQFOXGLQJWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFK
NQRZOHGJHLVUHOLDEOHDFURVVWLPHKDVGHYHORSHGWUHPHQGRXVO\GXULQJWKHODVW
JHQHUDWLRQV 7RIIOHU 7HDFKHU DXWKRULW\ EDVHG RQ NQRZLQJ ³what is
true?” RU ³what works?´ PD\ WKHUHIRUH PHHW FKDOOHQJHV LQ WRGD\¶V VFKRROV
&RQVHTXHQWO\ WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ PXVW EH OHJLWLPL]HG E\ VRXUFHV RWKHU WKDQ
NQRZOHGJH LPSO\LQJ WKDW OHJLWLPDWLRQ EDVHG RQ WUDGLWLRQ RU OHJDOUDWLRQDO
DUJXPHQWVZLOOOLNHO\EHLQVXIILFLHQW7KLVFRUUHVSRQGVZLWKWKHYLHZRI%MHUJ
ZKRVKRZHGWKDWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\KDVGHYHORSHGLQOLQHZLWKFKDQJHV
LQ :HVWHUQ FXOWXUH GXULQJ WKH ODVW GHFDGHV ,Q WKH V SXSLOV DVVHVVHG
ZKHWKHU WHDFKHUV ZHUHIDLU RU XQIDLU LQDFFRUGDQFH ZLWK DVWDQGDUGL]HG SXSLO
UROH%\FRQWUDVWWRGD\SXSLOVH[SHFWWHDFKHUVWREXLOGSHUVRQDOUHODWLRQVKLSV
ZLWKWKHPDQGWDNHFDUHRIWKHLULQGLYLGXDOQHHGV1HYHUWKHOHVV%MHUJ
FODLPHGWKDWSXSLOVKDYHDOZD\VFKDOOHQJHGWKHSRZHURIWKHLUWHDFKHUVDQGWKDW
WKHNH\WRDFKLHYLQJDXWKRULW\KDVFRQVLVWHQWO\EHHQKDQGOLQJVXFKFKDOOHQJHV
+HOOH %MHUJ LQYHVWLJDWHG FKDQJHV LQ WKH WHDFKHU UROH DQG LQ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS
EHWZHHQWHDFKHUDQGSXSLOVE\OLVWHQLQJWRWKHH[SHULHQFHVRISHRSOHZKRZHUH
SXSLOVGXULQJWKHVVDQGV%MHUJGHVFULEHGDGHYHORSPHQWDOOLQH
WKDW VKHG OLJKW RQ FKDOOHQJHV WR WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ LQ WRGD\¶V VFKRRO 7KH
IROORZLQJ SUHVHQWDWLRQ EXLOGV RQ %MHUJ¶V GRFWRUDO WKHVLV FRPSOHWHG DW WKH
8QLYHUVLW\ RI $DUKXV +RZ WHDFKHUV SHUFHLYH WKHLU SXSLOV ZLOO FRORXU
KRZWKHSXSLOVSHUFHLYHWKHPVHOYHV%MHUJUHIHUUHGWRWKHWHDFKHUJD]HDVDWRRO
WKDWSXSLOVXVHWRXQGHUVWDQGRULGHQWLI\WKHPVHOYHVDVVXEMHFWVHJE\DVNLQJ
TXHVWLRQVVXFKDVZKDWDP,DEOHWRDFKLHYHDQGZKRDP ,DEOHWREHFRPH"
7KXVWKHWHDFKHU¶VJD]HDOVRIUDPHVZKDWWKHSXSLOVKRXOGEHKDSS\DERXWDQG
DVSLUHWR&RQVHTXHQWO\SXSLOV¶VHOISHUFHSWLRQLQFOXGHVDQLGHQWLILFDWLRQZLWK
WKHPHDQLQJWKDWWHDFKHUVDWWDFKWRWKHP
Theoretical frame
,Q WKH LQ WKH V WHDFKHUV KDG D TXLWH VWDQGDUGL]HG SLFWXUH RI SXSLOV DQG
DVSHFWVWKDWZHUHFRPPRQWRDOOSXSLOVIRUPHGWKHGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHSXSLOUROH
7KHWHDFKHUV¶H[SHFWDWLRQVRIWKHLUSXSLOVZHUHSULPDULO\DFDGHPLFDQGSXSLOV
ZHUH H[SHFWHG WR EHKDYH LQ DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK WKH UXOHV UDLVH WKHLU KDQGV DQG
FRPSOHWHWKHLUKRPHZRUN7HDFKHUDXWKRULW\ZDVPDLQO\UHODWHGWRWKHIRUPDO
SRVLWLRQRIWKHWHDFKHUDQGWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHWHDFKHU¶VDQGWKHSXSLOV¶
UROHVJDYHOHJLWLPDF\WRWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\7KLVFRUUHVSRQGVZLWKOHJDOUDWLRQDO
DXWKRULW\DVGHVFULEHGE\:HEHUDQGDXWKRULW\EDVHGRQWUDGLWLRQ
7KLV VXSSRUWHG 0RRV¶ GHVFULSWLRQ RI WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ VFKRRO
DQGVRFLHW\LQWKHVDPHSHULRG6SHFLILFDOO\DOWKRXJKUHIRUPSHGDJRJLFDOLGHDV
ZHUH JURZLQJ VFKRROV VWLOO DLPHG WR GLVFLSOLQH SXSLOV LQWR WKH HVWDEOLVKHG
VRFLHW\
,QWKHVWHDFKHUVVWLOOUHJDUGHGWKHSXSLO¶VDFDGHPLFDWWLWXGHDQGUHVXOWVDV
WKHEDVLFLQIRUPDWLRQIRUWKHLUSHUFHSWLRQRIWKHSXSLO7KHVDPHDSSOLHGWRWKH
SXSLO¶VVHOISHUFHSWLRQ7KHPDLQTXHVWLRQWKDWDSXSLODVNHGZKHQDVVHVVLQJ
KLPVHOI DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH WHDFKHU¶V JD]H ZDV ZKHWKHU WKH KRPHZRUN ZDV
SURSHUO\GRQHHWF+RZHYHUWKHWHDFKHUV¶GLGQRWKDYHWKHVDPHVWDQGDUGL]HG
SHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHLUSXSLOVDVGLGWKHLUFROOHDJXHVVRPHGHFDGHVHDUOLHU$PRUH
GLIIHUHQWLDWHGSHUFHSWLRQRISXSLOVDURVHDQGWHDFKHUVYLHZHGSXSLOVDVYDULHG
LQ UHJDUG WR DFDGHPLF SHUVRQDO DQG VRFLDO LVVXHV 3XSLOV ZKR VWUXJJOHG
DFDGHPLFDOO\ RU ZKR KDG VSHFLDO FKDOOHQJHV DW KRPH FRXOG UHFHLYH H[WUD
DWWHQWLRQDQGVXSSRUWIURPWKHWHDFKHU7KHWHDFKHUJD]HLQWKHVDOORZHG
SXSLOVWREHFRPHYLVLEOHDVLQGLYLGXDOVZLWKVSHFLDOQHHGVDQGWRH[SHFWWRKDYH
WKHLUQHHGVDFNQRZOHGJHGDQGVDWLVILHG%MHUJ
'XULQJ WKLV SHULRG WKH WHDFKHU GHVFHQGHG IURP KLV HOHYDWHG SRVLWLRQ LQ WKH
FODVVURRPERWKSK\VLFDOO\DQGV\PEROLFDOO\'HVSLWHWKLVWKHFRQGLWLRQVZHUH
VWLOOFRQGXFWLYHWRIRUPDOWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\+RZHYHUDFKDQJHZDVLQWURGXFHG
GXH WR WKH IDFW WKDW WKH WHDFKHUV¶ GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJ JD]HV DW SXSLOV ZHUH
VXSSOHPHQWHG ZLWK DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH VRFLDO G\QDPLFV EHWZHHQ WKH SXSLOV
$FFRUGLQJWR%MHUJSXSLOV¶VHOISHUVSHFWLYHVPHWDFRPSHWLQJSRZHU6KRXOG
WKH\ LGHQWLI\ ZLWK WKH WHDFKHU RU ZLWK WKH SHHUV" $V D UHVXOW D SXSLO KDG WR
FKRRVH ZKHWKHU WR EH FRUUHFWHGE\WKH WHDFKHU RU WRQRW OLVWHQ WR WKH WHDFKHU
EHFDXVHOLVWHQLQJLPSOLHGORVLQJIDFHDQGSRSXODULW\DPRQJFODVVPDWHV6FKRRO
YHUVXV SHHU FXOWXUH UHSUHVHQWHG WZR V\PEROLF V\VWHPV :KHQ WKHVH V\VWHPV
FKDOOHQJHG HDFK RWKHU WKH SXSLO KDG WR FKRRVH ZKLFK WR LGHQWLI\ ZLWK7KLV
Theoretical frame
FRQVWLWXWHGDFRQIOLFWEHWZHHQWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\DQGDQRWKHUOHJLWLPDWHSRZHU
SXSLOIHOORZVKLS%MHUJ¶VDQDO\VHVFRUUHVSRQGZHOOZLWK0RRV¶
GHVFULSWLRQRIVFKRRO¶VUROHLQVRFLHW\LQWKLVSHULRG*LYHQWKHIDFWWKDWVFKRROV
ZHUH H[SHFWHG WR GHYHORS VROLGDU\ FLWL]HQV LQ WKH V SXSLO FRRSHUDWLRQ
LQWHUDFWLRQV DQG VRFLDOSHGDJRJLFDO WDVNV EHFDPH LPSRUWDQW %HFDXVH WKH
IRUPDOUROHRIWKHWHDFKHUUHPDLQHGVWURQJ,SURSRVHWKDWWKHWZRRI:HEHU¶V
FDWHJRULHVRIDXWKRULW\MXVWPHQWLRQHGFRQWLQXHGWRSURYLGHPDQ\
WHDFKHUVZLWKDXWKRULW\+RZHYHUWKHQHHGIRUSHUVRQDOFUHGLELOLW\LQWURGXFHG
WKHSHUVRQDOFKDULVPDWLFDXWKRULW\ZKLFKVXSSOHPHQWHGWHDFKHUV¶SRZHU
&RQVLGHULQJWKHV%MHUJSRLQWHGWRWKHIDFWWKDWWHDFKHUDOVRJD]HG
DW WKH FODVV DV D VRFLDO IHOORZVKLS 3XSLOV FRPPRQO\ GLVFXVVHG TXHVWLRQV
UHJDUGLQJWKHVRFLDOFOLPDWHDQGWKHLUGHVLUHGFODVVURRPFRQGLWLRQV0RUHRYHU
WKH WHDFKHU ZDV DFWLYHO\ LQYROYHG LQ UHODWLRQVKLSV DQG FRQIOLFWV DPRQJ WKH
SXSLOV7HDFKHUVUHJDUGHGSXSLOVDVLQGLYLGXDOVZLWKVRFLDOUHVSRQVLELOLW\LQWKH
JURXS7KHWHDFKHU¶VJD]HDWWKHLQGLYLGXDOSXSLODQGDWKLVUHODWLRQVKLSWRWKH
SXSLO ZDV FORVHU DQG PRUH SHUVRQDO WKDQ LQ WKH SDVW 7KH WHDFKHU QRW RQO\
GHVFHQGHGWRWKHSXSLOV¶OHYHOEXWDOVRZDONHGDPRQJWKHSXSLOV$FFRUGLQJWR
WKH SXSLOV WKH WHDFKHU QRZ FRQVLGHUHG WKHP PRUH DV HTXDOV 7KLV DFWXDOO\
UHSUHVHQWHGWKHNH\UHDVRQZK\SXSLOVFRQVLGHUHGWKHWHDFKHU¶VOHDGHUVKLSWREH
OHJLWLPDWH2QWKLVEDFNJURXQG%MHUJDVNHGZKHWKHUWKDWNLQGRIWHDFKHUJD]H
FDQVHUYHDVDJXLGHIRUSXSLOV¶VHOILGHQWLILFDWLRQ$QHTXDOL]HGWHDFKHUJD]H
PD\EHLQDGHTXDWHIRUWKHSXSLO¶VGHYHORSPHQWRIKLVRUKHUUROHWKHSXSLO¶V
V\PEROLFLGHQWLILFDWLRQ'XHWRWKHVHFLUFXPVWDQFHVWKHSXSLOVZDWFKHGHDFK
RWKHU DQG WKHLU YLHZV ZHUH QRW UHVWULFWHG EHFDXVH WKH ILUP WHDFKHU JD]H ZDV
DEVHQW %MHUJ $FFRUGLQJ WR 0RRV VFKRROV¶ DVVLJQPHQW LQ WKH
V LQFOXGHG VXSSRUWLQJ DQG SURYLGLQJ PHQWRUVKLS IRU HDFK SXSLO¶V
LQGLYLGXDOGHYHORSPHQWDQGSURPRWLQJHDFKSXSLO¶VUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUWKHLURZQ
OHDUQLQJ6ORJDQVVXFKDV³Responsibility for one’s own learning´DQG³Pupilcentered teaching´ UHFHLYHG FRQVLGHUDEOH VXSSRUW LQ 1RUZHJLDQ VFKRROV
7HOKDXJ 2QH FDQ UHDVRQDEO\ VXJJHVW WKDW DXWKRULW\ OHJLWLPDWHG LQ
WUDGLWLRQRUWKHWHDFKHU¶VIRUPDOUROH:HEHUORVWLQIOXHQFHWRWKH
EHQHILWRIFKDULVPDWLFDXWKRULW\
3DUDOOHOVH[LVWEHWZHHQWKHGHYHORSPHQWRIWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\GHVFULEHGE\%MHUJ
DQG WKH GHYHORSPHQW ZLWKLQ VFKRRO KLVWRU\ %ULHIO\ VFKRRO KDV
WUDQVIRUPHG LWV UROH IURP UHSURGXFLQJ DQG GLVFLSOLQLQJ YLD GHPRFUDWLF
Theoretical frame
HGXFDWLRQWRPRUHVWURQJO\KLJKOLJKWLQJWKHLQGLYLGXDOV¶GHYHORSPHQW7HOKDXJ
7KHSXSLOUROHKDVGHYHORSHGIURPDXQLIRUPDQGKRPRJHQHRXVSDUWRI
DFODVVWRDVXEMHFWZLWKDQLQGLYLGXDOSHUVRQDOLW\DQGLQFUHDVHGVHOIIRFXV,Q
SDUDOOHOWKHWHDFKHUUROHKDVFKDQJHGIURPDXWKRULW\EDVHGRQDFDGHPLFVNLOOV
GLVFLSOLQH DQG VDQFWLRQV WR DXWKRULW\ EDVHG RQ NQRZLQJ HDFK SXSLO DQG
VXSSRUWLQJWKHSXSLO¶VVHOIPDQDJHPHQW%MHUJFODLPHGWKDWGXULQJWKHGHFDGHV
H[DPLQHGLQKHUVWXG\WKHGLVWDQFHEHWZHHQWKHV\PEROLFWHDFKHUSRVLWLRQDQG
WKH V\PEROLF SXSLO SRVLWLRQ GHFUHDVHG 'HVSLWH FKDQJHV LQ WHDFKHU DQG SXSLO
UROHV SXSLOVKDYHDOZD\V FKDOOHQJHGDQGWHVWHGWKHLUWHDFKHUV7HDFKHUV ZKR
KDYHKDQGOHGWKHFKDOOHQJHVKDYHJDLQHGDXWKRULW\7KHRWKHUVKDYHVWUXJJOHG
,QWHUHVWLQJO\ DOWKRXJK SXSLOV FKDOOHQJH WKHLU WHDFKHUV WKH\ DOVR UHTXHVW DQG
GHPDQGWHDFKHUVZKRKDYHDXWKRULW\%MHUJ,QVKRUWLWVHHPVDVWKRXJK
DXWKRULW\ KDV QRW ORVW LWV UHOHYDQFH LQ FODVVURRPV DQG LQ WHDFKHUSXSLO
UHODWLRQVKLSV1RQHWKHOHVVWKHSRVVLEOHUHOHYDQFHRIGLIIHUHQWVRXUFHVWKDWJLYH
OHJLWLPDF\ WR DXWKRULW\ KDYH FRQVLGHUDEO\ EHFRPH PRUH SHUVRQDOO\ DQG
UHODWLRQDOO\EDVHG
2.1.4 Preliminary criticism of authority
$XWKRULW\LVSRZHUDQGLPSOLHVWKHDELOLW\WRLQIOXHQFHSHRSOH*LYHQWKHIDFW
WKDWDXWKRULW\LVOHJLWLPDWHSRZHUWKHLQIOXHQFHFDQEHVWURQJVXEWOHDQGLQ
VRPHFDVHVH[WHQGWKHOLPLWDWLRQVRILWVOHJLWLPDF\-XVWDVFKDULVPDWLFSHUVRQV
± EHFDXVH RI WKHLU FKDULVPD ± FDQ DFKLHYH SRSXODULW\ DQG JDLQ DXWKRULW\
WHDFKHUV FDQ REWDLQ LQIOXHQFH EH\RQG ZKDW LV FRQVLGHUHG VRXQG LQ DQ
HGXFDWLRQDO UHODWLRQVKLS $V GLVFXVVHG DERYH WRGD\ WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ VHHPV
PRUHUHODWHGWRWKHWHDFKHUDVDSHUVRQDQGOHVVWRWKHIRUPDOUROH,QDGGLWLRQ
EXLOGLQJ VWURQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK SXSLOV LV DQ LPSRUWDQW PHDQV E\ ZKLFK WR
DFKLHYH VXFK DXWKRULW\ (PPHU (YHUWVRQ :DONHU :HQW]HO
%\ YLUWXH RI VWURQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV WKH WHDFKHUPLJKW EH SRSXODU LQ WKH
FODVV $V FODVVPDWHV¶ DSSUHFLDWLRQ IRU WKH WHDFKHU¶V GHPDQGV RU SURSRVLWLRQV
LQFUHDVHVDVLQJOHSXSLOZLOOQHHGWRH[HUWJUHDWHUHIIRUWWRVWDQGXSIRUKLPVHOI
DJDLQVWXQZDQWHGGLUHFWLYHVRULQIOXHQFHV*HHW]HOV7KHOHQ:HFDQ
VXPXS WKLV ZDUQLQJDVDK\SRWKHWLFDO SUHVVXUH WKDWPD\FRPH IURP SHUVRQV
ZLWK KLJK VRFLDO VWDWXV LQ D JURXS 3XSLOV PLJKW DGMXVW WR VRFLDOH[SHFWDWLRQV
HYHQLIWKH\GRQRWDJUHHZLWKRUZDQWWRDGMXVWWKHP6LPLODUWRSXSLOVWHDFKHUV
PLJKWDFKLHYHVXFKDSRVLWLRQLQDFODVV,QWKLVFDVHWKHDXWKRULW\WKDWRULJLQDOO\
Theoretical frame
FKDUDFWHUL]HGWKHUHODWLRQVKLSPD\EHUHSODFHGE\SRZHUWKDWLVQRWFRQVLGHUHG
OHJLWLPDWHE\WKHSXSLORUE\WKHFODVV+RZHYHUWKHDV\PPHWULFUHODWLRQVKLS
EHWZHHQ SXSLOV DQG WHDFKHUV 3LDQWD PLJKW FRQWULEXWH WR VXVWDLQHG
VXEPLVVLRQ HYHQ LI WKH OHJLWLPDF\ RI WKH WHDFKHU¶V SRZHU LV HOLPLQDWHG
HVSHFLDOO\ LI WKH PDMRULW\RI SXSLOV LQ WKH FODVVVWLOO SURYLGH WKH WHDFKHU ZLWK
DXWKRULW\ , UHYLVLW FULWLFDO FRPPHQWV UHJDUGLQJ DXWKRULW\ LQ WKH GLVFXVVLRQ
VHFWLRQ
2.1.5 Teacher authority and classroom management
$SSOLHGWRFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQW³7HDFKHUDXWKRULW\UHIHUVWRWKHWHDFKHU¶V
ULJKWWRVHWVWDQGDUGVIRUVWXGHQWEHKDYLRUDQGSHUIRUPDQFHDQGWKHOLNHOLKRRG
WKDW VWXGHQWV ZLOO IROORZ WKH WHDFKHU¶V OHDG LQ WKHLU GHFLVLRQV DQG EHKDYLRU´
(PPHU (YHUWVRQ S 3XSLOV ZKR IROORZ WHDFKHUV¶ H[SHFWDWLRQV
VXSSRUWWKHWHDFKHUV¶DXWKRULW\ZKLOHSXSLOVZKRLQWHQWLRQDOO\EHKDYHFRQWUDU\
WRDWHDFKHU¶VLQVWUXFWLRQVRUVWDQGDUGVFKDOOHQJHWKHWHDFKHU¶VDXWKRULW\%MHUJ
(PPHU (YHUWVRQ7KH OLNHOLKRRG WKDW SXSLOV YROXQWDULO\JLYH
WKHWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\GHSHQGVRQDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSWKDWWKH
WHDFKHUGHYHORSVZLWKHDFKSXSLO %MHUJ 5RODQG :DONHU :HQW]HO7KLVVXSSRUWVWKHDQDO\VHVSHUIRUPHGE\%MHUJUHIHUUHGDERYH
ZKLFKVKRZHGWKDWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\GXHWRWKHIRUPDOUROHKDVORVWLWVSRVLWLRQ
DQGLVQRORQJHUHIIHFWLYHLQWRGD\¶VFODVVURRPV
7HDFKHUDXWKRULW\DQGFODVVURRPGLVFLSOLQHDUHFORVHO\FRQQHFWHG'LVFLSOLQHLV
WRIROORZUXOHV'DOH$VDOUHDG\PHQWLRQHGUXOHVPXVWEHLQSODFHIRU
JURXSV WR EH HIIHFWLYH DQG DXWKRULW\ FRYHUV WKH SXSLOV¶ DFFHSWDQFH RI WKH
FRPPRQVHWRIUXOHVHWF2QHSXUSRVHRIUXOHVLVWRVHFXUHWKHFRQWHQWLQVFKRRO
E\ HQVXULQJ WKDW WLPH DQG UHVRXUFHV DUH XWLOL]HG IRU OHDUQLQJ DQG SRVLWLYH
GHYHORSPHQW %\ DFFHSWLQJ WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ SXSLOV FKRRVH WR WDNH SDUW LQD
IHOORZVKLSZRUNLQJWRZDUGVFHUWDLQJRDOVWKURXJKFHUWDLQPHDQV,QVRPHFDVHV
DSXSLO¶VLPSXOVLYHLQWHUHVWPD\FRQIOLFWZLWKWKHDXWKRULW\+RZHYHUZKHQWKH
SXSLOKDVDFFHSWHGWKHDXWKRULW\KHKDVDFFHSWHGWREHGLVFLSOLQHGDFFRUGLQJWR
WKHFROOHFWLYHLQWHUHVW7HDFKHUVSRVVHVVLQJDXWKRULW\DUHDEOHWRUHJXODWHSXSLO
EHKDYLRXUEHFDXVHWKHSXSLO¶VKDYHJLYHQWKHPOHJLWLPDF\WRGRVR$WHDFKHU
ZKRGRHVQRWSRVVHVVDXWKRULW\PD\DWWHPSWWRUHJXODWHSXSLOEHKDYLRXUHYHQ
Theoretical frame
E\XVLQJWKHVDPHDSSURDFKHVDVKLVFROOHDJXHKRZHYHULIKHGRHVQRWKDYH
OHJLWLPDF\KLVZRUGVZLOOEHRIOLWWOHYDOXH
7HDFKHUV FDQ REWDLQ SUDFWLFDO DGYLFH IRU JDLQLQJ DXWKRULW\ DV FODVVURRP
PDQDJHUV E\ FRQVLGHULQJ WKH SHUVSHFWLYH RI DXWKRULWDWLYH WHDFKLQJ (UWHVYnJ
7KHWKHRUHWLFDOSODWIRUPLV%DXPULQG¶VPRGHORISDUHQWLQJVW\OHV
3DUHQWLQJVW\OHFRQVWLWXWHVDQHPRWLRQDOFOLPDWHLQZKLFKFKLOGUHQGHYHORSLW
LVVXSHULRUWRHSLVRGLFSUDFWLFHDQGWKHUHE\FRQVWLWXWHVDFRQWH[WIRUHSLVRGHV
:DONHU%DXPULQGGHVFULEHGWZRD[HVQXUWXUDQFHDQGFRQWURO
HDFKRIZKLFKFDQUDQJHIURPRYHUO\ORZWRH[FHVVLYHOHYHOV+LJKVFRUHVRQ
WKH FRQWURO D[LV LQGLFDWH FOHDU H[SHFWDWLRQV PDWXULW\ GHPDQGV FRQVLVWHQW
HQIRUFHPHQW RI IDLU VWDQGDUGV IRU EHKDYLRXU DQG FRQWURO LQ IROORZLQJ XS RQ
WKHVH VWDQGDUGV :DONHU 'HPRFUDWLF FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DUJXPHQWV DQG
H[SODQDWLRQVUHODWHGWRUXOHVHQFRXUDJHPHQWRIRSLQLRQVVKRXOGEHHQFRXUDJHG
+LJK VFRUHV RQ WKH QXUWXUDQFH GLPHQVLRQ VLJQLI\ FRQVLVWHQW FRQFHUQ IRU WKH
FKLOG¶V HPRWLRQDO DQG SK\VLFDO ZHOOEHLQJ DQG VXSSRUW IRU WKH FKLOG¶V
LQGLYLGXDOLW\ DQG DJHQF\ :DONHU 7KLV LPSOLHV VHQVLWLYLW\ DQG
UHVSRQVLYHQHVVWRWKHFKLOG¶VQHHGVDQGWKHSURYLVLRQRIWKHVXSSRUWQHHGHGWR
PHHW HVWDEOLVKHG GHPDQGV 9DULDWLRQV LQ WKH VFRUHV RQ WKH WZR D[HV RIWHQ
SUHVHQWHGLQDV\VWHPRIFRRUGLQDWHVOHDGWRIRXUSDUHQWLQJVW\OHVDXWKRULWDWLYH
KLJKRQERWKFRQWURO DQGQXUWXUDQFHDXWKRULWDULDQKLJKRQFRQWUROORZRQ
QXUWXUDQFH SHUPLVVLYH ORZ RQ FRQWURO DQG PRGHUDWH QXUWXULQJ DQG
QHJOHFWIXOORZRQFRQWURODQGQXUWXUDQFH%DXPULQG:HQW]HO
7KH SHUVSHFWLYH RQ DXWKRULWDWLYH SDUHQWLQJ KDV EHHQ DSSOLHG WR WHDFKHUV¶
FODVVURRPZRUN3DUDOOHOWRWKHVRFLDOL]DWLRQFRQWH[WFUHDWHGE\SDUHQWLQJVW\OH
WKH FRQWH[W HVWDEOLVKHG E\ WKH WHDFKHU¶V PDQDJHPHQW VW\OH LQIOXHQFHV SXSLOV¶
PRWLYDWLRQ OHDUQLQJ DQG EHKDYLRXU :DONHU :HQW]HO :HQW]HO
LQYHVWLJDWHG ZKHWKHU WHDFKHUV YDULHG LQ WKH HOHPHQWV RI FRQWURO DQG
QXUWXUDQFH :LWK UHIHUHQFH WR %DXPULQG¶V PRGHO :HQW]HO VWXGLHG PDWXULW\
GHPDQGV FRQWURO GHPRFUDWLF FRPPXQLFDWLRQ DQG QXUWXUDQFH $GGLWLRQDOO\
VKHVWXGLHGWHDFKHUVDVUROHPRGHOVRIPRWLYDWLRQ7KHUHVXOWVFRQILUPHGWKDW
VLPLODU WR SDUHQWV WHDFKHUV KDYH GLIIHUHQW FRQWURO DQG QXUWXUDQFH SURILOHV
)XUWKHUPRUH VKH GRFXPHQWHG UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ WHDFKHU VW\OHV DQG SXSLO
RXWFRPH SXSLOV¶ DGMXVWPHQW WR VFKRRO LQ WHUPV RI WKHLU VRFLDO DQG DFDGHPLF
JRDOVDQGLQWHUHVWLQFODVVFODVVURRPEHKDYLRXUDQGDFDGHPLFUHVXOWV:HQW]HO
7KHREYLRXVO\ IDYRXUDEOH WHDFKHUVW\OHZDVWKHDXWKRULWDWLYHVW\OH
Theoretical frame
FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\KLJKVFRUHVRQERWKFRQWURODQGQXUWXUDQFH$QDXWKRULWDWLYH
WHDFKHUVW\OHLVQRZZLGHO\DFNQRZOHGJHGDVWKHPRVWHIIHFWLYHDQGSUHIHUDEOH
(UWHVYnJ5RODQG:DONHU:HQ]HO
$XWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKLQJLVDPHDQVE\ZKLFKWRDFKLHYHDQGPDLQWDLQDXWKRULW\
LQ WKH FODVV 7KLV JLYHV WHDFKHUV OHJLWLPDF\ WR HVWDEOLVK DQG PDQDJH D VHW RI
VWDQGDUGVUXOHVSURFHGXUHVDQGDFWLYLWLHVZKLFKDUHDOOSDUWRIEXLOGLQJDKLJK
TXDOLW\OHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQW%HFDXVHDXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKHUVEXLOGDZDUPDQG
VXSSRUWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKHDFKSXSLOWKHSRVLWLRQWKDWWKHWHDFKHUDFKLHYHV
ZLOOKDYHVRPHOHYHORIVXVWDLQDELOLW\7KHDXWKRULW\FDQEHFRPHSHUVRQDOL]HG
DQGLVQRWGXHRQO\WRHSLVRGHVWHDFKHUV¶NQRZOHGJHLQDOLPLWHGVHTXHQFHDQG
VR RQ 5DWKHU WKH WHDFKHUV DUH UHFRJQL]HG DV WKH DFWRUV ZKR PDQDJH WKH
FODVVURRPIHOORZVKLSDUH WUXVWZRUWK\DQG VXSSRUWLYHDQG WKHUHE\DFKLHYHD
VLJQLILFDQWSRVLWLRQWRHDFKSXSLODQGWRWKHFODVV
$OWKRXJK WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ DFKLHYHG WKURXJK DXWKRULWDWLYH WHDFKLQJ LV RIWHQ
TXLWHVWDEOHLWGRHVQRWFRPHZLWKDJXDUDQWHHRIVXVWDLQDELOLW\RUGXUDEOHXQWLO
VWDPS &RQVLVWHQW H[SHULHQFHV RYHU WLPH ZLOO RI FRXUVH VWDELOL]H ERWK WKH
SHUFHSWLRQ DQG H[SHFWDWLRQV RI D SHUVRQ +RZHYHU DQ DXWKRULW\ ILJXUH WKDW
WUHDWVKLVRUKHUIROORZHUVGLVUHVSHFWIXOO\RIIHQGVRURWKHUZLVHGRHVQRWEHKDYH
LQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKHIRXQGDWLRQIRUWKHDXWKRULW\JLYHQZLOOORVHOHJLWLPDF\
$WHDFKHUZKRIDLOVWRSUDFWLFHFRQWUROZKHQUXOHVDUHEURNHQLPSOLFLWO\IDLOVWR
SURWHFW WKH SXSLOV DQG HVWDEOLVKHG FODVV VWDQGDUGV ,I WKLV RFFXUV RQFH WR D
WHDFKHUZKRKDVDXWKRULW\WKHWHDFKHU¶VSRVLWLRQPLJKWQRWFKDQJH+RZHYHU
LILQFRQVLVWHQF\RUSHUPLVVLYHQHVVEHFRPHVFRPPRQWKHWHDFKHUVW\OHFKDQJHV
DQG DXWKRULW\ FDQ KDUGO\ EH VXVWDLQHG :DONHU ,Q VKRUW SXSLOV JLYH
DXWKRULW\ WR WHDFKHUV ZKR GHVHUYH LW DQG WDNH DXWKRULW\ DZD\ LI WHDFKHUV QR
ORQJHUGHVHUYHLW
$OWKRXJKWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\KDVDFHUWDLQOHYHORIVWDELOLW\RQHVKRXOGNHHSLQ
PLQGWKHRQJRLQJG\QDPLFVRQZKLFKDXWKRULW\GHSHQGV3DFH+HPPLQJV
.UHMVOHU DQG 0RRV VWDWHG WKDW WHDFKHUV RIWHQ KDYH WR ILJKW IRU
SXSLOV¶DQGSDUHQWV¶DFFHSWDQFHRIWKHLUOHJLWLPDWHDXWKRULW\DQGWKH\UHODWHWKLV
WRWKHFRPPRQO\VWDWHGDSSHDOIRUSXSLOV¶VHOIOHDGHUVKLS
7HDFKHUVZKRIDLOWREXLOGSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKSXSLOVIDLOWRHVWDEOLVKD
JRRG OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQW RU IDLO WR PDQDJH EHKYLRXUDO SUREOHPV RU RWKHU
Theoretical frame
FKDOOHQJHVWRZDUGVOHDGHUVKLSPD\QRWEHDEOHWRDFKLHYHDXWKRULW\(PPHU
(YHUWVRQ 5RODQG 9DDODQG 7KLV FRUUHVSRQGV ZLWK WKH
SHUVSHFWLYH RQ WHDFKHUSXSLO LQWHUDFWLRQV DQG WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\HYLGHQW LQ WKH
VDVGHVFULEHGE\%MHUJ
*RRG FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW GHSHQGV RQ WHDFKHUV¶ SRVVHVVLRQ RI DXWKRULW\
3XSLOV WHQG WR JLYH DXWKRULW\ WR WHDFKHUV ZKR VXFFHHG LQ PHHWLQJ WKH
FKDOOHQJHV DULVLQJ IURP SXSLO EHKDYLRXU EXLOG KLJKTXDOLW\ UHODWLRQVKLSV
ZLWKHDFKSXSLODQGSURYLGHVXEVWDQWLDODFDGHPLFDQGVRFLDOVXSSRUWYDOXH
DQG UHVSRQG WR SXSLOV DV LQGLYLGXDOV DQG VHW GHPDQGV UHODWHG WR SXSLOV¶
PDWXULW\DQGIROORZXSUXOHVDQGVWDQGDUGVE\SUDFWLFLQJFRQWURO%MHUJ
(PPHU(YHUWVRQ3LDQWD5RODQG:DONHU:HQW]HO
7HDFKHU DXWKRULW\ LPSULQWV WKH FODVVURRP FRQWH[W E\ FRQVWLWXWLQJ D
FOLPDWH :DONHU :HQW]HO SDUDOOHO WR WKH VRFLDOL]DWLRQ FOLPDWH
PDGHE\SDUHQWLQJVW\OH%DXPULQG
,QWHUHVWLQJO\DQGHQFRXUDJLQJO\DXWKRULWDWLYHFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWFDQEH
OHDUQHG (YLGHQFHEDVHG WUDLQLQJ SURJUDPV WKDW KHOS WHDFKHUV OHDUQ DQG
LPSOHPHQW VXFK SUDFWLFH DUH DYDLODEOH DQG VKRZ WKDW WHDFKHU SUDFWLFH FDQ
LPSURYH$OOHQ3LDQWD*UHJRU\0LNDPL/XQ(UWHVYnJ9DDODQG
2.2 Aggression
7KLV VHFWLRQ VWDUWV E\ RXWOLQLQJ WKH FRQFHSWXDO PHDQLQJ RI DJJUHVVLRQ DQG
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVLQFOXGLQJVRPHIUDPHZRUNVWKDWFDWHJRUL]HW\SHVRIDJJUHVVLRQ
1H[W , SUHVHQW GLIIHUHQW IRUPV RU H[SUHVVLRQV RI DJJUHVVLRQ )LQDOO\ WZR
GLIIHUHQW PRWLYDWLRQDO V\VWHPV IRU DJJUHVVLRQ DUH GHVFULEHG UHDFWLYH DQG
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQDQGVRPHUHFHQWUHVHDUFKRQWKHVHIXQFWLRQVRIDJJUHVVLRQ
LVSUHVHQWHG
2.2.1 Conceptual meaning of aggression and
aggressiveness
$JJUHVVLYHQHVV LV DQ LQGLYLGXDO¶VFKDUDFWHULVWLF WHQGHQF\ WR VKRZ DJJUHVVLRQ
/HDU\ 5RODQG ,GVRH $JJUHVVLRQ LV GHILQHG DV EHKDYLRXU
LQWHQGHG WR KDUP RU FDXVH SDLQ SK\VLFDOO\ RU SV\FKRORJLFDOO\ $QGHUVRQ Theoretical frame
%XVKPDQ $URQVHQ %HUNRZLFK 'RGJH &RLH /\QKDP
(LVQHU0DOWL%XVKPDQDQG+XHVPDQQHODERUDWHGWKDW
DJJUHVVLRQLVQRWDQHPRWLRQRUDWKRXJKWUDWKHULWLVH[WHUQDOEHKDYLRXUWKDW
FDQ EH REVHUYHG )XUWKHUPRUH WKH\ VWDWHG WKDW DJJUHVVLRQ LV VRFLDO LQ WKDW LW
LQYROYHV DW OHDVW WZR SHUVRQV DQG LQWHQGV WR KXUW LPSO\LQJ WKDW LW LV QRW
DFFLGHQWDODQGWKHYLFWLPZLOODWWHPSWWRDYRLGKDUP7KHLQFRUSRUDWLRQRIWKH
LQWHQWLRQ WR KDUP LQ WKH GHILQLWLRQ PDNHV WKH LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI DJJUHVVLRQ
FKDOOHQJLQJ EHFDXVH LW LV QRW DOZD\V HDV\ WR GHWHUPLQH ZKHWKHU KDUP ZDV
LQWHQGHG +RZHYHU 'RGJH DQG FROOHDJXHV DUJXHG WKDW WKLV LV D
PHDVXUHPHQWLVVXHUDWKHUWKDQDGHILQLWLRQDOLVVXH7KHVWXGLHVLQFOXGHGLQWKLV
WKHVLV XVHG PHDVXUHPHQWV WKDW FDSWXUHG PRWLYHV DQG WKHUHE\ LQWHQWLRQV
3DSHUVDQG
(LVQHU DQG 0DOWL UHPDUNHG WKDW VRPH LWHPV LQ FRPPRQ LQVWUXPHQWV
DVVHVVLQJ DJJUHVVLRQ PHDVXUH EHKDYLRXU QRW FRYHUHG E\ WKH GHILQLWLRQ $Q
H[DPSOHLVWKH$FKHQEDFK&KLOG%HKDYLRU&KHFNOLVWZKLFKFRQWDLQV LWHPVOLNH
³HDVLO\MHDORXV´³WDONVWRRPXFK´³VKRZLQJRIIRUFORZQLQJ´(LVQHU0DOWL
7KLV LPSOLFDWHV WKDW UHVHDUFK RQ DJJUHVVLRQ VRPHWLPHV XVHV
PHDVXUHPHQWV FRYHULQJ DQ HPSLULFDO GRPDLQ WKDW LV QRW FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK WKH
WKHRUHWLFDO GRPDLQ LWDLPV WR DVVHVV ,Q UHJDUG WR WKHVWXGLHVLQFOXGHG LQ WKLV
WKHVLVWKHPHWKRGVHFWLRQVRI3DSHUDQG3DSHUH[SODLQSURFHGXUHVIRUVFDOH
GHYHORSPHQW DQG VFDOH HYDOXDWLRQ WKDW LQFOXGH WKH LQVSHFWLRQ RI HDFK LWHP
UHODWHG WR WKH WKHRUHWLFDO FRQFHSW :H DSSOLHG WKLV SURFHGXUH WR DYRLG
LQFRQVLVWHQF\EHWZHHQHPSLULFDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOGRPDLQV
5HFHQW UHVHDUFK SUHVHQWV SK\VLFDO DQG VRFLDOUHODWLRQDO DJJUHVVLRQ DV XVHIXO
FDWHJRULHV UHSUHVHQWLQJ IRUPV RI DJJUHVVLRQ DQG UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DV
FDWHJRULHVFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRIXQFWLRQVRIDJJUHVVLRQ'RGJH&RLH/\QKDP
(LVQHU0DOWL9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ$VWXG\FRQGXFWHGE\
/LWWOH DQG FROOHDJXHV /LWWOH %UDXQHU -RQHV 1RFN +DZOH\ /LWWOH
-RQHV+HQULFK+DZOH\VHUYHVDVDEDVLVIRUWKHFDWHJRUL]DWLRQDSSOLHG
LQWKLVWKHVLV$FRQILUPDWRU\IDFWRUDQDO\VLVRIWKHVHOIUHSRUWVRIDJJUHVVLYH
FKLOGUHQ LQ JUDGHV UHYHDOHG D IDFWRU VWUXFWXUH 7ZR IDFWRUV UHJDUGHG
IRUPV SK\VLFDO DQG VRFLDO RI DJJUHVVLRQ 7KH RWKHU WZR IDFWRUV UHJDUGHG
IXQFWLRQVUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ,QWKHIROORZLQJ,HODERUDWHWKHVH
FRQFHSWV ZLWK SDUWLFXODU DWWHQWLRQ WR WKH IXQFWLRQV EHFDXVH WKH\ DUH PRVW
UHOHYDQW WR WKH UHVHDUFK LQ WKLV WKHVLV ,Q DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK SUHYLRXV UHVHDUFK
Theoretical frame
5RODQG,GVRHZHXVHGWKHFRQVWUXFWRIDJJUHVVLYHQHVVLQWKHVWXGLHV
LQWKLVWKHVLV&RQVHTXHQWO\ZHGLVWLQJXLVKHGEHWZHHQSURDFWLYHDQGUHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQDVPDQLIHVWEHKDYLRXUDQGSURDFWLYHDQGUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
DVODWHQWGLVSRVLWLRQVWRDFWDQGUHDFWDJJUHVVLYHO\
2.2.2 Forms of aggression
$JJUHVVLRQ FDQ EH H[SUHVVHG GLIIHUHQWO\ DQG WDNH IRUPV VXFK DV SK\VLFDO
YHUEDO GLUHFW LQGLUHFW DFWLYH SDVVLYH VRFLDO UHODWLRQDO RYHUW RU FRYHUW
DJJUHVVLRQ %XVKPDQ +XHVPDQQ 'RGJH &RLH /\QKDP (LVQHU 0DOWL 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ 7KHVH DUH QRW PXWXDOO\
H[FOXVLYH IRUPV EXW DUH W\SLFDO FDWHJRUL]DWLRQV RI DJJUHVVLYH DFWV $VVDXOW
KLWWLQJ SXVKLQJ DQG ELWLQJ DUH H[DPSOHV RI SK\VLFDO DJJUHVVLRQ 9HUEDO
DJJUHVVLRQ FRYHUV ZRUGV VSRNHQ ZLWK LQWHQWLRQ WR KXUW VFDQGDOL]H IULJKWHQ
WKUHDWHQ HWF 5HODWLRQDO DJJUHVVLRQ UHIHUV WR LQWHQWLRQDOO\ FDXVLQJ KDUP WR D
SHUVRQ¶VVRFLDOUHODWLRQVKLSVIHHOLQJVRIDFFHSWDQFHRULQFOXVLRQZLWKLQDJURXS
&ULFN *URWSHWHU 6RFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ FDQ EH XVHG LQ SDUDOOHO WR
UHODWLRQDO DJJUHVVLRQ 9LWDUR %UHQJHQ 'LVSODFHGDJJUHVVLRQ PHDQV
WKDW WKH DJJUHVVLRQ LV GLUHFWHG DW D VXEVWLWXWH WDUJHW WKDW LV LQQRFHQW RI DQ\
ZURQJGRLQJEXWLVDYDLODEOH%XVKPDQ+XHVPDQQ0DUFXV1HZKDOO
3HGHUVHQ &DUOVRQ 0LOOHU 2YHUW DJJUHVVLRQ LQFOXGHV SK\VLFDO
DJJUHVVLRQ DQG RSSRVLWLRQGHILDQFH ZKLOH WKHIWYDQGDOLVP DQG UXOH EUHDNLQJ
H[HPSOLI\FRYHUWDJJUHVVLRQ7UHPEOD\'LUHFWDJJUHVVLRQFRYHUVYHUEDO
RU SK\VLFDO DWWDFNV ZKLOH LQGLUHFW DJJUHVVLRQ KLWV E\WDNLQJ DZD\ VRPHWKLQJ
WKDWLVLPSRUWDQWWRWKHYLFWLPVXFKDVUHSXWDWLRQVRFLDOUHODWLRQVRUSURSHUW\
:KHQ HQJDJLQJ LQ DFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ WKH DJJUHVVRU DFWLYHO\ DFWV WR KDUP WKH
YLFWLP DQG WKLV KDUP PLJKW EH SK\VLFDO YHUEDO GLUHFW RU LQGLUHFW 3DVVLYH
DJJUHVVLRQFDQLQFOXGHUHIUDLQLQJIURPGRLQJZKDWLVQRUPDOO\H[SHFWHGVXFK
DVDQVZHULQJRUVD\LQJKHOORRULWFDQLQFOXGHUHIUDLQLQJIURPUHVSRQGLQJLQD
KHOSIXO PDQQHU RU SURWHFWLQJ D SHUVRQ RU KLVKHU SURSHUW\ %XVKPDQ DQG
+XHVPDQQVWDWHGWKDWDFWLYHIRUPVRIDJJUHVVLRQFDQEHULVN\DQGWKDW
PRVW SHRSOHWKHUHIRUHSUHIHUWRXVHLQGLUHFWDQGSDVVLYHIRUPVRIDJJUHVVLRQ
9LWDURDQG%UHQGJHQGHVFULEHGWKHVRFLDOUHODWLRQDOIRUPDVPRUHVXEWOH
WKDQSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQ$FWLRQVDUHRIWHQLQGLUHFWDQGPLJKWLQFOXGHULGLFXOH
UXPRXUVSUHDGLQJRUVRFLDOH[FOXVLRQ6XFKDJJUHVVLRQHVSHFLDOO\ZKHQ
Theoretical frame
FRQGXFWHGE\SHUVRQVSRVVHVVLQJVRFLDOVWDWXVRUSRZHUZLOOLQMXUHWKHYLFWLP
V
VRFLDO SRVLWLRQ DQG SRWHQWLDOO\KLV RU KHU DFFHVVWR IULHQGVKLSVDQGDIILOLDWLRQ
ZLWKWKHSHUSHWUDWRUVDQGE\VWDQGHUV
5HFHQW UHVHDUFK H[DPLQHV GHYHORSPHQWDO WUDMHFWRULHV RI GLIIHUHQW IRUPV RI
DJJUHVVLRQ HJ (LVQHU 0DOWL 7UHPEOD\ 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ 7KH GLVWLQFWLYHQHVV RI SK\VLFDO DQG VRFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ LV
HVWDEOLVKHG HDUO\ LQ OLIH DQG FRQWLQXHV RYHU WKH FRXUVH RI PLGGOH FKLOGKRRG
3K\VLFDO DJJUHVVLRQ SHDNV LQ HDUO\ FKLOGKRRG DQG WKHQ GLPLQLVKHV GXULQJ
FKLOGKRRG 7UHPEOD\ 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ 6RFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ
JHQHUDOO\ LQFUHDVHV LQ SUHYDOHQFH IURP WKH HQG RI HDUO\ FKLOGKRRG WR PLGGOH
FKLOGKRRG DQG HDUO\ DGROHVFHQFH 7UHPEOD\ 7KH GLVWLQFWLRQ EHWZHHQ
RYHUW DQG FRYHUW DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRXUV LV VLPLODU WR WKH SDWKZD\V GHVFULEHG
DERYHQDPHO\WKDWRYHUWDJJUHVVLRQRFFXUVEHIRUHFRYHUWDQGRYHUW SUREOHP
EHKDYLRXUGHFUHDVHVZLWKDJHDQGPDWXUDWLRQZKLOHFRYHUWEHKDYLRULQFUHDVHV
DV WKH LQGLYLGXDO PDVWHUV WKH DELOLWLHV QHFHVVDU\ WR DFW LQ D FRYHUW PDQQHU
7UHPEOD\ 7KXV EUDLQ PDWXUDWLRQ WKDW LQFUHDVHV WKHDELOLW\WR LQKLELW
LPSXOVHVSOD\VDQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKHVHGLIIHUHQWGHYHORSPHQWDOWHQGHQFLHV
$FFRUGLQJ WR 7UHPEOD\ JLUOV VHHP WR OHDUQ WKH FRYHUW DJJUHVVLRQ
VWUDWHJ\ HDUOLHU WKDQ ER\V DQG DPRQJ JLUOV WKH IUHTXHQF\ RI WKLV VWUDWHJ\
LQFUHDVHVXSWRODWHDGROHVFHQFH9LWDURDQG%UHQGJHQFRQFOXGHGWKDWD
W\SLFDOGHYHORSPHQWDOSDWKLVFKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WKHWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRISK\VLFDOO\
DJJUHVVLYHLQGLYLGXDOVLQWRVRFLDOO\DJJUHVVLYHLQGLYLGXDOV7KLVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQ
LVDFKLHYHGE\HDUO\DGROHVFHQFH
5HVHDUFK UHJDUGLQJ WKH DHWLRORJ\ RI IRUPV RI DJJUHVVLRQ VXJJHVWV WKDW WKH
FRUUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ SK\VLFDO DQG VRFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ LQ FKLOGUHQ PD\ EH
DWWULEXWDEOHWRRYHUODSSLQJJHQHV+RZHYHUWKHWZRIRUPVRIDJJUHVVLRQVHHP
WREHLQIOXHQFHGE\GLIIHUHQWHQYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUV%UHQGJHQ'LRQQH*LUDUG
%RLYLQ9LWDUR3pUXVVH9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
, DQWLFLSDWH WKDW VRFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ ZLOO EH PRUH UHOHYDQW WKDQ SK\VLFDO
DJJUHVVLRQ IRU WKH WRSLF RI WKLV WKHVLV DQG ,SRLQW WRDGGLWLRQDO UHVHDUFK WKDW
KLJKOLJKWV WKLV W\SHRI DJJUHVVLRQ%M|UNTXLVW/DJHUVSHW] DQG .DXNLDLQHQ
GHVFULEHG WKH FRPSOH[ PDQLSXODWLYH VNLOOV WKDW VRFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ
GHSHQGVRQWRLPSO\WKDWWKHDJJUHVVRUKDVTXLWHDGYDQFHGOHYHOVRIOLQJXLVWLF
DQGVRFLRFRJQLWLYHVNLOOV6RFLDOLQWHOOLJHQFHFRUUHODWHVSRVLWLYHO\ZLWKVRFLDO
Theoretical frame
DJJUHVVLRQ.DXNLDLQHQHWDODQGZLWKODQJXDJHGHYHORSPHQW+DZOH\
5HVHDUFKRQVRFLDODJJUHVVLRQPDLQO\IRFXVHVRQUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQ
SHHUVVDPHDJHJURXSVIULHQGVKLSQHWZRUNVRURWKHUKRUL]RQWDOUHODWLRQVKLSV
$ QHWZRUN RU H[SHFWDWLRQV RI DIILOLDWLRQ ZLWK D QHWZRUN DUH LPSRUWDQW
SUHFRQGLWLRQVIRUVRFLDODJJUHVVLRQ+LJKO\VRFLDOO\DJJUHVVLYHFKLOGUHQDFKLHYH
FHQWUDO SRVLWLRQV DQG VWDWXV ZLWKLQ WKHLU SHHU QHWZRUNV 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ
,W DSSHDUV DV WKRXJK WKH\ VRFLDOO\ SURILW IURP DJJUHVVLRQ LQ WHUPV RI
LQFUHDVHGDIILOLDWLRQZLWKFRSHUSHWUDWRUVSRSXODULW\YLVLELOLW\DQGDWWHQWLRQLQ
WKH SHHU JURXS $V D UHVXOW DIILOLDWLRQ DQG VRFLDO SRZHU H[HPSOLI\ SRVVLEOH
EHQHILWV RI VRFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ $GXOWV VHOGRP LQWHUYHQH LQ VLWXDWLRQV RI VRFLDO
DJJUHVVLRQ FRPSDUHG ZLWK SK\VLFDO DJJUHVVLRQ DQG SHUSHWUDWRUV RI VRFLDO
DJJUHVVLRQ FDQ ODUJHO\ DYRLG EHLQJ SXQLVKHG %M|UNTXLVW /DJHUVSHW] .DXNLDLQHQ 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ $WWHPSWLQJ WR H[SODLQ ZK\
DJJUHVVLRQ RFFXUV RU ZK\VRPH LQGLYLGXDOV FKRRVH WR EHKDYH DJJUHVVLYHO\ ,
WXUQWRWKHLVVXHRIWKHIXQFWLRQVRIDJJUHVVLRQ
2.2.3 Functions of aggression
)RU DSSUR[LPDWHO\ WKUHH GHFDGHV WZR GLIIHUHQW IXQFWLRQV RI DJJUHVVLRQ KDYH
EHHQGLVWLQJXLVKHG7KHVHIXQFWLRQVFRUUHVSRQGZLWKPRWLYHVDQGDUHGHVFULEHG
DVUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ%XVKPDQ+XHVPDQQ'RGJH
&RLH/LWWOH-RQHV+HQULFK+DZOH\9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
5HDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV ³KRWEORRGHG´ DIIHFWLYH LPSXOVLYH GHIHQVLYH DQG
UHWDOLDWRU\ 9LWDUR %UHQGHQ 7\SLFDOO\ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV
WULJJHUHG E\ IUXVWUDWLRQV SURYRFDWLRQV RU WKUHDWV WKDW OHDGV WR DQJHU RIWHQ
DFFRPSDQLHGE\IHDU DQGKLJKSK\VLRORJLFDODURXVDO(LVQHU0DOWL
7KHFODVVLFDO<DOHK\SRWKHVLV'ROODUG'RRE0LOOHU0RZUHU6HDUV
DQG WKH UHYLVLRQ E\ 0LOOHU SURYLGH WKH WKHRUHWLFDO EDFNJURXQG IRU
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ IUXVWUDWLRQUHODWHG DJJUHVVLRQ $Q LPSRUWDQW DVSHFW LQ 0LOOHU¶V
UHYLVLRQLVWKHIDFWWKDWDIUXVWUDWLQJHYHQW$ZLOOQRWDOZD\VLQGXFHDQJHU%
DQGDQJHUZLOOQRWDOZD\VOHDGWRDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXU&5HDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
LQYROYHVDOOWKUHHHOHPHQWV7KHWKHRU\KDVEHHQIXUWKHUGHYHORSHG$QGHUVRQ
%XVKPDQQ%HUNRZLW]'RGJH,WQRZGHVFULEHVUHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ DV DQ DQJU\ DQG KRVWLOH UHVSRQVH WR SHUFHLYHG JRDO EORFNLQJ RU
SURYRFDWLRQ'RGJH&RLH/\QKDP9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
Theoretical frame
3URDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVW\SLFDOO\³FROGEORRGHG´DQGDVVRFLDWHGZLWKORZOHYHO
RI SK\VLRORJLFDO DURXVDO DQG FDOORXVXQHPRWLRQDO WUDLWV ,W LV FDOFXODWHG DQG
RIIHQVLYHDQGLQYROYHVDJRDOGLUHFWHGDQGSXUSRVHIXODWWDFNRUWKUHDWRIDWWDFN
DJDLQVW DQ LQGLYLGXDO ,W GRHV QRW UHTXLUH DQJHU RU SURYRFDWLRQ UDWKHU LW LV
SODQQHG ZLWK D JRDO LQ PLQG LPSO\LQJ WKDW WKH EHKDYLRXU LV LQVWUXPHQWDO
'RGJH'RGJH&RLH(LVQHU0DOWL9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ7KHRUHWLFDOO\SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQKDVEHHQ
H[SODLQHGLQOLJKWRIVRFLDOOHDUQLQJWKHRU\%DQGXUDDJJUHVVLRQVHUYHV
WKHSXUSRVHRIREWDLQLQJDGHVLUHGJRDO*RDOVFDQEHVRFLDOVXFKDVDIILOLDWLRQ
ZLWK SHHUV RU VRFLDO SRZHU 5RODQG ,GVRH DV UHIOHFWHG LQ WKH
LQVWUXPHQWXVHGWRPHDVXUHSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVLQ3DSHU
$V RXWOLQHG DERYH WKH WZR W\SHV RI DJJUHVVLRQ DUH GLVWLQJXLVKDEOH DW WKH
WKHRUHWLFDOOHYHO(PSLULFDOO\WKHRYHUODSKDVEHHQUHSRUWHGWREHTXLWHODUJH
DV VKRZQ E\ FRUUHODWLRQV 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ UHSRUWHG DQ DYHUDJH
FRUUHODWLRQ RI U EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LQ
YDULDEOHFHQWUHG VWXGLHV DQG FRQVLGHUDEOH FRRFFXUUHQFH LQ SHUVRQFHQWUHG
VWXGLHV 7KH RYHUODS KDV FDXVHG PDQ\ UHVHDUFKHUV FRQFHUQ DQG VRPH KDYH
VXJJHVWHG GURSSLQJ WKH LGHD RI UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DV GLVWLQFW
SKHQRPHQD $QGHUVRQ %XVKPDQQ +RZHYHU UHSHDWHG UHVHDUFK
VXSSRUWVWKHWKHRUHWLFDOGLVWLQFWLRQWKURXJKFOHDUDQGGLVWLQFWIDFWRULDOVROXWLRQV
'RGJH &RLH 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ /LWWOH -RQHV DQG
FROOHDJXHV¶VWXG\VKRZHGWKDWWKHVWURQJFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQUHDFWLYH
DQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVPDLQO\GXHWRWKHLUMRLQWUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKSK\VLFDO
DJJUHVVLRQDVDFRPPRQXQGHUO\LQJIRUP&RPSUHKHQVLYHUHVHDUFKRQVRFLDO
DQGSV\FKRORJLFDOFRUUHODWHVRIUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQDOVRFRQILUPV
WKHLUGLVWLQFWLYHQHVV9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ3DSHUVDQGLQWKLV
WKHVLVFRQWULEXWHWRWKLVUHVHDUFK
,QRZGHVFULEHUHVHDUFKRQWKHGHYHORSPHQWDOWUDMHFWRULHVRIWKHWZRIXQFWLRQV
RIDJJUHVVLRQEHIRUH,WXUQWRVWXGLHVRQWKHDHWLRORJ\RIDQGIDFWRUVUHODWHGWR
UHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
Developmental trajectories
6RPH UHFRJQLWLRQ RI WKH UHOHYDQFH RI GHYHORSPHQWDO WUDMHFWRULHV RI W\SHV RI
DJJUHVVLRQLQVSLUHGLQWHUHVWLQWKLVWRSLF9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ2QHOLQH
Theoretical frame
RI HYLGHQFH LQGLFDWHG WKDW UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ VHHPHG WR SUHFHGH SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ $ VWXG\ FRQGXFWHG E\ /DQVIRUG 'RGJH 3HWWLW %DWHV VKRZHGWKDWZLWKLQDSHULRGRIVHYHUDO\HDUVWKHOHYHORIUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLQ
RQH\HDUSUHGLFWHGWKHOHYHORISURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLQWKHQH[W\HDU3URDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ GLG QRW SUHGLFW UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ 7KH RWKHU OLQH RI UHVHDUFK
FRQFHUQHGVLPLODULWLHVLQWKHGLVWLQFWLRQEHWZHHQDJJUHVVLRQW\SHVRQWKHRQH
KDQGDQGWKHGLDJQRVLVRI2SSRVLWLRQDO'HILDQW'LVRUGHU2''DQG&RQGXFW
'LVRUGHU &' DFFRUGLQJ WR '60,9 GLDJQRVWLF FULWHULD RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG
2''LQFOXGHVVRPHLWHPVSDUDOOHOWRUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ³ORVHVWHPSHU´DQG
³LUULWDEOH´&'LQFOXGHVLWHPVZLWKSDUDOOHOVWRSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ³EXOOLHV
WKUHDWHQVRULQWLPLGDWHRWKHU´9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ&RLQFLGHQWO\2''
LVRIWHQGLDJQRVHGDWDQHDUOLHUDJHWKDQ&'/RHEHU/DKH\7KRPDV
DQGUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVGLDJQRVHGHDUOLHUWKDQSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ'RGJH
/RFKPDQ+DUQLVK%DWHV3HWWLW
%DUNHUDQGFROOHDJXHV¶VWXG\DPRQJ\HDUROGER\VUHYHDOHGWKUHHTXLWH
VLPLODUWUDMHFWRULHVRIUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ2QHVWDUWHGDWDORZ
OHYHO RI DJJUHVVLRQ DQG ZDV VWDEOH ORZ 7KH PHGLXP DJJUHVVLYH VKRZHG D
PRGHUDWH GHVLVWLQJ WUDMHFWRU\ 7KH KLJK DJJUHVVLYH WUDMHFWRU\ KDG D SHDN RQ
DERXW\HDUEHIRUHLW VWDUWHGWRGHVLVW%DUNHU7UHPEOD\1DJLQ9LWDUR
/DFRXUVH 9LWDUR DQG %UHQGJHQ UHYLHZHG VWXGLHV RQ SRVVLEOH
GLVWLQFWLRQV LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQWDO WUDMHFWRULHV RI UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQDQGIRXQGWKDWERWKW\SHVLQFUHDVHGXQWLODSHDNRFFXUUHGEHWZHHQ
WKH DJHV RI WZHOYH DQG ILIWHHQ DQG WKHQ GHFUHDVHG )XUWKHUPRUH WKH DXWKRUV
FRQFOXGHG WKDW WKH JHQHUDO GHFOLQH LQ SK\VLFDO DJJUHVVLRQ IURP FKLOGKRRG WR
DGROHVFHQFHVHHPHGWRDSSO\WRUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQZKLFKFDQ
EHH[SODLQHGE\WKHFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQDQGERWKUHDFWLYH
DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ )LQDOO\ WKH\ FRQFOXGHG WKDW WKH UHYLHZ GLG QRW
VXSSRUWWKHQRWLRQWKDWHDFKIXQFWLRQRIDJJUHVVLRQKDVDGLVWLQFWGHYHORSPHQWDO
WUDMHFWRU\
Aetiology
$WWHPSWV WRGHVFULEHWKHDHWLRORJ\RI UHDFWLYH DQGSURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ KDYH
KLJKOLJKWHGWKHLQWHUHVWLQJLVVXHRIXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHFRUUHODWLRQEHWZHHQWKHVH
W\SHV RIDJJUHVVLRQ $ VWXG\SHUIRUPHGE\7XYEODG5DLQH =KHQJDQG %DNHU
WKDWIROORZHG\HDUROGWZLQVUHYHDOHGWKDWRIUHDFWLYH
Theoretical frame
DJJUHVVLRQDQGRISURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQZDVH[SODLQHGE\FRPPRQJHQHWLF
IDFWRUV(QYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUVH[SODLQHGWKHUHPDLQLQJYDULDELOLW\7KHJUHDWHU
JHQHWLFLQIOXHQFHRQUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQFRUUHVSRQGVZLWKWKHYLHZWKDWVXFK
DJJUHVVLRQ LV WHPSHUDPHQWDOO\ GULYHQ EHKDYLRXU LQ FRQWUDVW WR SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ ZKLFK LV W\SLFDOO\ H[SODLQHG E\ VRFLDO OHDUQLQJ 'RGJH +RZHYHU JLYHQ WKH IDFW WKDW WKH FRUUHODWLRQ EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH DQG UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQHVVHQWLDOO\YDQLVKHGDIWHUSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQZDVFRQWUROOHG/LWWOH
-RQHV HW DO WKH VXJJHVWHG FRPPRQDOLW\ LQ JHQHWLFV UHTXLUHG IXUWKHU
LQYHVWLJDWLRQ
%UHQGJHQDQGKHUUHVHDUFKWHDP%UHQGJHQ9LWDUR%RLYLQ'LRQQH3qUXVVH
IROORZHG XS WKLV LVVXH LQ D VWXG\ ZLWK \HDUROG WZLQV 7KHLU
LQYHVWLJDWLRQRIWKHUHODWLYHFRQWULEXWLRQRIJHQHWLFDQGHQYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUV
IRXQGWKDWJHQHWLFVDFFRXQWHGIRUDQGRIWKHYDULDQFHLQUHDFWLYHDQG
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQUHVSHFWLYHO\)XUWKHUPRUHRIWKHJHQHWLFLQIOXHQFHV
DQGRIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQIOXHQFHVZHUHFRPPRQWRERWKUHDFWLYHDQG
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ%\FRQWUROOLQJIRUSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQWKHDXWKRUVIRXQG
WKDWWKHJHQHWLFIDFWRUVWKDWZHUHVKDUHGZHUHGXHWRWKHFRPPRQXQGHUO\LQJ
IRUP7KHILQDOUHVXOWVVKRZHGWKDWRIWKHYDULDQFHLQUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
DQGRIWKHYDULDQFHLQSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVUHODWHGWRVSHFLILFJHQHWLF
HIIHFWVXQLTXHWRHDFKW\SH(QYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUVWKDWGLGQRWH[SODLQWKHIRUP
DFFRXQWHG IRU RI WKH YDULDQFH LQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DQG RI WKH
YDULDQFHLQSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ2QO\RIWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOHIIHFWVZHUH
VKDUHGDIWHUXQGHUO\LQJIRUPVRIDJJUHVVLRQZHUHFRQWUROOHG%UHQGJHQHWDO
9LWDURDQG%UHQGJHQSFRQFOXGHGWKDW³RQFHWKHIRUPRI
DJJUHVVLRQLVFRQWUROOHGERWKWKHJHQHWLFDQGWKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQIOXHQFHVRQ
WKHIXQFWLRQVRIDJJUHVVLRQVHHPWRODUJHO\GLIIHU´
5HDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ UHODWHV WR VRPH ELRORJLFDO LQGLFDWRUV WKDW PD\ EH GXH WR
JHQHWLFV$KLJKO\YRODWLOHUHDFWLYHWHPSHUDPHQWLVRQHVXFKIDFWRUDQGVSHFLILF
SK\VLRORJLFDO PDUNHUV UHIOHFW WKLV WHPSHUDPHQW :KHQ VWUHVVHG UHDFWLYHO\
DJJUHVVLYHSHUVRQVVKRZHOHYDWHGOHYHOVRIVNLQFRQGXFWDQFH+XEEDUGHWDO
7KH\ DOVR GLVSOD\ KLJKHU OHYHOV RI VWUHVVUHODWHG KRUPRQDO UHDFWLRQV
/RSH]'XUDQ 2OVRQ +DMDO )HOW 9D]TXH] )XUWKHUPRUH UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ LV FRQQHFWHG WR LPSXOVLYLW\ 5DLQHH HW DO VXVSLFLRXVQHVV
%M¡UQHEHNNDQGD³WHPSHUDPHQWDOGLVSRVLWLRQWRZDUGVDQ[LHW\DQJU\
UHDFWLYLW\HPRWLRQDOG\VUHJXODWLRQDQGLQDWWHQWLRQ´9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
Theoretical frame
S 0RUHRYHU UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV OLQNHG WR GHILFLWV LQ VRFLDO SUREOHP
VROYLQJ(LVQHU0DOWLDQGWRSUREOHPVLQFRJQLWLYHIXQFWLRQLQJVXFK
DVKRVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQELDVDQGELDVHGDWWHQWLRQWRUHMHFWLRQULGLFXOHDQGIDLOXUH
FXHV&ULFN'RGJH'RGJH&RLH2URELRGH&DVWUR9HHUPDQ
.RRSV%RVFK0RQVKRXZHU5HGXFHGDELOLW\WRLGHQWLI\RWKHUV¶DQG
WKHLURZQHPRWLRQDOVLJQDOVORZYHUEDOLQWHOOLJHQFHDQGGHILFLWVLQH[HFXWLYH
FRJQLWLYH IXQFWLRQLQJ DUH DOVR HYLGHQFHG LQ LQGLYLGXDOV H[KLELWLQJ UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ'RGJHHWDO
7KHVRFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ6,3PRGHOGHVFULEHGE\&ULFNDQG'RGJH
.XSHUVPLGW6WHOWHU'RGJHSURYLGHVDQRYHUYLHZRIILYH
FRJQLWLYH PHFKDQLVPV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK GHFLVLRQV PDNLQJ DERXW LQWHUSHUVRQDO
EHKDYLRXUHQFRGLQJRILQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOFXHVLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRIFXHV
JRDOVHOHFWLRQUHVSRQVHDFFHVVRUFRQVWUXFWLRQDQGUHVSRQVHGHFLVLRQ
(DFK VWHS LQ WKLV SURFHVV LQWHUDFWV ZLWK WKH LQGLYLGXDO¶V database FRQWDLQLQJ
PHPRULHVIURPSULRUH[SHULHQFHVVFULSWVDQGVRFLDOVFKHPDVLQDELGLUHFWLRQDO
PDQQHU &ULFN 'RGJH 7KH 6,3 IUDPHZRUN LPSOLFLWO\ VWDWHV WKDW
FKLOGUHQ DUH DFWLYH DJHQWV LQ WKHLU FRQWH[W &ULFN 'RGJH 2VWURY *RGOHVNL 6HYHUDO RI WKH LQGLFDWRUV UHODWHG WR UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
GHVFULEHG DERYH FRUUHVSRQG ZLWK WKH 6,3 PRGHO 'RGJH DQG &RLH GHVFULEHGKRVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQELDVDVDWHQGHQF\UHODWHGWRUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
3XSLOV ZKR VFRUH KLJK RQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ WHQG WR LQWHUSUHW DPELJXRXV
VLWXDWLRQVDVKRVWLOHSURYRFDWLYHDQGWKUHDWHQLQJ%DVHGRQWKHLULQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
RIRWKHUV¶KRVWLOHLQWHQWLRQVWKDWWKH\ILQGLWUHDVRQDEOHWRGHIHQGWKHPVHOYHV
'RGJH &RLH $QRWKHU DVVRFLDWLRQ WKDW JRHV IURP UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVWRHQFRGLQJRIFXHVHQWDLOVDWHQGHQF\WRSD\VHOHFWLYHDWWHQWLRQ
WRVSHFLILFVRFLDOFXHV'RGJHHWDO7KH6,3PRGHOZDVGHVFULEHGLQ
3DSHUEHFDXVHZHGHYHORSHGDQLQVWUXPHQWWRPHDVXUHSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ
ZLWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKLVSHUVSHFWLYH,QWHUHVWLQJO\QHZUHVHDUFKKDVIRXQGVXSSRUW
WKDWLQGLYLGXDOVGHYHORSDFKDUDFWHULVWLFSDWWHUQRILQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJWKDW
IXQFWLRQV DV DQ DFTXLUHG SHUVRQDO FKDUDFWHULVWLF 7KH SDWWHUQ KDV UHDVRQDEOH
VWDELOLW\IURPNLQGHUJDUWHQWRDGROHVFHQFHDQGSUHGLFWVDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXU
$ FDXVDO FRQQHFWLRQ IURP LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ WR DJJUHVVLRQ KDV EHHQ
VXJJHVWHG 'RGJH <HW WKH SURFHVV LV DOVR LWHUDWLYH DQG UHFLSURFDO
)RQWDLQH 'RGJH 6SHFLILFDOO\ ³DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRU DW DJH SUHGLFWHGSURFHVVLQJSDWWHUQVWKHQH[W\HDUZKLFKLQWXUQSUHGLFWHGJURZWKLQ
Theoretical frame
DJJUHVVLRQWKHIROORZLQJ\HDUHYHQFRQWUROOLQJIRUSULRUDJJUHVVLRQ/LNHZLVH
SURFHVVLQJ SDWWHUQV LQ RQH \HDU SUHGLFWHG DJJUHVVLRQ LQ WKH IROORZLQJ \HDU
ZKLFKDOWHUHGSURFHVVLQJSDWWHUQVLQWKHVXEVHTXHQW\HDU$FURVVDGROHVFHQFH
WKLV UHFLSURFDO HIIHFW FRQWLQXHV´ 'RGJH S ,QWHUYHQWLRQV WKDW
DWWHPSWWRUHGXFHKRVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQELDVKDYHEHHQVXFFHVVIXODQGKDYHOHGWR
UHGXFHG DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRXU *UDKDP +XGOH\ *XHUUD 6ODE\
$QRWKHUSV\FKRORJLFDOLVVXHWKDWKDVTXLWHUHFHQWO\EHHQLQYHVWLJDWHGLQUHODWLRQ
WRWKHWZRW\SHVRIDJJUHVVLRQLVWKHFRQFHSWRIWKHRU\RIPLQGZKLFKUHIHUVWR
WKHDELOLW\WRDWWULEXWHPHQWDOVWDWHVWRRQHVHOIDQGRWKHUVDQGWRXQGHUVWDQGWKDW
RWKHUV KDYH GLIIHUHQW EHOLHIV GHVLUHV SHUVSHFWLYHV HWF WKDQ RQHVHOI 5HQRXI
%UHQGJHQ6pJXLQDQGFROOHDJXHVIRXQGWKDWWKHWKHRU\RIPLQGFDSDFLW\
ZDV QHJDWLYHO\ DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LPSO\LQJ D ORZHUHG
FDSDFLW\WRXQGHUVWDQGRQHVHOIIURPDQRXWVLGHSHUVSHFWLYHDQGRWKHUVIURPDQ
LQVLGHSHUVSHFWLYH
,Q UHJDUG WR VRFLDO H[SHULHQFHV UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ GHYHORSV LQ KDUVK
WKUHDWHQLQJ DQG XQSUHGLFWDEOH HQYLURQPHQWV DQG GXH WR D SDUHQWLQJ VW\OH
FKDUDFWHUL]HGDVFRQWUROOLQJDQGSXQLWLYH'RGJH9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
%DUNHU &RPSDUHG WR SURDFWLYH DQG QRQDJJUHVVLYH FKLOGUHQ UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHFKLOGUHQPRUHIUHTXHQWO\H[SHULHQFHSK\VLFDODEXVH'RGJHHWDO
$PRQJ SHHUV UHDFWLYHO\ DJJUHVVLYH FKLOGUHQ DUH PRUH UHMHFWHG DQG
YLFWLPL]HG DQG KDYH IHZHU IULHQGV FRPSDUHG ZLWK RWKHU FKLOGUHQ %UHQGJHQ
9LWDUR 7UHPEOD\ /DYRLH 5RODQG ,GVRH 6DOPLYDOOL +HLWHHQYXRUL
7KH H[DPLQDWLRQ RI IDFWRUV UHODWHG WR WKH DHWLRORJ\ RI SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
OHDGV XV WR WHPSHUDPHQWDO DQG SRVVLEOH ELRORJLFDO EDVHV IRU FDOORXV
XQHPRWLRQDO WUDLWV 5HVHDUFK RQ WKHVH WUDLWV VWHPV IURP UHVHDUFK RQ \RXWK¶V
SV\FKRSDWKLFFKDUDFWHULVWLFV9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ&DOORXVXQHPRWLRQDO
WUDLWV &8 FRPSULVH DIIHFWLYH DQG LQWHUSHUVRQDO VW\OHV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LQ ERWK FKLOGUHQ DQG DGXOWV &RUQHOO :DUUHQ +DZN
6WDIIRUG 2UDP 3LQH )LWH 6WRSSHOEHLQ *UHHQLQJ )ULFN
&RUQHOO%DUU\%RGLQ'DQH0DUVHH)ULFN$IIHFWLYHVW\OH
UHODWHVWR HJWKH DEVHQFHRI JXLOW DQG FRQVWULFWHG GLVSOD\RIHPRWLRQV7KH
LQWHUSHUVRQDOVW\OHDVVRFLDWHGZLWK&8DQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVORZOHYHOV
Theoretical frame
RIHPSDWK\DQGDWHQGHQF\WRXVHRWKHUVIRURQH¶VRZQJDLQ$FFRUGLQJWR%DUU\
DQGFROOHDJXHV%DUU\7KRPSVRQ%DUU\/RFKPDQ$GOHU+LOO&8
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVHQFRPSDVVDGLVUHJDUGIRURWKHUVZKLFKFDQOHDGWRDJJUHVVLRQ
WRZDUGV RWKHU IRU SHUVRQDO JDLQV DQG WKLV OLQN LV VSHFLILF WR SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ
$JJUHVVLYHFKLOGUHQ ZLWK &8 WHQG WRIDFH VLWXDWLRQVWKDW DUH HPRWLRQDOO\
GLVWUHVVLQJ RU WKUHDWHQLQJ ZLWK OHVV UHDFWLYLW\ WKDQ GR RWKHU FKLOGUHQ %ODLU
/RQH\ )ULFN &OHPHQWV (OOLV .HUOLQ &KLOGUHQ ZLWK WKLV
WHPSHUDPHQWDOWUDLWDOVRWHQGWREHOHVVVHQVLWLYHWRFXHVRISXQLVKPHQW DIWHU
WKH\KDYHGHFLGHGWRDFKLHYHDGHVLUHGJRDO)ULFNHWDO3K\VLRORJLFDO
XQGHUUHDFWLYLW\ LQ WKH V\PSDWKHWLF QHUYRXV V\VWHP FKDUDFWHUL]HV WKLV
WHPSHUDPHQWDOVW\OH7KLVLVWKHSDUWRIWKHDXWRQRPRXVQHUYRXVV\VWHPWKDWLV
DFWLYDWHGZKHQDQLQGLYLGXDOIDFHVGDQJHU7KLVV\VWHPPD\HJLQFUHDVHDQ
LQGLYLGXDO¶VEORRGSUHVVXUH
6RPHVRFLDOFRJQLWLYHWUDLWVUHODWHGWRVRFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJDUHW\SLFDO
DPRQJ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH FKLOGUHQ SUHIHUHQFH IRU LQVWUXPHQWDO UDWKHU WKDQ
UHODWLRQDOJRDOVYDOXHRIDJJUHVVLRQDVDPHDQVWRDFKLHYHGHVLUHGJRDOVIRFXV
RQSRVLWLYHRXWFRPHVRIDJJUHVVLRQDQGODFNRIDWWHQWLRQWRSRWHQWLDOO\QHJDWLYH
RXWFRPHVRIDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXU&ULFN'RGJH'RGJHHWDO
0DUVHH)ULFN%DVHGRQWKH6,3PRGHO&ULFN'RGJH
RQH FDQ DQWLFLSDWH WKDW DJJUHVVLYHQHVV PD\ FRUUHVSRQG ZLWK SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQDVRXWOLQHGDQGLQYHVWLJDWHGLQ3DSHU6RFLDOPRWLYHVDVZHOODV
SUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFHVDQGVRFLDOVFKHPDVPD\DOVRFRQWULEXWH
,QWZRVWXGLHV5HQRXIDQGFROOHDJXHVIRXQGWKDWWKHRU\RIPLQGFDSDFLW\ZDV
SRVLWLYHO\ UHODWHG WR SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ 5HQRXI %UHQJGHQ 6pJXLQ HW DO
DQGWRUHODWLRQDODJJUHVVLRQ5HQRXI%UHQJGHQ3DUHQWHWDO7KLV
LPSOLHVFRPSHWHQFHLQXQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZWKH\DUHSHUFHLYHGE\RWKHUVDQGKRZ
RWKHUV SHUFHLYH WKHPVHOYHV 7KLV FDSDFLW\ VXSSRUWV WKH DELOLW\ WR PDNH SODQV
WKDW SUHFRQFHLYH RWKHUV¶ UHVSRQVHV VWUDWHJLHV HWF 6XFK VNLOOV DUH YDOXDEOH WR
VXFFHVVIXOO\ HPSOR\LQJ LQVWUXPHQWDO DJJUHVVLRQ DQG KLJKO\ UHOHYDQW WR
FRQGXFWLQJVRFLDODJJUHVVLRQ
3URDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK VRFLDO HQYLURQPHQWV FRQWDLQLQJ
DJJUHVVLYHUROHPRGHOVDQGSHUVRQVZKRYDOXHWKH XVH RIDJJUHVVLRQ IRU
Theoretical frame
SHUVRQDO LQWHUHVWV DQG FRQIOLFW UHVROXWLRQ $ SDUHQWLQJ VW\OH ZLWK IHZHU UXOHV
DQG OHVV FRQWURO WKDQ DYHUDJH LV UHODWHG WR FKLOGUHQ¶V SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
'RGJHHWDO3URDFWLYHO\DJJUHVVLYHFKLOGUHQVHHPWREHZHOOOLNHGE\
SHHUV7KH\WHQGWRDIILOLDWHZLWKOLNHPLQGHGSURDFWLYHO\DJJUHVVLYHSHHUVZKR
EHFRPHUROHPRGHOVDQGSURYLGHUHZDUGVIRUSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
'RGJHDQGFROOHDJXHVUHYLHZHGUHVHDUFKRQWKHLPSDFWRIGLVSRVLWLRQDO
IDFWRUVRQDJJUHVVLRQDQGDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXUDQGUHSRUWHGH[WHQVLYHUHVHDUFK
FRQILUPLQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ SV\FKRSDWKLF WUDLWV MXYHQLOH SV\FKRSDWK\
DQGDJJUHVVLYHRUDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXU+RZHYHUWKH\GLGQRWGUDZGLVWLQFWLRQV
EHWZHHQUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ<HWEHFDXVHRIWKHDERYHPHQWLRQHG
FRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DQG WKH &8 SV\FKRSDWKLF WUDLW RQH
FDQUHDVRQDEO\H[SHFWWKDWSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQPD\EHUHOHYDQWLQWKLVPDWWHU
2WKHU UHVHDUFK KDV OLQNHG &8 WUDLWV WR SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DQG RWKHU
SV\FKRSDWKLFWUDLWVVXFKDVSRRUSODQQLQJDFWLQJZLWKRXWWKLQNLQJDQGHQJDJLQJ
LQ ULVN\DFWLYLWLHVWRUHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ %DUU\HW DO6WLFNOH0DULQL
DQG 7KRPDV VWXGLHG D JURXS RI UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DGMXGLFDWHG
\RXWKVDQGIRXQGWKDW&8WUDLWVDUHDVWURQJSUHGLFWRURISK\VLFDODQGUHODWLRQDO
DJJUHVVLRQLQJLUOVDQGSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQLQER\V
,Q DGGLWLRQ WR &8 WUDLWV QDUFLVVLVP LV GLVFXVVHG DV D SRVVLEOH HOHPHQW LQ
SV\FKRSDWK\DQGDVDSUHGLFWRURIDJJUHVVLRQ%DUU\HWDO%XVKPDQ
+XHVPDQQ7KHWUDLWRIQDUFLVVLVP³LQFOXGHVWKLQNLQJRQHVHOIVXSHULRU
IHHOLQJHQWLWOHGWRSUHIHUHQWLDOWUHDWPHQWEHLQJZLOOLQJWRH[SORLWRWKHUVKDYLQJ
ORZHPSDWK\IRU³OHVVHU´KXPDQEHLQJVDQGHQWHUWDLQLQJJUDQGLRVHIDQWDVLHVRU
RWKHULGHDVDERXWRQHVHOIDVDJUHDWSHUVRQ´%XVKPDQ+XHVPDQQS
5HVHDUFK ILQGV D UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ QDUFLVVLVP DQG DJJUHVVLRQ
%XVKPDQ %DXPHLVWHU FRQWUDGLFWLQJ D SUHYLRXVO\ SUHYDLOLQJ YLHZ
FRQQHFWLQJ ORZ VHOIHVWHHP WR DJJUHVVLRQ %DUU\ HW DO %XVKPDQ +XHVPDQQ %DUU\ DQG FROOHDJXHV¶ VWXG\ FRQILUPHG WKDW
QDUFLVVLVPDQGVHOIHVWHHPDUHGLVWLQFWDQGXQUHODWHGFRQVWUXFWV)XUWKHUPRUH
QDUFLVVLVP EXW QRW VHOIHVWHHP VXEVWDQWLDOO\ SUHGLFWV UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ
5HVHDUFK UHJDUGLQJ UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ GUDZV IUDPHV IRU
XQGHUVWDQGLQJKRZWKHWUDLWVGHYHORSDQGKRZEHKDYLRXULVIRUPHG+RZHYHU
WKHFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKERWKUHDFWLYHO\DQGSURDFWLYHO\DJJUHVVLYH
Theoretical frame
SXSLOVDUHEDVHGRQVLJQLILFDQWGLIIHUHQFHVIURPRWKHUJURXSV:KHQIRFXVLQJ
RQ LQWHUJURXS GLVWLQFWLYHQHVV ZHVKRXOG QRW IRUJHW WKDW LQWUDJURXS YDULDWLRQV
DOVRH[LVW(VSHFLDOO\LQHGXFDWLRQDOFRQWH[WVLWLVLPSRUWDQWWRDYRLGSODFLQJ
QHJDWLYHDQGG\VIXQFWLRQDOSUHMXGLFHVRQSXSLOV
2.3 Disruption
,QRZVKRUWO\DGGUHVVLVVXHVUHJDUGLQJWKHFRQFHSWDQGUHOHYDQFHRIGLVUXSWLRQ
LQVFKRRODQGWKHSUHYDOHQFHRIGLVUXSWLRQLQWKH1RUZHJLDQFRQWH[W
2.3.1 Relevance
7KH SUDFWLFDO UHOHYDQFH RI WKH WRSLF RI GLVUXSWLRQ LQ VFKRRO FODVVURRPV LV
LQGLVSXWDEOH 'LVUXSWLYH SXSLO EHKDYLRXU LV D VRXUFH RI VWUHVV EXUQRXW DQG
SURIHVVLRQDO HVFDSH IRU WHDFKHUV 'LFNH (OOLQJ 6FKPHFN /HXWQHU (YHUWVRQ:HLQVWHLQ6RPHRIWKHGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXULVGLUHFWHGDW
WKH WHDFKHU DV REYLRXV GLVUHVSHFW ZKLFK PD\ EH WKHWRXJKHVWIRU WHDFKHUVWR
KDQGOH6XQ6KHNE,QWHUHVWLQJO\SXSLOVDOVRUHJDUGVXFKEHKDYLRXU
DV WKH PRVW XQDFFHSWDEOH EHKDYLRXU LQ FODVVURRPV 6XQ 6KHN D
0RUHRYHU GLVUXSWLRQ FDXVHV SRRU OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQWV OLPLWV WLPH IRU
LQVWUXFWLRQ GHFUHDVHV OHDUQLQJ DQG FRQWULEXWHV WR QHJDWLYH SHHU LQWHUDFWLRQV
(PPHU (YHUWVRQ 3DV &DVK 2¶%UHQQDQ 'HEQDP %UDQGVKDZ
&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHGLVDGYDQWDJHVRIGLVUXSWLRQLVREYLRXVLPSO\LQJWKDW
IXUWKHUGHYHORSPHQWRIGLVUXSWLRQUHVHDUFKSROLF\DQGSUDFWLFHLVQHHGHG
2.3.2 Relevant concepts
3XSLO EHKDYLRXU WKDW LQWHUIHUHV ZLWK WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ KDV PDQ\ ODEHOV
PDQ\ PHDVXUHPHQWV DQGPDQ\H[SODQDWLRQV )XUWKHUPRUH PDQ\DSSURDFKHV
KDYHEHHQGHYHORSHGWRSUHYHQWDQGVWRSLW6OHH$VRXWOLQHGLQ
3DSHU FRPSDULVRQV RI WKH SUHYDOHQFH RI GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU VRFLDO DQG
SV\FKRORJLFDOFRUUHODWHVRIVXFKEHKDYLRXUDQGGLVFXVVLRQVFRQFHUQLQJUHDVRQV
IRUGLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPEHKDYLRXUDUHFKDOOHQJHGE\YDULDWLRQLQWKHFRQFHSWV
DQGPHDVXUHPHQWV0RUHRYHUWKHEHKDYLRXULQTXHVWLRQYDULHVIURPIUHTXHQW
WRRFFDVLRQDODQGIURPPLOGWRVHYHUH,QDGGLWLRQYDULDWLRQLQWKHWKHRUHWLFDO
Theoretical frame
EDVLV FRPSOLFDWHV FRPPXQLFDWLRQ LQ WKH ILHOG RI GLVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV DQG
GLVUXSWLYHRUGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXU6OHH
2.3.3 Prevalence and challenges
$FFRUGLQJ WR WKH 3,6$ UHSRUWV WKH OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQWV RI 1RUZHJLDQ
VFKRROV KDYH LPSURYHG GXULQJ WKH ODVW GHFDGH 3XSLOV UHSRUW D VLJQLILFDQW
LQFUHDVHLQSHDFHWRZRUNGXULQJVFKRROOHVVRQV7KH\DOVRDVVHVVWKDWVFKRRO
OHVVRQVDUHPRUHHIIHFWLYHEHFDXVHOHVVWLPHLVZDVWHGGXHWRGLVUXSWLRQVDWWKH
EHJLQQLQJRIHDFKOHVVRQ.M UQVOL-HQVHQ,QFRPSDUHGZLWK
DQG1RUZHJLDQSULQFLSDOVUHSRUWHGDGHFUHDVHLQGLVUXSWLYHSXSLO
EHKDYLRXU+RZHYHUDFFRUGLQJWRWKHSULQFLSDOVRI1RUZHJLDQSXSLOVDUH
ODUJHO\RUWRVRPHH[WHQWKLQGHUHGLQWKHLUOHDUQLQJGXHWRGLVUXSWLRQ5RH
.M UQVOL
5HJDUGLQJJHQGHUGHVFULSWLYHGDWDIURPWKH1RUZHJLDQ³Pupil Survey´
VKRZVWKDWER\VDUHPRUHGLVUXSWLYHWKDQJLUOV:HQGHOERUJ7KLVUHVXOW
FRUUHVSRQGVZLWKXVXDOILQGLQJV&DVWHODR.U|QHU+HUZLJ+DPUH
3LDQWD
$V PHQWLRQHG 3,6$ LQGLFDWHG D SRVLWLYH WUHQG LQ 1RUZHJLDQ VFKRROV
UHJDUGLQJ OHDUQLQJ FOLPDWH DQG GLVUXSWLRQ 6WLOO 3,6$¶V FRPSDUDWLYH
SHUVSHFWLYHFOHDUO\VKRZVWKDWWKLVWUHQGPXVWFRQWLQXHIRU1RUZD\WRUHDFKWKH
VWDQGDUGV VHW E\ WKH PHDQ OHYHO RI WKH 2(&' FRXQWULHV UHJDUGLQJ WKHVH
TXHVWLRQV7KH1RUZHJLDQ3,6$UHSRUWXQGHUSLQQHGWKDWDVRXQGOHDUQLQJ
HQYLURQPHQW LQFOXGLQJ SHDFH WR ZRUN FRUUHODWHV ZLWK SXSLO SHUIRUPDQFH
.M UQVOL-HQVHQ7KH“Pupil Survey”IRUWKHVDPHSHULRGFRQILUPHG
WKHSRVLWLYHWUHQG:HQGHOERUJ+RZHYHUHIIRUWLVQHHGHGWREULQJ
1RUZHJLDQSXSLOV¶OHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWWRDVDWLVIDFWRU\OHYHO
2.4 Research questions
)RUVFKRROLQJWREHHIIHFWLYHSXSLOVPXVWUHJDUGWKHVFKRRODQGLWVFRQWHQWDV
OHJLWLPDWH+RZHYHUHYHQZKHQSXSLOVDFFHSWDQGDGRSWWKHIRUPDODXWKRULW\
RI VFKRRO WKH\ PD\ UHIXVH WR JLYH D SDUWLFXODU WHDFKHU OHJLWLPDF\ WR DFW RQ
EHKDOIRIWKHJHQHUDOIRUPDODXWKRULW\7HDFKHUDXWKRULW\LQHDFKFODVVDQGLQ
UHODWLRQVKLSWRHDFKSXSLOVHHPVWREHPRUHSHUVRQDODQGUHODWLRQVKLSEDVHG
Theoretical frame
WKDQLWZDVVHYHUDOGHFDGHVDJR7KLVPD\LPSO\WKDWDFWXDOWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
YDULHV DFURVV FODVVHV ZLWKLQ D VFKRRO )XUWKHUPRUH D SXSLO PD\ HTXLS VRPH
WHDFKHUVZLWKDXWKRULW\EXWJLYHRWKHUWHDFKHUVOHVVRUQRDXWKRULW\
'LVREHGLHQW EHKDYLRXU WRZDUGV D WHDFKHU PD\ EH GLUHFW RU LQGLUHFW ,QGLUHFW
WKUHDWVWRWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\PLJKWLQFOXGHSXSLOV¶HQJDJHPHQWLQDFWLRQVWKDWWKH
WHDFKHUGRHVQRWDSSURYHRUUHIXVLDOWRIROORZLQVWUXFWLRQVJLYHQE\WKHWHDFKHU
%URSK\ 0F&DVOLQ 7RE\ 'LUHFW DQG LQGLUHFW QHJDWLYH
EHKDYLRXUWRZDUGVDWHDFKHUVKDUHRQHFRPPRQHOHPHQWQDPHO\WKHSXSLOV¶
DZDUHQHVV RI EUHDNLQJ D VWDQGDUG VHW E\ WKH WHDFKHU ,W LV GLIILFXOW WR ILQG D
VXLWDEOH PHDVXUH RI WKLV FRQFHSW RI GLVREHGLHQFH WRZDUGV D WHDFKHU DPRQJ
HVWDEOLVKHGVFDOHVLQWKHILHOG6FDOHVGHYHORSHGWRPHDVXUHGLIIHUHQWDVSHFWVRI
GLVUXSWLYH SXSLO EHKDYLRXU DUH GLYHUVH DQG DUH QRW FRQVLVWHQW ZLWK RXU
FRQFHSWXDO XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI GLVREHGLHQFH HJ 2OZHXV 6WRUYROO
:LFKVWU¡P .ROVWDG 3DSH 7R GHYHORS D QHZ PHDVXUH ZH
FRQFHSWXDOL]HG GLVREHGLHQFH DV D VXEGLPHQVLRQ RI DQWLVRFLDO EHKDYLRXU 2Q
WKLVEDFNJURXQGWKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQLVSRVHG
54 &DQGLVREHGLHQFHEHUHYHDOHGDVDGLVWLQFWIDFWRUWKURXJKFRQILUPDWRU\
IDFWRUDQDO\VLV"
6WXGLHVRQGLVREHGLHQFHWRWHDFKHUDQGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDUHVFDUFH7RWKHEHVW
RIP\NQRZOHGJHQRSUHYLRXVVWXGLHVRQWKLVWRSLFH[DPLQHDGROHVFHQWSXSLOV
5HJDUGLQJ\RXQJHU FKLOGUHQ D IHZ VWXGLHV EDVHG RQWHDFKHUUHSRUWV ILQGWKDW
UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ EXW QRW SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV VLJQLILFDQWO\ FRUUHODWHG
ZLWKGLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPEHKDYLRXU%URZQ$WNLQV2VERUQH0LOQDPRZ
:DVFKEXVK :LOORXJKE\ 3HOKDP &RQFHSWXDO DQG
PHWKRGRORJLFDO GLIIHUHQFHV OLPLW FRPSDULVRQ EHWZHHQ WKHVH VWXGLHV DQG RXU
VWXG\ *LYHQ D GLVWLQFW FRQVWUXFW RI GLVREHGLHQFH WKH IROORZLQJ UHVHDUFK
TXHVWLRQVDUHIRUPXODWHG
54 :KDW LV WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
GLVREHGLHQFH"
54 :KDW LV WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WZR GLPHQVLRQV RI SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGGLVREHGLHQFH"
Theoretical frame
7KLV WKHVLV LQYHVWLJDWHV ZKHWKHU GLVREHGLHQFH FDQ EH FRQFHSWXDOL]HG LQ WKH
VDPH PDQQHU IRU ERWK JHQGHUV E\ LQYHVWLJDWLQJ LWV PHDVXUHPHQW LQYDULDQFH
)XUWKHUPRUHWKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQLVDGGUHVVHGWRGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHU
JHQGHULQWHUDFWVZLWKDJJUHVVLYHQHVVWRDIIHFWGLVREHGLHQFH
54 'RHV JHQGHU PRGHUDWH WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
GLVREHGLHQFH"
7KHOLWHUDWXUHGHVFULEHVDWHDFKHU¶VDXWKRULW\DVFULWFDOIRUDSRVLWLYHOHDUQLQJ
FOLPDWHSRVLWLYHDFDGHPLFRXWFRPHVDQGSURVRFLDOSXSLOEHKDYLRXU(UHVYnJ
9DDODQG 3DFH +HPPLQJV 5RODQG *DOORZD\ 7HDFKHUV¶ ZHDNQHVV WKHQ PXVW EH FRQFHSWXDOL]HG ZLWKLQ WKLV FRQWH[W ,Q
JHQHUDO VXFK ZHDNQHVV DUH DVSHFWV RI WKH WHDFKHU WKDW SXSLOV LQWHUSUHW DV
RSSRVLWHWRVLJQVRIDXWKRULW\%\GHYDOXLQJWKHWHDFKHU¶VDXWKRULW\VRPHSXSLOV
PD\H[SHULHQFHVRFLDOSURILWV,QVWUXJJOHVIRUVRFLDOSRZHULQIRUPDWLRQDERXW
RWKHUV¶ ZHDNQHVVHV PLJKW EH LPSRUWDQW %HFDXVH QR FRQVWUXFW GHVFULELQJ
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHUKDVEHHQGHYHORSHG
WKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQLVDGGUHVVHG
54 &DQ SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQ D QHZ WHDFKHU EH
UHYHDOHGDVDGLVWLQFWIDFWRUWKURXJKFRQILUPDWRU\IDFWRUDQDO\VLV"
'LVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV LQ WHUPV RI SXSLO GLVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ DUH
UHODWHG WR SXSLOV¶ UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV 3DSHU 7KH
OLWHUDWXUH GRHV QRW FOHDUO\ LQGLFDWH ZKHWKHU UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV SUH
GLVSRVHVDSXSLOWREHLQWHUHVWHGLQVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUZKRPWKH\
PHHWIRUWKHILUVWWLPH5HJDUGLQJSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPV
FDQEHXVHGDVWRROVIRUJDLQLQJVRFLDOSRZHURUVWDWXVHJDWWKHFRVWRIWKH
WHDFKHU %HKDYLRXU LV D UHVXOW RI VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ DQG WKH 6,3
PRGHOGHVFULEHGE\&ULFNDQG'RGJHSURYLGHVDXVHIXOIUDPHIRU
XQGHUVWDQGLQJEHKDYLRXUUHODWHGWRUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV(YHQ
LI WKH HQDFWPHQW RI GLIIHUHQW EHKDYLRXUV KDV VLPLODU UHVXOWV WKH PHQWDO
SURFHVVLQJIURPWKHGHWHFWLRQRIVRFLDOFXHVWRGHFLVLRQVDERXWEHKDYLRXUDQG
HYDOXDWLRQ RI EHKDYLRXUDO RXWFRPHV GLIIHU LQ SURDFWLYH DQG UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV7KHUHIRUHLWLVUHDVRQDEOHWRDVNZKHWKHUUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQ
Theoretical frame
DQHZWHDFKHU2QWKLVEDFNJURXQGDQGJLYHQDGLVWLQFWFRQVWUXFWRISHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVDUHDGGUHVVHG
54:KDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGSHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUZKRLVQHZWRWKHFODVV"
54:KDWLVWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGSHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUZKRLVQHZWRWKHFODVV"
5HVHDUFKW\SLFDOO\ILQGVWKDWWKHER\VH[KLELWKLJKHUOHYHOVRIDJJUHVVLRQWKDQ
JLUOV&{Wp$UFKHU2QWKLVEDVLVLWVHHPVUHOHYDQWWRH[SORUHJHQGHU
DVDSRVVLEOHPRGHUDWRULQWKLVLQYHVWLJDWLRQ7KHUHIRUHWKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFK
TXHVWLRQZLOOEHSRVHG
54 'RHV JHQGHU PRGHUDWH WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHU"
6RPHGLVUXSWLRQVDUHFRPPRQLQPRVWFODVVURRPV6WLOODFODVVPD\HUXSWLQWR
GLVUXSWLYH FKDRV LQ ZKLFK WHDFKHUV¶ LQVWUXFWLRQV DUH FKURQLFDOO\ GLVUHJDUGHG
.QRZOHGJH UHJDUGLQJ SUDFWLFDO DSSURDFKHV WKDW DLP WR UHHVWDEOLVK D KHDOWK\
OHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQW LQ KLJKO\GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV LQZKLFK WKH WHDFKHUVKDYH
ORVW FRQWURO PXVW EH LQFUHDVHG $Q LQVWUXPHQWDO PXOWLFDVH GHVLJQ ZDV
GHYHORSHG LQ DQ DWWHPSW WR UHYHDO FRQFHSWV DQG D FRQFHSWXDO IUDPHZRUN WR
GLVFXVVDQDO\VHDQGFRPSDUHLQWHUYHQWLRQVLQKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHVFKRROFODVVHV
%DVHGRQVHYHQH[SHULHQFHGSUDFWLWLRQHUV¶GHVFULSWLRQVRIWKHLUDSSURDFKHVWR
DFKLHYLQJWXUQDURXQGVLQKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHVFKRROFODVVHVZHDLPHGWRDQVZHU
WKHIROORZLQJUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQV
54:KDWDUHWKHPDLQLVVXHVLQVXFKLQWHUYHQWLRQV"
54$UHWKHUHV\VWHPDWLFYDULDWLRQVDFURVVWKHFDVHVLQKRZWKH\DSSURDFK
WKHFRUHLVVXHV"
54 &DQ ZH UHYHDO V\VWHPDWLF FRQQHFWLRQV EHWZHHQ HOHPHQWV ZLWKLQ DQG
DFURVVWKHFDVHVWKDWFDQDOORZXVWRGHYHORSDFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUN"
Method
3 Method
7R DGGUHVV WKH UHVHDUFK DLPV WKUHH VWXGLHV DUH LQFOXGHG LQ WKLV WKHVLV WZR
TXDQWLWDWLYH VWXGLHV DQG RQH TXDOLWDWLYH FDVH VWXG\ 'XH WR WKH QDWXUH RI WKH
UHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVSRVHGLQ3DSHUDQG3DSHUDODUJHVFDOHPHWKRGZDVDQ
HYLGHQW FKRLFH ZKLOH D TXDOLWDWLYH DSSURDFK ZLWK OLPLWHG GDWD VRXUFHV ZDV
XVHIXOIRUDQVZHULQJWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVLQ3DSHU,SUHVHQWWKHPHWKRGV
DSSOLHG LQ WKH TXDQWLWDWLYH VWXGLHV EHIRUH SUHVHQWLQJ WKH PHWKRGRORJLFDO
DSSURDFKHPSOR\HGLQWKHTXDOLWDWLYHVWXG\
3.1 Quantitative studies
3.1.1 Procedure and samples
7KH6FKRRO(QYLURQPHQW6WXG\ZDVDWULDQQXDOVXUYH\WKDWWKH&%5FRQGXFWHG
IURP WR 7KH VWXG\ LQFOXGHG SXSLO WHDFKHU DQG SULQFLSDO
TXHVWLRQQDLUHV3XSLOVDQVZHUHGDUDWKHUH[WHQVLYHTXHVWLRQQDLUH3DSHUDQG
3DSHUXVHGDWDIURPSDUWVRIWZRGDWDVHWVFROOHFWHGIURPSXSLOV
&RQVHQW ZDV REWDLQHG IURP 7KH 'DWD ,QVSHFWRUDWH WKH GLVWULFW RIILFHV LQ WKH
VHOHFWHGPXQLFLSDOLWLHVDQGWKHSULQFLSDOVDWHDFKVFKRRO,QIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKH
VXUYH\ZDVVHQWWRHDFKKRPHWRDOORZSDUHQWVWRUHIXVHSDUWLFLSDWLRQRQEHKDOI
RI WKHLU FKLOG7KH SXSLOV WKHPVHOYHV FRXOG UHIXVHWRSDUWLFLSDWH RU ZLWKGUDZ
IURPSDUWLFLSDWLRQDWDQ\WLPH7KHUHZHUHVRPHGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHSURFHGXUHV
IROORZHGLQWKHVXUYH\VUHOHYDQWWR3DSHUDQG3DSHU7KXV,IXUWKHUSUHVHQW
WKHSURFHGXUHVVDPSOHVDQGRWKHUPHWKRGRORJLFDOTXHVWLRQVRIWKHWZRSDSHUV
VHSDUDWHO\
Data collection procedures, Paper I
7KH SDUWLFLSDWLQJ VFKRROV UHFHLYHG D SDFNDJH LQFOXGLQJ LQVWUXFWLRQV
LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG VLJQDWXUH VKHHWV IRU SDUHQWV¶ FRQVHQW HQYHORSHV VHDOV DQG
TXHVWLRQQDLUHV 'DWD ZHUH FROOHFWHG XVLQJ D TXHVWLRQQDLUH GLVWULEXWHG WR WKH
SXSLOVDQGFRPSOHWHGGXULQJDVFKRROOHVVRQ7KHOHDGWHDFKHUDGPLQLVWHUHGWKH
Method
LQYHVWLJDWLRQ LQ FODVV DFFRUGLQJ WR WKH ZULWWHQ LQVWUXFWLRQV 7KH WHDFKHU UHDG
HDFKTXHVWLRQDORXGDQGZDLWHGIRUWKHSXSLOVWRDQVZHU7KLVSURFHGXUHZDV
LPSOHPHQWHGWRVXSSRUWVORZUHDGHUVRUSXSLOVZLWKRWKHUNLQGVRIGLIILFXOWLHV
LQXQGHUVWDQGLQJWKHTXHVWLRQVDQGFRPSOHWLQJWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUH7RDYRLGWKH
VLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKSXSLOVLQIOXHQFHHDFKRWKHUZHKDGDOOFODVVHVZLWKLQDVFKRRO
± WR WKH H[WHQW SRVVLEOH FRPSOHWH WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUH DW WKH VDPH WLPH 7KLV
SURFHGXUHHPSOR\HGWRHQVXUHUHOLDELOLW\*DOO*DOO%RUJ
)RUWKHVDNHRIFRQILGHQWLDOLW\QRQDPHVZHUHZULWWHQRQWKHTXHVWLRQQDLUHV
$GGLWLRQDOO\VWXGHQWV¶UHVSRQVHVZHUHJDWKHUHGDQGSODFHGLQWRDQHQYHORSH
7KHQ WKH WHDFKHUV VHDOHG WKH HQYHORSH LQ WKH SUHVHQFH RI WKH SXSLO FRXQFLO
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIHDFKFODVV7KLVVHDOZDVEURNHQRQO\DWWKH&%5
Sample Paper 1
7KHVWXG\ZDVFRQGXFWHGLQ1RUZHJLDQVHFRQGDU\VFKRROVZLWKSXSLOVLQJUDGH
ZKRZHUHDSSUR[LPDWHO\\HDUVROG7KHVDPSOHFRPSULVHGSXSLOV
ER\VDQGJLUOVIURPVHFRQGDU\VFKRROVLQPXQLFLSDOLWLHV7KH
VDPSOH ZDV UHSUHVHQWDWLYH DFFRUGLQJ WR 7KH 1RUZHJLDQ &HQWUDO %XUHDX RI
6WDWLVWLFV¶6WDQGDUGV6WDWLVWLFV1RUZD\7KHUHVSRQVHUDWHRISXSLOVLQ
WKHSDUWLFLSDWLQJFODVVHVZDV
Data collection procedures, Paper 2
7KHSXSLOVFRPSOHWHGDTXHVWLRQQDLUHDGPLQLVWHUHGE\DWHDFKHUGXULQJDVFKRRO
OHVVRQ 7KH UHVSRQGHQWV FRPSOHWHG WKH IRUPV HOHFWURQLFDOO\ 1R QDPHV ZHUH
UHFRUGHG 7R WKH H[WHQW SRVVLEOH DOO SXSLOV DW HDFK VFKRRO FRPSOHWHG WKH
TXHVWLRQQDLUHDWWKHVDPHWLPHWRDYRLGWKHVLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKSXSLOVLQIOXHQFH
HDFKRWKHU¶VUHVSRQVHV
Sample Paper 2
7KH VWXG\ ZDV FRQGXFWHG DPRQJ WK JUDGHUV LQ HLJKW 1RUZHJLDQ VHFRQGDU\
VFKRROV 7KH VDPSOH FRPSULVHG ER\V DQG JLUOV 7KH 6FKRRO
(QYLURQPHQW 6WXGLHV DUH EXLOW RQ UHSUHVHQWDWLYH VDPSOHV DFFRUGLQJ WR 7KH
1RUZHJLDQ&HQWUDO%XUHDXRI6WDWLVWLFV¶6WDQGDUGV6WDWLVWLFV1RUZD\
+RZHYHUWKLVSDUWLFXODU\HDUWKHVDPSOHKDGWREHVXSSOHPHQWHGEHFDXVHVRPH
RIWKHRULJLQDOVFKRROVZHUHQRWDEOHRUGLGQRWZDQWWRSDUWLFLSDWH$GGLWLRQDO
Method
VFKRROVZKLFKZHUHLQYLWHGYLDGLUHFWFRQWDFWZHUHORFDWHGDFURVVWKHFRXQWU\
EXW ZHUH QRW FKRVHQ ZLWK UHIHUHQFH WR FRPPXQLW\ FODVVLILFDWLRQ LQGH[ 7KH
VFKRROV FRXOGFKRRVH ZKHWKHU WR FDUU\RXWWKHVXUYH\LQ WKH VSULQJRULQ WKH
DXWXPQDSSUR[LPDWHO\WZRPRQWKVDIWHUWKHQHZVFKRRO\HDUKDGVWDUWHG7KH
FRQYHQLHQFHVDPSOH+LJKKRXVH*LOOHVSLHWKDW 3DSHUEXLOGVRQLV
IURPWKHHLJKWVFKRROVWKDWFRQGXFWHGWKHVXUYH\LQ2FWREHU7KHUHVSRQVH
UDWHRIWKHSDUWLFLSDWLQJFODVVHVZDV
3.1.2 Measurements
Survey 1
Disobedience ZDV PHDVXUHG E\ D VFDOH GHYHORSHG IRU WKH VWXG\ SUHVHQWHG LQ
3DSHU DQG WKHLWHPV DUH GHVFULEHG LQ WKDW SDSHU7KH VFDOH LQFOXGHG VHYHQ
VWDWHPHQWVGHVLJQHGWRDVVHVVEHKDYLRXUWKDWWKHSXSLONQRZVLVLQFRQIOLFWZLWK
WKHWHDFKHU¶VLQVWUXFWLRQVRUVWDQGDUGV7KHVXEMHFWVUHVSRQGHGWRWKHVWDWHPHQWV
ZLWKIRXURUGLQDOFDWHJRULHV$OWHUQDWLYHVZHUH³<(6´³\HV´³QR´DQG³12´
LPSO\LQJ ³$JUHH FRPSOHWHO\´ ³$JUHH´ ³'LVDJUHH´ DQG ³7RWDOO\ GLVDJUHH´
5HVSRQVHVZHUHVFRUHGDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\,QWHUQDOFRQVLVWHQF\SURYHG
VDWLVIDFWRU\&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDZDVDQGIRUER\VDQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\
7RHVWDEOLVKDQGWHVWWKHYDOLGLW\RIWKHVFRUHVRIWKHQHZLQVWUXPHQWZHDSSOLHG
FRQILUPDWRU\IDFWRUDQDO\VLV&)$)LUVWZHWHVWHGWKHVLPSOHVWPHDVXUHPHQW
PRGHO ZLWK WKH REVHUYHG LQGLFDWRUV RI WKH ODWHQW FRQVWUXFW RI GLVREHGLHQFH
1H[WZHWHVWHGDPRUHH[WHQVLYHPHDVXUHPHQWPRGHOZLWKGLVREHGLHQFHDQG
PHDVXUHVRIRYHUWDQGFRYHUWDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXU7KLVH[WHUQDOUHIHUHQFHVWXG\
DLPHG WR WHVW SUHFRQFHLYHG UHODWLRQVKLSV DPRQJ ODWHQW YDULDEOHV +DJWYHW
DQG WKH LWHPV ZHUH H[SHFWHG WR IRUP WKUHH IDFWRUV WKDW SRVLWLYHO\
FRUUHODWHGZLWKHDFKRWKHU7KHUHVXOWVDUHSUHVHQWHGLQ3DSHU
Bullying UHSUHVHQWHGRYHUWDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXUDQGZDVPHDVXUHGXVLQJDIRXU
LWHP VFDOH WKDW ZDV YDOLGDWHG LQ SUHYLRXV VWXGLHV 5RODQG 5RODQG ,GVRH$ZULWWHQVWDQGDUGH[SODQDWLRQRIEXOO\LQJZDVLQWURGXFHGWRWKH
SXSLOV EHIRUH WKH\ DQVZHUHG WKHVH TXHVWLRQV 7KH IRXU TXHVWLRQV UHJDUGHG
EXOO\LQJ LQ JHQHUDO SK\VLFDO DVVDXOW WHDVLQJYHUEDO KXPLOLDWLRQ DQG DFWLYH
H[FOXVLRQ DQG WKH WLPH SHULRG ZDV WKH SUHVHQW VFKRRO \HDU $QVZHUV ZHUH
³QHYHU´ ³QRZ DQG WKHQ´ ³ZHHNO\´ DQG ³GDLO\´ UHSUHVHQWLQJ RUGLQDO
Method
FDWHJRULHVDQGFRGHGDQGUHVSHFWLYHO\&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDIRUWKHVFDOH
ZDVDQGIRUER\VDQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\
Covert antisocial behaviour ZDV PHDVXUHG XVLQJ ILYH LWHPV IURP WKH VFDOH
PHDVXULQJDQWLVRFLDO EHKDYLRXULQ WKH³<RXQJLQ 1RUZD\VWXG\´ 6WRUYROO HW
DO ZKLFK EXLOGV RQ 2OZHXV¶ VFDOH RI DQWLVRFLDO EHKDYLRXU 2OZHXV
DQGWKH1DWLRQDO/RQJLWXGLQDO<RXWK6XUYH\LQWKH86$:LQGOH
7KH SXSLOV UHSRUWHG LQYROYHPHQW LQ VSHFLILF EHKDYLRXUV GXULQJ WKH ODVW PRQWKVDQGEHKDYLRXUDVVHVVHGLQWKHFRYHUWVFDOHZDVQRWOLPLWHGWRVSHFLILF
DUHQDV VXFK DV KRPH RU VFKRRO 7KH LWHPV DUH OLVWHG LQ 3DSHU 5HVSRQVH
DOWHUQDWLYHVZHUHLGHQWLFDOWRWKRVHRIWKHEXOO\LQJLWHPV&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDIRU
WKHVFDOHZDVDQGIRUER\VDQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\
Aggressiveness. 5HDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQZHUHHVWLPDWHG
XVLQJVFDOHVGHYHORSHGE\5RODQGDQG,GVRH7KHLQLWLDOVFDOHHVWLPDWLQJ
UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ FRPSULVHG VL[ LWHPV DV SUHVHQWHG LQ 3DSHU 2XU VWXG\
XVHGDVOLJKWO\PRGLILHGVFDOHZLWKILYHLWHPV:HH[FOXGHGRQHLWHPIURPWKH
RULJLQDOVFDOH³,IDWHDFKHUKDVSURPLVHGWKDWZHDUHJRLQJWRGRVRPHWKLQJIXQ
EXWFKDQJHVKLVKHUPLQG,SURWHVWVWURQJO\´%HFDXVHWKLVLWHPFRQFHUQVGLUHFW
IUXVWUDWLRQZLWKWKHWHDFKHUZHFRQVLGHUHGLWWREHWRRVLPLODUWRGLVREHGLHQFH
&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDZDVDQGIRUER\VDQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\
7ZR VFDOHV HVWLPDWHG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV $ IRXULWHP VFDOH PHDVXUHG
SRZHUUHODWHG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV 7KH LWHPV DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ 3DSHU &URQEDFK¶VDOSKDZDVDQG IRUER\V DQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\7KH VFDOH
HVWLPDWLQJ DIILOLDWLRQUHODWHG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV LQFOXGHG IRXU LWHPV
ZKLFKDUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKHSDSHU&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDZDVDQGIRUER\V
DQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\7KHLWHPVFRQFHUQLQJDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZHUHVWDWHPHQWV
5HVSRQVHDOWHUQDWLYHVDQGFRGLQJZHUHVLPLODUWRWKRVHIRUGLVREHGLHQFH
&)$ZHUHDSSOLHGWRWHVWWKHYDOLGLW\RIWKHVFRUHVRIWKHPHDVXUHVIURPDOOWKH
VFDOHVXVHGLQWKHVWXG\1RSUREOHPVRFFXUUHG7KHSURFHGXUHVDQGUHVXOWVDUH
WKRURXJKO\GHVFULEHGLQ3DSHU
Method
Survey 2
2QH LQVWUXPHQW PHDVXUHG WKH GHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH LH SXSLO¶V SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUWKDWLVQHZWRKLPRUKHUDQGWZR
LQVWUXPHQWV PHDVXUHG WKH LQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOHV LH SURDFWLYH DQG UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV7KH SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV SRVLWLYH WHDFKHU TXDOLWLHV
RULJLQDO UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV EXOO\LQJ RWKHUV DQG EHLQJ
EXOOLHG VFDOHV DUH GHVFULEHG LQ 3DSHU DQG XWLOL]HG WR YDOLGDWH WKH PHDVXUHV
IURPWKHFRUHLQVWUXPHQWV
Perceptual orientation towards weakness in a teacher new to the class ZDV
HVWLPDWHG XVLQJ D VFDOH GHYHORSHG IRU WKLV VWXG\ 7KH VFDOH LV EDVHG RQ WKH
WKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUNRIWKHVRFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJPRGHOGHVFULEHGE\
&ULFNDQG'RGJHDVGHVFULEHGLQ3DSHU3XSLOVZHUHDVNHGWR
UHVSRQGWRWHQVWDWHPHQWVLQWURGXFHGE\WKHIROORZLQJTXHVWLRQ:KDWZRXOGEH
\RXU IRFXVRILQWHUHVWLIZKHQ \RX JHW D QHZWHDFKHU" )LYH RIWKH VWDWHPHQWV
FRQFHUQHGVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVLQWKHWHDFKHUZKLOHILYHVWDWHPHQWVZHUHDERXW
SRVLWLYH WHDFKHU TXDOLWLHV $OO WKH VWDWHPHQWV DUH SUHVHQWHG LQ 3DSHU 5HVSRQVHVZHUHGHYLGHGLQWRIRXURUGLQDOFDWHJRULHV³<(6´³\HV´³QR´DQG
³12´ LPSO\LQJ ³$JUHH FRPSOHWHO\´ ³$JUHH´ ³'LVDJUHH´ DQG ³7RWDOO\
GLVDJUHH´7KHLWHPVZHUHH[SHFWHGWRIRUPWZRIDFWRUVWKDWZHUHQHJDWLYHO\
FRUUHODWHG ZLWK HDFK RWKHU 2QH IDFWRU ZDV VXSSRVHG WR PHDVXUH SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV 7KH RWKHU IDFWRU UHODWHG WR VLJQV RI SRVLWLYH
WHDFKHU TXDOLWLHV ZDV LQFOXGHG LQ WKH DQDO\VLV WR WHVW WKH IDFWRU VWUXFWXUH E\
GLVFULPLQDWLQJ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR &)$ ZDV DSSOLHG WR LQYHVWLJDWH FRQVWUXFW
YDOLGLW\ &URQEDFK¶V DOSKD IRU WKH VFDOHV PHDVXULQJ SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ
WRZDUGVWHDFKHUV¶TXDOLW\ZHUHDQGIRUER\VDQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\)RU
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHULWZDVIRUER\V
DQGIRUJLUOV
Aggressiveness. 5HDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZHUH PHDVXUHG XVLQJ
PRGLILHGYHUVLRQVRIVFDOHVGHYHORSHGE\5RODQGDQG,GVRH7KHVFDOHV
ZHUH PRGLILHG WR VWDQGDUGL]H WKH VWUXFWXUH DQG ZRUGLQJ RI WKH LWHPV 7KH
SURFHGXUH XVHG WR HQVXUH HVVHQWLDO FRQVLVWHQF\ EHWZHHQ WKH RULJLQDO DQG
PRGLILHGVFDOHVLQFOXGHGILYHVWHSV,QVSHFWLRQRIWKHLWHPVLQWKHRULJLQDO
DQGPRGLILHGVFDOHVWRHQVXUHWKDWWKH\DUHDIILUPDWLYHDQGFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKH
Method
WKHRUHWLFDOFRQFHSWVPHDVXUHG$&)$WRWHVWIDFWRUVWUXFWXUH7HVWRIWKH
LQWHUQDOFRQVLVWHQF\RIWKHPRGLILHGVFDOHVXVLQJ&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDDQGLQWHU
VFDOH FRUUHODWLRQ DQG &RPSDULVRQ RI WKH UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGH[WHUQDOUHIHUHQFHVWKDWWKH\DUHH[SHFWHGWRUHODWHWR:H
FKRVH WKH H[WHUQDO UHIHUHQFH YDULDEOHV RI EHLQJ EXOOLHG DQG EXOO\LQJ RWKHUV
5RODQG ,GVRH EHFDXVH UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
EXOO\LQJ DUH ZHOO GRFXPHQWHG LQ WKH UHVHDUFK OLWHUDWXUH DQG WKH FRQFHSWV
UHJDUGLQJEXOO\LQJDUHQRWSDUWRIWKHVWXG\¶VUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQ
7KHPRGLILFDWLRQLPSOLHGWKDWWKHWKUHHFRPSRQHQWVRIUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
ZHUHZRUGHGLQWKHVDPHRUGHU(DFKRIWKHVHYHQVWDWHPHQWVLQWKHPRGLILHG
VFDOH DVVHVVLQJ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV FRQWDLQV $ D VLWXDWLRQ WKDW RQH LV
H[SRVHGWRSDVVLYH%DQHPRWLRQDQJHUWULJJHUHGE\WKHH[SRVXUHDQG&
DQ DJJUHVVLYH UHDFWLRQ7KH UHVSRQGHQW LQGLFDWHV KRZOLNHO\WKH\DUHWRKDYH
WKHFRPELQDWLRQRIHPRWLRQDQGUHDFWLRQZKHQWKHUHIHUHQFHGHYHQWRFFXUV7KH
RULJLQDOVFDOH5RODQG,GVRHGLGQRWV\VWHPDWLFDOO\LQFOXGHWKH$%
&FRPSRQHQWVLQHDFKLWHPEXWPRVWRIWKHPH[SOLFLWO\IRUPXODWHGWKH$DQG%
FRPSRQHQWV 7KH ILYH LWHPV PHDVXULQJ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV LQ WKH
PRGLILHGVFDOHDUHIRUPXODWHGZLWK$DQDFWLRQLHDVLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKWKH
UHVSRQGHQW LVDFWLYHO\LQYROYHGDQG%DQHPRWLRQSRZHUDFKLHYHGE\WKH
DFWLRQ7KHDQVZHUVLQGLFDWHWKHSUREDELOLW\WKDWWKHUHVSRQGHQWH[SHULHQFHVWKDW
HPRWLRQ DV D UHVXOW RI WKH DFWLRQ LQ TXHVWLRQ 7KH RULJLQDO LWHPV GLG QRW
V\VWHPDWLFDOO\ FDSWXUH WKH $% FRPSRQHQWV 5RODQG ,GVRH 7KH
UHVSRQVHDOWHUQDWLYHVZHUHLGHQWLFDOWRWKRVHXVHGLQWKHRULJLQDOVFDOHV³12´
³QR´³\HV´DQG³<(6´LPSO\LQJ³7RWDOO\GLVDJUHH´³'LVDJUHH´³$JUHH´DQG
³$JUHH FRPSOHWHO\´ &URQEDFK¶V DOSKDV IRU WKH PRGLILHG VFDOHV ZHUH DV
IROORZVUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVIRUER\VDQGIRUJLUOVDQGSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVIRUER\VDQGJLUOV
&)$ ZHUH FRQGXFWHG IRU DOO VFDOHV LQYROYHG WR WHVW YDOLGLW\ LQ WKH SUHVHQW
VDPSOH 1R SUREOHPV RFFXUUHG 7KH SURFHGXUHV DQG UHVXOWV DUH GHVFULEHG LQ
3DSHU
Method
3.1.3 Analyses, Paper 1 and Paper 2
'DWD DQDO\VHV ZHUH FRQGXFWHG E\ XVH RI GLIIHUHQW VWDWLVWLFDO SDFNDJHV 6366
1RUXVLV ZDV XVHG IRU GHVFULSWLYH DQDO\VHV DQG DQDO\VHV RI LQWHUQDO
FRQVLVWHQF\3DSHUVDQG6WUXFWXUDOHTXDWLRQPRGHOVZLWKODWHQWYDULDEOHV
ZHUH FKRVHQ WR H[DPLQH UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ REVHUYHG LQGLFDWRUV DV
UHIOHFWLRQVRIUHODWLRQVKLSVDPRQJODWHQWYDULDEOHV%\XVLQJWKHVHSURFHGXUHV
ZH HYDOXDWHG WKH YDOLGLW\ RI WKH ODWHQW YDULDEOHV LQ WKH PHDVXUHPHQW PRGHOV
6WUXFWXUHV RI UHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ ODWHQW YDULDEOHV ZHUH DQDO\VHG LQ VWUXFWXUDO
PRGHOV XVLQJ /LVUHO -|UHVNRJ 6|UERP LQ 3DSHU DQG 0SOXV
0XWKpQ0XWKpQLQ3DSHU0LVVLQJGDWDZHUHKDQGOHGLQOLQH
ZLWKFRPPRQSURFHGXUHVLQ/LVUHODQG0SOXV,UHYLVLWWKHLVVXHRIPLVVLQJGDWD
LQWKHGLVFXVVLRQVHFWLRQ
3.1.4 Controlling for clustering in the data
7KHWZRTXDQWLWDWLYHSDSHUV3DSHUVDQGZKLFKLQFOXGHGDQDO\VHVDWWKH
LQGLYLGXDOOHYHOGLGQRWLQFOXGHDQDO\VHVFRQWUROOLQJIRUGDWDFOXVWHULQJ,QWKLV
FDVH FOXVWHULQJ UHIHUV WR WKH SRVVLELOLW\ WKDW YDULDWLRQGXH WR FODVVURRP OHYHO
IDFWRUV LQIOXHQFHV WKH DVVHVVPHQW RI LQGLYLGXDO YDULDWLRQ DQG FDXVHV
PLVFDOFXODWLRQV 0XWKpQ 6DWRUUD 0RUH VSHFLILFDOO\ WKH VWDQGDUG
HUURUV WR SDUDPHWHUV DW WKH LQGLYLGXDO OHYHO FRXOG KDYH EHHQ LQIOXHQFHG E\
FODVVURRP YDULDQFH EHFDXVH RI FOXVWHULQJ ,Q DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK WKH SURFHGXUH
GHVFULEHG EHORZ ZH FRPSDUHG DQDO\VHV ZLWK DQG ZLWKRXW FRQWUROV IRU GDWD
FOXVWHULQJWRUHYHDOZKHWKHURXUUHSRUWHGUHVXOWVDUHELDVHG
5HVHDUFKRIWHQUHFRJQL]HVWKDWORZYDOXHVRILQWUDFODVVFRUUHODWLRQV,&&VHJ
EHORZ GR QRW FDXVH SUREOHPV IRU LQGLYLGXDOOHYHO DQDO\VHV :LWK
LQFUHDVLQJ,&&VYDOXHVDERYHLQGLYLGXDOOHYHOYDULDQFHPD\EHGLVWXUEHG
E\ FODVVOHYHO YDULDQFH ,Q DGGLWLRQ WR LQVSHFWLQJ ,&& IRU WKH REVHUYHG
YDULDEOHV ZH LQYHVWLJDWHGWKH GHVLJQ HIIHFW DV SUHVFULEHG E\ 0XWKpQ 0XWKpQ 6DWRUUD 7KH GHVLJQ HIIHFW LV D IXQFWLRQ RI WKH LQWUDFODVV
FRUUHODWLRQ DQG WKH DYHUDJH FOXVWHU VL]H :KHQ WKH GHVLJQ HIIHFW H[FHHGV DQDO\VHVVKRXOGWDNHLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKHIDFWWKDWGDWDDUHFOXVWHUHG0XWKpQ
0XWKpQ6DWRUUD
Method
,QWUDFODVVFRUUHODWLRQVH[FHHGHGIRUVRPHRIWKHLWHPVLQERWKVWXGLHV)RU
WKH VWXG\ UHSRUWHG LQ 3DSHU WZR ,&& PHDVXUHV H[FHHGHG DQG
DQG WKH ODUJHVW GHVLJQ HIIHFW ZDV &RQVHTXHQWO\ ZH FRPSDUHG
DQDO\VHV ZLWK DQG ZLWKRXW FRQWUROV IRU FOXVWHULQJ 1R GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH
SDUDPHWHUV¶VLJQLILFDQFHYDOXHVZHUHIRXQG
)RUWKHVWXG\UHSRUWHGLQ3DSHU,&&PHDVXUHVYDULHGIURPWR0RVW
LWHPVKDGDQ,&&RIRUORZHUKRZHYHUVHYHQRIWKH,&&PHDVXUHVZHUH
DERYH7KHJUHDWHVWGHVLJQHIIHFWZDV:HUHSHDWHGWKHDQDO\VHVDQG
FRQWUROOHG IRU FOXVWHULQJ )RU WKH JURXS RI ER\V DQDO\VHV FRQWUROOLQJ IRU
FOXVWHULQJUHYHDOHGWKDWRQHRIWKHSDUDPHWHUVLQWKHVWUXFWXUDO PRGHO ZDVQR
ORQJHUVLJQLILFDQWQDPHO\WKHHIIHFWRIUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVRQSHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV 7KLV RULJLQDOO\ UHSRUWHG UHJUHVVLRQ FRHIILFLHQW
ZDV VPDOO LPSO\LQJ WKDW WKH FKDQJH LQ VLJQLILFDQFH OHYHO LV QRW RI
VXEVWDQWLDOLPSRUWDQFH
3.2 The qualitative case study
7KH VWXG\ SUHVHQWHG LQ 3DSHU LQYHVWLJDWHG DSSURDFKHV WR PDQDJLQJ KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYH VFKRRO FODVVHV DQG DLPHG WR LGHQWLI\ UHOHYDQW FRQFHSWV DQG
FRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQFRQFHSWVVXLWDEOHWRGHVFULEHDQDO\VHDQGFRPSDUHVXFK
LQWHUYHQWLRQV :H FKRVH D TXDOLWDWLYH DSSURDFK LQ DQ DWWHPSW WR JDWKHU
NQRZOHGJH IURP VHYHQ H[SHULHQFHG SUDFWLWLRQHUV¶ SUHVHQWDWLRQV RI WKHLU
DSSURDFKHVWRSUREOHPVROYLQJLQUHDOOLIH
3.2.1 Design and sample
$QLQVWUXPHQWDOPXOWLFDVHGHVLJQVXLWHGRXULQWHQWLRQV7KHWHUPLQVWUXPHQWDO
FDVH VWXG\ UHIOHFWV WKH IDFW WKDW HDFK FDVH LV RI VHFRQGDU\ LQWHUHVW LQ RWKHU
ZRUGV HDFK FDVH VHUYHV DV DQ LQVWUXPHQW WR REWDLQ NQRZOHGJH DERXW WKH
TXHVWLRQVLQIRFXV6WDNH2XUDSSURDFKWRWKHVHFDVHVZDVLQWHUSUHWDWLYH
UDWKHU WKDQ GHVFULSWLYH 3RVWKROP 7KHUHIRUH QXPHURXV FDVHV ZHUH
LQYHVWLJDWHG WR GHWHUPLQH ZKHWKHU PRGHOV LQWHQGLQJ WR WUDQVIRUP KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVLQWRJRRGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWVVHHPWRIROORZPRUHRUOHVV
WKH VDPH SDWK $Q LQWULQVLFVLQJOHFDVHVWXG\ZRXOG QRW SURYLGHXVZLWK WKDW
NQRZOHGJH6WDNH3RVWKROP
Method
7KHVWXG\FRPSULVHGVHYHQFDVHVRIVHYHQH[SHULHQFHGSUDFWLWLRQHUVZKRKDG
ZRUNHG DV H[WHUQDO H[SHUWV WR KHOS VFKRROV FDUU\ RXW WXUQDURXQGV LQ KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV 7KH XQLW RI DQDO\VLV LV WKH DSSURDFK WKDW HDFK LQIRUPDQW
GHVFULEHGDVKLVKHUZRUNLQJPRGHOLQLQWHUYHQWLRQVWDUJHWLQJVFKRROFODVVHVLQ
ZKLFK WHDFKHUV KDG ORVW FRQWURO :H PDLQO\ XVH WKH WHUP model LQ WKHSDSHU
3DSHU +RZHYHU WKH LQIRUPDQWV DOVR XVHG WHUPV VXFK DV LQWHUYHQWLRQ
WXUQDURXQGSURFHGXUHVSURFHVVRUJXLGHOLQHV7KHVHXQLWVVKRXOGEHUHOHYDQW
IRUFDVHVWXG\UHVHDUFK:RRGVLGH:LOVRQ<LQ
7KHFULWHULRQXVHGWRVHOHFWWKHFDVHVLQRXUVWXG\ZDVDVIROORZVDSURIHVVLRQDO
KDGGHYHORSHGDQGSUDFWLFHGDQDSSURDFKWRJXLGHVFKRROVWKDWUHTXHVWHGKHOS
WR PDQDJH KLJKO\GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV $GGLWLRQDOO\ ZH KDG UHDVRQV WR EHOLHYH
WKDW WKH SURIHVVLRQDOV KDG VXFFHHGHG ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV XQDEOH WR FRSH ZLWK
FODVVURRP FKDOOHQJHV D VFKRRO KDG DSSOLHG IRU H[WHUQDO DVVLVWDQFH EHFDXVH
SXSLOV¶EHKDYLRXUVZHUHEH\RQGWKHOLPLWVRIZKDWDWHDFKHUFRXOGKDQGOHDQG
WHDFKHUSXSLO LQWHUDFWLRQV ZHUH LQHIIHFWLYH IRU WHDFKLQJ DQG OHDUQLQJ
&RQVHTXHQWO\ LQVWHDG RI XVLQJ DQ H[DFW RU REMHFWLYH FULWHULRQ ZH XVHG WKH
WHDFKHU¶V RU WKH VFKRRO¶V VXEMHFWLYH H[SHULHQFH WR ODEHO WKH FODVV DV ³KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYH´DQGWRLGHQWLI\WKHQHHGIRUH[WHUQDODVVLVWDQFH(DFKFDVHZDVDQ
DSSURDFK GHVFULEHG DV D PRGHO IRU DVVLVWLQJ VFKRROV LQ DFKLHYLQJ VXFK
WXUQDURXQGV
3.2.2 Data collection
7KH LQIRUPDWLRQ ZDV JDWKHUHG GXULQJ D GD\ ZRUNVKRS DW WKH 1RUZHJLDQ
&HQWUHIRU/HDUQLQJ(QYLURQPHQWDQG%HKDYLRXUDO5HVHDUFK1&/%5%DVHG
RQDSUHHVWDEOLVKHGVFKHGXOHWKUHHFDVHVZHUHSUHVHQWHGDQGGLVFXVVHGHDFK
GD\$GGLWLRQDOO\RYHUDOOGLVFXVVLRQVDFURVVFDVHVZHUHVFKHGXOHG7KHDXWKRU
DQGWZRUHVHDUFKHUVIURPWKHFHQWUHSDUWLFLSDWHGDQGOHGWKHDUUDQJHPHQW3DSHU
LQFOXGHVDGHVFULSWLRQRIWKHZRUNVKRSDQGWKHGDWDFROOHFWLRQ
6KRUWO\ DIWHU WKH ZRUNVKRS D WKRURXJK UHSRUW ZDV FRPSOHWHG DQG VHQW WR DOO
SDUWLFLSDQWVIRUIHHGEDFN7KLVUHSRUW GLGQRWFRQWDLQDQDO\VHVRUGLVFXVVLRQV
UHJDUGLQJ WKH SUHVHQWDWLRQV 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH OHFWXUHU¶VPHDQLQJ EHFRPHV
FRQGHQVHGWRVRPHH[WHQWZKHQLWLVUHSURGXFHGLQDVXPPDUL]HGIRUP.YDOH
%ULQNPDQQ7KLVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRILQIRUPDWLRQZDVSHUIRUPHGE\DQ
LQGLYLGXDOZKRZDVQRWWKHLQIRUPDQW7KHUHIRUHWKHUHSRUWZDVVHQWWRHDFK
Method
LQIRUPDQWDVDFKHFNDQGWRREWDLQIHHGEDFN7KHGDWDDVGRFXPHQWHGLQWKH
UHSRUWZDVDQDO\VHGLQWKHUHVHDUFKSURMHFW
3.2.3 Data analyses
:HSHUIRUPHGRXUDQDO\VHVLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKHJXLGHOLQHVUHFRPPHQGHGE\
(LVHQKDUGW)LUVWZLWKLQFDVHDQDO\VHVDLPHGWRLGHQWLI\WKHPDLQLVVXHV
LQWKHSUDFWLWLRQHUV¶LQWHUYHQWLRQVLQKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV7KHFURVVFDVH
DQDO\VHVLQFOXGHGWKHIROORZLQJ$,QYHVWLJDWLRQRIUDQGRPO\SDLUHGFDVHVWR
LGHQWLI\VLPLODULWLHVDQGGLIIHUHQFHV7KHSDLUZLVHFRPSDULVRQVKHOSHGXVOHDUQ
PRUH IURP WKH FDVHV E\ XVLQJ GLIIHUHQW OHQVHV WR REVHUYH HDFK FDVH %\
FRPSDULQJ WKH FDVHV ZLWK HDFK DQRWKHU ZH LGHQWLILHG VLPLODULWLHV DQG
GLIIHUHQFHV % 6XPPDUL]LQJ DQG LQYHVWLJDWLQJ WKH FRQFHSWV HPHUJLQJ IURP
ZLWKLQFDVHDQGSDLUHGFDVHDQDO\VHVWRUHYHDOZKHWKHUFOXVWHUVRIFRQFHSWVRU
DSSURDFKHVIRUPHGSDWWHUQVUHIOHFWLQJDSDUWLFXODUIUDPHZRUN&&RPSDULVRQ
RI WKH HPHUJLQJ IUDPHZRUNV ZLWK HDFK LQGLYLGXDO FDVH 7KLV SURFHGXUH
DWWHPSWHG WR VKDUSHQ RXU XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH FRQFHSWV DQG WR YHULI\ WKH
UHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQFRQFHSWVDQGWKHHYLGHQFHIURPHDFKFDVH)LQDOO\ZH
FRPSDUHGWKHHPHUJLQJFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUNZLWKH[WHUQDOOLWHUDWXUH
3.3 Validity
$FFRUGLQJWR&RRNDQG&DPSEHOOYDOLGLW\DQGLQYDOLGLW\UHIHUVWRWKH
EHVW DYDLODEOH DSSUR[LPDWLRQ WR WKH WUXWK RU IDOVLW\ RI LQIHUHQFHV RU
SURSRVLWLRQV :KHQ GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI YDOLGLW\ DUH DVVHVVHG WKH TXHVWLRQ
EHFRPHVRQHRIWKHGHJUHHRIYDOLGLW\IURPORZWRKLJK5HVHDUFKHUVGRQRW
GHWHUPLQHYDOLGLW\LQDFRPSOHWHO\REMHFWLYHPDQQHU7KXV&RRNDQG&DPSEHOO
VXJJHVWHG WKDW YDOLGLW\ VKRXOG DOZD\V EH FRQVLGHUHG ZLWK WKH PRGLILHUV
³DSSUR[LPDWHO\´ RU ³WHQWDWLYHO\´ LQ PLQG 9DOLGLW\ PD\ EH VXEMHFWLYHO\
DVVHVVHGEDVHGRQYDJXHVWDQGDUGVLQWKHUHOHYDQWGRPDLQRIUHVHDUFK/XQG
+RZHYHU VHYHUDO FRQFHSWV SULQFLSOHVDQG JXLGHOLQHVKHOS UHVHDUFKHUV
GLVFXVVWKHYDOLGLW\RIVWXGLHV
7KHYDOLGLW\V\VWHPEDVHGRQ&RRNDQG&DPSEHOODQG6KDGLVK&RRN
DQG&DPSEHOOLVFRPPRQO\XVHGLQTXDQWLWDWLYHUHVHDUFK7KLVV\VWHP
LVWRVRPHH[WHQWDOVRXWLOL]HGZLWKLQTXDOLWDWLYHUHVHDUFK.OHYHQ/XQG
,Q<LQ¶VGLVFXVVLRQRIYDOLGLW\UHODWHGWRFDVHVWXG\UHVHDUFKKH
Method
DSSOLHVWKUHHRIWKHIRXUW\SHVRIYDOLGLW\SUHVHQWHGLQWKH&RRNDQG&DPSEHOO
V\VWHP 1HYHUWKHOHVV VRPH TXDOLWDWLYH UHVHDUFKHUV UHFRPPHQG RWKHU
DSSURDFKHVWRYDOLGLW\.YDOH%ULQNPDQQ/LQFROQ/\QKDP*XED
7KH&RRNDQG&DPSEHOOYDOLGLW\V\VWHPLVURRWHGLQDFULWLFDOUHDOLVP
SHUVSHFWLYH&RRN&DPSEHOOZKLFKDSSOLHVWRERWKTXDQWLWDWLYHDQG
TXDOLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK .OHYHQ /XQG $V PHQWLRQHG DERYH WKH
SXUSRVHRIDYDOLGLW\DVVHVVPHQWV\VWHPLVWRJXLGHUHVHDUFKHUVLQLGHQWLI\LQJ
DQGGLVFXVVLQJSRVVLEOHWKUHDWVWRWKHLQIHUHQFHVGUDZQIURPUHVHDUFKUHVXOWV
%DVLF SHUVSHFWLYHV RQ PHWDSK\VLFDO TXHVWLRQV VXFK DV ³what is?” DQG
HSLVWHPRORJLFDO TXHVWLRQV DV ³what can we know?´ LPSO\ LQIRUPDWLRQ RQ
SRVVLEOHWKUHDWVWRNQRZOHGJH0RUULV3DL&ULWLFDOUHDOLVPUHVSRQGV
E\FRQVLGHULQJUHVHDUFKNQRZOHGJHDVDFRQVWUXFWLRQLQWKHPLQGRIWKHVFLHQWLVW
EXWQRWFRPSOHWHO\DFRQVWUXFWLRQEHFDXVHLWFRUUHVSRQGVZLWKUHDOHQWLWLHVWKDW
H[LVW LQ WKH UHDO ZRUOG LQGHSHQGHQWO\ IURP REVHUYHUV DQG UHVHDUFKHUV
+MDUGHPDDO/XQG7KHNQRZOHGJHFRQVWUXFWLRQLVYXOQHUDEOHWR
ELDVWKXVRQHPXVWKDYHDFULWLFDODWWLWXGHWRZDUGVREVHUYDWLRQVDQGLQIHUHQFHV
7KLV DSSOLHV HTXDOO\ WR LQIHUHQFHV EDVHG RQ TXDOLWDWLYH DQG TXDQWLWDWLYH
UHVHDUFK &ULWLFDO UHDOLVP LV KLJKO\ UHOHYDQW DV D UHIHUHQFH LQ WRGD\¶V VRFLDO
VFLHQFHV/XQG+DXJHQ&RPPRQDFFHSWDQFHRIDSHUVSHFWLYHRIKRZ
UHVHDUFK NQRZOHGJH UHODWHV WR UHDOLW\ PDNHV LW UHDVRQDEOH WR DFNQRZOHGJH D
IUDPHZRUNIRUTXHVWLRQLQJWKHYDOXHRINQRZOHGJHJDLQHGIURPUHVHDUFK
,Q OLQHZLWKWKLVDQ LPSRUWDQWDUJXPHQW IRUDSSO\LQJWKH6KDGLVK &RRNDQG
&DPSEHOOSHUVSHFWLYHRQYDOLGLW\LQWKHFXUUHQWWKHVLVLVWKDWWKHFRPELQDWLRQ
RI TXDQWLWDWLYH DQG TXDOLWDWLYH SDSHUV PDNHV LW UHDVRQDEOH WR ORRN IRU DQ
DSSURDFKWKDWDOORZVWKHDVVHVVPHQWRI YDOLGLW\LQDOOWKHWKUHHSDSHUVLQDZD\
WKDWFDQEHPXWXDOO\DFNQRZOHGJHG/XQG,IWKHFULWHULDIRUYDOLGLW\DUH
FRQWUDGLFWRU\DQGFRQIOLFWLQJZKHQHYDOXDWLQJWKHTXDQWLWDWLYH3DSHUVDQG
YHUVXVWKHTXDOLWDWLYH3DSHUWKHWKHVLVVXIIHUVIURPLQFRQVLVWHQF\+RZHYHU
EHFDXVHLQIHUHQFHVIURPUHVHDUFKZLWKLQFULWLFDOUHDOLVPFDQEHPDGHEDVHGRQ
GLIIHUHQW PHWKRGRORJLHV TXHVWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ YDOLGLW\ PD\ EH GLIIHUHQWLDWHG
ZLWKRXWEHLQJFRQWUDGLFWLYH
, DSSO\ WKH YDOLGLW\ V\VWHP GHYHORSHG E\ &RRN DQG &DPSEHOO DQG
6KDGLVK&RRNDQG&DPSEHOODVDOHQVWKURXJKZKLFKWRGLVFXVVYDOLGLW\
LQ WKLV WKHVLV 6HH WKH GLVFXVVLRQ VHFWLRQ 7KXV D VKRUW SUHVHQWDWLRQ RI WKH
V\VWHPLVSURYLGHG:KHQFRQVLGHULQJWKHV\VWHPLWLVZRUWKXQGHUOLQLQJWKDW
Method
YDOLGLW\ LV QRW D TXDOLW\ RI WKH PHWKRG RU WKH GDWD EXW UDWKHU D SURSHUW\ RI
LQIHUHQFHV $OWKRXJK WKH GDWD PHWKRGV DQG HPSLULFDO UHVXOWV FDQQRW KDYH
YDOLGLW\LQWKHPVHOYHVWKH\VHUYHDVDIXQGDPHQWIRUGHWHUPLQLQJWKHOHYHORI
YDOLGLW\/XQG7KLVUHIHUVWRPDWWHUVRIYDOLGDWLRQ.OHYHQ7KH
V\VWHP FRPSULVHV IRXU DVSHFWV RI YDOLGLW\ VWDWLVWLFDO FRQFOXVLRQ LQWHUQDO
FRQVWUXFWDQGH[WHUQDOYDOLGLW\7KHVHIRXUW\SHVYDOLGLW\UHIHUWRIRXUW\SHVRI
LQIHUHQFHV QDPHO\ VWDWLVWLFDO FDXVDO FRQVWUXFW DQG JHQHUDOL]DWLRQV&RRN &DPSEHOO .OHYHQ /XQG <LQ DSSOLHG WKH WHUPV
FRQVWUXFWLQWHUQDODQGH[WHUQDOYDOLGLW\WRFDVHVWXG\UHVHDUFK.OHYHQ
S SUHVHQWHG WKH IROORZLQJ VXPPDU\ RI WKH &RRN DQG &DPSEHOO YDOLGLW\
V\VWHP
“Construct validity: validity of inferences from indicators to constructs (from
what we have seen to what we call what we have seen)
Statistical validity: validity of inferences about covariation between variables
(trivial or worthy of a substantial interpretation?)
Internal validity: validity of inferences from an observed covariation to a
causal interpretation (to the interpretation that something is influenced by
another thing)
External validity: validity of inferences from the context of the study to a wider
context or to other contexts´
7KHUHOHYDQFHRIHDFKNLQGRIYDOLGLW\GHSHQGVRQZKDWNLQGVRILQIHUHQFHVDUH
GUDZQVWDWLVWLFDOFDXVDOFRQVWUXFWDQGRUJHQHUDOL]DWLRQV&RRN&DPSEHOO
.OHYHQ/XQG
,QWKHGLVFXVVLRQVHFWLRQRQPHWKRGRORJLFDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQV,DVVHVVHDFKRIWKH
WKUHHVWXGLHV3DSHU3DSHU3DSHUWKURXJKWKHOHQVRIWKLVYDOLGLW\V\VWHP
$GGLWLRQDOO\ ZKHQ DVVHVVLQJ WKH YDOLGLW\ RIWKHTXDOLWDWLYH SDUWRIWKHWKHVLV
3DSHU , FRQVLGHU FUHGLELOLW\ WUDQVIHUDELOLW\ GHSHQGDELOLW\ DQG
FRQILUPDELOLW\ZKLFKDUHFULWHULDWKDW/LQFROQDQG*XEDGHYHORSHGWR
DVVHVV WUXVWZRUWKLQHVV 7KH JRDO LV WR GHWHUPLQH ZKHWKHU D YDOLGLW\ V\VWHP
GHYHORSHGIRUTXDOLWDWLYHUHVHDUFKVKHGVOLJKWRQIXUWKHUWKUHDWVWRYDOLGLW\
Method
3.4 Ethical considerations
(WKLFDOFRQVLGHUDWLRQVVKRXOGFRYHUDOOSDUWVRIWKHUHVHDUFKSURFHVVSODQQLQJ
FDUU\LQJRXWDQGUHSRUWLQJ7KHUHVHDUFKZDVFRQGXFWHGLQDFFRUGDQFHZLWKWKH
JHQHUDO UXOHV DQGVWDQGDUGV SUHVFULEHGE\ WKH 1RUZHJLDQ'DWD 3URWHFWLRQ
$XWKRULW\ DQG 7KH 1RUZHJLDQ 1DWLRQDO &RPPLWWHHV IRU 5HVHDUFK (WKLFV
1(6+ 7ZR FHQWUDO SULQFLSOHV DUH SDUWLFLSDWLRQ EDVHG RQ LQIRUPHG
YROXQWDU\ FRQVHQW DQG FRQILGHQWLDOLW\ .OHYHQ 1(6+ 7KH
SXEOLFDWLRQV LQFOXGHG LQ WKLV WKHVLV DGKHUHV WR WKH HWKLFDO JXLGHOLQHV IRU
VFLHQWLILFSXEOLFDWLRQVVHWE\$PHULFDQ3V\FKRORJLFDO$VVRFLDWLRQ
7KHVXUYH\GDWDXVHGLQ3DSHUVDQGWKHTXDQWLWDWLYHVWXGLHVZHUHSDUWRI
FRPSUHKHQVLYHUHVHDUFKGHVLJQVFRQGXFWHGE\WKH&%57KH1RUZHJLDQ6RFLDO
6FLHQFH 'DWD 6HUYLFHV DSSURYHG WKH FRQWHQW RI WKH TXHVWLRQQDLUHV DQG WKH
VSHFLILFSURFHGXUHV IRU SURYLGLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG UHFHLYLQJ FRQVHQWIURP
VFKRRO DXWKRULWLHV VFKRRO ERDUGV SDUHQWV DQG SXSLOV $OO SDUWLFLSDWLRQ ZDV
YROXQWDU\ DQG EDVHG RQ LQIRUPHG FRQVHQW 7KH UHVSRQGHQWV NQHZ WKDW WKH\
FRXOGZLWKGUDZDWDQ\PRPHQW$OOUHOHYDQWSDUWLHVUHFHLYHGLQIRUPDWLRQDERXW
FRQILGHQWLDOLW\ ,QIRUPDWLRQ JDWKHULQJ ZDV FRQGXFWHG LQ DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK
UHOHYDQWVWDQGDUGVDQGDFWLRQVZHUHWDNHQWRHQVXUHFRQILGHQWLDOLW\GXULQJWKH
ZKROHSURFHVV'HWDLOVDUHSUHVHQWHGLQWKH3DSHUVDQG
7KHFDVHVWXG\DOVRHQVXUHGYROXQWDU\SDUWLFLSDWLRQ7KHZRUNVKRSZKHUHZH
FROOHFWHGWKHGDWDZDVDUUDQJHGIRUGXDOSXUSRVHV7KHLQIRUPDQWVZHUHLQYLWHG
WRSDUWLFLSDWHLQSUHVHQWDWLRQVDQGGLVFXVVLRQVRQDGHILQHGWRSLFDQGWKH\DOO
JDYH D SUHVHQWDWLRQ 7KH\ DOO NHSW WKH ULJKW WR SXEOLVK WKHLU RZQ VWRULHV DQG
PRGHOVZKHUHDVWKHUHVHDUFKFHQWUHUHWDLQHGWKHULJKWWRFRQGXFWUHVHDUFKEDVHG
RQWKHFDVHVLQVXP7KHSDUWLFLSDQWVJDYHWKHLUFRQVHQWWRWKLVDJUHHPHQW%RWK
WKHUHVHDUFKHUVDQGWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVEHQHILWHGIURPWDNLQJSDUWLQWKHZRUNVKRS
EHFDXVHH[SHUWVLQDILHOGRIFRPPRQLQWHUHVWDWWHQGHGWKHPHHWLQJ$QHWKLFDO
LVVXHZDVWKHDQRQ\PLW\RIWKHLQIRUPDQWVDQGRIWKHWKLUGSDUWLHVLQFOXGHGLQ
H[DPSOHVWKDWWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVUHIHUUHGWRLQWKHLUSUHVHQWDWLRQV3DSHUGLGQRW
FRPPXQLFDWH LQIRUPDWLRQ WKDW FRXOG OHDG WR WKH LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI VFKRROV
WHDFKHUV RU SXSLOV 7KH LQIRUPDQWV ZHUH QRW PHQWLRQHG E\ QDPH SODFH RI
UHVLGHQFHRUSODFHRIZRUN1HYHUWKHOHVVDZHOOLQIRUPHGUHDGHUPLJKWEHDEOH
WR JXHVVWKHLGHQWLW\RIVRPH RI WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV7KHVXEVWDQWLDOLQIRUPDWLRQ
SUHVHQWHG LQ WKH SDSHU GRHV QRW JLYH FOXHV WKDW ZRXOG DOORZ RQH WR PDNH
Method
FRQQHFWLRQV EHWZHHQ D SRVVLEOH LQIRUPDQW DQG VSHFLILF LQIRUPDWLRQ
)XUWKHUPRUH,HQGHDYRXUHGWRSUHVHQWHYHU\SRLQWRIYLHZUHVSHFWIXOO\DQGWR
DYRLGIDYRULQJDQ\DSSURDFKHVRUVWUDWHJLHV1RQHRIWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVKRXOGULVN
GDPDJHWRWKHLUSURIHVVLRQDOUHSXWDWLRQE\JLYLQJXVDFFHVVWRLQIRUPDWLRQ
*HQHUDOO\ GHVFULSWLYH UHVHDUFK ZLWKLQ WKH ILHOG RI HGXFDWLRQ DUH VRPHWLPHV
WUDQVIRUPHG LQWR QRUPDWLYH VWDWHPHQWV .QRZLQJ ³what is´ GRHV QRW PHDQ
NQRZLQJ ³what should have been´ 8QGRXEWHGO\ SUDFWLFDO DGYLFH GHGXFHG
IURP FRQQHFWLRQV UHYHDOHG LQ GHVFULSWLYH UHVHDUFK FDQ OHDG WR LPSURYHG
SUDFWLFH+RZHYHUWKHORJLFIURPGHVFULSWLYHWRQRUPDWLYHVWDWHPHQWVLVQRWLQ
LWVHOIDVFLHQWLILFVWHS+MDUGHPDDO5DWKHULWEXLOGVRQSUDJPDWLFXVHRI
UHVHDUFK WR DFKLHYH DLPV DQG YDOXHV RYHU DQG EH\RQG UHVHDUFKDEOH LVVXHV
(VSHFLDOO\LQSUDFWLFDOILHOGVDVFRPSOH[DVHGXFDWLRQSUHVHQWLQJVXFKVWHSVDV
VHHPLQJO\ ORJLFDO PD\ EOXU WKH YDOXHV SROLF\ RU SROLWLFDO LVVXHV WKDW DUH
LQFRUSRUDWHGLQWKHSUHVFULSWLRQRISUDFWLFH7KLVSUHFDXWLRQDU\PHVVDJHDSSOLHV
WRUHVHDUFKHUVSROLF\PDNHUVDQGSUDFWLWLRQHUV
:LWK WKLV FRPPHQW LQ PLQG , PHQWLRQ D UHVXOW LQ WKLV WKHVLV WKDW FDOOV IRU
FRQFHUQ UHJDUGLQJ KRZ LW LV SUHVHQWHG GLVFXVVHG DQG DSSOLHG $FFRUGLQJ WR
3DSHU WHDFKHUV VKRXOG NQRZ WKDW HYHU\ WLPH WKH\ PHHW D QHZ FODVV VRPH
SXSLOV PLJKW EH SURQH WR GHWHFWLQJ WKHLU ZHDNQHVVHV DQG SHUKDSV LQ JDLQLQJ
VRFLDO SRZHU LQ WKH FODVV DW WKH FRVW RI RWKHUV¶ SRZHUOHVVQHVV +HQFH WKHVH
SXSLOVPD\EHDWKUHDWWRWKHWHDFKHU¶VDELOLW\WRDFKLHYHDXWKRULW\DQGOHDGHUVKLS
LQWKHFODVV.QRZLQJWKLVPD\PRWLYDWHWHDFKHUVWRFDUHIXOO\SODQDJRGVWDUW
DQGRSWLPL]HWKHHVWDEOLVKPHQWRIOHDGHUVKLS+RZHYHUWKHNQRZOHGJHFRXOG
LQVWHDG PDNH VRPH WHDFKHUV EHKDYH RIIHQVLYHO\ WRZDUGV SRVVLEOH HQHPLHV
DPRQJWKHSXSLOVRULQDSSURSULDWHO\IRFXVHGRQGHIHQGLQJWKHPVHOYHVDJDLQVW
SXSLOV ZKLFK FRXOG OHDG WR LQDSSURSULDWH WHDFKHUSXSLO UHODWLRQVKLSV (WKLFDO
UHVSRQVLELOLW\ LPSOLHV SUHVHQWLQJ UHVHDUFK UHVXOWV LQ ZD\V WKDW GR QRW GUDZ D
SLFWXUHRISXSLOVDVWKHWHDFKHUV¶HQHPLHV
Results
4 Results
,QWKLVVHFWLRQ,SUHVHQWWKHPDLQILQGLQJVRIWKHWKUHHVWXGLHVLQFOXGHGLQWKH
WKHVLV
4.1 Summary of Paper 1
9DDODQG * 6 ,GVRH 7 5RODQG ( $JJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
GLVREHGLHQFHScandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 55
7KHDLPRIWKLVVWXG\ZDVWRFRQFHSWXDOL]HGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXUZLWKLQDPRUH
JHQHUDOIUDPHZRUNRIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXUDQGWRUHYHDOUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQ
WZRIRUPVRIDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGGLVREHGLHQFH'LVREHGLHQFHLQWKHFRQWH[WRI
WKLVDUWLFOHUHIHUVWRGLVUXSWLYHSXSLOEHKDYLRXURUGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPVZKHQWKH
SXSLOLVDZDUHRIEUHDNLQJDVWDQGDUGVHWE\WKHWHDFKHU7RDQVZHU54ZH
WHVWHG DFRQFHSW RI GLVREHGLHQFH WKDWZDV FRQVLVWHQWDFURVV JHQGHUDQG GLG D
&)$LQZKLFKDOOSDUDPHWHUVZHUHFRQVWUDLQHGWREHHTXDODFURVVJHQGHU7KH
FKLVTXDUHWHVWZDVVLJQLILFDQWDVH[SHFWHGGXHWRWKHVDPSOHVL]H0RGHOILW
ZDVIDLUEXWLPSURYHGE\DOORZLQJWKHUHVLGXDOVRIWZRLWHPVWRFRUUHODWH7KHVH
LWHPVUHJDUGHGRIIHQVLYHSURYRFDWLRQRIWKHWHDFKHUDQGLWVHHPHGUHDVRQDEOH
WKDWWKH\KDGVRPHWKLQJLQFRPPRQWKDWWKHRWKHULQGLFDWRUVRIWKHFRQVWUXFW
GLG QRW VKDUH )DFWRU ORDGLQJV ZHUH DOO DERYH DQG DOO WKH HVWLPDWHG
SDUDPHWHUV ZHUH VLJQLILFDQW DW WKH OHYHO 7KH &)$ PRGHO GHPRQVWUDWHG
JRRGILWWRWKHGDWD1RSDUWLFXODUSUREOHPVZHUHIRXQGLQWKHIDFWRULDOYDOLGLW\
RIGLVREHGLHQFH
7KH QH[W VWHS ZDV WR DQDO\VH ZKHWKHU GLVREHGLHQFH ZRXOG VWDQG RXW DV D
FRQVWUXFW GLVFULPLQDQW IURP RWKHU FRQVWUXFWV RI DQWLVRFLDO EHKDYLRXU :H
SHUIRUPHG D &)$ ZLWK GLVREHGLHQFH EXOO\LQJ RWKHUV DQG FRYHUW DQWLVRFLDO
EHKDYLRXU $OO SDUDPHWHUV ZHUH FRQVWUDLQHG WR EH HTXDO DFURVV JHQGHU 7KH
WKUHH ODWHQW YDULDEOHV ZHUH DOORZHG WR FRUUHODWH DQG YDULDWLRQ ZDV QRW
FRQVWUDLQHG WR EH HTXDO IRU ER\V DQG JLUOV $OO HVWLPDWHG SDUDPHWHUV ZHUH
VLJQLILFDQWDQGWKHPRGHOILWWHGWKHGDWDZHOO$VH[SHFWHGEDVHGRQWKHRU\WKH
WKUHH ODWHQW FRQVWUXFWV FRUUHODWHG ZLWK HDFK RWKHU $ RQHIDFWRU VROXWLRQ ZDV
WHVWHGEXWWKHQUHMHFWHGEHFDXVHWKDWPRGHOGLGQRWILWWKHGDWDZHOODQGDFKL
VTXDUHGLIIHUHQFHWHVWSURYHGDVLJQLILFDQWUHGXFWLRQLQJRRGQHVVRIILW
Results
%DVHGRQWKHVHDQDO\VHVZHFRQFOXGHGWKDWWKHFRQFHSW RIGLVREHGLHQFHZDV
GLVWLQFWIURPEXWFRUUHODWHGZLWKRWKHUFRQVWUXFWVRIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXU
$ &)$ ZLWK DOO LQGLFDWRUV RI WKH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV YDULDEOHV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH
UHYHDOHGQRSUREOHPVRIYDOLGLW\DQGWKHPRGHOILWWHGWKHGDWDZHOO54V
DQGZHUHDQVZHUHGE\HVWLPDWLQJWKHSDUDPHWHUVRIWKHPHDVXUHPHQWPRGHO
DQGWKHVWUXFWXUDOPRGHOVLPXOWDQHRXVO\)LWLQGLFHVVKRZHGFORVHILWWRWKHGDWD
ERWKIRUWKHPRGHOLQZKLFKWKHVWUXFWXUDO SDUDPHWHUVZHUHFRQVWUDLQHGWREH
HTXDODFURVVJHQGHUDQGIRUDQXQFRQVWUDLQHGPRGHO$FKLVTXDUHGLIIHUHQFH
WHVWVKRZHGVLJQLILFDQWLPSURYHPHQWLQWKHJRRGQHVVRIILWRIWKHXQFRQVWUDLQHG
PRGHO LPSO\LQJ WKDW JHQGHU PRGHUDWHV WKH HIIHFWV RI DJJUHVVLYHQHVV RQ
GLVREHGLHQFH5HDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVSURDFWLYHSRZHUUHODWHGDQGSURDFWLYH
DIILOLDWLRQUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVSUHGLFWHGGLVREHGLHQFHLQERWKER\VDQGJLUOV
,Q WRWDO WKH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV YDULDEOHV SUHGLFWHG QHDUO\ HTXDO DPRXQWV RI
GLVREHGLHQFH LQ ER\V DQG JLUOV ([SODLQHG YDULDQFH RI DJJUHVVLYHQHVV RQ
GLVREHGLHQFH ZDV LQ ER\V DQG LQ JLUOV +RZHYHU GLIIHUHQFHV
EHWZHHQ JHQGHUV ZHUH HYLGHQW ZKHQ VXEW\SHV RI DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZHUH
FRQVLGHUHG
4.2 Summary of Paper 2
9DDODQG * 6 5RODQG ( 3XSLO $JJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGV ZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHU ZKRLVQHZ WR WKHFODVV Teaching
and Teacher Education, 29
7KHDLPRIWKLVVWXG\ZDVWRLQYHVWLJDWHSRVVLEOHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQUHDFWLYH
DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV LQ SXSLOV DQG WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK SXSLOV VHHN
LQIRUPDWLRQDERXWWKHZHDNQHVVHVRIDWHDFKHUZKRLVQHZWRWKHP7RDQVZHU
54ZHILUVWGHYHORSHGDFRQVWUXFWDQGLWVPHDVXUHPHQWQDPHO\SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHU7KHWKHRUHWLFDOIUDPHZRUNRI
VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ GHYHORSHG E\ &ULFN DQG 'RGJH VHUYHGDVDUHIHUHQFHIRUWKHFRQVWUXFW,QWKHPHDVXUHPHQWGHYHORSPHQWD&)$
ZLWKWHQVWDWHPHQWVDERXWVLJQVWRORRNIRULQQHZWHDFKHUVZDVLQYHVWLJDWHG
7KHLWHPVFRYHUHGVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVHVDQGVLJQVRIRWKHUFKDUDFWHULVWLFVRID
WHDFKHU LQ DQ DWWHPSW WR WHVW GLVFULPLQDWLRQ EHWZHHQ IDFWRUV 0XOWLSOHJURXS
&)$ZDVDSSOLHGZLWKER\VDQGJLUOVDVWKHWZRJURXSV7KHPRGLILFDWLRQLQGH[
VKRZHGWKDWPRGHOILWFRXOGEHLPSURYHGE\DOORZLQJWKHUHVLGXDOVRIWZRLWHPV
Results
WR FRUUHODWH 7KH LWHPV FRQFHUQHG WHDFKHU FRPSHWHQFH LQ WHDFKLQJ DQG DIWHU
LQVSHFWLQJDOOWKHLWHPVZHIRXQGLWUHDVRQDEOHWKDWWKHVHWZRVWDWHPHQWVFRXOG
KDYHVRPHWKLQJLQFRPPRQWKDWZDVQRWVKDUHGE\WKHRWKHULQGLFDWRUVRIWKH
FRQVWUXFW &RUUHODWLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH WZR UHVLGXDOV ZHUH IUHHG XS DQG WKH
PRGLILHGPRGHOVKRZHGIDLUILWWRWKHGDWD6WDQGDUGL]HGIDFWRUORDGLQJVZHUH
DOODERYHDQGDOO HVWLPDWHGSDUDPHWHUVZHUHVLJQLILFDQWDWWKHOHYHO
0RGHO ILW VXSSRUWHG D WZRIDFWRU VROXWLRQ ZLWK ILYH LWHPV UHIOHFWLQJ SRVLWLYH
WHDFKHU TXDOLWLHV DQG ILYH LWHPV UHIOHFWLQJ ZHDNQHVVHV ,QWHUQDO FRQVLVWHQF\
SURYHGJRRGDQGWKHWZRIDFWRUVFRUUHODWHGDVH[SHFWHGU S IRU
ER\VDQGS IRUJLUOV
6FDOHVPRGLILHGIURPWKRVHGHYHORSHGE\5RODQGDQG,GVRHPHDVXUHG
UHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV7KHPRGLILFDWLRQDWWHPSWHGWRDFKLHYH
PRUHV\VWHPDWLFZRUGLQJRIWKHLWHPV$VWKRURXJKO\GHVFULEHGLQ3DSHUDOO
WKHVWHSVDSSOLHGWRHYDOXDWHWKHPRGLILHGVFDOHVFRQILUPHGWKHPRGLILFDWLRQ
7RDQVZHU54VDQGZHHVWLPDWHGWKHVWUXFWXUDOPRGHOE\DSSO\LQJWKH
PXOWLSOHJURXSIUDPHZRUN-|UHVNRJ)DFWRUORDGLQJVZHUHFRQVWUDLQHG
WREHHTXDODFURVVJURXSV%\PRGHOOLQJJLUOVDQGER\VDVGLVWLQFWJURXSVZKHQ
HVWLPDWLQJ VWUXFWXUDO UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG 32ZHDN ZH
ZHUHDEOHWRFRPSDUHPRGHOILWLQDFRQVWUDLQHGYHUVXVDQXQFRQVWUDLQHGPRGHO
$ PRGHO ZLWK VWUXFWXUDO SDUDPHWHUV FRQVWUDLQHG WR EH HTXDO DFURVV JHQGHU
\LHOGHGIDLUILWWRWKHGDWD$QDOWHUQDWLYHPRGHOZLWKQRUHVWULFWLRQVLQUHJDUG
WRYDULDQFHLQVWUXFWXUDOSDUDPHWHUVDFURVVJURXSVDOVRGHPRQVWUDWHGIDLUILWWR
WKHGDWD7KHPRGHOZLWKIUHHSDUDPHWHUVGLGQRWLPSURYHWKHJRRGQHVVRIILW
WKXVWKHDQVZHUWR54ZDVWKDWJHQGHUGLGQRWPRGHUDWHWKHHIIHFWV
3DSHU UHSRUWHG WKDW UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZDV ZHDNO\ EXW VLJQLILFDQWO\
UHODWHGWRERWKER\VDQGJLUOV¶WHQGHQF\WRORRNIRUVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVLQDQHZ
WHDFKHU%HWDYDOXHVER\VDQGJLUOVZHUHVPDOO$VUHSRUWHGLQWKH
PHWKRG VHFWLRQ WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQLQER\VZDVQRWVLJQLILFDQWDIWHUWKHFOXVWHULQJRIWKH GDWD
ZHUH FRQWUROOHG 7KLV DQVZHUV 54 7KH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ RI ZHDNQHVV LQ QHZ WHDFKHUV ZDV
VXEVWDQWLDODQGVLJQLILFDQWIRUER\VDQGJLUOVZKLFKDQVZHUV54
Results
4.3 Summary of Paper 3
9DDODQG * 6 6XEPLWWHG %DFN RQ WUDFN $SSURDFKHV WR PDQDJLQJ KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHVFKRROFODVVHV
7KH PDLQSXUSRVH RI WKLV VWXG\ ZDV WRGHYHORSFRQFHSWVDQGFRQFHSWXDO
IUDPHZRUNV WKDW FRXOG EH VXLWDEOH IRU GHVFULELQJ DQDO\VLQJ DQG GLVFXVVLQJ
LQWHUYHQWLRQV LQ KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH VFKRRO FODVVHV ,Q WKLV VWXG\ D KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVLV GHILQHGDVDFODVVLQZKLFKWKHIUHTXHQF\DQGLQWHQVLW\RI
GLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXUE\DQXPEHURILWVSXSLOVVLJQLILFDQWO\DIIHFWWKHWHDFKHU¶V
ZHOOEHLQJDQGSURGXFWLYHWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJDQGWKHFRQGLWLRQSHUVLVWIRUD
ORQJSHULRG
:LWKLQFDVHDQDO\VHV ZHUHFRQGXFWHGWRUHYHDO FRUHLVVXHVLQHDFKFDVH7KH
UHVXOWVVKRZHGFRPPRQFRUHLVVXHVDFURVVFDVHVDQGWKXVDQVZHUHG546WLOO
WKHFDVHVGLGQRWUHFRPPHQGFRPPRQVROXWLRQVWRWKHFKDOOHQJHV&URVVFDVH
DQDO\VHV LQGXFHG WKDW VRPH RI WKH FRUH LVVXHV ZHUH DSSURDFKHG ZLWKLQ D[HV
UHJDUGLQJZRUNLQJORFDWLRQWHPSRIRULQGXFLQJFKDQJHVWDUJHWVIRUFKDQJHDQG
SHUVSHFWLYHIROORZHGLQFKRRVLQJDSSURDFKHV7KLVUHVXOWSURYLGHGDQDQVZHU
WR547KHILQDOFURVVFDVHLQYHVWLJDWLRQVZHUHFRQGXFWHGWRFRQIURQWHDFK
FDVH ZLWK WKHVH D[HV 7KHVH LQYHVWLJDWLRQV DQVZHUHG 54 $ FRQFHSWXDO
IUDPHZRUN LQGLFDWLQJ WZR PDLQ VWUDWHJLHV IRU DSSURDFKLQJ KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH
FODVVHVZDVGHYHORSHG7KHVWUDWHJLHVFDPHIURPWKHSDWWHUQVLOOXVWUDWHGE\KRZ
HDFKFDVHSODFHGLWVHOIRQHDFKD[LV2QHZDVDFRJQLWLYHVWUDWHJ\WKDWDSSHDOHG
WRSXSLOV¶UDWLRQDOLW\DQGUHVSRQVLELOLW\DQGLQFOXGHGWHDFKLQJDQGWUDLQLQJUXOHV
DQGVNLOOVFRPELQHGZLWKUDLVLQJSXSLOV¶FRQVFLRXVQHVVUHJDUGLQJWKHLUUROHVDQG
UHVSRQVLELOLW\LQWKHFODVV7KHRWKHUZDVDVRFLDOV\VWHPVVWUDWHJ\EDVHGRQWKH
SHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHFODVVDVDJURXSLQZKLFKVRFLDOSRZHUKDGEHHQWUDQVIHUUHG
IURPWHDFKHUVWRVRPHSXSLOV&KDQJLQJWKHV\VWHPLPSOLHGDSRZHUWDNHRYHU
RQEHKDOIRIWKHWHDFKHU
Discussion
5 Discussion
7KHUHVXOWVRIWKHVWXGLHVLQFOXGHGLQWKLVWKHVLVDUHDGGUHVVHGVHSDUDWHO\DQG
VXPPDUL]HG LQ VHFWLRQ DQG LQ HDFK RI WKH WKUHH SDSHUV HQFORVHG 7KH
LQWURGXFWLRQRXWOLQHGDWKHRUHWLFDOSODWIRUPIRUGLVFXVVLQJSXSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVV
GLVREHGLHQFHGLVUXSWLYH SXSLO EHKDYLRXU DQG WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ , VWDUW WKH
GLVFXVVLRQE\FRQVLGHULQJPHWKRGRORJLFDOLVVXHVUHOHYDQWWRWKHRXWFRPHRIWKH
VWXGLHV 1H[W , HODERUDWH RQ WKH ILQGLQJV UHODWHG WR WKH UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV
SUHVHQWHGLQHDFKSDSHUDQGWKHRU\7KHQDQRYHUDOOGLVFXVVLRQIROORZV)LQDOO\
,FRPPHQWRQLPSOLFDWLRQVDQGIXWXUHGLUHFWLRQV
5.1 Methodological considerations
,Q WKLV VHFWLRQ , ILUVW FRPPHQW RQ PHWKRGRORJLFDO LVVXHV UHJDUGLQJ WKH WZR
TXDQWLWDWLYHVWXGLHV3DSHUVDQGEHIRUHGLVFXVVLQJTXHVWLRQVUHODWHGWRWKH
TXDOLWDWLYHFDVHVWXG\3DSHU)LQDOO\,GLVFXVVYDOLGLW\
5.1.1 Considerations regarding the quantitative studies
Data based on self-reports
3DSHUV DQG EXLOG RQ VXUYH\ GDWD IURP SXSLOV¶ VHOIUHSRUWV 9DULDWLRQ LQ
LQGLYLGXDOV¶ WUDLWV VXFK DV QHJDWLYH DIIHFWLYLW\ DQG DFTXLHVFHQFH PD\ OHDG WR
UHSRUWLQJELDVHV6SHFWRU$QRWKHUWRSLFUHJDUGLQJFULWLFVRIVHOIUHSRUWV
RIEHKDYLRXUWKDWLVRIVSHFLDOLQWHUHVWWRRXUVWXGLHVLVSRVVLEOHELDVHVUHODWHG
WRVRFLDOGHVLUDEOHDQGVRFLDOO\QRQDFFHSWHGDWWLWXGHVDQGEHKDYLRXUDQGWKH
WHQGHQF\WR RYHUUHSRUW WKHILUVWDQGXQGHUUHSRUW WKHVHFRQG6SHFWRU
7KRUQEHUU\.URKQ7KHVXUYH\VSURYLGLQJWKHGDWDH[DPLQHGLQWKLV
WKHVLVLPSO\ULVNVIRUERWKWHQGHQFLHV\HWWKHPDLQULVNLVWKHXQGHUHVWLPDWLRQ
RIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXUDQGDJJUHVVLRQ
7KRUQEHUU\ DQG .URKQ VWXGLHG WKH XVH RI VHOIUHSRUWV LQ WKH ILHOG RI
FULPLQDOLW\WKHVHLQVWUXPHQWVUHTXHVWHGWKDWLQGLYLGXDOVSURYLGHGLQIRUPDWLRQ
DERXW WKHLU RZQ XQGHWHFWHG FULPLQDOLW\ 'HVSLWH VXFK FKDOOHQJHV WKH DXWKRUV
FRQFOXGHG WKDW VHOIUHSRUWV VHHP ³WR EH VXFFHVVIXO DQG FDSDEOH RI SURGXFLQJ
YDOLGDQGUHOLDEOHGDWD´7KRUQEHUU\DQG.URKQS7KHGHWHFWLRQRI
Discussion
WKHEHKDYLRXULQYHVWLJDWHGLQRXUVWXGLHVUHVXOWVLQOHVVVHULRXVFRQVHTXHQFHV
$FFRUGLQJ WR /RHEHU DQG FROOHDJXHV /RHEHU *UHHQ /DKH\ 6WRXWKDPHU
/RHEHUKLJKFRUUHODWLRQVDUHJHQHUDOO\IRXQGEHWZHHQ\RXWKDQGWHDFKHU
UHSRUWV RI FRQGXFW SUREOHPV <HW OHVV DJUHHPHQW LV IRXQG UHJDUGLQJ
RSSRVLWLRQDOEHKDYLRXUZLWKSXSLOVUHSRUWLQJDORZHUSUHYDOHQFHWKDQWHDFKHUV
/RHEHU *UHHQ HW DO ,Q WKH FDVH RI WKLV WKHVLV ZH PHDVXUHG
GLVREHGLHQFH E\ XVH RI EHKDYLRXUDO LQGLFDWRUV %HKDYLRXUDO LQGLFDWRUV
FRQQHFWHGWRPRWLYHVPHDVXUHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGVWDWHPHQWVDERXWSHUFHLYHG
WHQGHQF\LQVHOHFWLQJLQIRUPDWLRQPHDVXUHGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ6HOIUHSRUWV
RIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXUDUHGLVFXVVHG\HWZLGHO\DFFHSWHG*RRGPDQ0HOW]HU
%DLOH\0RVNRZLW]6FKZDUW]6WRFNGDOH+DQJDGXDPER
'X\V/DUVRQ6DUYDOD7KHXVHRIVHOIUHSRUWVVKRXOGEHHYHQPRUH
UHOHYDQW ZKHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQG SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ DUHFRQFHUQHG 6HOI
UHSRUWVDUHUHOHYDQWEHFDXVHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVLQFOXGHVDPRWLYHWKDWLVQRWGLUHFWO\
REVHUYDEOH5DLQHHWDODQGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQLVQRWREVHUYDEOHEXW
UDWKHU DLPV WR PHDVXUH WKH SHUVRQ¶V RZQ SHUFHLYHG WHQGHQF\ *HQHUDOO\
LQYHVWLJDWLRQVRISUHYDOHQFHZRXOGEHYXOQHUDEOHWRUHSRUWLQJELDVHV %HFDXVH
RXU PDLQDLPZDVWRLQYHVWLJDWHWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQG
GLVREHGLHQFH3DSHUDQGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ3DSHUUDWKHUWKDQWRDVVHVV
SUHYDOHQFHZHEHOLHYHWKDWWKHLQIHUHQFHVUHJDUGLQJWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVDUHYDOLG
WRWKHH[WHQWWKDWWKH\SURYLGHLPSRUWDQWLQIRUPDWLRQ
Cross-sectional design
7KHUHVXOWV SUHVHQWHG LQ 3DSHUV DQG EXLOG RQ TXDQWLWDWLYH FURVVVHFWLRQDO
GHVLJQV XWLOL]LQJ VHOIUHSRUWV ,Q VXFK GHVLJQV FRPPRQ PHWKRG YDULDQFH
&09 PD\ EH D FRQFHUQ &09 LV ³YDULDQFH WKDW LV DWWULEXWDEOH WR WKH
PHDVXUHPHQW PHWKRG UDWKHU WKDQ WR WKH FRQVWUXFWV WKH PHDVXUHV UHSUHVHQW´
3RGVDNRII 0DF.HQ]LH /HH 3RGVDNRII S DQG LW PLJKW FDXVH
V\VWHPDWLF PHDVXUHPHQW HUURUV WKDW HLWKHU LQIODWH RU GHIODWH WKH REVHUYHG
UHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQFRQVWUXFWV:HXVHGVXUYH\VLQZKLFKWKHVDPHSHUVRQ
UDWHG WKH GHSHQGHQW DQG WKH LQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOHV LQWKH VDPH PHDVXUHPHQW
FRQWH[W $FFRUGLQJ WR 3RGVDNRII DQG FROOHDJXHV WKLV PD\ UHVXOW LQ
V\VWHPDWLFPHDVXUHPHQWHUURU&RWHDQG%XFNOH\FRQGXFWHGDVWXG\WKDW
H[DPLQHGWKHDPRXQWRIFRPPRQPHWKRGYDULDQFHSUHVHQWLQPHDVXUHVDFURVV
VWXGLHVLQGLIIHUHQWILHOGVLQFOXGLQJHGXFDWLRQDQGSV\FKRORJ\DQGVKRZHGWKDW
Discussion
DSSUR[LPDWHO\RIWKHYDULDQFHLQDW\SLFDOUHVHDUFKPHDVXUHPLJKWEHD
UHVXOW RI V\VWHPDWLF PHDVXUHPHQW HUURU VXFK DV FRPPRQ PHWKRG ELDVHV
+DZNHU DQG %RXOWRQ LQYHVWLJDWHG PHDQ HIIHFW VL]HV LQ VWXGLHV ZLWK
VKDUHGPHWKRGYDULDQFHDQGIRXQGDQDYHUDJHHIIHFWRIUDQJLQJIURP
ZKLFKZDVKLJKHUWKDQWKHHIIHFW VL]HVZLWKRXW VKDUHGPHWKRGYDULDQFH
%\FRQWUDVWUHVHDUFKHUVVXFKDV6SHFWRUDQG/LQGHOODQG:KLWQH\
QRWHGWKDWWKHSUREOHPVFDXVHGE\&09WHQGWREHRYHUVWDWHG6SHFWRUVWDWHGLW
WKDWWKHQRWLRQWKDWHYHU\WKLQJPHDVXUHGZLWKWKHVDPHPHWKRGVKDUHV&09LV
DQ ³XUEDQ OHJHQG´ +H GLG QRW VHW DVLGH WKH FKDOOHQJHV RI &09 EXW UDWKHU
UHFRPPHQGHGUHSODFLQJWKHWHUPDQGLGHDZLWK³DPRUHFRPSOH[FRQFHSWLRQRI
WKH FRQQHFWLRQ EHWZHHQ FRQVWUXFWV DQG WKHLU DVVHVVPHQW´ 6SHFWRU S
:HFDQQRWUXOHRXWDQ\SRVVLEOHLQIOXHQFHRI&09UHODWHGELDVHVLQRXU
GDWD+RZHYHUZHGLGQRWLQWHQGWRLQYHVWLJDWHFDXVDOLW\ZKLFKLVYXOQHUDEOH
WR ELDVHV ZKHQ WKH VDPH UDWHU XVHV WKH VDPH PHDVXUHPHQW DW RQH WLPH WR
PHDVXUHVSUHGLFWLRQDQGRXWFRPHYDULDEOHV$GGLWLRQDOO\ZHGLGQRWSULPDULO\
PHDVXUHSUHYDOHQFHZKLFKLVDOVRVHQVLWLYHWRWKLVNLQGRIELDV7KHPDLQDLP
RIRXUFURVVVHFWLRQDOVXUYH\VZDVWRLQYHVWLJDWHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQSDUDOOHO
SKHQRPHQD,IWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVUHSRUWHGLQRXUVWXGLHVDUHGHIODWHGGXHWR&09
WKH FRQFOXVLRQV VWLOO KROG DQG LI FRQQHFWLRQV DUH LQIODWHG PRVW RI WKHP DUH
VXIILFLHQWO\VWURQJWRVXSSRUWRXUVXEVWDQWLYHFRQFOXVLRQV2QHH[FHSWLRQPLJKW
EH WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH SRZHUUHODWHG DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
GLVREHGLHQFHLQER\V3DSHU6WLOOWKHVWUHQJWKRIDOOWKHUHODWLRQVKLSVVKRXOG
EHLQWHUSUHWHGZLWKWKHFRQWULEXWLRQVRIWKHPHWKRGRORJLFDOUHVHDUFKRQ&09
LQ PLQG &RWH %XFNHO\ +DZNHU %RXOWRQ /LQGHOO DQG
:KLWQH\3RGVDNRIIHWDO6SHFWRU
5.1.2 Considerations regarding the qualitative study
, FKRVH D TXDOLWDWLYH LQVWUXPHQWDO PXOWLFDVH GHVLJQ LQ DQ DWWHPSW WR LQGXFH
FRQFHSWVDQG FRQFHSWXDO IUDPHZRUNV WKDW FRXOG EHXVHG WR GHVFULEH GLVFXVV
DQG FRPSDUH DSSURDFKHV WR PDQDJLQJ KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH VFKRRO FODVVHV $V
UHVXOWV VKRZHG WKLV DSSURDFK VXFFHHGHG LQ WKDW LW UHVXOWHG LQ D FRQFHSWXDO
IUDPHZRUN<HWZHVKRXOGDVNZKHWKHURWKHUGHVLJQVDQGPHWKRGVZRXOGKDYH
EHHQ PRUH DSSURSULDWH DQG LI VR ZKHWKHU WKH\ ZRXOG KDYH OHG WR RWKHU
FRQFOXVLRQV
Discussion
Unit of analysis, information, information gathering
$ FDVH VWXG\ LV QRW D PHWKRG UDWKHU LW LV D UHVHDUFK VWUDWHJ\ WKDW LQFOXGHV
GLIIHUHQW GHVLJQV DQG RIWHQ FRPELQHV TXDOLWDWLYH DQG TXDQWLWDWLYH PHWKRGV
(LVHQKDUGW6WDNH<LQ,QWKHFDVHVWXG\SUHVHQWHGLQ3DSHU
WKH GDWD VRXUFH ZDV SODQQHG SUHVHQWDWLRQV DQG GLVFXVVLRQV GXULQJ D
ZRUNVKRS 7KLV PD\ UHSUHVHQW D ZHDNQHVV LQ WKDW RXU RQO\ VRXUFH RI
LQIRUPDWLRQZDVVSRNHQSUHVHQWDWLRQVDQGWKHRQO\LQIRUPDQWVZHUHWKHFKRVHQ
H[SHUWV$QDOWHUQDWLYHVRXUFHVXFKDVLQWHUYLHZVZLWKH[SHUWVFRXOGKDYHEHHQ
XVHG$GGLWLRQDOO\ZHFRXOGKDYHLQWHUYLHZHGVFKRROSULQFLSDOVDQGWHDFKHUV
WKDWWKHH[SHUWVKDGZRUNHGZLWKFRQGXFWHGILHOGVWXGLHVLQVFKRROVGXULQJD
WXUQDURXQG SURMHFW DQG OLNHO\ HQJDJHG LQ RWKHU WKLQJV DV ZHOO ,I WLPH DQG
UHVRXUFHVIRU GDWD JDWKHULQJDQG DQDO\VHV ZHUH XQOLPLWHG ZHFRXOG FRQVLGHU
VXSSOHPHQWLQJWKHVWXG\ZLWKRWKHUNLQGVRIGDWDDQGRWKHULQIRUPDQWV
0RUH LPSRUWDQWO\ KRZHYHU VXFK GDWD ZRXOG QRW QHFHVVDULO\ SURYLGH EHWWHU
DQVZHUV WR RXU UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV 'DWD FROOHFWHG IURP GLIIHUHQW LQIRUPDQWV
ZLWKLQDVFKRROFRXOGEHXVHGWRDQVZHUTXHVWLRQVVXFKDV³ZKDWGLGWKHH[SHUWV
GR"´³ZKDWREVWDFOHVGLGWKH\PHHW"´³ZKRGLGWKH\FRRSHUDWHZLWK"´³KRZ
GLGLWZRUN"´³ZKDWUHVXOWVZHUHDFKLHYHG"´DQGVRIRUWK7KHVHDUHLQWHUHVWLQJ
TXHVWLRQVEXWZHUHQRWLQYHVWLJDWHGLQRXUVWXG\&RQVHTXHQWO\ZHGHWHUPLQHG
WKDW WKH XVXDO UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ RI XVLQJ PXOWLSOH GDWD VRXUFHV DQG VWXG\LQJ
FDVHVLQWKHLUQDWXUDOFRQWH[W<LQGLGQRWVHUYHWKHSXUSRVHRIRXUVWXG\
6RPH VFKRODUV KDYH VWDWHG WKDW FDVH VWXGLHV VKRXOG QRW EH OLPLWHG WR
FRQWHPSRUDU\SKHQRPHQDRUUHDOOLIHFRQWH[WV:RRGVLGH:LOVRQ
<HW VRPH UHIOHFWLRQV DUH QHHGHG UHJDUGLQJ RXU FKRLFH WR XVH SUHVHQWDWLRQV
UDWKHU WKDQ LQWHUYLHZV WR JDWKHU LQIRUPDWLRQ &RPSDUHG ZLWK OHFWXULQJ
LQWHUYLHZVKDYHWKHDGYDQWDJHRIEHLQJDZHOOHVWDEOLVKHGPHWKRGIRUFROOHFWLQJ
GDWD (LVHQKDUGW <LQ )XUWKHUPRUH VHPLVWUXFWXUHG LQWHUYLHZV
DOORZIRUIROORZXSTXHVWLRQVZKLFKFDQJLYHDFFHVVWRXVHIXOLQIRUPDWLRQDQG
HQDEOHWKHLQWHUYLHZHUWRFOHDUXSPLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJVDQGWKRURXJKO\GHOYHLQWR
LVVXHV RI VSHFLDO LQWHUHVW RU UHOHYDQFH .YDOH %ULQNPDQQ 7KXV
LQWHUYLHZV LQVWHDG RI WKH OHFWXUHV XVHG FRXOG KDYH OHG WR GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WKH
GDWDZKLFK FRXOG KDYH OHGWR FRQFOXVLRQV RWKHUWKDQWKRVHZH DFKLHYHG $Q
LQWHUYLHZ VHWWLQJ RIWHQ LQFOXGHV RQO\ WKH LQWHUYLHZHU DQG WKH LQIRUPDQW
SRWHQWLDOO\UHVXOWLQJLQOHVVVWUHVVIRUWKHLQIRUPDQW2XULQIRUPDQWVSHUIRUPHG
Discussion
LQ IURQW RI DQ DXGLHQFH EXW DOO RI WKHP ZHUH H[SHULHQFHG OHFWXUHUV DQG
SDUWLFLSDWHGGXHWRWKHLURZQLQWHUHVWLQPHHWLQJZLWKRWKHUVDGGUHVVLQJVLPLODU
FKDOOHQJHV7KHZRUNVKRSZDVSULPDULO\SODQQHGDVDPHDQVIRUSDUWLFLSDQWVWR
OHDUQIURPH[SHULHQFHE\SUHVHQWLQJGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFKHVDQGGLVFXVVLQJWKHP
WRJHWKHU7KLVZDVWKHH[SHUWV¶ZRUNVKRS7KHUHVHDUFKHUVKDGDGRXEOHDLP
ZKLFK ZDV NQRZQ WR DOO KRZHYHU WKH UHVHDUFK SXUSRVH GLG QRW LPSULQW WKH
DUUDQJHPHQW %\ ILOPLQJ WKH SUHVHQWDWLRQV DQG GLVFXVVLRQV ZH FRXOG KDYH
UHWDLQHG DOO LQIRUPDWLRQ IURP WKH ZRUNVKRS WKURXJKRXW WKH ZKROH UHVHDUFK
SURMHFW 7KXV ILOPLQJ ZRXOG KDYH HQDEOHG XV WR UHOLVWHQ RU UHYLHZ FKHFN
LQIRUPDWLRQ VHYHUDO WLPHV HWF )LOPLQJ ZDV FRQVLGHUHG LQ DGYDQFH EXW ZH
GLVPLVVHGWKHLGHDEHFDXVHZHWKRXJKWWKDWILOPLQJFRXOGFDXVHWKHSDUWLFLSDQWV
WRH[SHULHQFHVWUHVVDQGWKHUHE\LQIOXHQFHWKHGDWDQHJDWLYHO\0RUHRYHUWKH
ZRUNVKRS¶VXVHIXOQHVVIRUWKHH[SHUWVZRXOGKDYHGHFUHDVHGDVZHOO
,Q LQWHUYLHZV DQG LQ RXU ZRUNVKRS LQIRUPDQWV PD\ WHQG WR JLYH WKH
LQIRUPDWLRQWKDWKHRUVKHEHOLHYHVLVLQOLQHZLWKWKHUHVHDUFKHU¶VH[SHFWDWLRQV
.YDOH %ULQNPDQQ /LQFROQ *XED $IWHU WKRURXJKO\
FRQVLGHULQJZKHWKHURXUFKRVHQZRUNVKRSDSSURDFKFRXOGKDYHLQFUHDVHGWKH
ULVN IRU DGMXVWHG UHVSRQVHV ZH FDQQRW VHH DQ\ HYLGHQFH WR VXSSRUW WKLV
SRVVLELOLW\%DVHGRQWKHUHVHDUFKWHDP¶VREVHUYDWLRQVGXULQJWKHZRUNVKRSDOO
WKHSUHVHQWDWLRQVVHHPHGZHOOSUHSDUHGLQDGYDQFHLQGLFDWLQJWKDWWKH\FRXOG
KDUGO\ KDYH EHHQ KHDYLO\ DGMXVWHG ZKLOH WKH H[SHUWV OLVWHQHG WR RWKHUV
$GGLWLRQDOO\WKHSUHVHQWDWLRQVYDULHGUHJDUGLQJERWKVW\OHDQGVXEVWDQFH:H
FDQQRW FRQILGHQWO\ VWDWH ZKHWKHU DQG WKH H[WHQW WR ZKLFK WKH LQIRUPDQWV
SUHSDUHG WKHLU OHFWXUHV WR VDWLVI\ H[SHFWDWLRQV WKH\ DWWULEXWHG WR WKH 1&/%5
UHVHDUFKHUV 2QH UHDVRQ WR VXJJHVW WKH\ GLG QRW GR WKLV LV WKH YDULDQFH WKDW
RFFXUUHG DQG WKH HQJDJHPHQW DQG FXULRVLW\ WKDW FKDUDFWHUL]HG DOO WKH
SDUWLFLSDQWV,QDGGLWLRQWKHUHVHDUFKFHQWUHGLGQRWKDYHDQHVWDEOLVKHGSUDFWLFH
IRUFODVVWXUQDURXQGVLQKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVLPSO\LQJWKDWWKHUHVHDUFKHUV¶
YLHZV ZHUH QRW FRPPRQO\ NQRZQ +RZHYHU ZH FDQQRW JXDUDQWHH WKDW WKH
SURIHVVLRQDO SHUVSHFWLYHV RI WKH UHVHDUFKHUV GLG QRW LQIOXHQFH WKH LQIRUPDQWV
EHIRUHRUGXULQJWKHZRUNVKRSDOWKRXJKZHGLGQRWGHWHFWDQ\LQGLFDWLRQVRI
VXFKELDV
2QH DGYDQWDJH RI XVLQJSUHSDUHG SUHVHQWDWLRQV ZDVWKDW WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ ZDV
RUJDQL]HGLQDGYDQFHDQGWKHUHE\OHVVVXVFHSWLEOHWRRWKHULQIRUPDWLRQVKDUHG
GXULQJLQIRUPDWLRQJDWKHULQJ0RUHRYHUWKHOHFWXULQJIRUPDWJDYHHDFK
Discussion
LQIRUPDQWWKHRSSRUWXQLW\WRWKRURXJKO\FRQVLGHUZKDWKHZDQWHGWRKLJKOLJKW
TXHVWLRQ UHFRPPHQG DQG VR IRUWK 7KH PRVW LPSRUWDQW DVSHFWV RI WKH
WXUQDURXQGPRGHOVZHUHOLNHO\EHWWHUH[SUHVVHGLQDSODQQHGSUHVHQWDWLRQWKDQ
LQDGLDORJXHOHGE\DQLQGLYLGXDOZKRGLGQRWNQRZWKHORJLFRIWKHDSSURDFK
,PSRUWDQW LQIRUPDWLRQ FRXOG JHW ORVW EHFDXVH WKH LQWHUYLHZHU ZRXOG KDYH WR
PDNH GHFLVLRQV DERXW ZKHQ WR IROORZ XS DQG ZKHQ WR OHDYH DQ LVVXH 0RVW
LPSRUWDQWO\ZHUHJDUGWKHSODQQHGSUHVHQWDWLRQDVWKHEHVWZD\WRFROOHFWGDWD
RQPHQWDOPRGHOVLQWKHH[WUHPHO\FRPSOH[ILHOGWKDWZDVWKHWRSLFRIWKHVWXG\
7KH XQLW RI DQDO\VLV ZDV DJJUHJDWHG H[SHULHQFH SUHVHQWHG DV PRGHOV RU
JXLGHOLQHVIRUDSSURDFKLQJKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV$FFRUGLQJWR:RRGVLGH
DQG:LOVRQWKHIRFXVRIDFDVHVWXG\FDQEHWRGHVFULEHXQGHUVWDQG
SUHGLFWRUFRQWURODXQLW7KH\DOVREURDGHQHGWKHIRFXVE\XQGHUSLQQLQJWKDW
GHHSXQGHUVWDQGLQJZKLFKLVWKHSULQFLSDOREMHFWRIFDVHVWXGLHV<LQ
VKRXOGLQFOXGHNQRZOHGJHRIVHQVHPDNLQJSURFHVVHVV\VWHPVWKLQNLQJSROLF\
PDSSLQJDQGV\VWHPVG\QDPLFVPRGHOOLQJ7KH\DOVRLQWURGXFHGPHWDVHQVH
PDNLQJDVDQLQWHUHVWLQJVWUDWHJ\IRUUHDFKLQJGHHSXQGHUVWDQGLQJ*LYHQWKH
IDFW WKDW GHHS XQGHUVWDQGLQJ LV DQ DLP LQIRUPDQWV¶ PHQWDO PRGHOV DUH
LQWHUHVWLQJ 0HQWDO PRGHOV FDQ GHVFULEH ZKDW W\SLFDOO\ RFFXUV LQ D SURFHVV
GHVFULEH ZKDW DFWXDOO\ RFFXUUHG LQ D JLYHQ SURFHVV RU JLYH D QRUPDWLYH
GHVFULSWLRQ RI ZKDW D SHUVRQ WKLQNV VKRXOG KDYH RFFXUUHG LQ D SURFHVV DQG
ILQDOO\GHWDLODSHUVRQ¶VSHUFHSWLRQRIKRZRWKHUSHUVRQVJHQHUDOO\XQGHUVWDQG
GHWDLOVLQDSURFHVVEHLQJLQYHVWLJDWHG:RRVLGH:LOVRQ:HUHJDUG
WKHFRQFHSWRIPHQWDOPRGHOVDVXVHIXODQGUHODWHGWRWKHIRFXVRIRXUUHVHDUFK
LQ ZKLFK WKH LQIRUPDQWV SUHVHQWHG PRGHOOHG SURFHVVHV LQ ZKLFK WKH\ ZHUH
DFWLYH SDUWLFLSDQWV DQG ZHUH DVNHG WR PDNH WKHLU PHQWDO PRGHOV H[SOLFLW DQG
SUHVHQWDNLQGRIDQRUPDWLYHPHWDPRGHO
Selecting cases
:H GLG QRW FKRRVH WKH FDVHV UDQGRPO\ :H IROORZHG WKH JXLGHOLQHV RI
(LVHQKDUGW ZKR GLVFULPLQDWHG EHWZHHQ UDQGRP DQG WKHRUHWLFDO
VDPSOLQJ DQG KLJKOLJKWHG WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI GHILQLQJ WKH SRSXODWLRQ EHIRUH
LGHQWLI\LQJFDVHV'HILQLQJDQDSSURSULDWHSRSXODWLRQLQFUHDVHVWKHUHVHDUFKHUV¶
SRVVLELOLW\WRFRQWUROH[WUDQHRXVYDULDWLRQDQGGHILQHWKHOLPLWVIRUJHQHUDOL]LQJ
WKH UHVXOWV RI WKH VWXG\ 2XU SRSXODWLRQ ZDV DOO H[WHUQDOO\ OHG RU VXSHUYLVHG
DSSURDFKHVFRQGXFWHGLQ1RUZHJLDQVFKRROVWREULQJKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV
Discussion
EDFNRQWUDFN2XUVHOHFWLRQRIFDVHVZDVVLPLODUWRWKHRUHWLFDOVDPSOLQJZKLFK
DLPV WR ³FKRRVH FDVHV ZKLFK DUH OLNHO\ WR UHSOLFDWH RU H[WHQG WKH HPHUJHQW
WKHRU\´ (LVHQKDUGW S :H DOVR ORRNHG WR WKH VWUDWHJ\ RI
LQIRUPDWLRQRULHQWHGVHOHFWLRQGHVFULEHGE\)O\YEMHUJ7KHSXUSRVHRI
WKLVVWUDWHJ\LVWRPD[LPL]HWKHXWLOLW\RILQIRUPDWLRQIURPVPDOOVDPSOHVDQG
VLQJOH FDVHV7KLV LPSOLHV WKH VHOHFWLRQRI FDVHVEDVHGRQ H[SHFWDWLRQV DERXW
WKHLULQIRUPDWLRQFRQWHQW)O\YEMHUJGHVFULEHGWKHLQIRUPDWLRQRULHQWHG
VWUDWHJ\ ZLWK IRXU VXEFDWHJRULHV IRU VHOHFWLRQ D H[WUHPHGHYLDQW FDVHV E
PD[LPXP YDULDWLRQ FDVHV F FULWLFDO FDVHV DQG G SDUDGLJPDWLF FDVHV 7KH
VWUDWHJLHV DUH QRW PXWXDOO\ H[FOXVLYH )O\YEMHUJ DQG RXU VHOHFWLRQ
WRXFKHGFULWHULDIURPPRUHWKDQRQHRIWKHVHVXEFDWHJRULHV6HOHFWLRQEDVHGRQ
SDUDGLJPDWLFFDVHVVHUYHVWKHSXUSRVHRIGHYHORSLQJDPHWDSKRURUHVWDEOLVKLQJ
D VFKRRO IRU WKH GRPDLQ WKDW WKH FDVH FRQFHUQV )O\YEMHUJ 7KLV
FRUUHVSRQGVZLWKRXULQWHUHVWLQLGHQWLI\LQJFDVHVIURPZKLFKZHFRXOGLQGXFH
FRQFHSWVDQGIUDPHZRUNV2IFRXUVHDSUREOHPPD\DULVHLQLGHQWLI\LQJDFDVH
DV SDUDGLJPDWLF RU JLYLQJ LW SURWRW\SLFDO YDOXH ZKHQQR SDUDGLJP LV GHILQHG
)O\YEMHUJ %HFDXVH WKH FDVH VWXG\ DLPV WR DOORZ WKH SDUDGLJPDWLF
FDVHVWRVHWWKHVWDQGDUGQRVWDQGDUGVH[LVWVIRUWKHVHOHFWLRQRIWKRVHFDVHV
:HFDQVXJJHVWWKDWRXUFDVHVZHUHSDUDGLJPDWLFEHFDXVHWKH\OHGWRVXFFHVVLQ
VFKRROVVWUXJJOLQJZLWKFODVVHVWKDWZHUHRXWRIFRQWURO$VRXUFDVHVVHHPHG
WRVROYHSUREOHPVLWZDVZRUWKLQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHPDVUHOHYDQWIRUGHYHORSLQJD
VWDQGDUG ,Q RXU VWXG\ WKH VWDQGDUG LV GHVFULEHG DV D WHQWDWLYH IUDPHZRUN
LQFOXGLQJ WZR VWUDWHJLHV &RQVHTXHQWO\ ZH DWWHPSWHG WR DYRLG GLYHUVLW\
UHJDUGLQJ SRVLWLYH UHVXOWV IURP WKH WXUQDURXQGV ,Q RWKHU UHVSHFWV ZH ZHUH
LQWHUHVWHGLQFDVHVZLWKPD[LPXPYDULDQFH2QHDVSHFWRIYDULDQFHLQRXUVWXG\
ZDV WKDW GLIIHUHQW SHUVRQV KDG GHYHORSHG WKH DSSURDFKHV WRZDUGV KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV7KHVHSHUVRQVKDGGLIIHUHQW EDVHVIRUWKHDSSURDFKHVWKH\
GHYHORSHGGXHWRWKHLUHGXFDWLRQDQGSURIHVVLRQDO H[SHULHQFH:HDGGHGRQH
FDVHWRRXURULJLQDOVDPSOHEHFDXVHZHKDGUHDVRQVWREHOLHYHWKDWLWUHSUHVHQWHG
D GHYLDQW FDVH LQ VRPH ZD\V ,W ZDV XQXVXDO LQ DW OHDVW WZR ZD\V LW ZDV D
PRGHOOHGWXUQDURXQGWKDWKDGEHHQSUDFWLFHGIRUDORQJWLPHDQGLWZDVTXLWH
VWDQGDUGL]HG HYHQ WKRXJK LW KDG EHHQ LPSOHPHQWHG XQGHU GLIIHUHQW
FLUFXPVWDQFHV$QRWKHUUHDVRQZK\ZHVWXGLHGWKHVHFDVHVLVWKHSODLQSUDFWLFDO
RU SUDJPDWLF DUJXPHQW ZH NQHZ WKHP DQG WKH\ ZHUH UHODWHG WRH[SHULHQFHG
SUDFWLWLRQHUVWKDWZHNQHZKDGDJRRGUHSXWDWLRQUHJDUGLQJWKLVNLQGRIZRUN
Discussion
&RQVHTXHQWO\ZHVHOHFWHGEDVHGRQFRQYHQLHQFHEHFDXVHIHZRWKHUFDVHVZHUH
DYDLODEOH
Analyses
,FKRVHWRVWUXFWXUHWKHDQDO\VHVDFFRUGLQJWRWKHJXLGHOLQHVIRULQGXFLQJWKHRU\
IURPFDVHVWXG\UHVHDUFKGHYHORSHGE\(LVHQKDUGW2QHUHDVRQIRUWKLV
GHFLVLRQ ZDV (LVHQKDUGW¶V H[SHULHQFH LQ DQG FRQWULEXWLRQ WR WKH ILHOG RI
RUJDQL]DWLRQDO UHVHDUFK 6HH HJ %RXUJHRLV (LVHQKDUGW (LVHQKDUGW
(LVHQKDUGW (LVHQKDUGW %RXUJHRLV (LVHQKDUGW 6XOO
(LVHQKDUGW =EDUDFNL 7KXV, FRQVLGHUHG VFKRRO FODVVHV D
UHOHYDQWWRSLFZLWKLQWKLVUHVHDUFKDSSURDFK0RUHRYHURUJDQL]DWLRQVJURXSV
DQGSURFHVVHVDUHUHOHYDQWXQLWVRILQYHVWLJDWLRQLQFDVHVWXGLHV:RRGVLGH
:LOVRQ $ VFKRRO FODVV LV D JURXS WKDW FDQ DOVR EH FRQVLGHUHG DQ
RUJDQL]DWLRQ:HIRFXVHGRQFKDQJHVZLWKLQWKHFODVVHUJRSURFHVVHVLQDJURXS
RU DQ RUJDQL]DWLRQ 6HFRQG WKH JXLGHOLQHV VKH GHVFULEHG DQG UHFRPPHQGHG
(LVHQKDUGWVHHPHGPHDQLQJIXOO\DSSOLFDEOHWRRXUGDWD:HHVSHFLDOO\
DSSUHFLDWHG WKH WKRURXJK GHVFULSWLRQ RI FURVVFDVH DQDO\VLQJ WHFKQLTXHV WKDW
VKH GHYHORSHG ZLWK %RXUJHRLV (LVHQKDUGW (LVHQKDUGW %RXUJHRLV
$VXEVWDQWLDODPRXQWRIWKHOLWHUDWXUHRQFDVHVWXGLHVGLVFXVVHVGHVLJQV
DQGUHSRUWVPRUHWKRURXJKO\WKDQDQDO\VHV(LVHQKDUGW:HVWUXFWXUHG
RXU GDWD DQDO\VHV DFFRUGLQJ WR (LVHQKDUGW¶V URDGPDS IRU V\VWHPDWLF DQG
UHSOLFDEOHDQDO\VHV
7KHOLWHUDWXUHRQFDVH VWXGLHVUHFRPPHQGV XVLQJ PXOWLSOH PHWKRGVWRFROOHFW
GDWD$QDGYDQWDJHRIWKLVSURFHGXUHLVWKDWLWSURYLGHDEHWWHUVXEVWDQWLDWLRQRI
FRQVWUXFWV DQG K\SRWKHVHV EHFDXVH VHYHUDO GDWD FROOHFWLRQ PHWKRGV DUH XVHG
(LVHQKDUGW7KLVLVVXHLVGLVFXVVHGDERYH,QDGGLWLRQWRUHFRPPHQGLQJ
PHWKRGWULDQJXODWLRQ(LVHQKDUGWUHFRPPHQGHGUHVHDUFKHUWULDQJXODWLRQIRUDW
OHDVWWZRUHDVRQV)LUVWLWHQKDQFHVWKHFUHDWLYHSRWHQWLDORIWKHVWXG\EHFDXVH
PHPEHUVRIWKHUHVHDUFKWHDPRIWHQKDYHFRPSOHPHQWDU\LQVLJKWVDQGGLIIHUHQW
SHUVSHFWLYHV7KLVLQFUHDVHVWKHOLNHOLKRRGWKDWQRYHOLQVLJKWVWKDWFDQEHJDLQHG
IURP WKH GDWD ZLOO EH UHYHDOHG DQG XWLOL]HG 6HFRQG WKH FRQILGHQFH LQ WKH
ILQGLQJV HQKDQFHV ZKHQ PXOWLSOH UHVHDUFKHUV¶ REVHUYDWLRQV FRQYHUJH
)XUWKHUPRUH FRQIOLFWLQJ YLHZV ZLWKLQ WKH UHVHDUFK WHDP PD\ OHDG WR QHZ
LWHUDWLRQVDQGDQDO\VHVWKDWDGGYDOXHWRWKHVWXG\(LVHQKDUGW2XUVWXG\
LQYROYHGWKUHHUHVHDUFKHUVZKRSHUIRUPHGGLIIHUHQWUROHV$OOSDUWLFLSDWHGLQ
Discussion
WKHZRUNVKRSZKHUHWKHGDWDZHUHFROOHFWHG7ZRZURWHWKHUHSRUWWKDWFDSWXUHG
WKHHVVHQFHRIWKHLQIRUPDWLRQSUHVHQWHGE\WKHLQIRUPDQWV2QHUHVHDUFKHUGLG
QRWWDNHSDUWLQWKHDQDO\VHVEXWUHDGWKRURXJKO\WKURXJKWKHGUDIWRI3DSHUWR
DVVHVVZKHWKHUWKHDQDO\VHVDQGFRQFOXVLRQVVHHPHGWREHFRQVLVWHQWZLWKWKH
GDWDFROOHFWHGLQRWKHUZRUGVZKHWKHUWKHGDWDFRQWDLQVHYLGHQFHRIWKHUHVXOWV
2QH UHVHDUFKHU WKH DXWKRU ILUVW VWUXFWXUHG WKH GDWD DQG FDUULHG RXW DQDO\VHV
ZLWK UHIHUHQFHWR WKH FKRVHQ URDGPDS $OODQDO\VHV UHVXOWV DQG UHSRUWV ZHUH
FRQWLQXDOO\GLVFXVVHGZLWKWKHWKLUGUHVHDUFKHURQWKHWHDP%RWKFRQYHUJHQFH
DQGFRQIOLFWLQJSHUVSHFWLYHVDURVHGXULQJWKLVSURFHVV1HZLWHUDWLRQVZHUHSDUW
RI WKH SURFHVV *LYHQ WKDW H[SHULHQFH RI RXU JURXS LW LV HDV\ WR DGRSW WKH
UHFRPPHQGDWLRQ DERXW UHVHDUFKHU WULDQJXODWLRQ ,Q RXU UHVHDUFK SURMHFW ZH
FRXOG KDYH PDGH VXFK WULDQJXODWLRQ PRUH SUHGLFWDEOH E\ GLIIHUHQWLDWLQJ WKH
UHVHDUFKHUV¶UROHVPRUHSUHFLVHO\LQDGYDQFH
$ QDWXUDO VWDUWLQJ SRLQW IRU DQDO\VHV LV ZLWKLQFDVH DQDO\VLV $FFRUGLQJ WR
(LVHQKDUGLWLVXVHIXOWRPDNHGHWDLOHGDQGSXUHGHVFULSWLYHZULWHXSV
IRU HDFK VLWH 'XULQJ WKLV SURFHVV WKH UHVHDUFKHU EHFRPHV FORVH WR WKH
LQIRUPDWLRQ DQG LQWLPDWHO\ IDPLOLDU ZLWK HDFK XQLTXH FDVH 6XEVWDQFH DQG
SDWWHUQVWKDWH[LVWZLWKLQDFDVHEHFRPHYLVLEOHEHIRUHWKHFURVVFDVHDQDO\VHV
EHJLQ,QRXUVWXG\WKHUHSRUWWKDWZHZURWHDIWHUWKHZRUNVKRSZDVVLPLODUWR
WKHZULWHXSVWKDW(LVHQKDUGWGHVFULEHG%HFRPLQJIDPLOLDUZLWKHDFKFDVHDV
SUHSDUDWLRQIRUFURVVFDVHDQDO\VHVLVDOVRRIJUHDWYDOXH
$NH\WRJRRGFURVVFDVHDQDO\VHVLVH[DPLQLQJWKHGDWDLQGLYHUJHQWZD\VDQG
IURP GLIIHUHQW SRLQWV RI YLHZ 7KLV DLGV LQ DYRLGLQJ LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ
ELDVHV(LVHQKDUGW 6XFK DQDO\VHV VWUDWHJLHV SXVK WKHUHVHDUFKHU WR JR
EH\RQG KLV RU KHU LQLWLDO LPSUHVVLRQV DQG REWDLQ PRUH LQIRUPDWLRQ IURP WKH
FDVHV E\ YLHZLQJ WKHP WKURXJK GLIIHUHQW OHQVHV $V (LVHQKDUGW XQGHUOLQHG
³7KHVHWDFWLFVLPSURYHWKHOLNHOLKRRGRIDFFXUDWHDQGUHOLDEOHWKHRU\WKDWLVD
WKHRU\ZLWKDFORVHILWWRWKHGDWD´(LVHQKDUGWS7KHVWHSVWKDWZH
IROORZHG LQ RXU FURVVFDVH DQDO\VLV ZHUH WDNHQ IURP (LVHQKDUGW¶V URDGPDS
WKHVHVWHSVZHUHXVHIXODQGKHOSHGXVV\VWHPDWLFDOO\DQGFRQVWDQWO\FRPSDUH
RXUK\SRWKHVHVFRQFHSWVDQGIUDPHZRUNZLWKWKHGDWD
$Q LPSRUWDQW HOHPHQW RIWKHRU\ EXLOGLQJIURP FDVH VWXGLHV LV FRPSDULQJ WKH
HPHUJHQW FRQFHSWV DQG IUDPHZRUNV ZLWK HVWDEOLVKHG WKHRU\ DQG (LVHQKDUGW
UHFRPPHQGHGDEURDGUDQJHRIWKHRULHV:HGHOLPLWHGWKHOLWHUDWXUHWKDW
Discussion
ZH FRPSDUHG ZLWK WKH IUDPHZRUN WKDW HPHUJHG IURP RXU DQDO\VHV 7KLV
OLPLWDWLRQ ZDV QHFHVVDU\ EHFDXVH WKH YROXPH RI UHOHYDQW DQG LQWHUHVWLQJ
OLWHUDWXUH ZDV IDU WRR FRPSUHKHQVLYH WR PDQDJH ZLWKLQ D UHDVRQDEOH WLPH ,
FKRVHWRFRQVLGHUWZRSHUVSHFWLYHVRIFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWWKDWDUHRIFXUUHQW
LQWHUHVW WR VFKRROV LQ 1RUZD\ :H FRXOG KDYH EURDGHQHG WKH GLVFXVVLRQ WR
LQFOXGHWKHRULHV RI DJJUHVVLRQ FRQVXOWDWLRQOHDGHUVKLS VFKRROLPSURYHPHQW
RUJDQL]DWLRQDO GHYHORSPHQW DQG PRUH 'XH WR WKH QHHG WR LPSRVH OLPLW ZH
SULRULWL]HGPD[LPXPUHOHYDQFH
Evaluation
$FFRUGLQJWR(LVHQKDUGWWKHUHDUHQRJHQHUDOO\DFFHSWHGSURFHGXUHVIRU
DVVHVVLQJFDVHVWXGLHVFRQGXFWHGIRUWKHRU\EXLOGLQJSXUSRVHV<HWVKHSRVWHG
WKUHHFULWHULDWKDWZHXVHGWRDVVHVVRXUVWXG\
)LUVWZKHQWKHJRDOLVWRGHYHORSRUVWDUWWRGHYHORSDWKHRU\DVVHVVPHQWVKRXOG
FRQVLGHUZKHWKHUWKHVWXG\FRQWULEXWHVWRWKLVDLP7KHRU\VKRXOGHPHUJHDWWKH
HQGUDWKHUWKDQDWWKHEHJLQQLQJRIWKHVWXG\DQGJRRGWKHRU\LVSDUVLPRQLRXV
WHVWDEOHDQGORJLFDOO\FRKHUHQW(LVHQKDUGW*LYHQWKHDLPVRIRXUVWXG\
QDPHO\ WR UHYHDO FRUH FRQFHSWV DQG SRVVLEOH IUDPHZRUNV IRU GHVFULELQJ
WXUQDURXQGVLQKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVZHGLGQRWH[SHFWWKHVWXG\WRUHVXOW
LQ D FRPSOHWH WKHRU\ +RZHYHU WKH UHVXOWV DULVLQJ IURP WKH GDWD VHHPHG
PHDQLQJIXOLQWHUPVRIEHLQJUHDVRQDEO\DFFXUDWHLQGHVFULELQJFHQWUDOLVVXHV
LQ WXUQDURXQG RSHUDWLRQV 7KH\ DUH QRW PHDQW WR GHVFULEH KRZ WR DFWXDOO\
SHUIRUPDQLQWHUYHQWLRQUDWKHUWKH\VKRXOGSURYLGHFRQFHSWVWKDWFDQEHXVHG
WR GLVFXVVFRPSDUHDQGDQDO\VH VRPH LPSRUWDQW DVSHFWVRIVXFKDSSURDFKHV
5HJDUGLQJ FRKHUHQFH WKH VXJJHVWHG IUDPHZRUN OHDGLQJ WR WKH GHVFULSWLRQ RI
WZRPDLQVWUDWHJLHVIRUWXUQDURXQGVVKRZVUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQFRQFHSWVDQG
DWHQWDWLYHFRKHUHQWSLFWXUHHPHUJHV ,WLVUHYHDOHGDVDUHVXOWRIWKHDQDO\VHV
UXQLQWKHVWXG\DQGFRQVHTXHQWO\DSSHDUVDWWKHHQGRIWKHVWXG\7KHVHUHVXOWV
DUH WHVWDEOH DOWKRXJK WKH\ DUH QRW ILQDO LQ WHUPV RI D VWULQJHQW DQG ORJLFDOO\
FRKHUHQWWKHRU\0RUHZRUNLVUHTXLUHGDQGQHZGDWDPXVWEHFROOHFWHGWRWHVW
UHYLVHDQGIXUWKHUGHYHORSWKHIUDPHZRUNWKDW ZHVXJJHVWLVDXVHIXOVWDUWLQJ
SRLQW WR JDLQLQJ NQRZOHGJH DERXW KRZ ZH FDQ GHVFULEH XQGHUVWDQG DQG
FRPSDUH WXUQDURXQGV LQ KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV &RQVHTXHQWO\ WKH VWXG\
FRQWULEXWHV WR WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI D WKHRU\ E\ SURYLGLQJ FRQFHSWV DQG
IUDPHZRUNVIRUQHZVWXGLHV
Discussion
6HFRQGZHDVVHVVHGWKHTXDOLW\RIWKHPHWKRGRORJLFDOZRUNZKLFKLVSUHVHQWHG
LQWKHGLVFXVVLRQDERXWYDOLGLW\
7KLUGWKHRU\EXLOGLQJUHVHDUFKVKRXOGUHVXOWLQQHZLQVLJKWDQGZHFODLPWKDW
RXUVWXG\SURYLGHVXFKLQVLJKW7KHIUDPHZRUNWKDWHPHUJHGLVQHZDQGLVOLNHO\
XVHIXO DV D WHQWDWLYH WKHRUHWLFDO SHUVSHFWLYH WR REVHUYH DQDO\VH GLVFXVV DQG
FRPSDUHDSSURDFKHVWRPDQDJLQJKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPV
5.1.3 Validity
,QWKHPHWKRGVHFWLRQ,LQWURGXFHGWKHYDOLGLW\V\VWHPGHYHORSHGE\&RRNDQG
&DPSEHOO 6KDGLVK HW DO DV WKH V\VWHP HPSOR\HG WR GLVFXVV
YDOLGLW\,QWKHIROORZLQJ,GLVFXVVYDOLGLW\LQWKHWKUHHSDSHUVWKURXJKWKHOHQV
RIWKHIRXUHOHPHQWVRIWKHYDOLGLW\V\VWHP,GLVFXVVWKHWZRTXDQWLWDWLYHVWXGLHV
3DSHUDQG3DSHUWRJHWKHUEHFDXVHRIWKHLUPDQ\SDUDOOHOVEHIRUH,GLVFXVV
YDOLGLW\UHODWHGWRWKHTXDOLWDWLYHVWXG\3DSHU
Statistical validity
6WDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\UHJDUGVWKHYDOLGLW\RILQIHUHQFHVDERXWFRYDULDWLRQEHWZHHQ
YDULDEOHV DQG ZKHWKHU WKH\ DUH WULYLDO RU ZRUWK\ RI VXEVWDQWLDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
.OHYHQ
,Q3DSHUWKHUHVXOWVVKRZHGDVXEVWDQWLDODQGVLJQLILFDQWUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQ
UHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVSURDFWLYHSRZHUUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGSURDFWLYH
DIILOLDWLRQUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDVLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVDQGGLVREHGLHQFHWR
WHDFKHUDVWKHGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOH7KHVWUXFWXUDOUHODWLRQVKLSVZHUHHVWLPDWHG
IRUER\VDQGJLUOVUHVSHFWLYHO\WKXVVL[EHWDYDOXHVZHUHHVWLPDWHG([FHSWIRU
RQHRIWKHEHWDYDOXHVYDULDWLRQUDQJHGIURPWRDOOVLJQLILFDQWDWWKH
OHYHO ZH FRQVLGHU WKHVH YDOXHV WR EH ZRUWK\ RI VXEVWDQWLDO LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
7KHH[FHSWLRQEHWDZKLFKZDVVLJQLILFDQWDWWKHOHYHOUHSUHVHQWHGWKH
DVVRFLDWLRQ IURP SURDFWLYH SRZHUUHODWHG DJJUHVVLYHQHVV WR GLVREHGLHQFH LQ
ER\V7KHUHODWLRQVKLSZDVVLJQLILFDQWEXWZHDNLQIOXHQFLQJVWDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\
QHJDWLYHO\ $GGLWLRQDOO\ WKH VLJQLILFDQFH OHYHO RI WKLV EHWD YDOXH ZDV ORZHU
WKDQ WKDW RI WKH RWKHUV 7KLV LV QRW WR VD\ WKDW WKH LQIHUHQFH DERXW SURDFWLYH
SRZHUUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVV¶UHODWLRQVKLSZLWKGLVREHGLHQFHLVQRWYDOLGEXW
UDWKHUWKDWLWVVWDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\LVZHDNHQHGZKHQER\VDUHFRQVLGHUHG7KH
Discussion
SRVVLELOLW\RIDW\SH,HUURUVKRXOGEHWDNHQLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQXQWLOUHSOLFDWLRQ
VWXGLHVDUHSHUIRUPHG
2IFRXUVHWKHVWDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\RIWKHFRQFOXVLYHLQIHUHQFHVGHSHQGVRQWKH
VWDWLVWLFDOFDOFXODWLRQVSHUIRUPHGSULRUWRWKHHVWLPDWHVRIWKHVWUXFWXUDOPRGHO
.OHYHQ 8QUHOLDEOH PHDVXUHV LPSO\ D WKUHDW WR FRQVWUXFW YDOLGLW\ DQG
DIIHFWVWDWLVWLFDO YDOLGLW\E\FDXVLQJHUURUVLQ PHDVXUHG UHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQ
WZR RU PRUH YDULDEOHV 6KDGLVK HW DO ,Q 3DSHU ZH FRQVLGHUHG WKH
UHOLDELOLW\ RI DOO PHDVXUHV WR EH VDWLVIDFWRU\ *HQHUDOO\ ODWHQW YDULDEOH
PRGHOOLQJRIVHYHUDOREVHUYHGPHDVXUHVFDQEHXVHGWRSDUFHORXWWUXHVFRUHV
IURPHUURUYDULDQFH6KDGLVKHWDO3UHYLRXVFDOFXODWLRQVLQFOXGHG&)$
DQG FRUUHODWLRQDO DQDO\VHV 2YHUDOO WKH UHVXOWV VKRZHG VLJQLILFDQW DQG
VXEVWDQWLDOYDOXHVDQGQRWKUHDWVWRVWDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\ZHUHGHWHFWHG
,Q3DSHUZHPDGHLQIHUHQFHVDERXWDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQG
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUWKDWLVQHZWRWKHFODVV
7KH SDSHU UHSRUWHG WKDW ERWK UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV VKRZHG
VLJQLILFDQWUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ$OWKRXJKWKHUHVXOWVZHUH
VLJQLILFDQW DW WKH OHYHO WKH VWUHQJWK RI WKH DVVRFLDWLRQV ZDV ZHDN IRU
UHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVIRUER\VDQGIRUJLUOV*HQGHUGLIIHUHQFHZDV
QRW VLJQLILFDQW&RQVHTXHQWO\ VWDWLVWLFDO YDOLGLW\ LVFKDOOHQJHG ZKHQSRVVLEOH
DVVRFLDWLRQV EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ DUH
FRQFHUQHG $ VHULRXV WKUHDW WR YDOLGLW\ ZDV UHYHDOHG WKURXJK DQDO\VHV WKDW
FRQWUROOHGIRUFOXVWHULQJLQWKHGDWDUHIVHFWLRQ7KHVXEVWDQWLDOO\ZHDN
SDUDPHWHULQWKHJURXSRIER\VORVWVLJQLILFDQFHDQGWKHUHE\VWDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\
&RQVHTXHQWO\ WKH UHSRUWHG HVWLPDWH UHSUHVHQWHG D W\SH , HUURU *DOO *DOO %RUJ 7KH UHODWLRQVKLS KHOG IRU JLUOV \HW VWDWLVWLFDO YDOLGLW\ ZDV
WKUHDWHQHGGXHWRORZHVWLPDWHVDQGGHPDQGFDUHIXOLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ5HSOLFDWLRQ
VWXGLHV RI DVVRFLDWLRQV EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVDUHQHHGHGEHIRUHWKHSUREDELOLW\RIW\SH,HUURU
RU W\SH ,, HUURUV *DOO *DOO %RUJ LV VDWLVIDFWRULO\ UXOHG RXW 7KH
VXEVWDQWLYHGLVFXVVLRQRIWKLVLVVXHLVWKHUHIRUHSUHOLPLQDU\DQGWHQWDWLYH
:KHQ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQ ZDV FRQVLGHUHG WKH VWDWLVWLFDO YDOLGLW\ ZDV JRRG GXH WR WKH EHWD
YDOXHVRIDSSUR[LPDWHO\VLJQLILFDQWDWWKHOHYHO
Discussion
$OO WKH SDUDPHWHUV DVVHVVHG SULRU WR WKH VWUXFWXUDO PRGHO LQ 3DSHU KDG
VLJQLILFDQWDQGVXEVWDQWLDOYDOXHV5HOLDELOLW\ZDVJRRGDQGGLGQRWWKUHDWHQWKH
VWDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\RIWKHFRQFOXVLYHLQIHUHQFHV
Internal validity
,QWHUQDOYDOLGLW\FRQFHUQVLQIHUHQFHVIURPDQREVHUYHGFRYDULDWLRQWRDFDXVDO
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQLPSO\LQJWKDW DIDFWRULVLQIOXHQFHGE\DQRWKHUIDFWRU.OHYHQ
7KH FURVVVHFWLRQDO GHVLJQ RI WKH VWXGLHV 3DSHUV DQG GRHV QRW
IDFLOLWDWHWKHLQYHVWLJDWLRQRIFDXVDOLW\+RZHYHUVRPHUHIOHFWLRQVDUHXVHIXO
.OHYHQ GLVFXVVHG LQWHUQDO YDOLGLW\ LQ QRQH[SHULPHQWDO GHVLJQV DQG
VXJJHVWHGWKDWUHVHDUFKHUVFDUHIXOO\GLVFXVVSRVVLEOHFDXVDOLW\HYHQWKRXJKQR
HYLGHQFHIRULQIHUHQFHVUHJDUGLQJFDXVDOLW\FDQEHVWDWHG
,Q3DSHUJRRGPRGHOILWZDVIRXQGIRUUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQGLIIHUHQWW\SHV
RI DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH +RZHYHU RWKHU PRGHOV WKDW ZH GLG QRW
HVWLPDWHPD\GLVSOD\DQHTXDOO\JRRGRUEHWWHUILWWRWKHGDWD'LDPDQWRSRXORV
6LJXDZ$OWHUQDWLYHVWRDFDXVDOUHODWLRQVKLSLQFOXGHDFRPPRQWKLUG
IDFWRU WKDW LQIOXHQFH ERWK YDULDEOHV RU WKH WZR YDULDEOHV PD\ LQIOXHQFH HDFK
RWKHU7KH FURVVVHFWLRQDOGHVLJQ GRHVQRW LQYHVWLJDWHSRVVLEOHFDXVDOLW\ DQG
ZH FDQ GUDZ QR YDOLG LQIHUHQFHV DERXW WKH GLUHFWLRQ RI LQIOXHQFH EHWZHHQ
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGGLVREHGLHQFH
,Q3DSHUDPRGHOLQZKLFKDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZDVFRQQHFWHGZLWKDSHUFHSWXDO
RULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHUILWWKHGDWDZHOO$JDLQZHPXVW
KDYHLQPLQGWKHIDFWWKDWRWKHUPRGHOVZLWKHTXDORUHYHQEHWWHUILWWRWKHGDWD
PD\ H[LVW 'LDPDQWRSRXORV 6LJXDZ :H GLG QRW HPSOR\ D
ORQJLWXGLQDOGHVLJQRUKDYHGDWDVKRZLQJKRZHDFKRIWKHYDULDEOHVGHYHORSV
WKHVWDELOLW\RIWKHLUUHODWLRQVKLSRYHUWLPHHWF,QVKRUWGDWDZHUHQRWFROOHFWHG
WRSURYLGHDQVZHUVUHJDUGLQJFDXVDOUHODWLRQVKLSV7KHUHODWLRQVKLSVHHPVFOHDU
\HW QHLWKHU WKH H[LVWHQFH QRU SRVVLEOH GLUHFWLRQ RI FDXVDOLW\ LV JLYHQ 7KH
UHODWLRQVKLS PLJKW H[LVW GXH WR D WKLUG IDFWRU IURP ZKLFK WKH\ DUH SDUDOOHO
RXWFRPHV$QDOWHUQDWLYHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQLVWKDWSXSLOVZLWKXQSOHDVDQWXQIDLURU
WUDXPDWLF H[SHULHQFHV ZLWK WHDFKHUVH[KLELW LQFUHDVHG DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG JHW
LQWRDILJKWPRGXVWRSUHSDUHWKHPVHOYHVIRUDSRWHQWLDOULVNZKHQPHHWLQJQHZ
WHDFKHUV
Discussion
6RPHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQYDULDEOHVKDYHKLJKSUREDELOLW\UHJDUGLQJFDXVDOLW\
EDVHG RQ WKHRU\ $ VLJQLILFDQW UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQDJJUHVVLYHQHVV DV D WUDLW
DQGDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXULVDQH[DPSOH7KHSUREDELOLW\LVKLJKWKDWDSHUVRQDO
WUDLW LV SUHVHQW SULRU WR EHKDYLRXU 7KLV H[SHFWDWLRQ FRXOG DSSO\ WR WKH
UHODWLRQVKLS IURP DJJUHVVLYHQHVV WR GLVREHGLHQFH 6WLOO FRUUHODWLRQ GRHV QRW
FRQILUPFDXVDOLW\,Q3DSHUZHIRXQGWKDWDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZDVFRQQHFWHGWRD
SKHQRPHQRQ WKDW ZH FRQVLGHUHG WR EH DQ DVSHFW RI WKH WUDLW RU D VRFLDO RU
SV\FKRORJLFDOFRUUHODWHRIWKHWUDLW,QWKLVSHUVSHFWLYHFDXVDOLW\LVQRWDPDLQ
LVVXH:LWKUHIHUHQFHWRWKHRU\LWLVUHDVRQDEOHWRVXJJHVWWKDWWKHPRUHJHQHUDO
WUDLW RI DJJUHVVLRQ LPSOLHV WKH PRUH SDUWLFXODU WUDLW RI SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ
WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQ D WHDFKHU ,W LV PRUH D TXHVWLRQ RI VXSHULRU OHYHO
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG VXERUGLQDWH OHYHO SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV
ZHDNQHVV2QHPD\FRQVLGHUWKLVUHODWLRQVKLSLQOLJKWRIFDXVDOLW\\HWWKHUH
LV QR GLIIHUHQFH LQ WLPH EHWZHHQ UHDVRQ DQG HIIHFW :H IRXQG QR WKHRUHWLFDO
UHDVRQWRDQWLFLSDWHWKDWRQHRIWKHYDULDEOHVSUHFHGHGWKHRWKHUZKLFKZRXOG
EHQHFHVVDU\WRLQIHUFDXVDOLW\6KDGLVKHWDO3HUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQLV
FRQVLGHUHGDZD\WKHWUDLWRIDJJUHVVLYHQHVVPDQLIHVWVLQSDUWLFXODUVLWXDWLRQV
+RZHYHUWKHVHDVVXPSWLRQVZHUHQRWFRQILUPHGE\WKHGDWDDQDO\VHVRUIURP
WKHGHVLJQLQVWHDGWKH\DUHEDVHGRQWKHRU\DQGWKHLUYDOLGLW\GHSHQGVRQWKH
WKHRUHWLFDO DVVXPSWLRQV &RQVHTXHQWO\ ZH VKRXOG GLIIHUHQWLDWH EHWZHHQ WKH
UHODWLRQVKLSVWKDWUHJDUGUHDFWLYHYHUVXVSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV$VSUHVHQWHG
LQ3DSHUZHGLGQRWKDYHDFOHDUDQGFRQYLQFLQJWKHRUHWLFDOUDWLRQDOHIRUWKH
UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ
WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQ D QHZ WHDFKHU 7KLV UHODWLRQVKLS ZDV IXUWKHU ZHDNHQHG
ZKHQ FOXVWHULQJ LQ WKH GDWD ZHUH FRQWUROOHG 7KHUHIRUH ZH VXJJHVW QR
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQVRIFDXVDOLW\IURPUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVLQWKLVPDWWHU:KHQ
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZDVFRQVLGHUHGWKHSDSHUSUHVHQWHGDPXFKFOHDUHU
UDWLRQDOH IRU H[SHFWLQJ DQG H[SODLQLQJ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS DQG D FDUHIXO DQG
WHQWDWLYHVXJJHVWLRQFDQEHGUDZQ
Construct validity
&RQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\FRQFHUQVLQIHUHQFHIURPLQGLFDWRUVWRFRQVWUXFWVHJIURP
ZKDWZHKDYHREVHUYHGWRZKDWZHODEHOZKDWZHKDYHREVHUYHG.OHYHQ
6KDGLVK HW DO 7KLV HQFRPSDVVHV ERWK LQGHSHQGHQW DQG GHSHQGHQW
YDULDEOHDQGSURFHGXUHVIRUFROOHFWLQJGDWDRIWHQDOVRGHVFULEHGDVTXHVWLRQV
RI UHOLDELOLW\ 0HVVLFN GHYHORSHG D XQLILHGIUDPHZRUN IRU YDOLGLW\ WR
Discussion
GLVFXVV PHDVXUHPHQW LVVXHV :LWKLQ WKLV IUDPHZRUN ³9DOLGLW\ LV DQ RYHUDOO
HYDOXDWLYHMXGJHPHQWRIWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFKHPSLULFDOHYLGHQFHDQGWKHRUHWLFDO
UDWLRQDOHV VXSSRUW WKH DGHTXDF\ DQG DSSURSULDWHQHVV RI LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV DQG
DFWLRQV RQ WKH EDVLV RI WHVW VFRUHV RU RWKHU PRGHV RI DVVHVVPHQW´ 0HVVLFN
S7KLVLPSOLHVWKDWYDOLGLW\GHSHQGVDOVRRQWKHGHJUHHWRZKLFKWHVW
VFRUHV DFWXDOO\ UHIOHFW WKH WKHRUHWLFDO FRQVWUXFW RI LQWHUHVW 7KH FRQVWUXFWV RI
JUHDWHVW LQWHUHVW LQ WKLVWKHVLV DUHGLVREHGLHQFH DQG SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ
WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQ D QHZ WHDFKHU EHFDXVH WKHVH DUH QHZ FRQVWUXFWV ,VVXHV
UHJDUGLQJ FRQVWUXFW YDOLGLW\ ZHUH WKRURXJKO\ DGGUHVVHG LQ 3DSHU IRU
GLVREHGLHQFH DQG LQ 3DSHU IRU SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ (DFK SDSHU DOVR
GLVFXVVHGLVVXHVRIWKHYDOLGLW\RIWKHLQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHV7KHYDOLGLW\RIWKH
LQGHSHQGHQWYDULDEOHVZDVIRXQGWREHJRRGLQRWKHUVWXGLHV5RODQG,GVRH
DQG WKHRUHWLFDO UHIOHFWLRQV DQG PHDVXUHPHQW PRGHOVFRQILUPHGWKH
YDOLGLW\RIWKHVHPHDVXUHVLQRXUVDPSOHV
$V RXWOLQHG LQ WKH PHWKRG DQG UHVXOWV VHFWLRQV WKH VFDOHV PHDVXULQJ
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVZHUHPRGLILHGIRUXVHLQWKHVHFRQGVWXG\7KHQHZPHDVXUHV
ZHUH HPSOR\HG WR PRUH SUHFLVHO\ RSHUDWLRQDOL]H WKH WKHRUHWLFDO FRQFHSWV $V
GHVFULEHGLQ3DSHUERWKIDFWRUDQDO\VHVDQGFRUUHODWLRQVZLWKRWKHUFRQVWUXFWV
JDYHWKHH[SHFWHGUHVXOWV
$VSUHYLRXVO\PHQWLRQHGSUREOHPVZLWKUHOLDELOLW\PD\FDXVHSUREOHPVZLWK
FRQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\6KDGLVKHWDO7KHPHDVXUHVLQWKHVWXGLHVUHSRUWHG
LQ 3DSHUV DQG GLG QRW GLVSOD\ XQUHOLDELOLW\ :H DVVHVVHG WKH LQWHUQDO
FRQVLVWHQF\RIHDFKYDULDEOHXVLQJ&URQEDFK¶VDOSKD9DOXHVUDQJHGIURP
WR&URQEDFK¶VDOSKDVRIDQGDERYHDUHW\SLFDOO\FRQVLGHUHGVXIILFLHQW
IRU UHOLDEOH PHDVXUHV 1XQQDOO\ %HUQVWHLQ ,Q 3DSHU WZR DOSKD
YDOXHVZHUHEHORZQDPHO\WKRVHIRUEXOO\LQJDQGUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
LQ JLUOV %XOO\LQJ ZDV XVHG WR WHVW WKH YDOLGLW\ RI WKH GHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH
GLVREHGLHQFH 5HDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZDV DQ LQGHSHQGHQW YDULDEOH LQ WKH
VWUXFWXUDO PRGHO7KHPHDVXUHVRIEXOO\LQJDQGUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZHUH
EDVHGRQLQVWUXPHQWVWKDWKDG EHHQ YDOLGDWHGVHYHUDO WLPHV LQRWKHUVDPSOHV
:HFRQVLGHUWKHPHDVXUHVWRKROGDFFHSWDEOHUHOLDELOLW\
,QVXPWKHFRQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\ZDVJRRGLQERWKTXDQWLWDWLYHVWXGLHV+RZHYHU
WKHHPSLULFDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOQRYHOW\RIWKHFRQVWUXFWRISHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ
Discussion
VKRXOGEHLQWHUSUHWHGZLWKFDXWLRQLPSO\LQJDFHUWDLQUHVHUYDWLRQUHJDUGLQJWKH
OHYHORIFRQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\
External validity
([WHUQDO YDOLGLW\ FRQFHUQV WKH LQIHUHQFHV IURP WKH FRQWH[W RI WKH VWXG\ WR D
ZLGHUFRQWH[WRUWRRWKHUFRQWH[WV.OHYHQ6KDGLVKHWDO,QRXU
VWXGLHVWKHTXHVWLRQUHJDUGVWKHVWDELOLW\RIWKHHVWLPDWHGUHODWLRQVKLSVDFURVV
XQLWV DQG VHWWLQJV ,Q RXU FDVH XQLWV DUH SXSLOV DQG VHWWLQJV DUH FODVVHV DQG
VFKRROV , DVVHVV H[WHUQDO YDOLGLW\ LQ WKH WZR VWXGLHV VHSDUDWHO\ EHFDXVH RI
GLIIHUHQFHVLQVDPSOHVL]HVDQGVDPSOLQJPHWKRGV
7KH VWXG\ SUHVHQWHG LQ 3DSHU EXLOGV RQ D VDPSOH WKDW LV UHSUHVHQWDWLYH
DFFRUGLQJWRWKH1RUZHJLDQ&HQWUDO%XUHDXRI6WDWLVWLFV¶VWDQGDUGV6WDWLVWLFV
1RUZD\7KHVDPSOHLVODUJH1 DQGWKHUHVSRQVHUDWHLVJRRG
+RZHYHUJHQHUDOL]DELOLW\VKRXOGWDNHLQWRFRQVLGHUDWLRQWKDWGLG
QRW SDUWLFLSDWH HVSHFLDOO\ ZKHQ PHDVXUHV RI SUHYDOHQFH DUH FRQFHUQHG
(VWLPDWHVRIDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQYDULDEOHVDUHVXSSRVHGWREHOHVVYXOQHUDEOH
LQWKLVPDWWHU0LVVLQJGDWDZHUHKDQGOHGE\WKHOLVWZLVHGHOHWLRQSURFHGXUHLQ
/LVUHO ZKLFK GHPDQGV PLVVLQJ FRPSOHWHO\ DW UDQGRP 3HXJK (QGHUV
7KLVSURFHGXUHLVFULWLFL]HGIRUVHYHUDOUHDVRQV,WPD\FDXVHFRQVLGHUDEOH
ORVV RI VWDWLVWLFDO SRZHU GXH WR UHGXFWLRQ RI VDPSOH VL]H ZKHQ FDVHV DUH
GHOHWHGIURPDQDQDO\VLV3HXJK(QGHUV6FKORPHU%DXPDQ
&DUG)XUWKHUPRUHWKHSURFHGXUHPD\OHDGWRELDVHGUHVXOWVZKHQWKH
PLVVLQJFRPSOHWHO\DWUDQGRPFRQGLWLRQLVQRWVDWLVILHG3HXJK(QGHUV
6FKORPHUHWDOZKLFKPD\DSSO\WRRXUVWXG\+RZHYHU*UDKDPVWDWHV
WKDW³LIWKHORVVRIFDVHVGXHWRPLVVLQJGDWDLVVPDOOHJOHVVWKDWDERXW
ELDVHVDQGORVVRISRZHUDUHERWKOLNHO\WREHLQFRQVHTXHQWLDO´*UDKDP
S,QRXUVWXG\WKHPLVVLQJUDWHVZHUHOHVVWKDQ&RQVHTXHQWO\GXH
WRDODUJHVDPSOHDQGORZOHYHOVRIPLVVLQJZHGRQRWUHJDUGPLVVLQJGDWDWREH
DQHVVHQWLDOWKUHDWWRH[WHUQDOYDOLGLW\RIWKHLQIHUHQFHVLQ3DSHU
1RUZHJLDQ SXEOLF VFKRROV LQFOXGH WKH DEVROXWH PDMRULW\ RI DGROHVFHQWV
LPSO\LQJ WKDW RXU SRSXODWLRQ FRPSULVHV DOO 1RUZHJLDQ DGROHVFHQWV ZKR DUH
DSSUR[LPDWHO\\HDUVROGV.HHSLQJLQPLQGWKHQRQSDUWLFLSDWLQJ ,
VXJJHVW WKDW H[WHUQDO YDOLGLW\ LV DFFHSWDEOH LQ WKLV UHJDUG 1HYHUWKHOHVV WKH
UHOHYDQFH RI WKH ILQGLQJV VKRXOG EH FRQVLGHUHG ZLWK UHIHUHQFH WR D ODUJHU
Discussion
SRSXODWLRQHJDOOVHFRQGDU\VFKRROSXSLOVLQ1RUZD\RUDQHYHQEURDGHUDJH
JURXSRUSXSLOVLQVFKRROVRXWVLGHRI1RUZD\:HGRQRWKDYHVWDWLVWLFDOSURRI
IRU JHQHUDOL]LQJ DFURVV LQGLYLGXDOV RXWVLGH RI WKH RULJLQDO SRSXODWLRQ <HW
DFFRUGLQJ WR 6KDGLVK &RRN DQG &DPSEHOO D ODFN RI VWDWLVWLFDO
VLJQLILFDQFH VKRXOG QRW HOLPLQDWH DQ DVVHVVPHQW EDVHG RQ WKHRUHWLFDO DQG
SUDFWLFDO VLJQLILFDQFH $FFRUGLQJ WR 9LWDUR DQG %UHQGJHQ UHVHDUFK LV
QHHGHG WR LQYHVWLJDWH ZKHWKHU DQG KRZ WKH UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH W\SHV RI
DJJUHVVLRQGLIIHUDFURVVHWKQLFLW\7KXVZHVKRXOGEHFDUHIXOLQJHQHUDOL]LQJ
WKHUHVXOWDFURVVHWKQLFJURXSV(PSLULFDOHYLGHQFHPD\VXSSRUWDEURDGHQLQJ
DFURVVDJHGXHWRWKHIDFWWKDWVRFLDODQGSV\FKRORJLFDOFRUUHODWHVRIDJJUHVVLRQ
VHHPWREHUHDVRQDEO\JHQHUDOIRUWKHJURXSRIDGROHVFHQWV9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
$GGLWLRQDOO\ WKH UHODWLYH VWDELOLW\ RI DJJUHVVLRQ +XHVPDQQ (URQ
/HINRZLW] :DOGHU /RHEHU )DUULQJWRQ 2OZHXV DOVR
VSHDNVWRWKHVWDELOLW\RILWVUHODWLRQVKLSZLWKDVVRFLDWHGEHKDYLRXUVZLWKLQWKH
JURXS RI VHFRQGDU\ VFKRRO SXSLOV 7KLV LV DQWLFLSDWHG WR KROG HYHQ WKRXJK
UHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQKDVLWVSHDNLQDERXWWKLVDJH%DUNHUHWDO
9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ+RZHYHUJLYHQWKHIDFWWKDWWKHSUHYDOHQFH
RIGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPVYDULHVZLWKDJH(UWHVYnJ9DDODQGZHVKRXOG
EHFDUHIXOLQJHQHUDOL]LQJWKHILQGLQJVDFURVVDEURDGHUDJHVSDQ%DVHGRQWKHVH
FRQVLGHUDWLRQV,VXJJHVWWKDWWKHH[WHUQDOYDOLGLW\RIDWHQWDWLYHYDOXHVKRXOG
KROG DFURVV WKH DJH JURXS RI VHFRQGDU\ VFKRROV DQG DFURVV FRXQWULHV ZLWK
FXOWXUHV UHODWLYHO\ VLPLODU WR WKH 1RUZHJLDQ FXOWXUH *LYHQ WKDW WKH UROH DQG
DXWKRULW\ WKDW WHDFKHUV KDYH LQ D VRFLHW\ LQIOXHQFH WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH ZH VKRXOG DYRLG JHQHUDOL]DWLRQ DFURVV
VRFLHWLHVWKDWGLIIHULQWKLVPDWWHU,OHDYHWKLVDQLVVXHIRUIXWXUHUHVHDUFK
,QRXUFDVHTXHVWLRQVDERXWJHQHUDOL]DELOLW\DFURVVVHWWLQJVPD\UHJDUGZKHWKHU
DVVRFLDWLRQV EHWZHHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHU DSSO\ WR
FODVVURRPVLQJHQHUDOWHDFKHUVLQJHQHUDORUVFKRROVLQJHQHUDORULILWKROGV
RQO\ IRU WKH VHWWLQJV WKH UHVSRQGHQW DQVZHUV ZLWKLQ $OWKRXJK DQ LQGLYLGXDO
SXSLO¶VDPRXQWRIGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXUPD\YDU\DFURVVWHDFKHUVFODVVURRPV
HWF WKH UHVXOWV UHYHDOHG IURP SXSLOV PD\ FDWFK JHQHUDO WHQGHQFLHV
&RQVHTXHQWO\ , KROG WKDW WKH H[WHUQDO YDOLGLW\ LV DFFHSWDEOH ZLWKLQ VFKRRO
VHWWLQJV $QRWKHU FRQVLGHUDWLRQ LV ZKHWKHU LQIHUHQFHV DERXW DVVRFLDWLRQV
EHWZHHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH WRZDUGV DQ DXWKRULW\ FDQ EH
JHQHUDOL]HGWREHYDOLGRXWVLGHRIDVFKRROVHWWLQJ3XSLOVDUHLQGLYLGXDOVZKR
Discussion
KROGGLIIHUHQWUROHVLQDGGLWLRQWRWKHLUUROHVDVSXSLOVDQGWKH\UHODWHWRRWKHU
IRUPDODXWKRULWLHVRUOHDGHUVDWKRPHLQOHLVXUHDFWLYLWLHVDQGLQRWKHUIRUPDO
VHWWLQJVVXFKDVSDUWWLPHMREVHWF$JDLQZHKDYHQRVWDWLVWLFDOO\VLJQLILFDQW
HYLGHQFHWRVXSSRUWJHQHUDOL]DWLRQDFURVVVHWWLQJVRXWVLGHRIVFKRROV7KHUHIRUH
RQO\UHIOHFWLRQVUHJDUGLQJSUDFWLFDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOVLJQLILFDQFHFDQEHGUDZQ
6KDGLVKHWDO$VVWDWHGDERYHGXHWRWKHUHODWLYHLQGLYLGXDOVWDELOLW\
RIDJJUHVVLRQRQHFDQUHDVRQDEO\VXJJHVWWKDWDWHQGHQF\WRDFWGLVREHGLHQWO\
WR DXWKRULWLHVFDQ EHDW OHDVW WHQWDWLYHO\JHQHUDOL]HG DFURVVVHWWLQJV /RHEHU¶V
GHVFULSWLRQRIGHYHORSPHQWDOSDWKZD\VRIDQWLVRFLDOEHKDYLRXUZKLFKLQFOXGHV
D SDWKZD\ GHVFULEHG DV DXWKRULW\ FRQIOLFWV /RHEHU )DUULQJWRQ VXSSRUWVWKLVVXJJHVWLRQ
,Q 3DSHU DQ DVVRFLDWLRQ ZDV IRXQG EHWZHHQ SXSLO DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHU7KHVDPSOHLVTXLWH
ODUJHDQGFRPSULVHVSXSLOVWK JUDGHUVIURPHLJKWVHFRQGDU\VFKRROVLQ
1RUZD\7KHUHVSRQVHUDWHZDVJRRGDQGQRVSHFLILFGLIIHUHQFHVZHUH
NQRZQ EHWZHHQ WKRVH ZKR SDUWLFLSDWHG DQG WKRVH ZKR GLG QRW 0LVVLQJ GDWD
ZHUHKDQGOHGE\WKHIXOOLQIRUPDWLRQPD[LPXPOLNHOLKRRGSURFHGXUHLQ0SOXV
ZKLFK LV UHFRPPHQGHG EHFDXVH LW XWLOL]HV DOO DYDLODEOH LQIRUPDWLRQ WR
FRPSHQVDWH IRU WKH PLVVLQJ YDOXHV *UDKDP 3HXJK (QGHUV 6FKORPHU HW DO 7KH SURFHGXUH GHPDQGV WKDW PLVVLQJ DUH PLVVLQJ DW
UDQGRP3HXJK(QGHUVDFRQGLWLRQWKDWZDVDQWLFLSDWHGDOWKRXJKQRW
VWDWLVWLFDOO\FRQWUROOHGLQRXUVWXG\
+RZHYHUFRPPHQWVDERXWWKHVDPSOHPXVWEHQRWHG7KHVWXG\ZDVFRQGXFWHG
ZLWK D FRQYHQLHQFH VDPSOH ZKLFK FDQQRW EH FRQVLGHUHG UHSUHVHQWDWLYH 7KH
VWDWLVWLFV XVHG VXFK DV FRQILGHQFH LQWHUYDOV DQG WHVWV RI VLJQLILFDQFH UHTXLUH
UDQGRPVDPSOHV ZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGV ZLWK VRPH RI WKH FULWLFV RI FRQYHQLHQFH
VDPSOHV+RZHYHUWKHVDPSOLQJW\SHLVGHIHQGHGDQGUHFRPPHQGHGIRUVRPH
UHDVRQV 3HUOD DQG 3URYRVW S DUJXHG WKDW VRPH UHVHDUFK LVVXHV
VKRXOG EH DSSURDFKHG E\ XVH RI FRQYHQLHQFH VDPSOHV ZKHQ ³JHWWLQJ ³MXVW
HQRXJK´GDWDFDQJXLGHRXUOHDUQLQJDQGVXEVHTXHQWWHVWLQJ´$FFRUGLQJWRWKH
DXWKRUV WKLV LV QRW RQO\ WKH PRVW FRQYHQLHQW DQG HFRQRPLFDO DSSURDFK EXW
UDWKHUFRQFHSWXDOO\DQGWHFKQLFDOO\WKHPRVWDSSURSULDWHRQH,VVXHVFRYHUHG
E\ WKLV DUJXPHQW FRQFHUQ OHDUQLQJ DERXW RU LPSURYLQJ VSHFLILF SURFHVVHV RU
V\VWHPVZKLFKPD\DSSO\WRFODVVURRPV5HFRJQL]LQJWKHOLPLWDWLRQVRI
Discussion
FRQYHQLHQFHVDPSOHV+LJKRXVHDQG*LOOHVSLHDUJXHGWKDWWKLVW\SHRI
VDPSOLQJLVOLNHO\WKHPRVWFRPPRQW\SHEHFDXVHLWLVFRVWHIIHFWLYHEXWDOVR
EHFDXVH RI LWV VLPSOLFLW\ LQIRUPDOLW\ DQG DGHTXDF\ $OWKRXJK FRQYHQLHQFH
VDPSOHVFDQEHGHIHQGHGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQVVKRXOGQRWLFHWKHOLPLWDWLRQVFDXVHG
E\VXFKDQDSSURDFK'HVSLWHWKHIDFWWKDWWKH1RUZHJLDQVRFLHW\LVFRQVLGHUHG
HJDOLWDULDQ ZLWK JHQHUDOO\ VPDOO GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ VFKRROV 9HODQG
0LGWKDVVHO ,GVRH RXU FRQYHQLHQFH VDPSOH UHVXOWV LQ OLPLWDWLRQV LQ
H[WHUQDOYDOLGLW\$OWKRXJKQRSUREOHPVZDVGHWHFWHGWKHSRVVLELOLW\H[LVWVWKDW
WKHVFKRROVWKDWDFFHSWHGWKHLQYLWDWLRQWRSDUWLFLSDWHDUHVSHFLDOLQVRPHZD\
7KLVFRQGLWLRQZRXOGWKUHDWHQYDOLGLW\PRUHLIWKHSUHYDOHQFHRUHIIHFWVL]HVRI
LQWHUYHQWLRQVZHUHLQTXHVWLRQ+RZHYHUGXHWRWKHW\SHRIUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQ
H[DPLQHG LQ RXU VWXG\ ZH FRQVLGHU WKH H[WHUQDO YDOLGLW\ WR EH UHDVRQDEOH DV
ORQJDVDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQYDULDEOHVDUHWKHLVVXH
3XSLOVWDNLQJSDUWLQWKHVWXG\DWWHQGHGWKHLUODVW\HDURIVHFRQGDU\VFKRROV'XH
WRWKHUHDVRQDEOHVWDELOLW\RIDJJUHVVLRQDWLQGLYLGXDOOHYHO+XHVPDQQHWDO
/RHEHU)DUULQJWRQ2OZHXVLWLVQRWUHDVRQDEOHWRDVVXPH
WKDWWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVGHWHFWHGLQWKHVWXG\VKRXOGEHVSHFLILFWRRQO\RQH\HDULQ
DGXOWKRRG DQG , VXJJHVW WKDW WKH UHVXOWV VKRXOG EH JHQHUDOL]DEOH WR DW OHDVW
SXSLOV LQ VHFRQGDU\ VFKRROV 7KH VWDELOLW\ LQ LQGLYLGXDO VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ
SURFHVVLQJ SDWWHUQV 'RGJH VXSSRUWV WKLV +RZHYHU , UHFRPPHQG
UHVWULFWLQJIXUWKHUJHQHUDOL]DWLRQVXQWLOUHSOLFDWLRQVRIWKHVWXG\DUHSHUIRUPHG
SUHIHUDEO\LQODUJHDQGUHSUHVHQWDWLYHVDPSOHVZLWKDEURDGHUDJHJURXS7KLV
DOVR DSSOLHV WR JHQHUDOL]DWLRQV DFURVV VHWWLQJV HYHQ WKRXJK WKH WKHRUHWLFDO
DUJXPHQWV DUH VWURQJ IRU FRQQHFWLRQV EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVVLJQVRIYXOQHUDELOLWLHVLQRWKHUV
Validity in the qualitative study
,QWKHFDVHVWXG\SUHVHQWHGLQ3DSHUWKHFRQVWUXFWLRQRINQRZOHGJHRFFXUUHG
DWWZROHYHOV)LUVWWKHH[SHUWVPDGHPRGHOOHGGHVFULSWLRQVRIWKHDSSURDFKHV
WKH\ XVHG WR WXUQ KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV DURXQG 7KHVH PRGHOV ZHUH
DEVWUDFWLRQVRIDQDFFXPXODWHGSUDFWLFHWKDWWKH\RUJDQL]HGWRILWDSUHVHQWDWLRQ
1H[W WKURXJK ZLWKLQFDVH DQG FURVVFDVH DQDO\VHV D QHZ FRQVWUXFWLRQ
DSSHDUHGDVDUHVXOWRIWKHUHVHDUFKSURFHVV:HGRQRWTXHVWLRQWKHYDOLGLW\RI
WKHILUVWOHYHOFRQVWUXFWLRQEHFDXVHWKLVLVWKHREMHFWRIRXULQYHVWLJDWLRQ7KH
Discussion
NQRZOHGJHFRQVWUXFWHGWKURXJKRXUUHVHDUFKLVWKHFHQWUHRIDWWHQWLRQUHJDUGLQJ
YDOLGLW\
,QTXDOLWDWLYHUHVHDUFKWKHTXHVWLRQRIYDOLGLW\KDVEHHQGLVFXVVHGDQGVROYHG
GLIIHUHQWO\ E\ GLIIHUHQW UHVHDUFKHUV (LVHQKDUGW .YDOH %ULQNPDQQ
/XQG/LQFROQ*XED<LQ$VSUHYLRXVO\RXWOLQHG
LQ WKLV WKHVLV , DSSO\ WKH YDOLGLW\ V\VWHP GHYHORSHG E\ &RRN DQG &DPSEHOO
DQG6KDGLVK&RRNDQG&DPSEHOOWRWKHTXDOLWDWLYHVWXG\7KLV
FRUUHVSRQGVZLWK<LQ¶VUHFRPPHQGDWLRQVIRUDVVHVVLQJYDOLGLW\LQFDVH
VWXGLHV,FRQVLGHUWKHDGYLFHE\/XQGZKRVWDWHGWKDWQRWDOOLQIHUHQFHV
DUHQHFHVVDULO\UHOHYDQWLQDOOUHVHDUFK$GGLWLRQDOO\,DSSO\FRQFHSWVWRDVVHVV
WUXVWZRUWKLQHVVWKDWVXEVWLWXWHWKHFRQFHSWRIYDOLGLW\DVSUHVFULEHGHVSHFLDOO\
LQ TXDOLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK FUHGLELOLW\ WUDQVIHUDELOLW\ GHSHQGDELOLW\ DQG
FRQILUPDELOLW\/LQFROQ*XED/LQFROQHWDO
,QWHUQDO YDOLGLW\&RRN&DPSEHOO6KDGLVKHWDOLVLUUHOHYDQW
EHFDXVH WKH UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV GR QRW FRPSULVH FDXVDOLW\ $V FRPPRQ LQ
TXDOLWDWLYH VWXGLHV RXU FDVH VWXG\ GLG QRW LQFOXGH VWDWLVWLFV RU VWDWLVWLFDO
LQIHUHQFHV +RZHYHU VRPH UHIOHFWLRQV DUH QHHGHG UHJDUGLQJ FUHGLELOLW\
/LQFROQ *XED DQG VRPH RI WKHVH UHIOHFWLRQV FRUUHVSRQG WR LVVXHV
GLVFXVVHGDVVWDWLVWLFDOYDOLGLW\LQWKHTXDQWLWDWLYHVWXG\,WLVUHDVRQDEOHWRKROG
WKDWRXUUHVXOWVDUHQRQWULYLDODUHVXEVWDQWLDODQGGRQRWFRPHIURPUDQGRP
HUURUVEXWUDWKHUKDYHHYLGHQFHLQWKHGDWD$FWLYLWLHVWKDW/LQFROQDQG*XED
UHFRPPHQGHG SHUIRUPLQJWR HQVXUH FUHGLELOLW\DUHODUJHO\FDSWXUHGLQ
WKH JXLGHOLQHV IRU WKHRU\ EXLOGLQJ LQ FDVH VWXG\ UHVHDUFK GHYHORSHG E\
(LVHQKDUGW,QSDSHU,GHVFULEHGRXUDSSOLFDWLRQRIWKHVHJXLGHOLQHV
:HGLVFXVVHGKRZWKHXQLWVRIDQDO\VLVZHUHLGHQWLILHGKRZFDVHVZHUHFKRVHQ
KRZWKHLQIRUPDWLRQJDWKHULQJSURFHGXUHZDVSHUIRUPHGDQGZKDWZDVGRQH
WRSUHSDUHWKHLQIRUPDWLRQIRUDQDO\VLV$WKUHDWWRWKLVDVSHFWRIVHFXULQJWKH
ODWHUXSFRPLQJLQIHUHQFHVZDVWKHSURFHVVIURPOLVWHQLQJDQGREVHUYLQJWKH
OHFWXUHVWRWDNLQJQRWHVDQGFUHDWLQJWKHZRUNVKRSUHSRUWWKDWFRQWDLQHG
WKHGDWDXVHGIRUDQDO\VLV,IWKLVWUDQVIRUPDWLRQIURPRUDOLQIRUPDWLRQLQWRD
GDWD UHSRUW KDG EHHQ ELDVHG WKH TXDOLW\ RI WKH DQDO\VHV FRXOG QRW PDNH WKH
UHVXOWLQJ LQIHUHQFHV YDOLG 7ZR PDLQ SURFHGXUHV ZHUH XVHG UHVHDUFKHU
WULDQJXODWLRQ DQG PHPEHU FKHFN 7KUHH UHVHDUFKHUV SDUWLFLSDWHG LQ WKH
ZRUNVKRSWZRZURWHWKHUHSRUWDQGWKHWKLUGUHDGWKHUHSRUWWKRURXJKO\EHIRUH
LWZDVVHQWWRHDFKLQIRUPDQWIRUDFKHFN7KHPHPEHUFKHFNHQVXUHGWKDWWKH
Discussion
GDWDXVHGIRUDQDO\VLVZHUHDSSURYHGE\DOOLQIRUPDQWV3RVVLEOHELDVHVVKRXOG
KDYHEHHQPLQLPL]HGDQGZHUHJDUGWKHILUVWFRQGHQVLQJRIFRQWHQWWRVDWLVI\
DQDFFHSWDEOHVWDQGDUGIRUFUHGLELOLW\
$FFRUGLQJWR/XQGH[WHUQDOYDOLGLW\LVPRUHUHOHYDQWWRDSSOLHGUHVHDUFK
WKDQWREDVLFUHVHDUFK$SSOLHGUHVHDUFKLVRIWHQXVHGWRJXLGHDFWLRQVLQVRPH
ZD\ LQ RWKHU ZRUGVWR JLYH QRUPDWLYH DGYLFH %DVLF UHVHDUFK FRPSULVHV IRU
H[DPSOHWKHRU\EXLOGLQJ,WPD\VRXQGWRRDPELWLRXVWRFKDUDFWHUL]HRXUFDVH
VWXG\DVEDVLFUHVHDUFKDOWKRXJKLWVHHPVDVWKRXJKWKHFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUN
LVDQLQIHUHQFHWKDWLVQRWW\SLFDOIRUDSSOLHGUHVHDUFKDQGJHQHUDOL]DWLRQVDUH
QRWRIFXUUHQW LQWHUHVW*HQHUDOL]DWLRQVDQGH[WHUQDO YDOLGLW\ZRXOGEHKLJKO\
UHOHYDQWLIZHDLPHGWRGHYHORSHYLGHQFHEDVHGDGYLFHUHJDUGLQJKRZWRWXUQ
DURXQGKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVEDVHGRQWKHWZRVWUDWHJLHVLQWKHIUDPHZRUN
WKDW ZH GHYHORSHG 7UXVWZRUWKLQHVV DVVHVVHG E\ WUDQVIHUDELOLW\ /LQFROQ *XEDWRVRPHH[WHQWFRUUHVSRQGVWRWKHJHQHUDOL]DELOLW\RIWKHYDOLGLW\
V\VWHP&RRN&DPSEHOO6KDGLVKHWDO7UDQVIHUDELOLW\UHIHUV
WRSURYLGLQJ³WKHWKLFNGHVFULSWLRQQHFHVVDU\WRHQDEOHVRPHRQHLQWHUHVWHGWR
PDNLQJ D WUDQVIHU WR UHDFK FRQFOXVLRQ DERXW ZKHWKHU WUDQVIHU FDQ EH
FRQWHPSODWHGDVDSRVVLELOLW\´/LQFROQ*XEDS2QHSUREDEOH
WUDQVIHU IURP RXU FDVH VWXG\ LV FRPSDULQJ QHZ FDVHV WR WKH GHYHORSHG
IUDPHZRUNDQGVWUDWHJLHV6HH3DSHU,FRQVLGHUWKHGHVFULSWLRQJLYHQLQWKH
SDSHUDVVDWLVIDFWRU\IRUPDNLQJWUDQVIHUDELOLW\MXGJHPHQWVSRVVLEOH
7KHDERYHGLVFXVVLRQLPSOLHVWKDWWKHWKUHDWVWRFRQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\DUHWKHNLQG
WKDW PDNH RXU VWXG\ YXOQHUDEOH DQG ZH PXVW GLVFXVV WKLV WRSLF FDUHIXOO\
&RQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\UHJDUGVLQIHUHQFHVIURPLQGLFDWRUVWRFRQVWUXFWVRUYLFHYHUVD
&RRNDQG&DPSEHOO/XQGZKLFKLVWKHPDLQDLPRIRXUVWXG\
(LVHQKDUGW IRFXVHG RQ WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI HQVXULQJ WKH YDOLGLW\ RI WKH
FRQVWUXFWVWKDWFRQVWLWXWHWKHIUDPHZRUNRUWKHRU\WKDWLVWKHLQIHUHQFHRIWKH
FDVH VWXG\ UHVHDUFK 6KH DUJXHG WKDW PHWKRG WULDQJXODWLRQ LQYROYHV PXOWLSOH
GDWDVRXUFHVWKDWJLYHVWURQJHUVXEVWDQWLDWLRQRIWKHFRQVWUXFWVDQGK\SRWKHVHV
:HGLGQRWHQKDQFHWKHVXEVWDQWLDWLRQRIRXULQIHUHQFHVE\JDWKHULQJGDWDIURP
PXOWLSOH VRXUFHV ZKLFK PD\ EH FRQVLGHUHG D WKUHDW WR FRQVWUXFW YDOLGLW\
,QYHVWLJDWRUWULDQJXODWLRQLVDQRWKHUZD\WRVWUHQJWKHQWKHUHVHDUFKDSSURDFK
7KHFRQYHUJHQFHRIREVHUYDWLRQVDFURVVUHVHDUFKHUVHQKDQFHVFRQILGHQFHLQWKH
ILQGLQJV ZKLOH GLYHUJHQW REVHUYDWLRQV RU PHDQLQJV OHDG WR QHZ LWHUDWLRQV
Discussion
EHWZHHQ GDWD DQG DQDO\VHV ³7KXV WKH XVH RI PRUH LQYHVWLJDWRUV EXLOGV
FRQILGHQFHLQWKHILQGLQJVDQGLQFUHDVHVWKHOLNHOLKRRGRIVXUSULVLQJILQGLQJV´
(LVHQKDUGWS7KHLQFUHDVHLQVXUSULVLQJILQGLQJVLVEHFDXVHWKH
FRPSOHPHQWDULW\ RI FRPSHWHQFH DQG LQVLJKW DPRQJ D WHDP RI LQYHVWLJDWRUV
HQKDQFHVWKHFUHDWLYHSRZHURIWKHWHDP7KUHHUHVHDUFKHUVZHUHLQYROYHGLQ
RXUVWXG\EXWWKH\KDGGLIIHUHQWUROHVDQGGLIIHUHQWGHJUHHVRILQYROYHPHQW7KH
VLQJOHDXWKRURI3DSHUZDVPDLQO\UHVSRQVLEOHIRUDGPLQLVWHULQJWKHVWXG\DQG
DQDO\VLQJ WKH GDWD 2QH RI WKH RWKHU UHVHDUFKHUV SOD\HG D UROH LQ WKH GDWD
JDWKHULQJDQGZKHQWKHSDSHUZDVQHDUO\ILQLVKHGKHDVVHVVHGLWZLWKUHJDUG
WRFRQVLVWHQF\ZLWKWKHGDWDLQSXWLHZKHWKHUWKHLQIHUHQFHVKDGHYLGHQFHLQ
WKHGDWD7KLVFKHFNFRQFOXGHGSRVLWLYHO\7KHRWKHUUHVHDUFKHUSOD\HGDFHQWUDO
UROHLQOHDGLQJWKHZRUNVKRSDQGKHZDVDFRUHVHDUFKHUGXULQJDQDO\VLVZKLFK
HQULFKHG FUHDWLYLW\ DQG FRQWULEXWHG WR HQKDQFHG FRQILGHQFH LQ WKH ILQGLQJV
EHFDXVHRIFRQYHUJLQJSHUFHSWLRQV
7KHNH\IHDWXUHRIRXUVWXG\LVWKHUHVXOWLQJFRQFHSWXDOIUDPHZRUN7KHYDOXH
RI WKLV IUDPHZRUN GHSHQGV RQ KRZ ZHOO WKH FRQFHSWV DQG WKH UHODWLRQVKLSV
EHWZHHQWKHPILQGHYLGHQFHLQWKHGDWD&RQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\GHSHQGVRQDSUHFLVH
GHILQLWLRQRIFRQFHSWVWKDWFDSWXUHVRPHHVVHQFHIURPWKHGDWDDQGDWWKHVDPH
WLPHGLVWLQJXLVKDSKHQRPHQRQIURPRWKHUFRQVWUXFWVFDSWXULQJVRPHWKLQJHOVH
IURPWKHGDWD(LVHQKDUGW,QGLFDWRUVRIDFRQVWUXFWPD\YDU\IURPFDVH
WRFDVHDQGRIWHQHPHUJHIURPWKHDQDO\VLVSURFHVVUDWKHUWKDQEHLQJGHILQHGD
SULRUL:KHQFRUHLVVXHVLQRXUFDVHVZHUHLGHQWLILHGDQGFRQVWUXFWVWKDWFRXOG
UHSUHVHQWWKHVHLVVXHVZHUHVSHFLILHGZHWHVWHGWKHVHFRQVWUXFWVLQHDFKFDVH
/LNHZLVHZKHQFRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQFRQVWUXFWVHPHUJHGWKH\ZHUHH[DPLQHG
IRU HDFK FDVH QRW IRU WKH DJJUHJDWH FDVHV ZKLFK LV W\SLFDOO\ GRQH WR WHVW
K\SRWKHVHVLQTXDQWLWDWLYHUHVHDUFK7KLVUHSOLFDWLRQORJLFDVGHVFULEHGE\<LQ
LVDWHFKQLTXHWKDWFDQHQKDQFHFRQILGHQFHLQWKHYDOLGLW\RIFRQFHSWV
DQG FRQFHSWXDO IUDPHZRUNV %DVHG RQ WKH FLUFXPVWDQFHV GHVFULEHG DERYH ,
FRQVLGHUWKHFRQVWUXFWYDOLGLW\WREHJRRG
'HSHQGDELOLW\ DV RXWOLQHG E\ /LQFROQ DQG *XED KDV SDUDOOHOV WR
UHOLDELOLW\7KHQDWXUHRIRXUFDVHVWXG\PDNHVWRWDOUHSOLFDWLRQLUUHOHYDQWSDUWO\
EHFDXVH OHDUQLQJ DQG UHIOHFWLRQV ZHUH LVVXHV IRU WKH SDUWLFLSDQWV RI WKH
ZRUNVKRS $ QHZ ZRUNVKRS ZRXOG REYLRXVO\KDYH DGLIIHUHQWVWDUWLQJSRLQW
5HSOLFDWLRQZLWKQHZSDUWLFLSDQWVZRXOGLPSO\DVWDUWLQJSRLQWZLWKGLIIHUHQW
NQRZOHGJH H[SHULHQFHV HWF DQG LW LV LPSRVVLEOH WR VD\ ZKHWKHU VXFK
Discussion
UHSOLFDWLRQZRXOGOHDGWRQHZUHVXOWV+RZHYHUWKHVWXG\LVGHVFULEHGWRHQVXUH
WUDQVSDUHQF\DQGZLWKVXIILFLHQWGHWDLOVWRDOORZUHSOLFDWLRQVRIWKHSURFHGXUHV
DQGDQDO\VHV
,IWKHSDUWLFLSDQWVZHUHLQIOXHQFHGE\VLWXDWHGPRWLYHVVXFKDVWU\LQJWRSOHDVH
WKH UHVHDUFKHUV RU RWKHU SDUWLFLSDQWV UDWKHU WKDQ SUHVHQWLQJ WKHLU SHUVSHFWLYH
WKLV FRXOG UHSUHVHQW D WKUHDW WR UHOLDELOLW\ DQG WR FUHGLELOLW\ :H FDQQRW
FRPSOHWHO\ UXOH RXW WKDW WKLV PLJKW KDYH KDSSHQHG EXW DV GHVFULEHG LQ WKH
PHWKRGVHFWLRQZHGLGQRWILQGUHDVRQVWRVXVSHFWDQ\DFWXDOWKUHDWWRUHOLDELOLW\
IURPWKLV
$FFRUGLQJ WR /LQFROQ DQG *XED FRQILUPDELOLW\ UHIHUV WR ZKHWKHU WKH
GDWDFDQEHFRQILUPHG,WLVQRWDTXHVWLRQRIWKHREMHFWLYLW\RIWKHUHVHDUFKHU
UDWKHULWUHJDUGVWKHGDWD8QGRXEWHGO\ILOPLQJRUWDSLQJWKHZRUNVKRSZRXOG
KDYHVWUHQJWKHQHGWKLVDVSHFWRIWUXVWZRUWKLQHVV6DYLQJDOOZRXOGDOORZXVWR
FKHFNDQGWKHUHE\FRQILUPLW+RZHYHUZHFRQVLGHUHGWKHJDLQVDJDLQVWWKH
ORVVHVWKDWVWUHVVUHODWHGWRILOPLQJRUWDSLQJFRXOGKDYHFDXVHG%RWKFKRLFHV
KDGSRWHQWLDOWRLQIOXHQFHVHYHUDODVSHFWVRIWUXVWZRUWKLQHVV$VSUHVHQWHGZH
SUHIHUUHGWRPDNHWKHVHWWLQJUHOD[HGDQGFRPIRUWDEOHLPSO\LQJVRPHORVVRI
FRQILUPDELOLW\ 6WLOO WKH LQIRUPDQWV DSSURYHG WKH GDWD UHSRUW SUHSDUHG IRU
DQDO\VHVDQGWKLVUHSRUWFRQILUPVWKHGDWD
5.2 Research questions discussed
5.2.1 Paper 1
Disobedience
,Q OLQH ZLWK 54 3DSHU FRQFHUQV GLVREHGLHQW SXSLO EHKDYLRXU GHILQHG DV
EHKDYLRXUWKDWWKHSXSLOLVDZDUHRILVLQFRQIOLFWZLWKVWDQGDUGVRULQVWUXFWLRQV
JLYHQE\WKHWHDFKHU$VRXWOLQHGLQWKHSDSHUGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXULVW\SLFDOO\
LQFOXGHG LQ WKH VRPHZKDW EURDGHU WHUPV RI GLVUXSWLYH SXSLO EHKDYLRXU DQG
GLVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV <HW QRW DOO EHKDYLRXU FRYHUHG E\ WKHVH EURDGHU
FRQFHSWVDUHQHFHVVDULO\GLVREHGLHQW'LIIHUHQWVWXGLHVDQGVFKRODUVGHILQHDQG
PHDVXUHWKHWHUPVGLIIHUHQWO\PDNLQJFRPSDULVRQVDQGGLVFXVVLRQVZLWKLQWKH
ILHOG GLIILFXOW%HDU &RKHQ )LVK )UHLEHUJ /DSRLQWH )UXGH /HYLQ 1RODQ 5RELQVRQ 5LFRUG *ULHVHPHU Discussion
7RSSLQJ 7KH DQVZHU WR 54 ZDV D VXFFHVVIXO LGHQWLILFDWLRQ RI D
WKHRUHWLFDOO\DQGHPSLULFDOO\GLVWLQFWFRQVWUXFWRIGLVREHGLHQWSXSLOEHKDYLRXU
DQGLW¶VPHDVXUHPHQW7KHFRQVWUXFWOLPLWVGLVREHGLHQFHWREHKDYLRXUWKDWWKH
SXSLO NQRZV EUHDNV UXOHV RU VWDQGDUGV 'HVSLWH FRQVLGHULQJ GLVREHGLHQFH WR
WHDFKHUVDSUREOHP,VKRZVRPHDWWHQWLRQWRSRVVLEOHFULWLTXHVRIWKLVFRQFHSW
ZLWKLQWKHILHOGRIHGXFDWLRQ
1RUPDWLYLW\ FRPSOLFDWHV WKH LVVXH RI GLVREHGLHQFH 1RUPV IRU FODVVURRP
EHKDYLRXU FDQQRW EH LQGXFHG VROHO\ IURP GHVFULSWLYH UHVHDUFK WKXV WKH
QRUPDWLYH DVSHFW KDV DW OHDVW WZR FKDOOHQJHV LGHQWLI\LQJ WKH VWDQGDUG WKDW
VHSDUDWHV SUHVFULEHG EHKDYLRXU IURP SUREOHP EHKDYLRXU DQG ZKR VKRXOG
SRVVHVVWKHULJKWWRHVWDEOLVKWKRVHVWDQGDUGV7KHLQWURGXFWLRQGHDOVZLWKWKH
ILUVW TXHVWLRQ E\ JLYLQJ VXSSRUW WR VWDQGDUGV WKDW SRVLWLYHO\ DIIHFW OHDUQLQJ
RXWSXW7KHVHFRQGFRQQHFWVDPRQJRWKHUWKLQJVWRDXWKRULW\LQFODVVURRPV
VFKRROVDQGVRFLHWLHVDQG,UHWXUQWRWKDWODWHU
7KH WHUP GLVREHGLHQFH XVHG LQ 3DSHU LV SHUKDSV PRUH QRUPDWLYHO\
WURXEOHVRPH WKDQ RWKHU WHUPV UHSUHVHQWLQJ GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU EHFDXVH LW
UHODWHV FOHDUO\ WR D UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ WZR SDUWLHV 6RPH VFKRODUV PD\
LQWHUSUHWWKLVWHUPDVLIHYHU\SXSLO PXVW REH\HYHU\WHDFKHULQHYHU\PDWWHU
ZKLFK LV QRW WKH PHVVDJH RI 3DSHU :LWKLQ WKH ILHOG RI HGXFDWLRQ PDQ\
VFKRODUV DVVRFLDWH WKLV WHUP ZLWK 0LOJUDP¶V VWXGLHV 0LOJUDP RQREHGLHQFH0LOJUDPLQYHVWLJDWHGKRZIDUSHRSOHZRXOGJRWRREH\DQ
DXWKRULW\ ZKHQ REHGLHQFHLPSOLHG FDXVLQJ DQ LQGLYLGXDO SDLQ ,Q WKLV PDWWHU
REHGLHQFHZDVH[SHFWHGWRFRQIOLFWZLWKWKHSHUVRQV¶YDOXHV7KHUHVXOWVKDYH
EHHQXVHGWRZDUQDJDLQVWEOLQGRUDV0LOJUDPQDPHGLWGHVWUXFWLYHREHGLHQFH
WRDXWKRULWLHV0LOJUDP'HVSLWHDYHU\GLIIHUHQWVWDUWLQJSRLQWRXUVWXG\
RQGLVREHGLHQFHLQVFKRROVDOVRUHJDUGVDUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDSHUVRQDQGDQ
DXWKRULW\ , KDYH H[SODLQHG WKH UHDVRQ ZK\ ZH FKRVH WKH WHUP GLVREHGLHQFH
LQVWHDGRIGLVUXSWLRQLQGLVFLSOLQHHWF1HYHUWKHOHVV,SRLQWWRWZRLPSRUWDQW
UHDVRQVWRH[HUFLVHFDXWLRQZKHQUHTXHVWLQJREHGLHQFHLQVFKRRO
7KHWHUPVREHGLHQFHDQGGLVREHGLHQFHDUHHDV\WRXQGHUVWDQGDQGFDQHDVLO\EH
FRPPXQLFDWHG WR SXSLOV <HW LW WDNHV VRPH PRUH FRPSHWHQFH PDWXULW\ DQG
UHIOHFWLRQ WR XQGHUVWDQG DQG HYDOXDWH ZKHQ REHGLHQFH LV OHJLWLPDWH +HQFH
DXWKRULWLHVPLJKWPLVXVHWKHLUSRVLWLRQDQGGHPDQGREHGLHQFHLQZD\VWKDWWKH\
VKRXOG QRW7KLV PLJKW DOVR KDSSHQ LQ WKHFDVH RI WHDFKHUVHYHQ LI WKH\ DUH
Discussion
SURIHVVLRQDOVDQGWKHLUPDQGDWHLVUHVWULFWHGE\UXOHVDQGFXUULFXOD7KLVLPSOLHV
WKDW SXSLOV VKRXOG W\SLFDOO\ REH\ WKHLU WHDFKHUV EXW VLWXDWLRQV LQ ZKLFK
GLVREHGLHQFH ZRXOG EH WKH PRUDOO\ RU MXULGLFDO ULJKW UHVSRQVH H[LVW %RWK
REHGLHQFHDQG GLVREHGLHQFH FDQEH DGPLUDEOHSURSHUWLHVDQG YLFHYHUVD7KH
YDOXHVDWVWDNHVKRXOGGHWHUPLQHZKHWKHULW LVUHDVRQDEOHWRUHTXHVW SXSLOV¶
REHGLHQFH2EHGLHQFHLWVHOIDQGGLVREHGLHQFHFDQEHDYDOXH7KHFKDOOHQJH
LVWRDFKLHYHFRQVFLRXVQHVVUHJDUGLQJWKHKLHUDUFK\RIYDOXHVWKDWRQHHQGRUVHV
)DQJHQLGHQWLILHGEDVLFYDOXHVDQGOHQWYDOXHVLQKLVGHVFULSWLRQRIKRZ
HDFKSHUVRQVKRXOGPDNHDKLHUDUFKLFDOVWUXFWXUHRIKLVYDOXHV%DVLFYDOXHVDUH
DEVROXWHZKLOHOHQWYDOXHVDUHVHFRQGDU\WRWKHEDVLFYDOXHV2FFDVLRQDOO\OHQW
YDOXHV PXVW EH VHW DVLGH EHFDXVH WKH\ FRQIOLFW ZLWK YDOXHV WKDW DUH PRUH
VXSHULRU ,W LV ULVN\ WR VWDWH WKDW REHGLHQFH LV D EDVLF YDOXH $V D OHQW YDOXH
REHGLHQFHPXVWJLYHZD\IRUEDVLFYDOXHVHJQRQYLROHQFHRUKXPDQGLJQLW\
7RWDOREHGLHQFHVKRXOGEHJLYHQWRYDOXHVRULVVXHVUDWKHUWKDQSHUVRQVWRDYRLG
DXWKRULWDULDQUHODWLRQVKLSV
$QRWKHUUHDVRQIRUVRPHUHVHUYDWLRQDJDLQVWGHPDQGLQJREHGLHQFHLQVFKRROLV
WKH KLJK YDOXDWLRQ RI FULWLFDO WKLQNLQJ WKDW LV TXLWH FRPPRQ LQ HGXFDWLRQ
%U\QLOGVHQ'DOH.XQQVNDSVO¡IWHW,WDSSHDUDVDORJLFDO
PLVPDWFK WR H[SHFW FULWLFDO DWWLWXGHV LQ D FOLPDWH RI REHGLHQFH 6LPLODU WR
DXWKRULW\IUHHGRPLVGHILQHGE\LWVOLPLWDWLRQV0D\7KHUHDUHWLPHV
WKHPHV PHWKRGV HWF IRU DSSO\LQJFULWLFDO WKLQNLQJLQ WKH FODVV $W WKH VDPH
WLPH WKHUH DUH VWDQGDUGV LQVWUXFWLRQV GHPDQGV HWF WR ZKLFK WKH FODVVURRP
OHDGHUVKRXOGH[SHFW REHGLHQFH-XVWDVDQDXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKHUFRQWLQXRXVO\
KDVWREDODQFHZDUPWKDQGFRQWURO:DONHU:HQW]HODOOWHDFKHUV
KDYHWREDODQFHRWKHUSHGDJRJLFDOSULQFLSOHVVXFKDVFULWLFDOWKLQNLQJDQGILUP
GHPDQGV
<HWDFRQFHUQUHJDUGLQJQRUPDWLYLW\DQGGLVREHGLHQFHPD\OHDGWREULJKWVLGHV
RIGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXU3URIHVVLRQDOWHDFKHUVFDUHIRUHYHU\SXSLO¶VKHDOWK\
GHYHORSPHQWLQHQYLURQPHQWVSURPRWLQJKXPDQULJKWV.XQQVNDSVO¡IWHW
2SSO ULQJVORYHQ6WLOOVRPHWHDFKHUVXVHWKHLUSRZHUVHOILVKO\RUDWWKHFRVW
RIRQHRUPRUHSXSLOVIRUH[DPSOHWHDFKHUVPD\KXPLOLDWHEXOO\DEXVHRULQ
RWKHUZD\VFRPPLWSURIHVVLRQDOPLVFRQGXFW0RQVYROG%HQGL[HQ+DJHQ
+HOYLN 7ZHPORZ )RQDJ\ 6DFFR %UHWKRXU :HQGHOERUJ
,Q VXFK VLWXDWLRQV ZH ZRXOG OLNH SXSLOV WR VWDQG XS IRU MXVWLFH DQG
GLVREH\7KHGHVLUHWRGLVREH\WKHQDSSOLHVERWKWRWKRVHVXIIHULQJGLUHFWO\IURP
Discussion
WKH DFWV DQG DWWLWXGHV RI WKH WHDFKHU DQG WR DOO ZLWQHVVLQJ WKHVH DFWV 7KLV
H[HPSOLILHV D VLWXDWLRQ LQZKLFK WKH OHDGHU DFWV EH\RQG KLV RU KHU OHJLWLPDWH
VSKHUHRIDXWKRULW\3XSLOGLVREHGLHQFHZRXOGWKHQFRPPXQLFDWHVXSSRUWWRWKH
OHJLWLPDWHYDOXHV,QRWKHUZRUGVRQO\KLJKTXDOLW\WHDFKHUVGHVHUYHDXWKRULW\
DQGREHGLHQFH([SHFWDWLRQVDERXWREHGLHQFHPHHWOLPLWDWLRQVGXHWROHJLWLPDWH
DXWKRULW\ 7KLV DSSOLHV DW OHDVW WR WKH LVVXH RI KRZ WHDFKHUV WUHDW SXSLOV WKH
LQWHUSHUVRQDO YDOXHVDQGSUDFWLFHWKDW SXSLOVH[SHULHQFHLQUHODWLRQVKLSWRWKH
WHDFKHU DQG VR RQ $QRWKHU SRWHQWLDO VLWXDWLRQ LQYROYH D WHDFKHU ZKR ORVHV
OHJLWLPDF\GXHWRSRRUWHDFKLQJVNLOOV,QWKDWFDVHWKHGLOHPPDLVZKHWKHUWR
DFFHSWSXSLOV¶ZLWKGUDZDORIOHJLWLPDF\IURPWKHWHDFKHU¶VPDQDJHPHQW
'LVREHGLHQFHFDQEHFRPHDWRROIRUGHYHORSPHQWLQDQRUJDQL]DWLRQRUVRFLHW\
%RWKREHGLHQFHDQGGLVREHGLHQFHDUHUHOHYDQWGHPRFUDWLFYDOXHVDQGSOD\DUROH
LQ VWDELOLW\ DQG GHYHORSPHQW LQ D GHPRFUDF\ 0RUVHOOL 3DVVLQL 2EHGLHQFH HQVXUHVVRFLDO DQG SROLWLFDO VWDELOLW\ DQG GLVREHGLHQFH VRPHWLPHV
HQVXUHV GHPRFUDWLF YDOXHV HJ RQ EHKDOI RI PLQRULWLHV ,Q WKLV PDWWHU
GLVREHGLHQFHPD\EHSDUWRISURJUHVVLYHLQWHUHVWVWKDWFRPHWRWKHVXUIDFHDQG
LQ WKH ORQJ UXQ PLJKW EH QHFHVVDU\ IRU WKH VXVWDLQDELOLW\ RI GHPRFUDFLHV
$SSOLHGWRWKHFODVVURRPVRFLHW\OHDUQLQJFRQWHQWRUWUDGLWLRQVPD\IDYRXURQH
JURXSRYHURWKHUVDQGWKHUHQHZDORIWKHSUDFWLFHPD\VWDUWZLWKGLVREHGLHQFH
5HODWLRQVKLSVWRDXWKRULWLHVDUHFRPSOH[DQGLQGLYLGXDOVPD\REH\DQGGLVREH\
DWWKHVDPHWLPHEHFDXVHGLIIHUHQWOHYHOVRIOHJLWLPDF\H[LVWWKHDXWKRULW\WKH
V\VWHP DQG WKH GHPDQGV 0RUVHOOL 3DVVLQL ³)RU LQVWDQFH IDFLQJ
PRUDOO\LOOHJLWLPDWHGHPDQGVSHRSOHPD\GLVREH\WKHVSHFLILFGHPDQGZLWKRXW
QHFHVVDULO\ TXHVWLRQLQJ WKH DXWKRULW\ LWVHOI QRU WKH V\VWHP LQ ZKLFK LW LV
DVFULEHG,QWKLVVHQVHGLVREH\LQJDVSHFLILFDXWKRULW\¶VGHPDQGVGRHVQRWGHQ\
WKHLPSRUWDQFHRIREH\LQJWRDXWKRULW\LQJHQHUDO´0RUVHOOL3DVVLQL
S
54ZDVH[SOLFLWO\DQVZHUHGLQ3DSHUDQGWKHFRQVWUXFWRIGLVREHGLHQFHZDV
XVHGLQWKHSDSHU3DSHURQO\LQGLUHFWO\DGGUHVVHGGLVREHGLHQFHDQGWKHODEHO
ZDV QRW XVHG LQ WKH SDSHU ,Q 3DSHU GLVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV DQG GLVUXSWLYH
EHKDYLRXUZHUHXVHGV\QRQ\PRXVO\EXWGLVREHGLHQFHZDVQRWDSSOLHGLQWKDW
VWXG\EHFDXVHZHGLGQRWKDYHLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWVDWLVILHGWKHXVHRIWKHWHUP
Discussion
Explanations of disobedient behaviour
/LWHUDWXUH H[SODLQLQJ GLVREHGLHQW RU GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU KDV PDQ\ IDFHWV
/RHEHU)DUULQJWRQ7UHPEOD\$FFRUGLQJWR6OHH
RQHVLGHGH[SODQDWLRQVEDVHGRQHLWKHUSV\FKRORJ\RUVRFLRORJ\FRQWULEXWHWRD
ELDVHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXUDQGFDXVHSUREOHPVLQSUHYHQWLQJ
DQGKDQGOLQJVXFKEHKDLYRXUHIIHFWLYHO\
6OHHFRQGXFWHGDFRPSUHKHQVLYHDQDO\VLVRIXQGHVLUDEOHFRQVHTXHQFHV
IROORZLQJ IURP WKH IDFW WKDW SXSLO GLVUXSWLRQ DQG GLVHQJDJHPHQW KDV EHHQ
H[SODLQHG E\ SV\FKRORJ\ WR DQ XQUHDVRQDEOH GHJUHH 2YHUUHOLDQFH RQ
SV\FKRORJLFDODQGSDWKRORJLFDOXQGHUVWDQGLQJVKDVOHGWRDSSURDFKHVWKDWIDLO
EHFDXVH WKH\ GR QRW WDNH LQWR DFFRXQW HJ VRFLRORJLFDO IDFWRUV WKDW DUH
LPSRUWDQWIRUXQGHUVWDQGLQJZK\SXSLOVEHFRPHGLVUXSWLYHDQGGLVHQJDJHGLQ
VFKRRO +H DVNHG IRU ³D EURDGHU DQDO\VLV RI VWXGHQW GLVHQJDJHPHQW DQG
GLVDIIHFWLRQ WR HQVXUH WKDW PRUH H[WHQVLYH FDOLEUDWLRQV RI PHQWDO KHDOWK
GLVRUGHUV GRHV QRW EHFRPH D SUR[\ IRU SUREOHPV RI HGXFDWLRQ VWUXFWXUHV
SURFHVVHV DQG FXOWXUHV´ 6OHH S )XUWKHUPRUH KH FDOOHG IRU
PXOWLGLPHQVLRQDO DQDO\VHV WR JLYH HGXFDWLRQDO UHIRUPV D UHOHYDQW IRXQGDWLRQ
XSRQZKLFKWRVXFFHHG7KLVUHFRPPHQGDWLRQFRUUHVSRQGVZLWK)DUULQJWRQDQG
7WRIL¶V UHVHDUFK SUHVHQWLQJ DQ DGYDQFHG XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH
LQWHUDFWLRQV EHWZHHQ SURWHFWLYH DQG SURPRWLYH IDFWRUV LQ WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI
DQWLVRFLDO EHKDYLRXU DQG RIIHQGLQJ %HKDYLRXU LV REYLRXVO\ D FRPSOH[
RXWFRPH 6LPSOLILFDWLRQVZLOO VXIIHUIURPZHDNQHVVHV HLWKHU WKHVRFLRORJLVWV
IDLO WR UHFRJQL]H WKH FRPSOH[LW\ RI WKH LQGLYLGXDO RU WKH SV\FKRORJLVWV DUH
XQZLOOLQJWRUHFRJQL]HWKHGLPHQVLRQRIVRFLRORJLFDOIDFWRUV6OHH
3V\FKRORJLFDO UHVHDUFK UHOHYDQW WR GLVUXSWLYH SXSLO EHKDYLRXU RIWHQ
FRPSULVHV GLDJQRVWLF OHYHOV RI EHKDYLRXU DQG FRQVHTXHQWO\ IRFXVHV RQ WKH
LQGLYLGXDOOHYHO3HWLFOHUH7UHPEOD\7UHPEOD\'LVUXSWLRQVLQ
VFKRROV DUH QRW OLPLWHG WR SXSLOV FDUU\LQJ GLDJQRVHV WKDW PD\ H[SODLQ WKHLU
EHKDYLRXU 7KH FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW OLWHUDWXUH GHVFULEHV KRZ WKH
RUJDQL]DWLRQ RI WKHFODVVURRP URXWLQHVUHODWLRQVKLSVHPRWLRQDO FOLPDWH HWF
LQIOXHQFH SXSLO EHKDYLRXU WKXV WKHVH LVVXHV DUH DOO UHOHYDQW ZKHQ WKH
SUHYHQWLRQRISUREOHPEHKDLYRXULVDQDJHQGDLWHP(PPHU(YHUWVRQ
0DU]DQR 5RODQG *DOORZD\ 6OHH 7KH OLQN EHWZHHQ
FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW SXSLO EHKDYLRXU DQG DFDGHPLF DFKLHYHPHQW REWDLQ
Discussion
IXUWKHUHYLGHQFHIURPLQWHUYHQWLRQVWXGLHVRQFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWWUDLQLQJ
SURJUDPV$OOHQHWDO(UWHVYnJ9DDODQG$UHFHQWVWXG\EDVHG
RQ REVHUYDWLRQV LQ KLJK VFKRRO FODVVURRPV LQYHVWLJDWHG WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ
EHWZHHQ SXSLOV¶ FODVVURRP EHKDYLRXU SURILOHV DQG WHDFKHUV¶ FODVVURRP
PDQDJHPHQW 7KH UHVXOWV VKRZHG WKUHH FODVVURRP EHKDYLRXU SURILOHV SXSLOV
FRQVLVWHQWO\ PHW H[SHFWDWLRQV SXSLOV LQFRQVLVWHQWO\ PHW H[SHFWDWLRQV DQG
SXSLOVZHUHQRQFRPSOLDQW7KHVHSURILOHVUHODWHGVLJQLILFDQWO\WRWHDFKHUV¶XVH
RI SRVLWLYH DQGQHJDWLYH FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW VWUDWHJLHV 3DV HW DO &RQWH[WXDO DVSHFWV RI UHOHYDQFH LQFOXGH HJ VRFLDO FOLPDWH VRFLDO QRUPV
VWUXFWXUHV PDQDJHPHQW WHDFKHUSXSLO UHODWLRQVKLSV SHHU UHODWLRQV
LQVWUXFWLRQDO FOLPDWH DQG DXWKRULWDWLYH WHDFKLQJ $OODQ HW DO 3LDQWD
5RODQG :DONHU :HQW]HO 7KHRUHWLFDO
GLVWLQFWLRQV EHWZHHQ LQGLYLGXDO DQG FRQWH[WXDO FRQWULEXWRUV WR EHKDYLRXU DUH
PHDQLQJIXO DQG QHFHVVDU\ WR UHDFK QHZ NQRZOHGJH 7KH FRPELQDWLRQ RI
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ SHUVSHFWLYHV LQ WKLV WKHVLV LV HTXDOO\
PHDQLQJIXO
54VDQGFRQFHUQWKHDVVRFLDWLRQVEHWZHHQDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDVDSHUVRQDO
WUDLWDQGGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXUDQG,QRZGLVFXVVWKLVLVVXH
Reactive aggressiveness and disobedience
3DSHU K\SRWKHVL]HG DVVRFLDWLRQV EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
GLVREHGLHQFHWRWHDFKHULQERWKER\VDQGJLUOVDVUHIOHFWHGLQ54$PRGHO
EDVHGRQWKHK\SRWKHVL]HGDVVXPSWLRQVILWWHGWKHGDWDZHOODQGVXSSRUWHGWKH
K\SRWKHVLV2QHDUJXPHQWIRUWKHDVVXPHGUHODWLRQVKLSSRVWHGLQWKHSDSHULV
WKDWFODVVURRPOLIHLPSOLHVVLWXDWLRQVWKDWPD\WULJJHUSXSLOVKLJKRQUHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ HJ WHDFKHUV FRUUHFWLQJ EHKDYLRXU JLYLQJ XQFOHDU LQVWUXFWLRQV RU
DGYLFH RU HYHQ DFWLQJKDUVKO\ $GGLWLRQDOO\ IUXVWUDWLRQV GXHWRXQVXFFHVVIXO
FRSLQJ ZLWK DFDGHPLF WDVNV PD\ EH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK WKH WHDFKHU 7HDFKHUV
FDXVLQJSXSLOVWRH[SHULHQFHIUXVWUDWLRQPD\EHWDUJHWVRIDJJUHVVLYHUHVSRQVHV
DQGGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXU7KHUHDUHUHDVRQVWRH[SHFWDKLJKHUOLNHOLKRRGRI
VXFKUHVSRQVHVIURPSXSLOVKLJK RQUHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ FRPSDUHGZLWK RWKHU
SXSLOVGXHWRWKHIRUPHUSXSLOV¶ORZWKUHVKROGIRUIUXVWUDWLRQVKLJKO\YRODWLOH
UHDFWLYH WHPSHUDPHQW DQG SUREOHPV UHODWHG WR FRJQLWLYH IXQFWLRQLQJ 'RGJH
(LVQHU 0DOWL 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ ,QYHVWLJDWLRQV ZLWK
SK\VLRORJLFDOPDUNHUVLQGLFDWHGDKLJKLQWHQVLW\RIVWUHVVUHVSRQVHVLQUHDFWLYH
Discussion
DJJUHVVLYHLQGLYLGXDOV+XEEDUGHW DO /RSH]'XUDQHWDO7KH
WHPSHUDPHQWDOWUDLWDOVRFDXVHVLQGLYLGXDOVWREHSUHGLVSRVHGIRUDQ[LHW\DQJHU
LQDWWHQWLRQ DQG G\VIXQFWLRQDO UHJXODWLRQ RI HPRWLRQV 'RGJH &RLH 'RGJH HW DO $FFRUGLQJ WR UHVHDUFK SHUIRUPHG E\ 'RGJH LQGLYLGXDOV GHYHORS D SHUVRQDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFSDWWHUQRIVRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ
SURFHVVLQJDQGUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDWHQGHQF\WRDWWULEXWH
QHJDWLYHLQWHQWWRRWKHUSHUVRQVZKHQVLWXDWLRQVDUHDPELJXRXV'RGJH&RLH
%DVHGRQ KRVWLOH SURYRFDWLYH DQG WKUHDWHQLQJ LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV GHIHQFH
EHFRPHV UHDVRQDEOH DQG SUREDEOH 7KH ORZHUHG FDSDFLW\ RI WKHRU\ RI PLQG
UHODWHG WR UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ 5HQRXI %UHQGJHQ 6pJXLQ HW DO PD\
H[SODLQEHKDYLRXUWKDWKDUPVRWKHUVDULVLQJIURPDFRQYLQFHGLQWHUSUHWDWLRQRI
WKHQHHGIRUGHIHQFH7KHFRPELQDWLRQRIWKHWHQGHQF\WRH[SHULHQFHLQWHQVH
DQGG\VUHJXODWHGHPRWLRQVZLWKDORZHUHGWKUHVKROGIRUQHJDWLYHLQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
RI VLWXDWLRQV LQFUHDVHV WKHSUREDELOLW\RI QHJDWLYH FODVVURRPH[SHULHQFHVDQG
EHKDYLRXU$VPHQWLRQHG'RGJHIRXQGWKDWDQLQGLYLGXDO¶VSDWWHUQRI
VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ SUHGLFWHG DJJUHVVLRQ %DVHG RQ WKLV UHVHQW
UHVHDUFK KH VXJJHVWHG D FDXVDO UHODWLRQVKLS IURP LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ
SDWWHUQWRDJJUHVVLRQLPSO\LQJWKDWKRVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQELDVFDXVHGDJJUHVVLRQ
$QJHUFDXVHGE\VRFLDOIUXVWUDWLRQLQWKHFODVVURRPRUVFKRROFRXOGDOVROHDGWR
GLVREHGLHQW FODVVURRP EHKDYLRXU 5HDFWLYHO\ DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV KDYH IHZHU
IULHQGV KDYH ORZHU TXDOLW\ IULHQGVKLSV DQG DUH PRUH IUHTXHQWO\ EXOOLHG RU
UHMHFWHG WKDQ WKHLU SHHUV %UHQGJHQ HW DO 5RODQG ,GVRH 6DOPLYDOOL+HLWHHQYXRUL+HQFHUXOHEUHDNLQJEHKDYLRXUGLUHFWHGDW
SHHUV PD\ RFFXU $JJUHVVLRQ LV VRPHWLPHV GLVSODFHG LQ RWKHU ZRUGV LW LV
GLUHFWHG DW D VXEVWLWXWH WDUJHW LQVWHDG RI WKH SHUVRQ ZKR FDXVHG WKH DQJHU
%XVKPDQ +XHVPDQQ 0DUFXV1HZKDOO HW DO 7KXV DQJHU
LQGXFHG IURP SHHU UHODWLRQV FDQ OHDG WR GLVSODFHG DJJUHVVLRQ WKDW WDUJHWV WKH
WHDFKHULQWKHIRUPRIGLVREHGLHQFHLQVWHDGRIEHLQJGLUHFWHGDWWKHFODVVPDWHV
,Q JHQHUDOSHHUUHODWLRQVUHSUHVHQWDFKDOOHQJHUHODWHGWRUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
DQGWHDFKHUVDUHH[SHFWHGWRPDQDJHVRFLDOUHODWLRQVLQWKHFODVVVRWKDWHYHU\
SXSLOIHHOVLQFOXGHGDQGDFFHSWHG.XQQVNDSVO¡IWHW:KHQDFODVVURRP
OLIHDFWXDOO\UHVXOWVLQUHSHDWHGORQHOLQHVVWKHLQDELOLW\WRPDNHIULHQGVDODFN
RIVRFLDOVXSSRUWIURPSHHUVHWFSXSLOVPD\LQWHUSUHWWKHLUGLVDSSRLQWPHQWDV
WHDFKHUIDLOXUH&RQVHTXHQWO\IUXVWUDWLRQVDULVLQJIURPVRFLDOGLVDSSRLQWPHQWV
LQFODVVPD\EHGLUHFWHGDWWKHWHDFKHUOHDGLQJWRGLVREHGLHQFHDVDQH[SRQHQW
Discussion
RI UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV 7KHVH UHIOHFWLRQV DUH EDVHG RQ WKHRUHWLFDO
DVVXPSWLRQVDQGFDQQRWEHWHVWHGZLWKRXUGDWD7KHUHIRUHWRUHDFKDGHHSHU
XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI GLVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHUV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVQHZUHVHDUFKLVQHHGHG
5HFHQW UHVHDUFK OLQN WUDLWV RI QDUFLVVLVP WR UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ %DUU\ HW DO
EHFDXVHQDUFLVVLVPPLJKWOHDGRQHWREHOLHYHWKDWRQHKDVWKHULJKWWR
GLVWXUERWKHUVRUDFWGHILDQWO\ZKHQRQH¶VGHVLUHVDUHKLQGHUHG'LVREHGLHQFH
WRWHDFKHUFRXOGEHDFRQVHTXHQFH ,PSXOVLYLW\5DLQHHHWDODQGORZ
VRFLDO FRPSHWHQFH ZKLFK DUH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ (LVQHU 0DOWL PLJKW XQGHUOLH GLVUXSWLYH FODVVURRP EHKDYLRXU 7KRVH
PHFKDQLVPV FRXOG FDXVH GLVUXSWLRQ WKDW LV FRYHUHG E\ WKH FRQFHSW RI
GLVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHU +RZHYHU EHKDYLRXUV FDXVHG E\ LPSXOVLYLW\ RU ORZ
VRFLDOFRPSHWHQFHDUHSUREDEO\QRWSODQQHGWRDWWDFNWHDFKHUV
,Q VXP , ILQG UHDVRQV WR VXJJHVW WKDW WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ IURP UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV WR GLVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHU PDLQO\ GHSHQGV RQ WKH UHDFWLYH
SXSLO¶VIUXVWUDWLRQQHHGIRUGHIHQFHRUUHYHQJHDQGLVQRWDQLQWHQGHGDWWDFNRQ
WKHWHDFKHU¶VDXWKRULW\7KHSRVVLEOHFDXVDOOLQNIURPLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ
SDWWHUQ WR UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ 'RGJH PD\ H[SODLQ ZK\ UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVPD\OHDGWRGLVREHGLHQWFODVVURRPEHKDYLRXU
$SURPLVLQJUHVXOWVWHPVIURPUHVHDUFKRQLQWHUYHQWLRQVDWWHPSWLQJWRUHGXFH
KRVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQELDV$WOHDVWWZRVWXGLHVHYDOXDWHGVXFFHVVIXOGHYHORSPHQW
LQ WKLV PDWWHU DQG UHYHDOHG WKDW D UHGXFWLRQ LQ DWWULEXWLRQ ELDV LPSOLHG D
UHGXFWLRQLQDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXU*UDKDP+XGOH\*XHUUD6ODE\
&RUUHVSRQGLQJ VWXGLHV LQFOXGLQJ PHDVXUHV RI GLVREHGLHQW FODVVURRP
EHKDYLRXUDUHRIJUHDWLQWHUHVW
Proactive aggressiveness and disobedience
3DSHUGHILQHGDQGPHDVXUHGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDVDWZRGLPHQVLRQDO
FRQFHSWSRZHUUHODWHGDQGDIILOLDWLRQUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVV(DFKGLPHQVLRQ
FDSWXUHVDVHSDUDWHPRWLYHIRUSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXUDVGHVFULEHGE\
5RODQG DQG ,GVRH 3RZHUUHODWHG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ UHIOHFWV D
FRPPRQO\ GHVFULEHG PRWLYH LQ WKLV LQVWUXPHQWDO DJJUHVVLRQ ,W UHIHUV WR D
YHUWLFDO D[LV ZKHUH SRZHU LV FRQWUDVWHG ZLWK SRZHUOHVVQHVV LQ RWKHU ZRUGV
Discussion
GRPLQDQFH YHUVXV VXEPLVVLRQ $IILOLDWLRQUHODWHG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV
UHIOHFWV D KRUL]RQWDO D[LV ZLWK DIILOLDWLRQ LQ FRQWUDVW WR LVRODWLRQUHMHFWLRQ
5RODQG,GVRH
,Q3DSHUZHK\SRWKHVL]HGDUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDIILOLDWLRQUHODWHGSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHU 7KH UHVXOWV VXSSRUWHG WKH
K\SRWKHVLV IRU ERWK JHQGHUV DQG DQVZHUHG D SDUW RI 54 :H EDVHG WKH
K\SRWKHVLVRQWKHDVVXPSWLRQWKDWDIILOLDWLRQZLWKDWWUDFWLYHSHHUVPD\VHUYHDV
D VRFLDO UHZDUG DFKLHYDEOH E\ HVWDEOLVKLQJ FRPPRQ QHJDWLYH DWWLWXGHV RU
DFWLRQV WRZDUGV D WDUJHW 'LVREHGLHQFH WR WHDFKHU PD\ WKHUHIRUH VHUYH DV DQ
LQVWUXPHQW WR JDLQ UHODWLRQV ZLWK SHHUV $FWLQJ DV FRDJJUHVVRUV WRZDUGV D
SHUVRQ E\ QHJDWLYHO\ VWLJPDWL]LQJ WKH YLFWLP PDNHV WKH DIILOLDWLRQ DFKLHYHG
DPRQJWKHDJJUHVVRUVDSSDUHQW7KHUHMHFWHGSHUVRQGLVTXDOLILHGIRUDIILOLDWLRQ
EHFDXVHRIQHJDWLYHVWLJPDFRQWUDVWVWKHUHZDUG:KHQWKHWHDFKHUVHUYHVDVD
FRPPRQQHJDWLYHUHIHUHQFHH[WUDUHZDUGPD\EHREWDLQHGEHFDXVHWKHIRUPDO
UROHDQGYLVLELOLW\RIWKHOHDGHUGUDZH[WUDDWWHQWLRQWRWKHIHOORZVKLSDPRQJ
WKH FRDJJUHVVRUV 5RODQG 3URDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV DUH RIWHQ
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKVWDWXVDPRQJFODVVPDWHV(LVQHU0DOWLLPSO\LQJWKDW
VRPHSXSLOPLJKWDIILOLDWHZLWKWKHPDVDVWUDWHJ\WRLQFUHDVHWKHLURZQVWDWXV
&RQVHTXHQWO\H[SUHVVLQJQHJDWLYHDWWLWXGHVDQGEHKDYLRXUWRZDUGVWKHWHDFKHU
PD\VHUYHDVDTXDOLILFDWLRQIRUSDUWLFLSDWLRQLQWKHJURXS6W¡UNVHQ,GVRH
5RODQG
$VK\SRWKHVL]HGSURDFWLYHSRZHUUHODWHGDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZDVVLJQLILFDQWO\DQG
VXEVWDQWLDOO\UHODWHGWRGLVREHGLHQFHLQER\VDQGJLUOV7KLVUHVXOWFRQWULEXWHV
WRDQVZHULQJ543URDFWLYHSRZHUUHODWHGDJJUHVVLRQLVQRWDUHDFWLRQWRDQ
XQSOHDVDQWHYHQWUDWKHULWLVDQLQLWLDWLYHWRDFKLHYHHJVRFLDOSRZHUWKURXJK
DJJUHVVLYHPHDQV(LVQHU0DOWL7KHDJJUHVVRU±WDUJHWUHODWLRQVKLSLV
DQLPSRUWDQWUHIHUHQFHIRUWKHEHKDYLRXURUHYHQGHWHUPLQHVLWHJZKHQWKH
WDUJHW¶V SRZHUOHVVQHVV FRQILUPV WKH SRZHU RI WKH DJJUHVVRU 7KH DJJUHVVRU
H[SHULHQFHVVRFLDOSRZHUDVDEHQHILWDFKLHYHGE\FDXVLQJWKHWDUJHWWRVXIIHU
3URDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV UHODWHG WR D WHQGHQF\ WR XVH RWKHUV IRU RQH¶V RZQ
SXUSRVHV%DUU\HWDO3RZHUFDQEHJDLQHGE\HOLPLQDWLQJWKHWHDFKHU¶V
SRZHUE\UXOLQJRXWWKHWHDFKHU¶VDELOLW\WROHDG9DDODQG(UWHUVYnJ
7KH ORVV RI LPSDFW RQ D VLQJOH SXSLO¶V EHKDYLRXU ZLOO OLNHO\ QRW FRPSOHWHO\
XQGHUPLQH WKH WHDFKHU¶V OHDGHUVKLS SRVLWLRQ +RZHYHU WKH IDFW WKDW WKH
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLODFKLHYHVSRZHUDWWKHFRVWRIWKHWHDFKHUPD\FDXVH
Discussion
RWKHUSXSLOVWRVHHNDIILOLDWLRQZLWKWKRVHSRVVHVVLQJSRZHULQFODVV3URDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXUFRXOGDOVREHGLUHFWHGWRZDUGVSHHUVE\IRUFLQJVRPHRI
WKHPLQWRVXEPLVVLRQHJE\GHPDQGLQJWKHPWRKROGQHJDWLYHDWWLWXGHVDQG
SDUWLFLSDWH LQ QHJDWLYH EHKDYLRXU WRZDUGV WKH WHDFKHU 0RUHRYHU SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ FRUUHVSRQGV ZLWK D GHFUHDVHG VHQVLWLYLW\ WR FXHV RI SXQLVKPHQW
&ULFN 'RGJH LPSO\LQJ WKDW SRVVLEOH FRUUHFWLYH LQLWLDWLYHV
HPSOR\HG E\ WHDFKHUV DUH QRW FRQVLGHUHG SUREOHPDWLF :KHQ HYDOXDWLQJ
EHKDYLRXUDODOWHUQDWLYHVWKHSRVVLEOHSURILWJDLQHGE\DJJUHVVLYHPHDQVVHHPV
WR PRUH VWURQJO\ LQIOXHQFH EHKDYLRXUDO GHFLVLRQV WKDQ SRVVLEOH QHJDWLYH
RXWFRPHVRIDJJUHVVLRQ'RGJH)RQWDLQH'RGJH
Aggressiveness, disobedience, and gender
7KH PRGHUDWLQJ HIIHFW RI JHQGHU RQ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV
DQGGLVREHGLHQFHLVFRQVLGHUHGLQ54$FFRUGLQJWR3DSHUERWKUHDFWLYHDQG
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DUH DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK GLVREHGLHQFH LQ ERWK JHQGHUV
+RZHYHUUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQVHHPVWRSOD\DVWURQJHUUROHLQER\V¶DJJUHVVLRQ
FRPSDUHGZLWKJLUOV¶DJJUHVVLRQDQGWKHRSSRVLWHO\UHVXOWLVIRXQGIRUSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV$VORQJDVWKHVHUHVXOWVDUHQHLWKHUFRQILUPHGE\QHZVWXGLHV
QRU VXSSRUW DZHOOMXVWLILHGWKHRUHWLFDOH[SHFWDWLRQ ZH VKRXOGLQWHUSUHW WKHP
ZLWK FDUH 6RPH SUHOLPLQDU\ WKRXJKWV PD\ EH SUHVHQWHG &RQVLGHULQJ
GLVREHGLHQFHWRWHDFKHUDVDQDWWDFNRQWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LWFDQEHDVVRFLDWHG
ZLWKWKHWHUPVVRFLDODQGUHODWLRQDODJJUHVVLRQZKLFKLQWHQGVKXUWRUKDUPD
SHUVRQ¶V UHODWLRQVKLSV UHSXWDWLRQ VHOIHVWHHP RU VRFLDO VWDWXV &ULFN *URWSHWHU 8QGHUZRRG $FFRUGLQJ WR GHYHORSPHQWDO SDWKZD\V
JLUOV VWDUW XVLQJ UHODWLRQDO DQG VRFLDO DJJUHVVLRQ DW DQ HDUOLHU DJH WKDQ ER\V
7UHPEOD\0RUHRYHUWKHIUHTXHQF\RIWKLVW\SHRIDJJUHVVLRQLVKLJKHU
DPRQJ JLUOV &ULFN *URWSHWHU $OKRXJK JHQHWLF IDFWRUV DUH ZHOO
GRFXPHQWHG LQ SK\VLFDO DJJUHVVLRQ %UHQGJHQ HW DO FRUUHVSRQGLQJ
UHVHDUFK RQ UHODWLRQDO DJJUHVVLRQ LV VWLOO QHHGHG 5HVHDUFK LQGLFDWHV D FHUWDLQ
LQKHULWHG IDFWRU EXW D VXEVWDQWLDOO\ JUHDWHUHIIHFW RI HQYLURQPHQWDO LQIOXHQFHV
%UHQGJHQHWDO6XJJHVWLRQVFDQEHPDGHWKDWJLUOVLQKHULWWKLVW\SHRI
DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRXU DOWKRXJK ZH GR QRW \HW NQRZ LI WKLV LV WKH FDVH $Q
DOWHUQDWLYH H[SODQDWLRQ LV FRQQHFWHG WR JHQGHUUHODWHG VFKHPDV IRU HQFRGLQJ
FXHV LQWHUSUHWDWLRQV JRDO VHOHFWLRQ UHVSRQVH FRQVWUXFWLRQ DQG RWKHU VWHSV LQ
VRFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ2VWURYDQG*RGOHVNLVXJJHVWHGHJWKDW
SUHYLRXVO\ UHLQIRUFHG JHQGHU VFKHPDV LPSDFW WKH FRGLQJ RI FXHV DQG WKDW
Discussion
JHQGHU VFKHPDV LQIOXHQFHG E\ FXOWXUH DQG VXEFXOWXUDO QRUPV JXLGH JRDO
RULHQWDWLRQ,ISHHUVKDYHSUHYLRXVO\UHLQIRUFHGGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXUWRZDUGV
WHDFKHUV WKH OLNHOLKRRG WKDW SXSLOV ZLOO FKRRVH WKDW NLQG RI EHKDYLRXU DJDLQ
LQFUHDVHV &RUUHVSRQGLQJO\ JHQGHU VFKHPDV WKDW VXSSRUW UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
PLJKWEHHYLGHQWLQER\V+RZHYHUWKHVHDVVXPSWLRQVDUHSUHPDWXUHDQGRQO\
LGHDV WKDW LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ PD\ EH DQ DUHQD LQ ZKLFK WR LQYHVWLJDWH
JHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQUHODWHGWRGLVREHGLHQFH
5.2.2 Paper 2
Perceptual orientation towards weakness in a new teacher
,Q DQ DWWHPSW WRUHYHDO ZKHWKHUDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZDVDVVRFLDWHG ZLWKDFHUWDLQ
SUHIHUHQFHIRULQIRUPDWLRQWKDWFRXOGEHXVHGWRGHWKURQHDWHDFKHUZHQHHGHG
DFRQVWUXFWWRGHVFULEHDQGPHDVXUHLW54DGGUHVVHVWKLVLVVXH,IDVSHFLILF
WUDLWDJJUHVVLYHQHVVFRXOGPDNHSXSLOVSURQHWRVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVLQRWKHUV
WKHSXSLOV¶SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVWHDFKHUVZRXOGEHRILQWHUHVWZKHQ
FRQVLGHULQJWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\HVSHFLDOO\LQWKHVWDUWXSSHULRGZKHQDXWKRULW\
LVPRVWDWVWDNH9DDODQG4XHVWLRQVZHUHUHVWULFWHGWRWHDFKHUVZKRWKH
SXSLOV ZHUH VFKHGXOHG WR PHHW IRU WKH ILUVW WLPH EHFDXVH WKH ILUVW PHHWLQJ LV
LPSRUWDQWIRUPDNLQJDILUVWLPSUHVVLRQDQGLQLWLDWHVWKHVRFLDOG\QDPLFVWKDW
OHDGWRHVWDEOLVKLQJUROHVQRUPVVWDWXVHWF9DDODQG7HDFKHUVQHHGWR
NQRZLISXSLOVFRPHWRVXFKILUVWPHHWLQJVZLWKDQHJDWLYHSUHGLVSRVLWLRQ
&ULFN DQG 'RGJH H[SODLQHG PHQWDO SURFHVVLQJ RI VRFLDO
LQIRUPDWLRQLQWKH6,3PRGHO6XFKSURFHVVLQJVWDUWVZLWKWKHHQFRGLQJRIFXHV
DQGVLPLODUWRDOOWKHRWKHUVWHSVLWLPSOLHVLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHLQGLYLGXDO
DQG WKH FRQWH[W &ULFN 'RGJH (TXLYDOHQW VLWXDWLRQV ZLOO FDXVH
GLIIHUHQWSXSLOVWRHQJDJHLQGLIIHUHQWPHQWDOSURFHVVLQJEHFDXVHHDFKSHUVRQ
EULQJVWKHLURZQGDWDEDVHRIPHPRULHVDFTXLUHGUXOHVVRFLDOVFKHPDVVRFLDO
NQRZOHGJHHWF&ULFN'RGJH6RFLDOSHUFHSWLRQLVVHOHFWLYHWKXVQRW
DOO FXHV DUH HTXDOO\ JLYHQ DWWHQWLRQ &ULFN 'RGJH 'RGJH $WWHQWLRQ DQG IRFXV YDU\ DFURVV SXSLOV WKHUHIRUH WKHLU ILUVW LPSUHVVLRQ RI
WHDFKHUV ZLOO YDU\ DW OHDVW XQWLO WKH\ VWDUW GLVFXVVLQJ WKH WHDFKHU¶V
FKDUDFWHULVWLFV 5HVHDUFK UHPDLQV DERXW GHWDLOV RI KRZ WKH GDWDEDVH LQWHUDFWV
ZLWK HDFK VWHS RI WKH LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ 2VWURY *RGOHVNL +RZHYHU LW LV UHDVRQDEOHWR VXJJHVW WKDW DVSHFWV VWRUHG LQ WKH GDWDEDVH ZLOO
Discussion
LQIOXHQFHSXSLOV¶DWWHQWLRQZKHQWKH\PHHWDQHZWHDFKHUSUHYLRXVH[SHULHQFHV
ZLWK WHDFKHUV DPELWLRQV LQ OHDUQLQJ DQG VFKRROZRUN VRFLDO PRWLYHV DQG
SUHYLRXV H[SHULHQFHV ZLWK VRFLDO UROHV LQ FODVV (PRWLRQV DQG HPRWLRQDO
UHJXODWLRQSURFHVVHVPD\DOVRLQWHUDFWZLWKLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ/HPHULVH
$UVHQLR ZKLFK PD\ OHDG WR GLIIHUHQFHV EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH DQG
UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV GXH WR GLIIHUHQFHV LQ WHPSHUDPHQW 9LWDUR %UHQGJHQ*HQGHUVFKHPDVEDVHGRQJHQGHUUHOHYDQWH[SHULHQFHVPD\
DOVREHVWRUHGLQWKHGDWDEDVHDQGLQIOXHQFHLQWHUDFWLRQEHWZHHQWKHVLWXDWLRQ
DQGLQGLYLGXDOLQLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ2VWURY*RGOHVNL%HKDYLRXU
WKDWKDVSUHYLRXVO\EHHQUHZDUGHGE\SHHUVRUWKHWHDFKHUPLJKWEHGLIIHUHQWIRU
ER\V DQG JLUOV WKXV JHQGHUUHODWHG VFKHPDV PLJKW LQIOXHQFH WKH NLQG RI
LQIRUPDWLRQWKDWER\VDQGJLUOVPD\EHVHQVLWLYHWR$PRQJVHYHUDOFRQWULEXWRUV
WRLQGLYLGXDOLQIOXHQFHRQLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJRQHLQIOXHQFHLVWKHPRWLYH
VWUXFWXUHLQUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV)RQWDLQH'RGJH
7KHFRQFHSWRISHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQLPSOLFLWO\SURSRVHVWKDWPRWLYHVWRJHWKHU
ZLWKPHPRULHVH[SHULHQFHVHWFZLOOFRQWULEXWHWRVHOHFWLYHSHUFHSWLRQWKURXJK
WKHSXUSRVHIXOVHOHFWLRQRIVRFLDOFXHV
7KH SXSLOV WDNLQJ SDUW LQ WKH VWXG\ SUHVHQWHG LQ 3DSHU ZHUH WK JUDGHUV
KHQFH WKH\ ZHUH ZHOO H[SHULHQFHG LQ PHHWLQJ QHZ WHDFKHUV DQG OLNHO\ KDG
H[SHULHQFHVVWRUHGLQPHDQLQJIXOVFKHPDVLQWKHGDWDEDVH7KXVSXSLOVFRXOG
UHFDOOWKHLUWHQGHQF\EDVHGRQDFRPELQDWLRQRIH[SHULHQFHVDQGPRWLYHV
%DVHG RQ WKHRU\ DQG &)$ 54 ZDV DQVZHUHG WKURXJK WKH VXFFHVVIXO
GHYHORSPHQWRIWKHFRQVWUXFWRISHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQD
WHDFKHUZKRLVQHZWRWKHFODVV
$FFRUGLQJ WR 'RGJH ³LQGLYLGXDOV GHYHORS FKDUDFWHULVWLF VW\OHV RI SURFHVVLQJ
VRFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQZLWKLQVSHFLILFVRFLDOVLWXDWLRQV7KHVHVW\OHVDFWDVDFTXLUHG
SHUVRQDOLW\ FKDUDFWHULVWLFV 7KH\ FRUUHODWH VLJQLILFDQWO\ ZLWK DQG SUHGLFW
LQGLYLGXDOGLIIHUHQFHVLQDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRULQSDUWLFXODUVLWXDWLRQV´'RGJH
S2XUGDWDFDQQRWSURYLGHHYLGHQFHIRUSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ
DVDJHQHUDOSHUVRQDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFLQOLQHZLWK'RGJH¶VDQWLFLSDWLRQV\HWWKH
FRQFHSWVHHPVZRUWKIROORZLQJXS
Discussion
$Q LQWHUHVWLQJ FRQVLGHUDWLRQ WKDW KDV QRW \HW EHHQ LQYHVWLJDWHG LV ZKHWKHU D
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQWHDFKHUVFRUUHVSRQGVZLWKDQHTXDO
WHQGHQF\WRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQSHUVRQVLQRWKHUVRFLDOUROHV
Reactive aggressiveness and perceptual orientation towards weakness in a
teacher who is new to the class
54 FRQFHUQV SRVVLEOH DVVRFLDWLRQV EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
SHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUWKDWLVQHZWRWKHFODVV
7KHHPRWLRQDODURXVDOWKDWUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLQYROYHV9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
FRXOGDIIHFWSHUFHSWLRQLQVRPHGLUHFWLRQ/DQJ+RZHYHUDURXVDO
ZLOO RFFXU VLWXDWLRQDOO\ DQG ZLOO OLNHO\ QRW LQIOXHQFHTXHVWLRQV RI DQWLFLSDWHG
SHUFHSWXDO SUHIHUHQFHV 7KH WHQGHQFLHV WRZDUGV KRVWLOH DWWULEXWLRQ DQG
VXVSLFLRXVQHVVWKDWFKDUDFWHUL]HUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLOV%M¡UQHEHNN
'RGJH&RLHPLJKWLQIOXHQFHWKHDVSHFWVRIVRFLDOVLWXDWLRQVWKDWWKH\
DWWHQG WR 7KLV WHQGHQF\ FRPELQHG ZLWK SUHYLRXV H[SHULHQFHV RI VRFLDO
UHMHFWLRQ FRQIOLFWV RU FRSLQJ SUREOHPV LQ FODVVURRPV FRXOG DOVR GLUHFW WKHLU
DWWHQWLRQ ZKHQ PHHWLQJ QHZ WHDFKHUV +RZHYHU DV RXWOLQHG LQ 3DSHU WKH
OLWHUDWXUHJLYHVQRFOHDUEDVLVIRUK\SRWKHVL]LQJDQDVVRFLDWLRQ7KHDQVZHUWR
54ZDVWKDWQRVLJQLILFDQWUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQG
WKH SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ ZDV IRXQG LQ ER\V ZKHQ GDWD FOXVWHULQJ ZDV
FRQWUROOHG $ ZHDN EXW VLJQLILFDQW UHODWLRQVKLS ZDV IRXQG LQ JLUOV 7KH
VXEVWDQWLDO YDOXH RI WKLV UHODWLRQVKLS LV PHDJUH DQG FDOOV IRU FDUHIXO
LQWHUSUHWDWLRQ
:KHQ GLVFXVVLQJ WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG
GLVREHGLHQFH , VXJJHVWHG WKDW UHDFWLYHO\ DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV¶ GLVREHGLHQFH GLG
QRWUHSUHVHQWDFRQVFLRXVDWWDFNRQWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\7KHUHVXOWVRIWKHVWXG\
RQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQG SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQPD\LQGLFDWH WKH VDPH
*LYHQ WKDW GDPDJLQJ WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ ZDV DQ LVVXH IRU UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH
SXSLOV ZH ZRXOG H[SHFW WKHVH SXSLOV WR KDYH DQ LQWHUHVW LQ GHWHFWLQJ WKH
WHDFKHU¶VYXOQHUDELOLW\
Discussion
Proactive aggressiveness and perceptual orientation towards weakness in a
teacher who is new to the class
7RVXSSOHPHQWWKHSUHYLRXVUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQZHDVNHG54ZKLFKFRQFHUQV
WKH UHODWLRQVKLS EHWZHHQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ
WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQ D WHDFKHU ZKR LV QHZ WR WKH FODVV ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV LW
H[DPLQHV ZKHWKHU EHLQJ SURDFWLYHO\ DJJUHVVLYH ZRXOG LPSO\ KDYLQJ VSHFLILF
DVVXPSWLRQVDERXWZKDWLQIRUPDWLRQRQHZRXOGSUHIHUWRSD\DWWHQWLRQWRLQDQ
DQWLFLSDWHG VLWXDWLRQ 7\SLFDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV RI WKH SHUVRQDO WUDLW DQG RI WKH
VLWXDWLRQ JDYH UHDVRQV WR H[SHFW DQ DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ WKH WZR YDULDEOHV
,QVWUXPHQWDO EHKDYLRXU WR DFKLHYH SRZHU LV W\SLFDO IRU SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
'RGJH&RLH'RPLQDQFHRYHUDQGKXPLOLDWLRQRIWKHRWKHUSHUVRQDUH
HIIHFWLYHWRROVWRJDLQWKHGHVLUHGUHZDUG5RODQG,GVRH7HDFKHUVDUH
WKHWDUJHWSHUVRQVLQRXUVWXG\DQGWKHDQWLFLSDWHGVLWXDWLRQLVZKHQSXSLOVDQG
WHDFKHUV PHHW IRU WKHILUVWWLPH 7HDFKHUV DUHIRUPDO OHDGHUV LQ WKH FODVV DQG
VKRXOGEHH[SHFWHGWRKDYHDXWKRULW\KRZHYHUH[SHULHQFHGSXSLOVNQRZWKDW
WHDFKHUV GLIIHULQWKLV PDWWHU7KHILUVW PHHWLQJLVDQRSSRUWXQLW\WR PDNH DQ
LPSUHVVLRQ UHJDUGLQJ WKH OLNHOLKRRG WKDW WKH WHDFKHU ZLOO JDLQ DQG PDLQWDLQ
OHJLWLPDWHSRZHU7KHRSWLRQVIRUVXFFHHGLQJZLWKWKHPRWLYHIRUJDLQLQJSRZHU
DW WKH FRVW RI RWKHUV ZLOO GHSHQG RQ WKH VWUHQJWKV DQG ZHDNQHVVHV RI RWKHU
SHUVRQV+HQFHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWSRVVLEOHZHDNQHVVHVLQDQHZWHDFKHUFRXOG
EHLQIRUPDWLRQRIVWUDWHJLFYDOXHWRDSXSLOVKLJKRQSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
7KH PHDVXUH DSSOLHG LQ WKH VWXG\ DVVHVVHG SRZHUUHODWHG SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV$IILOLDWLRQUHODWHGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVZDVQRWPHDVXUHG
7KH DQVZHU WR 54 ZDV D VXEVWDQWLDO DQG VLJQLILFDQW DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVLQER\VDQGJLUOVDQGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGV
ZHDNQHVVLQDWHDFKHUWKDWLVQHZWRWKHFODVVIRUERWKER\VDQGJLUOV
3URDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKDZHOOIXQFWLRQLQJFDSDFLW\IRUWKHRU\
RIPLQG5HQRXI%UHQGJHQ6pJXLQHWDO7KLVVXSSRUWVWKHFRJQLWLYH
DELOLW\WRDQWLFLSDWHZKDWRWKHUVPD\EHDEOHWRWKLQNGRLQLWLDWHDQGUHVSRQG
WR ZKLFK VKRXOG EH XVHIXO LQ PDQLSXODWLQJ VRFLDO G\QDPLFV 0RUHRYHU
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQFRUUHODWHVZLWKFDOORXVXQHPRWLRQDOWUDLWVLPSO\LQJORZ
IHHOLQJV RI JXLOW ORZ HPSDWK\ DQG KLJK LQVWUXPHQWDO XVH RI RWKHUVIRU RQH¶V
RZQ SXUSRVHV %DUU\ HW DO 7KH VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ
Discussion
FKDUDFWHULVWLFVRISURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVIXUWKHUHQKDQFHWKHSUREDELOLW\WKDW
WKHLQGLYLGXDOLVERWKDEOHDQGZLOOLQJWRXVHWKHWHDFKHUDVDQLQVWUXPHQWIRU
KLVRUKHURZQVDNH3URDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQFRQQHFWVWRDWHQGHQF\WRSRVLWLYHO\
HYDOXDWH DJJUHVVLRQ DV D WRRO IRU GHVLUHG RXWFRPHV ,W VHHPV DV WKRXJK WKH
HYDOXDWLRQ RI WKH RXWFRPH RI DJJUHVVLRQ LV PRUH LPSRUWDQW WKDQ WKH PRUDO
YDOXLQJ RI WKH EHKDYLRXU XVHG WR DFKLHYH WKH RXWFRPH )RQWDLQH 'RGJH
*LYHQWKDWSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVKLJKO\YDOXHVRFLDOSRZHULWLV
UHDVRQDEOHWRDVVXPHWKDWLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWFDQEHXVHGWRDFKLHYHWKDWJDLQZLOO
EHRILQWHUHVWWRWKHVHSXSLOV
6RFLDOSRZHULQDJURXSQHHGVDUHIHUHQFHWREHYLVLEOHDQGSRZHUOHVVQHVVRU
VXEPLVVLRQFDQVHUYHDVDFRQWUDVW7KHWHDFKHULVH[SHFWHGWREHDSURPLQHQW
SHUVRQLQFODVVDQGWKHUHZDUGVRIUHOLHYLQJWKHWHDFKHURISRZHUDQGFUHGLELOLW\
ZLOOOLNHO\EHHYHQKLJKHUWKDQWKRVHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKJDLQLQJSRZHUIURPSHHUV
7KH IDFW WKDW SXSLOV KLJK RQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DUH SURQH WR VLJQV RI
ZHDNQHVVLQQHZWHDFKHUVLVLPSRUWDQWWRDOOWHDFKHUVDQGWRRWKHUVHQJDJLQJLQ
WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
Aggressiveness, perceptual orientation towards weakness in a new teacher
and gender
$QDORJXHWRWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQRQJHQGHULQ3DSHU54DVNHGLIJHQGHU
PRGHUDWHGWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQ
WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQD QHZ WHDFKHU $FFRUGLQJ WR GHVFULSWLYH VWDWLVWLFVER\V
KDG KLJKHU PHDQ VFRUHV WKDQ JLUOV RQ UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQDQHZWHDFKHU
3DSHU 7DEOH 7KH JHQGHU GLIIHUHQFH LQ DJJUHVVLRQ LV TXLWH FRPPRQO\
IRXQG&{Wp$UFKHU+DZOH\9DLOODQFRXUW+RZHYHUWKH
UHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQDSSOLHGHTXDOO\
WR ER\V DQG JLUOV 1R WKHRUHWLFDOO\ EDVHG H[SHFWDWLRQ ZDV SURSRVHG DQG WKH
DQVZHU WR 54 ZDV WKDW SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV ZHDNQHVV LQ D QHZ
WHDFKHU UHODWHV WR DJJUHVVLYHQHVV UHJDUGOHVV RI JHQGHU 7KH WKHRUHWLFDO
IUDPHZRUNJLYHQE\WKH6,3PRGHO&ULFN'RGJHZDVDSSOLHG
LQ RXU LQYHVWLJDWLRQ RI SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ 2VWURY DQG *RGOHVNL GHYHORSHGDQLQWHJUDWHGJHQGHUOLQNHGPRGHOZLWKLQWKH6,3SHUVSHFWLYH7KH\
DUJXHG WKDW JHQGHUUHODWHGSURFHVVLQJ VFKHPDV DUH LQFRUSRUDWHG LQWR WKH 6,3
Discussion
PRGHOYLDWKHGDWDEDVH(YHQLIGLIIHUHQFHVEHWZHHQWKHJHQGHUVDUHHYLGHQWLQ
VRPHVWHSVRILQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJWKHUHVXOWVRIRXUVWXG\GLGQRWLQGLFDWH
WKDWWKHSHUFHSWXDOWHQGHQF\WRZDUGVZHDNQHVVLQWHDFKHUVLQWHUDFWHGGLIIHUHQWO\
ZLWKDJJUHVVLYHQHVVIRUER\VDQGJLUOV
5.2.3 Providing teachers with authority
&RQWULEXWLRQVIURP3DSHUVKRZHGWKDWSURDFWLYHDQGUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
ZHUHDVVRFLDWHGZLWKGLVREHGLHQFHZKLFKXQGHUPLQHGWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\3DSHU
DGGHGWRWKHOLWHUDWXUHE\FRQQHFWLQJDJJUHVVLYHQHVVWRDQLQWHUHVWLQGHWHFWLQJ
YXOQHUDELOLWLHVLQQHZWHDFKHUV6RPHSXSLOVOLNHO\WREHGLVREHGLHQWDOVRVHDUFK
IRUVWUDWHJLFLQIRUPDWLRQWKDWFDQEHXWLOL]HGWRKDUPWKHWHDFKHU&RQVFLRXVO\
EUHDNLQJVWDQGDUGVRULQVWUXFWLRQVJLYHQE\WKHWHDFKHULVSHUKDSVDQHIIHFWLYH
ZD\ WR XQGHUPLQH WKH WHDFKHU¶V DELOLW\ WR OHDG WKH FODVV ,Q RWKHU ZRUGV D
WHQGHQF\WRKDUPWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\WKURXJKGLVREHGLHQWEHKDYLRXULVFRPELQHG
ZLWKDQDELOLW\WRGRVRE\JDWKHULQJLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWKRZWRKLWHIIHFWLYHO\
3DSHUFRQWULEXWHGWRWKHWRSLFE\VKRZLQJWKHVHULRXVQHVVDQGFRPSOH[LW\RI
WKHVLWXDWLRQLQZKLFKDWHDFKHULVGHWKURQHGDQGQRORQJHUDEOHWRPDQDJHWKH
FODVV$IUDPHZRUNIRUFKDQJLQJVXFKVLWXDWLRQVZDVUHYHDOHG%HIRUHWXUQLQJ
WRWKHUHVHDUFKTXHVWLRQVDGGUHVVHGLQ3DSHU,GLVFXVVVRPHDVSHFWVRIWHDFKHU
DXWKRULW\WKDWEHFRPHWRSLFVRILQWHUHVWEDVHGRQ3DSHUVDQG
,QWHUHVWLQJO\ DOWKRXJK 1RUZHJLDQ VFKRROV VXIIHU IURP GLVUXSWLYH SXSLO
EHKDYLRXU WKH\JHQHUDOO\XVH OLWWOH SXQLVKPHQW *RRG OHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWV
'XHVXQG (UWHVYnJ 1RUGDKO 2JGHQ 8WGDQQLQJVGLUHNWRUDWHWDQGPRWLYDWLQJWHDFKLQJDQGOHDUQLQJ%UX%UX
6WHSKHQV7RUVKHLP6NDDOYLN6NDDOYLN7KXHQ%UX
KDYH EHHQ KLJKOLJKWHG WR SUHYHQW GLVUXSWLRQ UDWKHU WKDQ WR HQIRUFH SXQLWLYH
LVVXHVVXFKDVUHIHUUDOVWRWKHKHDGPDVWHURUH[SXOVLRQIURPVFKRRO,QWKHOLJKW
RI$UXPDQG)RUG¶VLQYHVWLJDWLRQVWKLVPD\UHIOHFWWKHOHJDODQGVRFLDO
FRQWH[WRI1RUZHJLDQVFKRROV2QHHOHPHQWLQWKLVFRQWH[WLVKRZWKHVRFLHW\
SURYLGHVWHDFKHUVZLWKPRUDODXWKRULW\
7KHVXJJHVWLRQLVVXSSRUWHGE\WKHFRPSUHKHQVLYHVWXG\WKDW$UXPDQG9HOH]
FRQGXFWHGDERXWWKHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQVFKRROGLVFLSOLQHDQGVWXGHQW
DFKLHYHPHQWLQWKHFRXQWULHVWDNLQJSDUWLQWKH7UHQGVLQ,QWHUQDWLRQDO
0DWKHPDWLFVDQG6FLHQFH6XUYH\7,0067KHLQWHUQDWLRQDOGDWDHYLGHQFHG
Discussion
WKDWGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPVFRUUHVSRQGHGVWURQJO\ZLWKORZHUDFKLHYHPHQWDWWKH
LQGLYLGXDOVFKRRODQGVRFLHW\OHYHOV7KHDXWKRUVIRXQGWKDWSXSLOVLQQDWLRQV
ZLWKKLJKDYHUDJHGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPVVXFKDVWKH8QLWHG6WDWHVVFRUHORYHU
RQ WKH SHUIRUPDQFH WHVWV WKDQ H[SHFWHG JLYHQ WKHLU OHYHO RI HFRQRPLF
GHYHORSPHQW$UXP)RUG7KH\VWDWHGWKDW³7KHGHJUHHRIDXWKRULW\
WKDWDVRFLHW\JUDQWVLWVWHDFKHUVLVDNH\IDFWRULQKRZWKDWFRXQWU\¶VVFKRROV
PDLQWDLQ JRRG OHDUQLQJ FOLPDWHV´ $UXP )RUG S 7KXV LQ
FRXQWULHV ZKHUH WHDFKHUV KDYH VWURQJ DXWKRULW\ GLVFLSOLQH LV SHUIRUPHG
LQIRUPDOO\DQGE\VRFLDOFRQWURO&RXQWULHVZLWKZHDNHUWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\PRUH
FRPPRQO\OHDQRQOHJDOUHJXODWLRQVDQGIRUPDOPHDQVRIPDLQWDLQLQJFRQWURO
VXFKDVIRUPDOSROLFLQJLQVFKRRO
$WKRURXJKHIIRUWWRREWDLQFRQWUROWKURXJKGLVFLSOLQHLQ$PHULFDQVFKRROVZDV
LQWURGXFHG LQ WKH V DV ³]HUR WROHUDQFH´ $FFRUGLQJ WR 6NLED WKH
LQWXLWLYHO\DSSHDOLQJPHVVDJHRI]HURWROHUDQFHKDVOHGWRDSXQLWLYHSUDFWLFH
WKDWKDVIDLOHG7KHSROLF\KDVGUDPDWLFDOO\LQFUHDVHGWKHQXPEHURISXSLOVZKR
DUHNLFNHGRXWRIVFKRROIRUGLVFLSOLQDU\SXUSRVHVDQGKDYHUXQLQVZLWKWKHODZ
HQIRUFHPHQW$UXP)RUG6NLED6OHH6NLEDFRQFOXGHG
WKDW³VXVSHQVLRQH[SXOVLRQDQGWKHLQFUHDVHGXVHRIODZHQIRUFHPHQWLQVFKRRO
VHWWLQJVDUHWKHPVHOYHVULVNIDFWRUVIRUDUDQJHRIQHJDWLYHDFDGHPLFDQGOLIH
RXWFRPHV´ 6NLED S 5HFLGLYLVP ORZHU DFKLHYHPHQW DQG VFKRRO
GURSRXWVDUHUHVXOWVRISXQLWLYHDSSURDFKHVXVHGLQVFKRROV6NLED5DXVFK
&RQVHTXHQWO\ 6NLED DQG 5DXVFK FDOOHG IRU QHZ DQG GLIIHUHQWLDWHG
VWUDWHJLHV$PRQJRWKHUVWUDWHJLHVWKH\UHFRPPHQGHGSXWWLQJPRUHZHLJKWRQ
SUHYHQWLYH VWUDWHJLHV DQG LPSURYLQJ VFKRRO FOLPDWH 7KHVH UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV
FRUUHVSRQGWRFRQFOXVLRQVGUDZQE\$UXPDQG)RUGZKRVWDWHGWKDWGLVFLSOLQH
SUREOHPV LQ $PHULFDQ VFKRROV ZLOO QRW EH HOLPLQDWHG E\ JUHDWHU IRUPDO
VDQFWLRQVDQGVWULFWHUHQIRUFHPHQW³)RUGLVFLSOLQHWREHHIIHFWLYHVWXGHQWVDQG
RWKHUVQHHGWRSHUFHLYHLWQRWMXVWDVVWULFWEXWDOVRDVIDLU´$UXP)RUG
S7KH\DOVRVWDWHGWKDWSXSLOVZLOOEHWWHULQWHUQDOL]HWKHUXOHVRIWKHVFKRRO
DQGVRFLHW\LIWKHVRFLHW\LWVHOIVXSSRUWVWKHPRUDODXWKRULW\RIWKHHGXFDWRUV
,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKH\H[SODLQHGWKDWWKHWHQGHQF\IRUVFKRROVWROHDQKHDYLO\RQ
FRXUWV OHJLVODWRUV VWDWXHV HWF PLJKW XQGHUPLQH WKH DXWKRULW\ RI WHDFKHUV E\
UHVWULFWLQJ WKHLU DELOLW\ WR SUDFWLFH EDVHG RQ WKHLU RZQ H[SHUW RSLQLRQ
3XQLVKPHQW VKRXOG QRW QHFHVVDULO\ EH WKH RQO\ HIIRUWLQ SODFH WRHQVXUH ]HUR
WROHUDQFH2QHDVSHFWRI WKLVLVVXHLVZKDWLVWROHUDWHGDQGDQRWKHUDVSHFWLV
Discussion
KRZ VFKRROV UHVSRQG ZKHQ UXOHV DUH EURNHQ 7KH FRQWURO GLPHQVLRQ RI
DXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKLQJXQGHUOLQHVWKDWVWDQGDUGVPXVWEHIROORZHGXS:HQW]HO
DOWKRXJK KHDY\ XVH RI FRHUFLYH SXQLVKPHQW PD\ XQGHUPLQH DXWKRULW\
DQGUHSODFHLWZLWKDQDXWKRULWDULDQWHDFKHUUROH
$FFRUGLQJWRWKHUHIOHFWLRQVRIWKHUHVHDUFKHUVSUHVHQWHGDERYHLQVRPHZD\V
1RUZD\ VHHPV WR EH DKHDG RI WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV FRQFHUQLQJ SUHYHQWLRQ DQG
LQWHUYHQWLRQ WDUJHWLQJ GLVUXSWLRQ ,Q 1RUZD\ KLJK H[SHFWDWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ
FODVVURRP DQG VFKRRO FOLPDWH OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQW DQG FODVVURRP
PDQDJHPHQW DUH FRPPRQO\ DFFHSWHG DV PHDQV WR SUHYHQW DQG UHJXODWH
GLVUXSWLYH FODVVURRP EHKDYLRXU 'XHVXQG (UWHVYnJ 1RUGDKO
5RODQG 9DDODQG +RZHYHU GLVFXVVLRQV DPRQJ VFKRODUV
TXHVWLRQ ZKHWKHU 1RUZHJLDQ SROLF\ KDV GHYHORSHG WRR IDU OHDYLQJ WHDFKHUV¶
ZLWKLQVXIILFLHQWWRROVIRUFRQWUROOLQJSXSLOEHKDYLRXU
*LYHQWKDWDXWKRULW\LVDG\QDPLFSKHQRPHQRQQHJRWLDWHGWKURXJKLQWHUDFWLRQV
EHWZHHQ WHDFKHUV DQG SXSLOV 3DFH +HPPLQJV LW LV LPSRVVLEOH WR
JXDUDQWHHWKDWWHDFKHUVQHYHUIDLOLQWKHLUXVHRISRZHU3RZHUFDQEHXVHGIRU
ZURQJ SXUSRVHV DQG ZLWK ZURQJ PHDQV *LYHQ WKDW SXSLOV DUH WKH PRVW
YXOQHUDEOH SDUWLHVLQWKH FODVVURRP HPSRZHULQJWHDFKHUV PLJKW LPSO\D ULVN
IRU VXSSUHVVLRQ )UHLUH *LOOLDP 1HYHUWKHOHVV DUJXLQJ IRU
GHFUHDVHGWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\GRHVQRWQHFHVVDULO\FOHDQWKHURRPRIWKHXVHRU
GLVXVHRISRZHU9DDODQGE\RWKHULQWHUHVWHGSDUWLHV
%XOO\LQJFDQVHUYHDVDQH[DPSOH6RPHWHDFKHUVEXOO\7ZHPORZ)RQDJ\
6DFFR ZKLFK LV REYLRXVO\ UXOHEUHDNLQJ EHKDYLRXU 7KH IRUPDO UROH
FRPELQHG ZLWK OHJLWLPDWH DXWKRULW\ LQFUHDVHV WKH YXOQHUDELOLW\ RI WKH YLFWLP
:KHQOHDGHUVEXOO\RWKHUSHUVRQVHJSXSLOVLQWKHRUJDQL]DWLRQFDQUHFRJQL]H
WKH EHKDYLRXU DV D QRUP DQG QHJDWLYH DWWLWXGHV DQG HYHQ EXOO\LQJ PD\ EH
OHJLWLPDWHG DQG VSUHDG 7KH VWURQJHU WKH DXWKRULW\ WKH PRUH GDPDJH WR WKH
EXOOLHGSXSLO7KXVRQHPD\ZRQGHUZKHWKHUZHVKRXOGDUJXHIRUGLPLQLVKLQJ
JHQHUDOWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\+RZHYHUEXOO\LQJDPRQJSHHUVLVDPDMRUSUREOHP
LQVFKRROVDQGSRRUWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LVFRQQHFWHGWRDQLQFUHDVHGULVNRIEHLQJ
EXOOLHGE\SHHUV(UWHVYnJ5RODQG&RQVHTXHQWO\WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
LPSOLHVSRZHUWRLQIOXHQFHDQGLWVKRXOGEHJLYHQE\SXSLOVDQGSDUHQWVDQG
VXSSRUWHGE\VFKRROOHDGHUVKLSZKHQDXWKRULW\LVOHJLWLPDWHGE\VKDUHGYDOXHV
DLPVHWF
Discussion
6LPLODU WR GLVFLSOLQH DQG LQGLVFLSOLQH REHGLHQFH DQG GLVREHGLHQFH DUH
QRUPDWLYHO\ ORDGHG 7KH VDPH FDQ EH VDLG DERXW DXWKRULW\ 7KH UHIOHFWLRQV
EHORZVKRZWKDWGLVFLSOLQLQJLQVFKRROPD\EHEDVHGRQDV\VWHPWKDWGHPDQGV
SXSLOVWRDGDSWWRVLWXDWLRQVDJDLQVWWKHLURZQZLOODQGFRQYLFWLRQ6RPHSXSLOV
UHIXVH WR MRLQ LQ RU DVVRFLDWH ZLWK WKH VFKRRO¶V SURMHFW EHFDXVH WKH VFKRROV¶
YDOXHV FRQWHQW FXOWXUH DQG VR RQ FRQIOLFWV ZLWK WKHLU RZQ RU WKRVH RI WKHLU
SHHUV *LYLQJ VFKRRO FUHGLELOLW\ ZRXOG LPSO\ ORVLQJ GLJQLW\ RU VXSSUHVV
VRPHWKLQJLQWKHPVHOYHV*LOOLDP$QDOWHUQDWLYHRSWLRQIRUWKRVHSXSLOV
LVWRHVWDEOLVKWKHLURZQSURMHFWHJDVDJURXSRILPPLJUDQWER\VDV*LOOLDP
GHVFULEHG LW ,Q WKLV DOWHUQDWLYH WHDFKHU OHDGHUVKLS KDV QR OHJLWLPDF\
DQGWKHWHDFKHUZLOOQRWVXFFHHGLQIRUPLQJFORVHUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKWKHSXSLOV
LQYROYHG 7KH UHIXVDO RI WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ UHVXOWV LQ WKH UHIXVDO RI WKH
SHGDJRJLFDOUHODWLRQVKLSVRQZKLFKWKHWHDFKHUGHSHQGVWRDFKLHYHDOHDGHUVKLS
SRVLWLRQ$FFRUGLQJWR*LOOLDPZKHQWKHWHDFKHU¶VSRZHUWRPDQDJHWKH
FODVVURRPLVVKDNHQKLVRUKHUSURIHVVLRQDOVHOIFRQILGHQFHLVZRXQGHG6KH
FRQFOXGHGWKDWGLVPLVVHGWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\OHDGVWRGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPV
$ FXUULFXOXP LV D QRUPDWLYH GRFXPHQW $PRQJ RWKHUV WKH 1RUZHJLDQ
FXUULFXOXPHPSKDVL]HVSXSLOSDUWLFLSDWLRQDQGSXSLOUHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUOHDUQLQJ
%MHUJ.QXGVHQ.XQQVNDSVO¡IWHW&RQWULEXWLQJWRUHVHDUFKRQ
FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW %MHUJ DQG .QXGVHQ DQDO\VHG KRZ WKH
FXUULFXOXP DIIHFWV WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ ZKHQ WHDFKHUV KDYH WR GHOHJDWH
UHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUOHDUQLQJWRWKHSXSLO6RPHSXSLOVDFFHSWWKHUHVSRQVLELOLW\
GHOHJDWHG E\ WKH WHDFKHU DQG RWKHUV GR QRW 'LVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV PD\ RFFXU
ZKHQ SXSLOV UHIXVHWRWDNH UHVSRQVLELOLW\IRUWKHLU RZQ SURJUHVV7KH WHDFKHU
ZLOO EH OHIW ZLWK QDUURZ VSDFH WR DFW DV D OHDGHU EHFDXVH WKH SXSLO¶V DFWLRQV
GHILQHWKHSRVVLEOHUHDFWLRQVRIWKHWHDFKHU
,Q OLQHZLWKWKHILQGLQJVSUHVHQWHGLQ3DSHURWKHUDSSURDFKHVFRQILUPWKDW
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPEHKDYLRXULVQHJDWLYHO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
%MHUJ .QXGVHQ (PPHU (YHUWVRQ *LOOLDP 3DFH +HPPLQJV,QWHUHVWLQJO\DQRWKHUW\SHRISUREOHPEHKDYLRXUEXOO\LQJ
DOVRFRUUHVSRQGVZLWKWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\(UWHVYnJDQG5RODQGIRXQGWKDW
VFKRROV ZLWK ORZ OHYHOV RI SXSLOV EXOO\LQJ RWKHUV DQG EHLQJ EXOOLHG ZHUH
FKDUDFWHUL]HGE\WHDFKHUVZKRSHUFHLYHGKLJKDXWKRULW\LQFODVVURRPVDQGYLFH
YHUVD7KHUHODWLRQVKLSEHWZHHQWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\DQGEXOO\LQJEHKDYLRXUKDV
LQWHUHVWLQJSDUDOOHOVWRGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXUDQGDQDQWLFLSDWHGUHODWLRQVKLSZLWK
Discussion
WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\)LUVWERWKW\SHVRISXSLOEHKDYLRXUEUHDNWKHVWDQGDUGVVHW
E\WKHWHDFKHUV$VHFRQGSDUDOOHOLVWKDWERWKEHKDYLRXUVDUHRIWHQFRQGXFWHG
LQ JURXSV DQG ZLWK E\VWDQGHUV5RODQG $GGLWLRQDOO\ ERWK EHKDYLRXUV
DUH WR D FHUWDLQ H[WHQW H[SODLQHG E\ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZKLFK LV
VHQVLWLYHWRFRQWH[WXDOYDULDWLRQV(UWHVYnJ5RODQG3DSHU9LWDUR
%UHQGJHQ
$VDOUHDG\GHVFULEHGWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\FRQWULEXWHVWRWKHFODVVURRPFRQWH[WLQ
DPDQQHUWKDWLVUHOHYDQWWRSXSLOEHKDYLRXU,QWHUHVWLQJO\(UWHVYnJDQG5RODQG
IRXQGWKDWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LQFODVVURRPVLVLWVHOISDUWO\FRQVWLWXWHGE\
VFKRRO FRQWH[WXDO IDFWRUV 7KHLU VWXG\ RI UDWHV RI EXOO\LQJ DQG SURIHVVLRQDO
FXOWXUHVLQVFKRROVUHYHDOHGWKDWWKHVHIDFWRUVZHUHFRQQHFWHG0RUHRYHUWKH\
IRXQG LQGLUHFW HIIHFWV IURP WHDFKHU DIILOLDWLRQ DQG WHDFKHUV¶ FROODERUDWLYH
DFWLYLWLHV WKURXJK WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ WR EXOO\LQJ DPRQJ SHHUV 7KH VWXG\
LQGLFDWHG DVVRFLDWLRQV EHWZHHQ WKH WZR SURIHVVLRQDO FXOWXUH YDULDEOHV DQG
WHDFKHUV¶ SHUFHLYHG DXWKRULW\ $WKRXJK PRUH UHVHDUFK LV QHHGHG WKHUH DUH
UHDVRQVWRVXJJHVWWKDWSDUDOOHOWRDQDXWKRULW\FRQWH[WLQFODVVURRPVDFXOWXUH
RIWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\PD\H[LVWDWWKHVFKRROOHYHO6XSSRUWIRUVXFKDFRQQHFWLRQ
FRPHVIURPZKDWZDVOHDUQHGIURPDZKROHVFKRRODSSURDFKDLPHGWRUHGXFH
SUREOHPEHKDYLRXUE\LPSURYLQJDXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKLQJ'LVFLSOLQHSUREOHPV
GLVREHGLHQFHZDVRQHRIWKHEHKDYLRXUDOFDWHJRULHVLQFOXGHGLQWKHHYDOXDWLRQ
RIWKHSURJUDP&ROOHFWLYHWHDFKHUWUDLQLQJLQDXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKLQJPDUNHGO\
UHGXFHG GLVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV (UWHVYnJ 9DDODQG +RZHYHU HYHQ LI
VRPH VFKRRO FXOWXUH LQGLFDWRUV PD\ VXSSRUW WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ ZH KDYH QR
UHDVRQVWRUXOHRXWHDFKWHDFKHU¶VLQGLYLGXDOSUDFWLFHWRUHDOL]HWKHFRQWH[WRI
WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LQKLVRUKHUFODVVURRP
(YHQ LI FRQQHFWLRQV DUH PDGH EHWZHHQ WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ DQG QHJDWLYH SXSLO
EHKDYLRXUTXHVWLRQVUHPDLQUHJDUGLQJDEURDGHUSLFWXUHRIZKDWFRQWULEXWHVWR
SRRU YHUVXV JRRG VWDQGLQJ IRU WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ LQ FODVVURRPV ,Q D VWXG\ RI
SULPDU\DQGVHFRQGDU\VFKRROWHDFKHUVLQ1RUZD\DSSUR[LPDWHO\RIWKH
WHDFKHUVSHUFHLYHGWKDWWKH\KDGOLWWOHRUQRDXWKRULW\LQWKHFODVV0RUHRYHU
RIWKHUHVSRQGHQWVUHSRUWHGVRPHODFNRIDXWKRULW\7KHPHDVXUHRISHUFHLYHG
DXWKRULW\ ZDV EDVHG RQ UHVSRQVHV WR IRXU VWDWHPHQWV UHJDUGLQJ DVSHFWV RI
DXWKRULW\ UHVSHFW IURP WKH FODVV GHYHORSPHQW RI VRFLDO FOLPDWH OHDUQLQJ
HQYLURQPHQWDQGSHUFHLYHGFRQWURO9DDODQG(UWHVYnJ7KHVWXG\GLG
QRWUHYHDOJHQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQSHUFHLYHGDXWKRULW\7HDFKHUVZLWKOHVVWKDQ
Discussion
\HDUV RI WHDFKLQJ H[SHULHQFH UHSRUWHG VLJQLILFDQW ORZHU OHYHOV RI SHUFHLYHG
FRQWURO WKDQ DOO JURXSV RI PRUH H[SHULHQFHG WHDFKHUV 6HFRQGDU\ VFKRRO
WHDFKHUV SHUFHLYHG WKHLU DXWKRULW\ WR EH ORZHU WKDQ GLG WKHLU FROOHDJXHV LQ
SULPDU\VFKRROV0RUHUHVHDUFKLVQHHGHGWRUHYHDODUREXVWSLFWXUHRIWHDFKHUV¶
LQGLYLGXDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVVFKRROFKDUDFWHULVWLFVDQGWHDFKHUSUDFWLFHVWKDWPD\
DIIHFWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
:HGRQRWKDYHGDWDWRH[SORUHKRZGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPVEDVHGRQUHDFWLYHRU
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DUH DGGUHVVHG E\ WHDFKHUV SUDFWLFLQJ GLIIHUHQW WHDFKLQJ
VW\OHV <HW VRPH UHIOHFWLRQV DQG VXJJHVWLRQV PD\ EH GUDZQ (YHQ LI
DXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKLQJJHQHUDOO\SUHYHQWVSUREOHPVDQGVHUYHVDVDVRXQGEDVLV
IRULQWHUYHQLQJZKHQQHFHVVDU\RFFDVLRQVPD\DULVHZKHQWKHWHDFKHUEHFRPHV
WRR SHUPLVVLYH DQG JRHV WRR IDU LQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ DQG VXSSRUWLQJ SXSLOV
HVSHFLDOO\ZKHQIDFLQJLQVWUXPHQWDOO\DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVZKRQHJRWLDWHZLWKWKH
WHDFKHU LQ D PDQLSXODWLYH ZD\ ,Q RWKHU VLWXDWLRQV WKH WHDFKHU PD\ EH WRR
FRQWUROOLQJDQGPRYHWRZDUGVDQDXWKRULWDULDQSUDFWLFHHJZKHQWKHWHDFKHU
LVIHGXSZLWKLPSXOVLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLOV3HUPLVVLYHWHDFKHUVZKRSUDFWLFH
PXFK ZDUPWK EXW SRRU FRQWURO ZLOO SHUKDSV ZLWKGUDZ IURP SUREOHPV DQG
UHPDLQ IULHQGO\ DV ORQJ DV SRVVLEOH ,I WKH SXSLOV UHFRJQL]H WKDW SUREOHPV
LQFUHDVHDQGWKDWWKHWHDFKHULVXQDEOHWRFRSHWKH\PD\ZLWKGUDZIURPFORVH
UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK WKDW WHDFKHU EHFDXVH WKH WHDFKHU ORVHV DWWUDFWLRQ $Q
DXWKRULWDULDQWHDFKHUZLOOOLNHO\WULJJHUWKHUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVEHFDXVH
RI WKHVH SXSLOV¶ WHQGHQF\ WR LQWHUSUHW VRFLDO VWLPXOL DV KRVWLOH 3URDFWLYHO\
DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVZLOOSHUKDSVEHFDUHIXOZKHQPHHWLQJDXWKRULWDULDQWHDFKHUV
ZKRXVHSRZHULQDZD\WKDWPD\IULJKWHQRUKXPLOLDWHSXSLOV+RZHYHUSXSLOV
PD\PDNHXVHRILGHQWLILHGYXOQHUDELOLWLHVRURFFDVLRQVWRILJKWEDFN$PDLQ
LVVXH ZLWK WKH IRXU SDUHQWLQJ DQG WHDFKHU VW\OHV LV WKDW GRPLQDWLQJ SUDFWLFH
FUHDWHVDFOLPDWHLQZKLFKHSLVRGHVRFFXU7KLVGRHVQRWPHDQRUVXJJHVWWKDWD
WHDFKHUFRQVWDQWO\DQGLQHYHU\VLWXDWLRQDFWVDVDQDXWKRULWDWLYHLGHDO:HQW]HO
9DULDWLRQV LQ WKH FRQWURO DQG ZDUPWK D[HV PD\ RFFDVLRQDOO\ OHDG WR
WHDFKHUDFWLRQVWKDWDUHSHUPLVVLYHRUDXWKRULWDULDQ:KHQHSLVRGHVRIGLYHUJHQW
SUDFWLFHEHFRPHIUHTXHQWWKLVPD\EHDVLJQRIFKDQJHVLQWKHWHDFKHU¶VVW\OH
,W LV UHDVRQDEOH WR VXJJHVW WKDW WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ SUHYHQWV GLVUXSWLYH RU
GLVREHGLHQW SXSLO EHKDYLRXU 0RUHRYHU LW VHHPV DV WKRXJK QRQGLVUXSWLYH
FODVVURRPV PD\ LQFUHDVH WKH WHDFKHU¶V FUHGLELOLW\ DQG OHJLWLPDWH SRZHU %\
FRQWUDVWZKHQWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LVZHDNWKHSUREDELOLW\WKDWSXSLOVHQJDJHLQ
Discussion
GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU ULVHV DQG DXWKRULW\ LV IXUWKHU ZHDNHQHG 7KLV LQGLFDWHV
WKDW WKH DVVRFLDWLRQ EHWZHHQ DXWKRULW\ DQG GLVREHGLHQFH LV ELGLUHFWLRQDO 7KH
FODVVURRP FRQWH[W LQIOXHQFHV SXSLO EHKDYLRXU DQG WKH FRQWH[W LV GHYHORSHG
WKURXJK LWV LQWHUDFWLRQV ZLWK ERWK WKH WHDFKHU DQG WKH SXSLOV $OWKRXJK
GLVREHGLHQW EHKDYLRXULVUHODWLYHWRFRQWH[WVWKHFRQQHFWLRQDOVRGHSHQGVRQ
WKHSXSLOV¶LQGLYLGXDOFKDUDFWHULVWLFVLQWKHSXSLOV
5.2.4 Paper 3
Frameworks revealed to change the authority context in classrooms
&RQVLGHULQJKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHVFKRROFODVVHVZHIRXQGWKDWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
ZDV UHSODFHG ZLWK FKDRV 3DSHU SUHVHQWV D FDVH VWXG\ WKDW DQVZHUHG WKUHH
UHVHDUFK TXHVWLRQV DERXW DSSURDFKHV WR EULQJLQJ VXFK FODVVHV EDFN RQ WUDFN
54 TXHVWLRQHG WKH PDLQ LVVXHV LQ VXFK LQWHUYHQWLRQV 7KH UHVXOWV VKRZHG
FRPPRQ FRUH LVVXHV DFURVV FDVHV $PRQJ RWKHU WKLQJV WKH LVVXHV FRYHUHG
WUDLQLQJDQGVXSHUYLVLQJLQFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWDQGDVSHFLDOIRFXVRQWKH
HPSRZHUPHQW RI WHDFKHUV HQDEOHG WHDFKHUV WR FRQGXFW PDQDJHPHQW UH
HVWDEOLVKDXWKRULW\DQGUHEXLOGVHOIHIILFDF\+RZHYHUVHYHUDORIWKHFRPPRQ
LVVXHVUHIHUUHGWRSURFHGXUHVDQGSRVVLEOHSUREOHPVLQUXQQLQJWKHLQWHUYHQWLRQ
HJZKRWRFRRSHUDWHZLWKLQIRUPDWLRQJDWKHULQJGHFLVLRQPDNLQJHWF7KH
JUHDWFRPSOH[LW\RIVXFKDSSURDFKHVZDVWKRURXJKO\KLJKOLJKWHG
54FRQFHUQHGSRVVLEOHFRPPRQDOLW\YHUVXVYDULDWLRQLQKRZWKHPDLQLVVXHV
ZHUH DSSURDFKHG DFURVV WKH FDVHV 7KH DQVZHU WR 54 UHYHDOHG VRPH
V\VWHPDWLFYDULDWLRQVEHFDXVHFDVHVGLGQRWUHFRPPHQGFRPPRQVROXWLRQVWR
WKHFKDOOHQJHV7KHSDWWHUQRIYDULDWLRQVFRQWULEXWHGWRDQVZHULQJ54&DQ
ZHUHYHDOV\VWHPDWLFFRQQHFWLRQVEHWZHHQHOHPHQWVZLWKLQDQGDFURVVWKHFDVHV
WKDW FDQ DOORZ XV WR GHYHORS D FRQFHSWXDO IUDPHZRUN" )URP WKH DSSURDFKHV
GHVFULEHG LQ WKH FDVHV ZH LGHQWLILHG WZR PDLQ VWUDWHJLHV IRU WXUQLQJ KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVDURXQG2QHZDVFDOOHGDFRJQLWLYHVWUDWHJ\DQGSULRULWL]HG
VWHSE\VWHSWUDLQLQJDQGLPSOHPHQWDWLRQRIJRRGFODVVURRPRUJDQL]DWLRQDQG
PDQDJHPHQW7KHRWKHUDV\VWHPVDSSURDFKLQWURGXFHGVHYHUDOFKDQJHVDWD
WLPH ZLWK WKH LQWHQWLRQ WR UHDUUDQJH WKH GLVWULEXWLRQ RI VRFLDO SRZHU LQ WKH
FODVVURRP
Discussion
%RWKVWUDWHJLHVDLPHGDWHVWDEOLVKLQJDFODVVURRPFRQWH[WZLWKDQDXWKRULWDWLYH
WHDFKHU,FODLPWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\EHQHILWVWHDFKHUVSXSLOVDQGOHDUQLQJDQGWKH
GLVFXVVLRQV DERYH UHFRJQL]H WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ DV D EXIIHU DJDLQVW GLVUXSWLRQ
DJJUHVVLRQ DQG RWKHU XQGHVLUDEOH SXSLO EHKDYLRXUV LQ FODVVURRPV 2QFH
HVWDEOLVKHG DV D TXDOLW\ LQ WKH WHDFKHUSXSLO RU WHDFKHUFODVV UHODWLRQVKLS
DXWKRULW\ ZLOO KDYH VRPH VWDELOLW\ +RZHYHU UHODWLRQVKLSV DUH G\QDPLF DQG
YXOQHUDEOH WRGLVDSSRLQWPHQWV FRPSHWLQJ DXWKRULWLHVVRXUFHVRI VWDWXVRU
SRZHUHWF*HHW]HOV7KHOHQ$XWKRULW\DVDFODVVURRPOHDGHULVQRW
DFKLHYHGRQFHDQGIRUDOOUDWKHUWKHPDLQWHQDQFHRIDXWKRULW\LVDQHYHUODVWLQJ
SURFHVV$FFRUGLQJWR0HW]SL[³6WXGHQWVGRQRWUHVSRQGZLWKRQDQG
RI VZLWFKHV RI FRPSOLDQFH RU GLVREHGLHQFH EXW LQVWHDG UHVSRQG ZLWK VXEWOH
QXDQFHGRIWHQDPELYDOHQWLQYHQWLYHQHVV$XWKRULW\DORQJZLWKRWKHUIRUPVRI
FODVVURRPFRQWUROLVKLJKO\LQWHUDFWLYH´)XUWKHUPRUHDXWKRULW\LVQRWORVWRQFH
DQG IRU DOO <HW ZKHQ LW LV VHULRXVO\ GDPDJHG RU QHYHU HVWDEOLVKHG LQ D
UHODWLRQVKLS HIIRUW LV QHHGHG WR FKDQJH WKH VRFLDO SDWWHUQ HVWDEOLVKHG LQ WKH
UHODWLRQVKLS9DDODQG
(YHU\SXSLOKDVDSLFWXUHRIKRZKHLVSHUFHLYHGE\KLVWHDFKHUV7KLVSLFWXUH
LQIOXHQFHVKRZWKHSXSLOSHUFHLYHVKLPVHOI%MHUJ:KHQSXSLOVSHUFHLYH
WKDWWKH\DUHYDOXHGUHVSHFWHGDWWULEXWHGDFDGHPLFDQGVRFLDOSRVVLELOLWLHVHWF
WKHLU FRQILGHQFH LQ WKH WHDFKHU ZLOO EH SRVLWLYHO\ DIIHFWHG FRQWULEXWLQJ WR
WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ &RQVHTXHQWO\ UHODWLRQVKLSV DUH RQH PHDQV E\ ZKLFK WR
DFKLHYH DXWKRULW\ $XWKRULWDWLYH WHDFKLQJ DV RXWOLQHG LQ WKH LQWURGXFWLRQ
LPSOLHVWHDFKHUV¶FRQWLQXDODQGFRQVLVWHQWHIIRUWWRHVWDEOLVKKLJKTXDOLW\DQG
FORVHUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKHDFKSXSLO7KHVHUHODWLRQVKLSVPXVWEHFKDUDFWHUL]HG
E\WKHTXDOLWLHVRIZDUPWKDQGQXUWXUDQFHRQWKHRQHKDQGDQGFOHDUGHPDQGV
DQGVXSSRUWWRFRSHZLWKWKHVHGHPDQGVRQWKHRWKHUKDQG%DXPULQG
:DONHU :HQW]HO 0DQ\ UHVHDUFKHUV KDYH LQYHVWLJDWHG WHDFKHU
SXSLOUHODWLRQVKLSVKRZWKHVHUHODWLRQVKLSVGHYHORSDQGKRZWKH\DIIHFWJRDO
DFKLHYHPHQWLQVFKRRO+DPUH3LDQWD0DU]DQR3LDQWD
6RPH H[DPSOHV IURP D 1RUZHJLDQ FRQWH[W DUH 'UXJOL DQG 5RODQG
7KH WHDFKHUSXSLO UHODWLRQVKLS LV RQH DVSHFW LQ WKH PRUH FRPSOH[ ILHOG RI
HPRWLRQDO FOLPDWH LQ D FODVVURRP ZKLFK DOVR LQFOXGHV UHODWLRQVKLSV DPRQJ
SXSLOV$OOHQHWDO$IILOLDWLRQWRRWKHUSXSLOVLQWKHFODVVLVFUXFLDOWR
SXSLOV¶IHHOLQJRI LQFOXVLRQDQGZHOOEHLQJ$WHDFKHUZKRLVOLNHGLVUHVSHFWHG
Discussion
DQGKDVDXWKRULW\PD\HDVLO\LQIOXHQFHSHHUUHODWLRQVLQDGGLWLRQWRGHYHORSLQJ
WHDFKHUSXSLOUHODWLRQVKLSV7URXEOHVRFFXULQFODVVHVLQZKLFKWKHWHDFKHUGRHV
QRWKDYHDXWKRULW\3XSLOVZLOOW\SLFDOO\QRWYLHZFORVHUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKWKH
WHDFKHUDVDWWUDFWLYH$FWXDOO\WKH\ULVNORVLQJVWDWXVDQGDWWUDFWLYHQHVVDPRQJ
SHHUV LI WKH\ DIILOLDWH ZLWK WKH WHDFKHU *HHW]HOV 7KHOHQ 9DDODQG
7KXVWKHWHDFKHUZKRKDVQRWJDLQHGDXWKRULW\ODFNVDFFHVVWRWKHPRVW
SRZHUIXO VWUDWHJ\ IRU EXLOGLQJ DXWKRULW\ &RQVHTXHQWO\ EXLOGLQJ FORVH
UHODWLRQVKLSV ZLWK HDFK SXSLO VKRXOG EH DQ LPSRUWDQW VWUDWHJ\ XVHG WR UH
HVWDEOLVKWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\ KRZHYHU XQIRUWXQDWHO\ WKLV VWUDWHJ\VHHPV WR EH
FORVHGWRWHDFKHUVZKRKDYHORVWDXWKRULW\
*RRGRUJDQL]DWLRQFOHDUUXOHVDQGSURFHGXUHVHIIHFWLYHPDQDJHPHQWRIWLPH
DQGHIIHFWLYHEHKDYLRXUPDQDJHPHQWDUHW\SLFDOLQZHOOIXQFWLRQLQJFODVVURRPV
ZKHUHWHDFKHUVFRQGXFWJRRGOHDGHUVKLS$OODQHWDO$OOHQHWDO
(PPHU(YHUWVRQ5RODQG*DOORZD\7KLVW\SHRIOHDGHUVKLS
FRUUHVSRQGV ZLWK DXWKRULWDWLYH WHDFKLQJ DQG WKH FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW
OLWHUDWXUHKROGVULFK GHVFULSWLRQV RI DQG UHFRPPHQGDWLRQV UHJDUGLQJ WKHVH
LVVXHV,WIROORZVIURPWKLVWKDWSRRUO\RUJDQL]HGFODVVURRPVUHOLHYHWKHWHDFKHU
KLVDXWKRULW\0RUHRYHUSDUDOOHOWRWKHTXHVWLRQRIUHODWLRQVKLSVWHDFKHUVZKR
KDYHOLWWOHRUQRDXWKRULW\LQWKHFODVVZLOOKDUGO\VXFFHHGLQLPSOHPHQWLQJRU
SUDFWLFLQJ URXWLQHV EHKDYLRXU PDQDJHPHQW HWF 7KHUHIRUH WKLV WRRO WKDW
WHDFKHUVFDQXWLOL]HWRJDLQSRVLWLRQLVZHDNHQHGRURXWRIUHDFKZKHQDXWKRULW\
LVORVW
3DSHUUHYHDOHGWZRVWUDWHJLHVWRWXUQDURXQGKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVWKHVH
VWUDWHJLHVFDQEHYLHZHGDVWZRDSSURDFKHVWRUHHVWDEOLVKLQJWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
7KHFRJQLWLYHVWUDWHJ\ODUJHO\DGGUHVVHGWKHDERYHLVVXHVLPSOHPHQWLQJUXOHV
DQG SURFHGXUHV DQG RUJDQL]LQJ WKH FODVVURRP DQG WKH OHVVRQV %HIRUH
LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ WKH FODVVFRXOG SDUWLFLSDWH LQ GLVFXVVLRQV DERXW WKHLU GHVLUHV
UHJDUGLQJWKHFODVVURRPOLIHDQGFOLPDWH7KHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWRDFHUWDLQH[WHQW
VKRXOG UHVW RQ D FRPPRQ XQGHUVWDQGLQJ RI WKH IXWXUH FODVVURRP OLIH :LWK
UHIHUHQFH WR WKH DERYH UHIOHFWLRQV WHDFKHUV ZKR ORVW DXWKRULW\ ZRXOG OLNHO\
VWUXJJOH ZLWK VXFK DQ DSSURDFK 6XFFHVV PD\ GHSHQG RQ FODVVHV WKDW KDYH
EHFRPHFKDRWLFLQVSLWHRIWKHIDFWWKDWWKHSXSLOVZDQWDQRUGHUO\DQGHIIHFWLYH
FODVVURRP3XSLOVKLJKO\PRWLYDWHGWRH[SHULHQFHJRRGFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQW
FRXOGFRRSHUDWHZLWKWKHWHDFKHUWRIDFLOLWDWHWKHFKDQJH7KHH[WHUQDOH[SHUW
Discussion
ZKRVXSSRUWVRUUHSODFHVWKHWHDFKHUIRUDSHULRGFRXOGLQFUHDVHWKHSRVVLELOLW\
WKDWSXSLOVH[HUWHIIRUWWRFKDQJHWKHKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPFRQWH[W
7KHPHVVDJHVDGGUHVVHGLQWKHSUHYLRXVVHFWLRQVPD\DUJXHIRUVFHSWLFLVP,I
WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LVODFNLQJEHFDXVHLWLVORVWLQDFRPSHWLWLRQIRUSRZHUZRQE\
VRPHSXSLOVWKHUHLVQRUHDVRQWREHOLHYHFRJQLWLYHVWUDWHJLHVZLOOUHWXUQWKLV
DXWKRULW\WRWKHWHDFKHU$OWHUQDWLYHO\LWPD\EHORVWIRUWKHUHDVRQVPHQWLRQHG
DERYH SRRU FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW XQFOHDU H[SHFWDWLRQV HWF EXW LQ WKH
YDFXXP RI OHDGHUVKLS VRPH SXSLOV PD\ KDYH FDSWXUHG WKH VRFLDO SRZHU DQG
EHFRPHLQIRUPDOOHDGHUV3URDFWLYHO\DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVDUHSURQHWRVHHNSRZHU
DWWKHFRVWRIDQRWKHULQGLYLGXDO5RODQG,GVRH&DSWXULQJWKHSRZHU
WKDWIRUPDOO\VKRXOGEHORQJWRWKHWHDFKHUZLOOEHDVWURQJDQGYLVLEOHVFDOSDQG
WKXVDWWUDFWLYH$IRUPDOOHDGHU¶VKHOSOHVVQHVVLVOLNHO\DQLFHSURILW,IWKLVLV
WKH FDVH LQ D VFKRRO FODVV FRJQLWLYH VWUDWHJLHV VXFK DV OHDUQLQJ WR EHKDYH
EXLOGLQJ UHODWLRQVKLSV LPSOHPHQWLQJ UXOHV DQG SURFHGXUHV HWF ZLOO KDUGO\
VXFFHHG3URDFWLYHO\DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVZKRUXOHWKHFODVVZLOOOLNHO\SUHIHUWR
FRQWLQXHWRKROGRQWRSRZHU
,Q FDVHV LQ ZKLFK WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ LV ORVW GXH WR D SRZHU WDNHRYHU IURP
SURDFWLYHO\DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVUHHVWDEOLVKLQJWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\VKRXOGWDNHLQWR
DFFRXQW WKHSRZHURIVRFLDOVWDWXV7KHWHDFKHU¶VOHJDOULJKW WROHDGWKHFODVV
PXVW EH FRXSOHG ZLWKD OHJLWLPDWH ULJKW WR OHDG /HJLWLPDF\FRPHV ZKHQ WKH
FODVVDFFHSWVWKHWHDFKHU¶VULJKWWRVHWVWDQGDUGVJLYHLQVWUXFWLRQVHWFLPSO\LQJ
WKDWWKRVHZKRKDYHOHQWRUVWROHQWKLVOHJLWLPDF\IRUDSHULRGPXVWORVHLWRU
YROXQWDULO\JLYHLWDZD\7RDFKLHYHOHJLWLPDF\WROHDGWKHWHDFKHUFRXOGXVH
KLVOHJDOULJKWWROHDG7KLVFRXOGLQFOXGHHOLPLQDWLQJVRPHRIWKHIRXQGDWLRQ
IRUWKHSRZHUWKDWVRPHSXSLOVKDYHFDSWXUHG)RUH[DPSOHWKHVRFLDOV\VWHP
LQDFODVVURRPWKDWKDVEHHQUXOHGE\SXSLOVZLOOFRQWLQXHWRVXSSRUWWKHLUUXOLQJ
7KHVRFLDOV\VWHPFDQEHVKDNHQIRUDPRPHQWE\VXGGHQO\LQWURGXFLQJDVHWRI
QHZ FRQGLWLRQV LQ D FRRUGLQDWHG DQG SODQQHG PDQQHU ,Q WKH PRPHQW RI
XQH[SHFWHG GHVWDELOL]DWLRQ D FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW VWUDWHJ\ FDQ EH
LQWURGXFHGWRWKHFODVVE\WKHWHDFKHUWRJHWKHUZLWKDWHDPRIWHDFKHUV:KHQ
WKHOHDGHUVKLSUROHLVDFKLHYHGDQGSRZHUUHHVWDEOLVKHGDQLQWHQVLYHHIIRUWWR
HVWDEOLVK UHODWLRQVDQGURXWLQHV LQ WKH FODVV FDQEHJLQ ,QWKLVSKDVH WKH
FRJQLWLYHVWUDWHJ\GHVFULEHGDERYHFDQEHKHOSIXO7KLVDSSURDFKFRUUHVSRQGV
ZLWKWKHVRFLDOV\VWHPVWUDWHJ\UHYHDOHGLQ3DSHU
Discussion
5HDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQFRQWULEXWHVWRGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXULQFODVVURRPV7RUHDFK
WKHOHYHORIKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXU,DVVXPHWKDWFRUUHFWLRQVWRUHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ PXVW EH YHU\ SRRU RU WKDW GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU FDXVHG E\ RWKHU
PRWLYHV VXSSOHPHQW WKH LQGLVFLSOLQH LQ WKH FODVV :H FDQ DQWLFLSDWH WKDW WKH
WKUHVKROGIRUDFWLYDWLRQRIUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLVORZLQDGLVUXSWLYHDQGSRRUO\
OHG FODVVURRP :KHQ VWUXFWXUHV RUJDQL]DWLRQ DQG LQVWUXFWLRQV DUH XQFOHDU
SUHGLFWDELOLW\ZLOO EH ZHDNDQGVRFLDOVWLPXOL PD\EH QXPHURXV DQGFKDRWLF
7KLV FUHDWHV D FODVVURRP FRQWH[W ZLWK PDQ\ WULJJHUV IRU GLVUXSWLYHQHVV LQ
LPSXOVLYH SXSLOV SXSLOV ZLWK ORZ VRFLDO FRPSHWHQFH DQG SXSLOV ZLWK KRVWLOH
DWWULEXWLRQELDVFDXVLQJWKHPWRIHHODIUHTXHQWQHHGIRUGHIHQFH7KHFRJQLWLYH
VWUDWHJ\IRUWXUQDURXQGVFRXOGEHKHOSIXOWRWKRVHSXSLOVZKRKDYHH[WUDQHHGV
IRUFODULW\ILUPGHPDQGVDQGDODUJHDPRXQWRIVXSSRUW,QKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYH
FODVVHV UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SHHUV PD\ EH XQGHU SUHVVXUH RU OHG E\ SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV SRVVHVVLQJ LQIRUPDO OHDGHUVKLS +LJKO\ YLVLEOH DQG VRFLDOO\
LQFRPSHWHQW UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ FDQ FUHDWH D VKHOWHU WKDW PD\ KHOS SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVUHPDLQXQGHWHFWHG
7KHFDVHVWXG\UHSRUWHGLQ3DSHUGLGQRWPHDVXUHDQ\W\SHRIDJJUHVVLYHQHVV
RUSXSLOEHKDYLRXU+RZHYHUWKHVRFLDOV\VWHPVVWUDWHJ\ZKLFKZDVRQHRIWKH
VWUDWHJLHVUHYHDOHGWRWXUQDURXQGKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVFRUUHVSRQGVYHU\
ZHOOZLWKDQXQGHUVWDQGLQJRISURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDVDUHOHYDQWPRWLYHWR
GHWKURQHWKHWHDFKHU0DNLQJWKHWHDFKHU¶VORVVRIOHDGHUVKLSKLJKO\YLVLEOHPD\
VHUYH DV D UHZDUG WR WKRVH VHHNLQJ SRZHU WKURXJK DQRWKHU SHUVRQ¶V
SRZHUOHVVQHVVDQGIRUWKRVHVHHNLQJDIILOLDWLRQDWWKHFRVWRIDQRWKHUSHUVRQ¶V
H[FOXVLRQ&RQVHTXHQWO\WKHDERYHGLVFXVVLRQDERXWWKHDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQ
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG GLVREHGLHQFH 54 PD\ H[SODLQ ZK\ VRPH
FODVVHVGHYHORSLQWRKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWVDQGZK\WHDFKHUV¶
SRZHUWDNHRYHUFDQKHOSWRJHWWKHFODVVEDFNRQWUDFN
5.3 Overall discussion
$Q DLP RI WKLV WKHVLV ZDVWR HODERUDWH RQ WKH LQWHUSOD\ EHWZHHQ GLVREHGLHQW
GLVUXSWLYHSXSLOEHKDYLRXUSXSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
$OWKRXJK JRDOV DQG YDOXHV DUH HVWDEOLVKHG IRU FODVVURRP OLIH VRPH FODVVHV
EHFRPHDQDUHQDIRUFRQWUDGLFWLQJLQWHUHVWV$WHDFKHURQEHKDOIRIWKHVFKRRO
DQGHGXFDWLRQDOV\VWHPQHHGVSXSLOVWRFRQVLGHUKLPDOHJLWLPDWH
Discussion
UHSUHVHQWDWLYHRIDOHJLWLPDWHV\VWHP%MHUJ'DOH+DQVHQ
3DFH+HPPLQJV,ISXSLOVUHMHFWHLWKHUWKHV\VWHP¶VRUWKHWHDFKHU¶V
ULJKWWRVHWGLUHFWLRQVJLYHLQVWUXFWLRQVVHWGHPDQGVDQGJLYHUHZDUGVLWRSHQV
WKH GRRU IRU FRQIOLFWLQJ LQWHUHVWV DQG WKH WHDFKHU¶V DELOLW\ WR FRQGXFW JRRG
FODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWZLOOEHGHIODWHG'XHWRFKDQJHVLQVFKRROVDVZHOODV
LQVRFLHWLHVWRGD\WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\GHSHQGVODUJHO\RQWKHWHDFKHUDVDSHUVRQ
DQGKLVRUKHUDELOLWLHVWRHVWDEOLVKSRVLWLYHUHODWLRQVKLSVZLWKHDFKSXSLO%MHUJ
3LDQWD +HQFH WKH WHDFKHU DFKLHYHV WKH FUHGLELOLW\ QHHGHG WR
FRQGXFWJRRGFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWLISXSLOVWKLQNWKDWKHGHVHUYHVLW:KHQ
SHUVRQDO DELOLW\ LV VR KLJKO\ HPSKDVL]HG LW PD\ EH ERWK SDLQIXO DQG
HPEDUUDVVLQJWRUHFRJQL]HWKDWRQHGRHVQRWVXFFHHGEHFDXVHRQH¶VSURIHVVLRQDO
LGHQWLW\LVDWVWDNH'LFNHHWDO6XQ6KHNE,WLVZHOONQRZQ
WKDW PDQ\ WHDFKHUV OHDYH WKH SURIHVVLRQ GXH WR VWUXJJOHV ZLWK FODVVURRP
PDQDJHPHQW QHJDWLYH SXSLO EHKDYLRXU GLVREHGLHQFH HWF (YHUWVRQ :HLQVWHLQ+RZHYHUUHVHDUFKVXJJHVWVWKDWFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWDQG
WKH VNLOOV QHHGHG WR JDLQ DXWKRULW\ FDQ EH VXFFHVVIXOO\ WUDLQHG $OOHQ HW DO
(UWHVYnJ9DDODQG7KHSUREOHPVWHDFKHUVIDFHZKHQWKH\ORVH
DXWKRULW\VKRXOGQRWEHYLHZHGDVDSHUVRQDOLVVXHEXWUDWKHUDVDSURIHVVLRQDO
LVVXHFRPPXQLFDWHGLQSURIHVVLRQDOWHUPV
$PDLQURDGWRWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LVDXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKLQJZKLFKLQYROYHVWKH
LQWHJUDWLRQRIILUPGHPDQGVDQGZDUPUHODWLRQVKLSV:DONHU:HQW]HO
,Q DGGLWLRQ WR UHOHDVLQJ OHJLWLPDWH SRZHU LQ WKH LQGLYLGXDO D[HV IURP
SXSLOVWRWHDFKHUSURPRWLQJDVKDUHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIDQGFRPPLWPHQWWRWKH
WHDFKHUV¶ ULJKW WR SRVVHVV DXWKRULW\ EHQHILWV WKH FODVVURRP FOLPDWH 3DFH +HPPLQJV +RZHYHU HYHQ LI WKH PHFKDQLVPV IURP HQJDJLQJ LQ
DXWKRULWDWLYHWHDFKLQJWRJDLQLQJFUHGLELOLW\DVDFODVVURRPPDQDJHUDUHHYLGHQW
REVWDFOHVH[LVWV
'LVFLSOLQH SUREOHPV PD\ RFFXU IRU VHYHUDO UHDVRQV 6XFK EHKDYLRXU ZLOO
FKDOOHQJH WKH DXWKRULW\ RI WKH WHDFKHU (PPHU (YHUWVRQ 9DDODQG
:KHQ D WHDFKHU LV XQDEOH WR UHJXODWH EHKDYLRXU LQ DFFRUGDQFH ZLWK
VWDQGDUGVLQ WKH FODVVURRP D JURXS RI SXSLOV RU DQ LQGLYLGXDO RWKHUWKDQ WKH
WHDFKHUPDNHWKHGHFLVLRQ+HQFHDXWKRULW\LVWKUHDWHQHGUHJDUGOHVVRIZKHWKHU
WKH WHDFKHU¶V SRVLWLRQ ZDV LQWHQWLRQDOO\ WDUJHWHG +RZHYHU VRPHWLPHV
LQGLVFLSOLQH GRHV QRW VLPSO\ RFFXU EXW UDWKHU UHIOHFWV FRQVFLRXVO\ UXOH
EUHDNLQJEHKDYLRXUDQGGLVREHGLHQFHWRWHDFKHU3DSHU$JJUHVVLYHQHVVLVD
Discussion
SHUVRQUHODWHG IDFWRU WKDW HQKDQFHV WKH SUREDELOLW\ WKDW D SXSLO EHKDYHV
GLVREHGLHQWO\LQFODVV7KLVDSSOLHVWRUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDVZHOODVSRZHU
UHODWHGDQGDIILOLDWLRQUHODWHGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV3DSHU+HQFHIURP
DWHDFKHU¶VSHUVSHFWLYHWKHULVNWKDWKLVRUKHUDXWKRULW\ZLOOEHGHILHGGHSHQGV
WRVRPHH[WHQWRQWKHSXSLOVLQKLVRUKHUFODVV
(YHU\WHDFKHU VKRXOGSULRULWL]H HVWDEOLVKLQJDOHDGHUVKLS SRVLWLRQ RU LQRWKHU
ZRUGVDFKLHYLQJOHJLWLPDWHSRZHUWROHDGLQWKHVWDUWXSSHULRGRIHDFKQHZ
FODVV7KLVLVWKHWLPHZKHQWKHVRFLDOG\QDPLFVLQWKHFODVVDUHPRVWZRUNDEOH
VRFLDOUROHVDQGVWDWXVVKRXOGEHGLVWULEXWHGDQGVRFLDOQRUPVDQGUHODWLRQVKLSV
VKRXOGEHHVWDEOLVKHG5RODQG9DDODQG$VWKHVRFLDO VWUXFWXUH
GHYHORSVLQWKHFODVVWKHSRZHUWRLQIOXHQFHWKHJURXSLVDGGUHVVHG*HHW]HOV
7KHOHQ3XSLOV¶ILUVWLPSUHVVLRQRIWKHWHDFKHUDQGHDFKRWKHUDQGILUVW
FRPPRQ H[SHULHQFHV LQ WKH FODVV FRQWULEXWH WR HVWDEOLVKLQJ VRFLDO VWUXFWXUHV
DQGVRFLDOH[SHFWDWLRQVSOD\DQLPSRUWDQWUROHLQWKLV5RODQG9DDODQG
'XULQJWKLVSHULRGRIJUHDWVRFLDOG\QDPLFVWHDFKHUVPXVWUHFRJQL]HWKDW
WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ LV DW VWDNH 3DSHU +HQFH HVWDEOLVKLQJ WKHPVHOYHV DV
FODVVURRP PDQDJHUV VKRXOG EHWHDFKHUV¶ PDLQ IRFXVZKHQ VWDUWLQJ XS ZLWKD
QHZFODVV(PPHU(YHUWVRQ5RODQG
*LYHQ WKDW WKH VWDUWXS SHULRG LV VWUDWHJLFDOO\ RI JUHDW YDOXH IRU HVWDEOLVKLQJ
DXWKRULW\RQWKHRQHKDQGDQGWKDWSXSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVVLPSOLHVDVSHFLDOWKUHDW
WR WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ RQ WKH RWKHU KDQG KRZ FDQ WKLV LQIRUPDWLRQ EH
VXSSOHPHQWHG WRSUHVFULEH SXUSRVHIXOSUDFWLFH" 0HQWDOSURFHVVLQJ RI ILUVW
LPSUHVVLRQ LQIRUPDWLRQ DIIHFWV IXWXUH SHUFHSWLRQ DQG EHKDYLRXU +DPLOWRQ
.DW] /HLUHU .HOOH\ $ XVHIXO WKHRUHWLFDO VXSSOHPHQW WR WKDW
NQRZOHGJH UHJDUGV KRZ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV LQWHUDFWV ZLWK VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ
SURFHVVLQJDVGHVFULEHGLQWKH6,3PRGHO&ULFN'RGJH+HQFH
D TXHVWLRQ RI JUHDW LQWHUHVW LQ WKLV WKHVLV ZDV ZKHWKHU SXSLOV¶ SURDFWLYH RU
UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZDV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK VSHFLDO WHQGHQFLHV UHJDUGLQJ WKH
W\SHRILQIRUPDWLRQWKDWWKH\ZRXOGVHDUFKIRULQDILUVWPHHWLQJZLWKDQHZ
WHDFKHU 7KH UHVXOWV LQGLFDWHG WKDW SXSLOV ZKR VFRUHG KLJKO\ RQ SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHQHVV ZHUH SURQH WR SHUFHLYH VLJQV RI ZHDNQHVV LQ D QHZ WHDFKHU
3DSHU
,Q VXP SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV LPSOLHG DQ LQFUHDVHG ULVN IRU GLVREHGLHQW
FODVVURRPEHKDYLRXU 3DSHU DQG KLJK VFRUHV RQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV
Discussion
ZDV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK D SHUFHSWXDO RULHQWDWLRQ WRZDUGV VLJQV RI ZHDNQHVV LQ
WHDFKHUV3DSHU(DFKRIWKHVHIDFWVSXWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\DWVWDNH+RZHYHU
WKHWZRDVVRFLDWLRQVZLWKSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVUHYHDOHGLQWKLVWKHVLVPD\
DOVR ZRUN WRJHWKHU 3XSLOV ZLWK KLJK SUREDELOLW\ WR FKDOOHQJH WKHLU WHDFKHUV
WKURXJK GLVREHGLHQW EHKDYLRXU DOVR KDYH D VSHFLDO LQWHUHVW LQ WHDFKHUV¶
YXOQHUDELOLWLHV1RWRQO\DUHWKRVHSXSLOVSURQHWRGHWHFWLQJZHDNQHVVHVWKH\
DOVR VHHP WR WLPH WKHLU VHDUFK IRU VXFK LQIRUPDWLRQ WR WKH SHULRG ZKHQ WKH
WHDFKHUKDVQRW\HWHVWDEOLVKHGOHJLWLPDF\
3UHYLRXV UHVHDUFK RQ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ DGGV NQRZOHGJH WKDW IXUWKHU
LQFUHDVHV WKH LPSRUWDQFH RI RXU ILQGLQJV &DOORXVXQHPRWLRQDO WUDLWV &8
ZKLFKDUHFRQQHFWHGZLWKSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ)LWHHWDO)ULFNHWDO
UHSUHVHQW WKH DELOLW\ WR KXUW RIIHQG DQG LQVXOW WKH WHDFKHU RU RWKHUV
ZLWKRXWIHHOLQJJXLOW)XUWKHUPRUHVXFKWUDLWVLPSO\DWHQGHQF\WRXVHRWKHUV
IRURQH¶VRZQVDWLVIDFWLRQ&XHVRISXQLVKPHQWDUHOHVVLPSRUWDQWWRSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVFRPSDUHGZLWKWKHLUSHHUV)ULFNHWDO$FWXDOO\WKHVH
FXHVVHHPWREULQJDERXWORZFRVWVDVORQJDVWKHXVHRIDJJUHVVLRQSD\VRII
7KH WHPSHUDPHQWDO VW\OH ZLWK ORZHUHG UHDFWLYLW\ LQ WKH V\PSDWKHWLF QHUYRXV
V\VWHPPLJKWPDNHLWSK\VLRORJLFDOO\³FKHDSHU´WRH[KLELWSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
FRPSDUHGZLWKUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ0RUHRYHUWKHSRVLWLYHDVVRFLDWLRQEHWZHHQ
WKHRU\RIPLQGFDSDFLW\DQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ5HQRXI%UHQGJHQ6pJXLQ
HW DO HTXLS WKRVH SXSLOV ZLWK WKH DELOLW\ WR PDQLSXODWH DQG DFW
LQVWUXPHQWDOO\EDVHGRQFROGEORRGHGFDOFXODWLRQVRIKRZRWKHUVZLOOUHVSRQG
KRZ WR PDNH SHRSOH IHHO VFDUHG RU KDSS\ VDWLVILHG RU GLVVDWLVILHG DJUHH RU
GLVDJUHH HWF ,W LV REYLRXV WKDW WKHRU\ RI PLQG FDSDFLW\ FDQ UHVXOW LQ SURILW
HVSHFLDOO\LQWHUPV RI UHODWLRQDO DJJUHVVLRQ5HQRXI%UHQGJHQ3DUHQW HW DO
$GGLWLRQDOO\ SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV UHODWHG WR WUDLWV RI QDUFLVVLVP
%DUU\HWDO%XVKPDQ+XHVPDQPZKLFKPD\OHDGWRDIHHOLQJ
WKDWLWLVUHDVRQDEOHIRURQHWRSRVVHVVSRZHUDIILOLDWLRQDQGSURILWVDWWKHFRVW
RI RWKHUV (YHQ LI WKHUH LV VRPH XQLTXH KHULWDELOLW\ IRU SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
XQLTXH HQYLURQPHQWDO IDFWRUV H[SODLQ D ODUJHU DPRXQW RI YDULDWLRQ LQ VXFK
EHKDYLRXU%UHQGJHQHWDO,QWHUHVWLQJO\WKHHQYLURQPHQWDOLQIOXHQFH
LQFUHDVHV XQWLO DGROHVFHQFH 7UHPEOD\ ZKLFK PD\ LPSO\ WKDW WKH
FODVVURRPFOLPDWHSOD\VDVXEVWDQWLDO LPSDFWLQVFKRRO<HWUHVHDUFKKDVQRW
\HW LGHQWLILHG GHWDLOV LQ WKH FODVVURRP HQYLURQPHQW WKDW LQKLELW RU HQKDQFH
DJJUHVVLRQ
Discussion
5HDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV LPSOLHV DQ LQFUHDVHG ULVN IRU GLVREHGLHQW FODVVURRP
EHKDYLRXU 3DSHU \HW KLJK VFRUHV RQ WKLV W\SH RI DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DUH QRW
VWURQJO\DVVRFLDWHGZLWKDSHUFHSWXDORULHQWDWLRQWRZDUGVVLJQVRIZHDNQHVVLQ
WHDFKHUV 3DSHU ,W VHHPV DV WKRXJK UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV GR QRW SXW
WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ DW VWDNH WR WKH VDPH H[WHQW DV SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV
+RZHYHUHYHQLIWKLVLVQRWWKHLQWHQWLRQWKHWHDFKHU¶VSRVLWLRQFDQEHDWULVN
GXHWRSHUVLVWLQJGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXU,QDWWHQWLRQDQGLPSXOVLYLW\FRXSOHGZLWK
ORZVRFLDOFRPSHWHQFHLQUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVV5DLQHHHWDO9LWDUR
%UHQGJHQ YRXFK IRU LQDSSURSULDWH FODVVURRP EHKDYLRXU 5HDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXUVDUHRIWHQFDXVHGE\DQJHUDQGWKHQHHGIRUGHIHQFHRU
UHYHQJHEDVHGRQWKHKRVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQRIVRFLDOVWLPXOL'RGJH7KH
WDUJHWFDQEHWKHWHDFKHURURQHRUPRUHFODVVPDWHVDQGWKHEHKDYLRXUZLOORIWHQ
EHGLVWXUELQJ/RZWKHRU\RIPLQGFDSDFLW\FDQLQIOXHQFHWKHSXSLO¶VDELOLW\WR
XQGHUVWDQG KRZ KLV EHKDYLRXU DIIHFWV RWKHUV DQG WKH OHDUQLQJ FRQGLWLRQV
0RUHRYHU SRVVLEOH WUDLWV RI QDUFLVVLVP %DUU\ HW DO LQ UHDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV PD\ OHDG WR D FRQYLQFHG YLHZ WKDW WKH DWWHQWLRQ WKDW WKH\
UHFLYHLVGHVHUYHGDQGIDLU6RPHVWXGLHVKDYHVKRZQWKDWUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
SUHFHGHV DQG SUHGLFWV SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ /DQVIRUG HW DO LPSO\LQJ
WKDW UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV PD\ EHFRPH SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH $VVXPLQJ
WKDWHQYLURQPHQWDOIDFWRUVFRQWULEXWHWRVXFKGHYHORSPHQW7UHPEOD\LW
LV UHDVRQDEOH WR VXJJHVW WKDW WKH OLNHOLKRRG ZRXOG LQFUHDVH LQ D FODVVURRP
FOLPDWHZLWKSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHUROHPRGHOV7KLVLVHVSHFLDOO\WKHFDVHZKHQ
SXSLOV DUH H[SRVHG WR SHHUV WKDW VXFFHHG LQ REWDLQLQJ UHZDUGV E\ XVH RI
LQVWUXPHQWDODJJUHVVLRQIRUDORQJSHULRGRIWLPHDQGHYHQPRUHLIWKHWHDFKHUV
VHHPWRDFFHSWRURYHUVHHWKHDJJUHVVLRQZKLFKLVRIWHQWKHFDVHZLWKVRFLDO
DJJUHVVLRQ%M|UNTXLVWHWDO9LWDUR%UHQGJHQ
7R XQGHUVWDQG WKH UROH WKDW DJJUHVVLYHQHVV PD\ SOD\ LQ D VFKRRO RQH PXVW
FRQVLGHU KRZ WKH GLIIHUHQW W\SHV RI DJJUHVVLYHQHVV VHHP WR LQIOXHQFH SHHU
UHODWLRQV 5HDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV DVVRFLDWHG ZLWK UHMHFWLRQ IURP SHHUV
YLFWLPL]DWLRQIHZHUIULHQGVKLSVDQGIULHQGVKLSVRIORZHUTXDOLW\WKDQDYHUDJH
(LVQHU0DOWL9LWLDUR%RLYLQ7UHPEOD\,WIROORZVIURPWKLV
WKDWVWDWHPHQWVDWWLWXGHVEHKDYLRXUHWFH[SRVHGE\UHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLOV
W\SLFDOO\ DUH QRW DGPLUHG RU FRSLHG E\ RWKHU SXSLOV %\ FRQWUDVW SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVDUHRIWHQZHOOOLNHGE\SHHUVWKH\DUHPRUHRIWHQDGPLUHG±
SRWHQWLDOO\EHFDXVHRIWKHSRZHUWKH\FDSWXUH±DQGWKH\DUHIROORZHG(LVQHU
Discussion
0DOWL 9LWDUR HW DO $FFRUGLQJ WR %XVKPDQ DQG +XHVPDQQ
WKHVHVWXGLHVVHHPWRGHILQHSRSXODULW\EDVHGRQZKRKDVVRFLDOSRZHU
PRUHWKDQZKRLVOLNHG+HQFHWKHUHPD\H[LVWDULVNIRUDQHSLGHPLFHIIHFWRI
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SXSLO¶V DWWLWXGHV DQG EHKDYLRXU 7KLV PD\ LPSO\ WKDW
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV VWURQJO\ WKUHDWHQV WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ 0RUHRYHU LW LV
KDUGWRIRUHVHHSRVVLEOHFRQVHTXHQFHVEHFDXVHWKHIHOORZVKLSWKDWWKHSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYHOHDGHUVFUHDWHDPRQJSXSLOVPLJKWEHSRZHUIXODQGRIIHQVLYH
3XSLO¶V DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG WHDFKHUV¶ ZHDN DXWKRULW\ PD\ ERWK UHVXOW LQ WKH
GHYHORSPHQWRIKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV2WKHUH[SODQDWLRQVPLJKWDOVRH[LVW
HJ SRRU FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW 5HJDUGOHVV RI ZKDW FDXVHV FODVVHV WR EH
GLVUXSWLYHEH\RQGZKDWWKHWHDFKHUFDQKDQGOHJHWWLQJWKHFODVVEDFNRQWUDFN
PXVW LPSO\EULQJLQJWKHWHDFKHULQWRSRVLWLRQDVWKHFODVVURRPPDQDJHU5H
HVWDEOLVKLQJWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\ZLOODOORZWKHWHDFKHUWRLPSOHPHQWDQGIROORZ
XSVWDQGDUGVWKDWDUHFRPSDWLEOHZLWKJRRGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWV$ODFNRI
DXWKRULW\PD\PDNHVXFKLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGLIILFXOWRUHYHQLPSRVVLEOH*HHW]HOV
7KHOHQ $OO WKH VHYHQ DSSURDFKHV WR KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV
LQYHVWLJDWHG LQ 3DSHU LQGLFDWHG WKDW WKH VDPH LVVXHV PXVW EH DGGUHVVHG LQ
WXUQDURXQGV +RZHYHU WKH LVVXHV WKDW FRPPRQO\ FDOOHG IRU DFWLRQV ZHUH QRW
PHW E\ LGHQWLFDO LQLWLDWLYHV DFURVV WKH FDVHV 6\VWHPDWLF YDULDWLRQ UHJDUGLQJ
VROXWLRQVUHYHDOHGWZRPDLQVWUDWHJLHVIRUWXUQDURXQGV2QHRIWKHVHVWUDWHJLHV
FRUUHVSRQGVZLWKDWKHRUHWLFDOEDVLVWKDWUHFRJQL]HVSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHQHVVDV
LPSRUWDQWLQDQDO\VLQJWKHG\QDPLFVLQGLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV
$VPHQWLRQHGFODVVHVPD\EHFRPHKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHIRUGLIIHUHQWUHDVRQVDQG
UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV PD\ FRQWULEXWH WR WKLV GLVUXSWLRQ
)XUWKHUPRUHDKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPPD\HOLFLW HYHQPRUHDJJUHVVLRQ
5HDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ UHVXOWLQJ IURP ZHDN PDQDJHPHQW DQG FKDRV PD\ FDXVH
DPELJXRXV VLWXDWLRQV DQG IUXVWUDWLRQV IROORZHG E\ DQJHU DQG DJJUHVVLYH
EHKDYLRXU5HDFWLYHO\DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVZLOOHDVLO\VXIIHUIURPXQSUHGLFWDELOLW\
DQGLQVHFXULW\LQVXFKHQYLURQPHQWVDQGWKHQHHGIRUVHOIGHIHQFHDQGDQJU\
UHWDOLDWLRQPD\RFFXU7KLVW\SHRIDJJUHVVLRQLVRIWHQGHVFULEHGDVKRVWLOHDQJU\
UHDFWLRQVPHDQWWRHQVXUHVHOIGHIHQFHRUDQJU\UHWDOLDWLRQ)RQWDLQH'RGJH
:KHQHSLVRGHVDUHLQWHUSUHWHGLQWHUPVRIKRVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQUHDFWLYHO\
DJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVDUHPRUHOLNHO\WRFKRRVHDJJUHVVLYHUHVSRQVHV7KH\WHQGWR
TXLFNO\DQGTXLWHLPSXOVLYHO\DFFHVVDQGHQDFWDPHQWDOVFKHPDIRUDJJUHVVLYH
UHVSRQVHV 'RGJH HW DO )RQWDLQH 'RGJH &KDQJHV LQ WKH
Discussion
HQYLURQPHQWPD\UHGXFHW\SLFDOWULJJHUVZKLFKVKRXOGEHH[SHFWHGWROHDGWR
GHFUHDVHGDQJHUDQGDJJUHVVLRQ3URDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVPD\YLHZDKLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPVDVDQ(OGRUDGRIRUXVHRIDJJUHVVLRQWRDFKLHYHGHVLUHG
JRDOV7KHOLWHUDWXUHVXJJHVWVWKDWKRPHFRQWH[WVWKDWSRRUO\UHJXODWHEHKDYLRXU
PD\VWLPXODWHSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ'RGJHHWDOWKLV FRQQHFWLRQPD\
DOVR DSSO\ WR VFKRRO $ ODFN RI HIIHFWLYH PHDQV RI FRUUHFWLQJ EHKDYLRXU LV D
FKDUDFWHULVWLFRIKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV$FFRUGLQJWR)RQWDLQHDQG'RGJH¶V
HODERUDWLRQ RI EHKDYLRXU GHFLVLRQV DQG HYDOXDWLRQ LQ WKH 6,3 PRGHO
FRQWH[WXDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV LQIOXHQFH EHKDYLRXUDO GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ 5HVSRQVHV
PXVWEHVLWXDWLRQDOO\DSSOLFDEOHDQGVRPHHQYLURQPHQWDOFRQGLWLRQVPD\ORZHU
WKHWKUHVKROGIRUDJJUHVVLYHVFKHPDV7KLVVWHSDOVRLQFOXGHVWKHHYDOXDWLRQRI
UHVSRQVH HIILFDF\ ZKLFK LV WKH SUREDELOLW\ WKDW WKH EHKDYLRXU ZLOO EH DQ
HIIHFWLYH LQVWUXPHQW IRU JDLQLQJ WKH DQWLFLSDWHG UHZDUGV )RQWDLQH 'RGJH
3URDFWLYHDJJUHVVLYHSXSLOVZKRGHVLUHDIILOLDWLRQE\XVHRIDJJUHVVLYH
PHDQV FDQ OLNHO\ VXFFHHG LQ DFKLHYLQJ WKLV GHVLUH LQ D FKDRWLF FODVV 7KH
VWLJPDWL]DWLRQ RI WKH WHDFKHU RU D SXSLO FDQ VHUYH DV D IRFXV IRU FRPPRQ
QHJDWLYHDWWLWXGHVDQGWKHUHE\LQJURXSDIILOLDWLRQZKLFKLVRQHFHQWUDOUHZDUG
IRUSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ5RODQG,GVRH$VORQJDVVXFKDOOLDQFHVDUH
SDUWRIWKHFODVVURRPFXOWXUHVRPHUHFHLYHEHQHILWVDQGZLOOOLNHO\DWWHPSWWR
NHHSWKHVHEHQHILWV7KXVFKDQJHVLQFODVVPD\QRWEHZHOFRPHG%\XVHRI
GLVREHGLHQW EHKDYLRXU SXSLOV FDQ EXLOG DOOLDQFHV DJDLQVW WKH WHDFKHU 7KH
PDUNHG YLVLEOH UROH RI WKH WHDFKHU FRXOG PDNH DIILOLDWLRQ WKDW XQGHUOLQHV
GLVWDQFHIURPWKHWHDFKHUH[WUDUHZDUGLQJ
,QKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPVDQGLQJHQHUDOZKHQWHDFKHUVDUHQRWLQFKDUJH
RIWKHFODVVWKHSRVVLELOLW\WRJDLQSRZHUDWWKHFRVWRIRWKHUVLVDYDLODEOH7KH
WHDFKHUFDQKDUGO\SURWHFWSXSLOVYLFWLPL]HGE\SHHUVDQGWKHWHDFKHUKLPVHOI
LVYXOQHUDEOHWRYLFWLPL]DWLRQ6RFLDOSRZHUDQGVWDWXVFDQEHJDLQHGE\XVHRI
IHDUWKUHDWVKXPLOLDWLQJVRPHRQHHWF3URDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQPDNHVXVHRIVXFK
VWUDWHJLHV WR DFKLHYH UHZDUGV 5RODQG ,GVRH $FFRUGLQJ WR VRFLDO
LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ &ULFN 'RGJH SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV
PRUHHDVLO\DQWLFLSDWHSRVVLEOHVXFFHVVIURPDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRXUWKDQRWKHUV
DQG WKXV HYDOXDWH VXFK EHKDYLRXU PRUH SRVLWLYHO\ WKDQ RWKHUV )RQWDLQH 'RGJH 2QH FDQ UHDVRQDEO\ H[SHFW WKDW WKRVH EHQHILWWLQJ IURP D
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVURRPRXWRIWHDFKHUV¶FRQWUROZLOOUHVLVWFKDQJHVWKDWPLJKWFRVW
WKHPDORVVRISRZHUDQGDIILOLDWLRQ,QVWHDGRIFKRRVLQJWRJLYHXSEHQHILWV
Discussion
VRPHSXSLOVZLOOZRUNDJDLQVWDFODVVURRPWXUQDURXQGLQWHQGHGWRUHHVWDEOLVK
WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\+LJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVZLOOOLNHO\EH³SURWHFWHG´E\VXFK
SRZHUIXOSXSLOVLPSOLFDWLQJWKDWXQGHUVXFKFLUFXPVWDQFHVDFRJQLWLYHVWUDWHJ\
WRWXUQDURXQGVPD\IDLOEHFDXVHWHDFKLQJWKHSXSLOULJKWWKRXJKWVDQGVNLOOVZLOO
QRW OHDG WR WKH GHVLUHG EHKDYLRXU 3URDFWLYHO\ DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV PD\ ILQG
RSSRUWXQLWLHVWRREWDLQVKRUWWLPHVRFLDOUHZDUGVVXFKDVSRZHUDQGDIILOLDWLRQ
ZLWKLQ D KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH FODVV 0RUHRYHU E\ PDLQWDLQLQJ KLJK OHYHOV RI
GLVUXSWLRQWKH\PD\UHDFKDORQJWLPHEHQHILWIURPWKHFKURQLFGHJUDGDWLRQRI
WKH WHDFKHU DQG DQ HQYLURQPHQW LQ ZKLFK WKH\ WKHPVHOYHV FDQ SRVVHVV
OHDGHUVKLS DW WKH FRVW RI WKH IRUPDO OHDGHU +HQFH WKH V\VWHPV VWUDWHJ\ WKDW
IRUFHVSRZHUUHGLVWULEXWLRQZLOOEHPRUHHIIHFWLYHWKDQQHJRWLDWLQJZLWKSXSLOV
DERXWJLYLQJDZD\WKHSRZHUWKDWWKH\KDYHFDSWXUHG
5.4 Implications for practice
:HVKRXOGQRWQHJOHFWWKHVKRUWWHUPSUREOHPVRUWKHORQJWHUPLPSOLFDWLRQV
RI FODVVURRP GLVUXSWLRQV %HKDYLRXUDO DFDGHPLF GHYHORSPHQWDO DQG PRUDO
SHUVSHFWLYHV LPSO\ WKDW LJQRULQJ WKH FKDOOHQJHV PD\ UHVXOW LQ LQFUHDVLQJ
SUREOHPV7HDFKHUVWUHVVDQGEXUQRXWDUHRIFRXUVHSUREOHPVPRUHRYHUWKH\
LPSO\DULVNIRUUHFUXLWPHQWWRWKHSURIHVVLRQ$GGLWLRQDOO\WHDFKHUVZKRKROG
DIRUPDOOHDGHUVKLSUROHEXWZKRVHDXWKRULW\LVXQGHUPLQHGULVNGDPDJHWRWKHLU
SURIHVVLRQDOUHSXWDWLRQDQGVHOIHVWHHP 8QGHUDFKLHYHPHQW LQSXSLOOHDUQLQJ
LPSOLHV D ORVV WR WKH DIIHFWHG SXSLOV GXH WR JHQHUDOO\ ORZHUHG RXWFRPH IURP
VFKRROZKLFKLVDOVRDFRVWWRWKHVRFLHW\'LVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXUPD\DOVRFDXVH
PRUHJHQHUDOL]HGSUREOHPVDPRQJSXSLOVEHFDXVHEHKDYLRXUEHFRPHV³XVXDO´
DQG PLJKW VSUHDG WR RWKHU DUHQDV 'LVUXSWLYH FODVVURRPV LQFUHDVH DJJUHVVLYH
EHKDYLRXUZKLOHRUGHUO\FODVVURRPVZLWKRQWDVNEHKDYLRXUSUHYHQWDJJUHVVLYH
EHKDYLRXU 'LVUXSWLYH DQG DJJUHVVLYH HQYLURQPHQWV LQIOXHQFH SHHU
UHODWLRQVKLSV DQG WHDFKHUSXSLO UHODWLRQVKLSV QHJDWLYHO\ )LQDOO\ GLVUXSWLYH
FODVVURRP DQG VFKRRO FOLPDWHV PD\ FRORXU WKH VRFLHW\¶V DWWLWXGHV DQG EHOLHIV
DERXW VFKRRO DQG LQIOXHQFH KRZ VRFLHW\ SURYLGHVWHDFKHUV ZLWK DXWKRULW\
*HQHUDO QHJDWLYH DWWULEXWLRQV WR VFKRRO PD\ FRQWULEXWH WR YLFLRXV F\FOHV
PDNLQJLWPRUHGLIILFXOWIRUWHDFKHUVWRHVWDEOLVKJRRGOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWV
7KHUHPD\DOVREHDGHYHORSPHQWDOGLUHFWLRQIURPWHDFKHUEXUQRXWRUWLUHGQHVV
WRPRUHGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPVSHUFHSWLRQRIZHDNQHVVDQGGHIODWHGDXWKRULWDWLYH
OHDGHUVKLSZLWKOHVVZDUPWKDQGPRUHSHUPLVVLYHQHVV
Discussion
,Q 1RUZD\ DV LQ DOO VRFLHWLHV VWXGLHG GLVUXSWLRQ LV D FKDOOHQJH LQ VFKRROV
+RZHYHUIRUUHDVRQVWKDWDUHQRWREYLRXVWHDFKHUVLQ1RUZHJLDQFODVVURRPV
VWUXJJOHPRUHWKDWWKHLUFROOHDJXHVLQPDQ\FRPSDUDEOHFRXQWULHV
7KHUH VHHP WR EH D ORQJ OLVW RI ³GLIIXVHUV´ FRQWULEXWLQJ WR FRQIXVLRQV
FRQFHUQLQJ WKH LVVXH RI GLVUXSWLRQ $V PHQWLRQHG WKH QRUPDWLYH DVSHFW RI
EHKDYLRXU±PRUDOLW\±LVRQHSHUVSHFWLYHWKDWPD\GLIIXVHWKHSUREOHP7HDFKHU
DXWKRULW\PD\EHTXHVWLRQHGE\SDUHQWVFROOHDJXHVRUVFKRROOHDGHUVKLSZKHQ
LVVXHVFRQFHUQLQJSXSLODXWRQRP\YHUVXVUXOHVDUHGLVFXVVHG/DFNRIVFKRRO
OHYHOFRQVLVWHQF\LQH[SHFWDWLRQVRISXSLOVPD\ORZHUWHDFKHUV¶LQIOXHQFHDQG
PDQGDWH 9DULDWLRQ EHWZHHQ DGXOWV ZLWKLQ VFKRRO PD\ EH VXSSOHPHQWHG E\
GLVDJUHHPHQWV RU XQFOHDU GLVWULEXWLRQ RI UHVSRQVLELOLW\ EHWZHHQ VFKRRO DQG
KRPHV :KHQUHVSRQVLELOLW\LV QRW FOHDU SDVVLYLW\FDQ EH DVWUDWHJ\WR DYRLG
HQJDJLQJLQDFWLYLWLHVWKDWZLOOFDXVHRWKHUSDUWLHVWRFRPSODLQ
2WKHUW\SHVRIGLIIXVHUVUHODWHWRWKHYDULDWLRQLQODEHOVDQGFRQFHSWVXVHGWR
GHVFULEHGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXU7KLVDSSOLHVWRWKHSUDFWLFDOZRUNLQVFKRRODQG
WRWKHOLWHUDWXUHDQGUHVHDUFK7KHHYHU\GD\QRLVHDQGGLVUXSWLRQWKDWUHGXFHWKH
TXDOLW\RIWKHOHDUQLQJHQYLURQPHQWDUHODEHOOHGZLWKZRUGVWKDWDUHDOVRXVHG
LQGLDJQRVWLFODQJXDJHHJGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXUQRQFRPSOLDQFHRSSRVLWLRQDO
EHKDYLRXU GLVREHGLHQFH HWF SRWHQWLDOO\ FRQIXVLQJ DQG FRPSOLFDWLQJ
FRPPXQLFDWLRQ0RUHRYHUWKHVHYHULW\RISUREOHPVYDULHVDQGFRQFHSWVXVHG
WR GHVFULEH OHYHOV RI VHYHULW\ RI QRLV\ RU GLVUXSWLYH FODVVURRPV DUH QRW
FRPPRQO\ RU JHQHUDOO\ HVWDEOLVKHG 7KH FRQVWUXFW GHYHORSPHQW LQ 3DSHU VKRXOGEHDXVHIXOFRQWULEXWLRQLQWKLVPDWWHU
$JJUHVVLYHQHVV SOD\V D UROH LQ GLVUXSWLRQ .QRZOHGJH RI WKH GLVWLQFWLRQV
EHWZHHQUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQKRZWKH\GHYHORSWKHLUDHWLRORJ\
ZKDWWULJJHUVDFWLYDWLRQDQGGLIIHUHQFHVLQWKHLUSUHGLFWLRQVFDOOIRUHQKDQFHG
DWWHQWLRQ WR GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU LQ FODVVURRPV .QRZOHGJH RI WKHVH WRSLFV
VKRXOG KHOS SUHSDUH WHDFKHUV WR IDFH DQDO\VH DQG WDFNOH GLIIHUHQW IRUPV DQG
IXQFWLRQV RI DJJUHVVLRQ 3UHSDUHGQHVV EDVHG RQ FRPSHWHQFH PDNHV
GLIIHUHQWLDWLRQ SRVVLEOH 7KH EURDG WHUPV noise DQG disruption VKRXOG EH
DQDO\VHGLQWRPRUHH[SOLFLWLVVXHVWRLGHQWLI\ZKDWLVGULYHQE\DJJUHVVLYHQHVV
ZKDW UHSUHVHQWV XQFOHDU LQVWUXFWLRQV ZKDW UHODWHV WR QHJDWLYH VRFLDO QRUPV
ZKDW LV GXH WR LQGLYLGXDO ODFN RI FDSDFLW\ ZKDW LV SDUW RI VRFLDO G\QDPLFV
EHWZHHQ SXSLOV DQGRU EHWZHHQ SXSLOV DQG WHDFKHUV HWF 7KHUH LV UHDVRQ WR
Discussion
EHOLHYH WKDW JRRG FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW LQFOXGLQJ DXWKRULWDWLYH WHDFKLQJ
LPSOLHVSRZHUIXOSUHYHQWLRQRIDOONLQGVRIGLVUXSWLRQ+RZHYHUDPRUHH[SOLFLW
DQGGHWDLOHGXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIPLFURDQGPDFURPHFKDQLVPVLQIOXHQFLQJ SXSLO
EHKDYLRXU ZRXOG EH KHOSIXO IRU SUHYHQWLRQ DQG ZKHQ SUREOHPV RFFXU
$JJUHVVLRQ WKUHDWHQV WKH OHDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQW DQG WHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
7HDFKHU DXWKRULW\ LV D FRPSOH[ LVVXH $XWKRULW\ LPSOLHV SRZHU ZKLFK LV
QHFHVVDU\ WR FRQGXFW OHDGHUVKLS 6WLOO DXWKRULW\ FDQ EH XVHG IRU GHVWUXFWLYH
SXUSRVHV,QVFKRROVDXWKRULW\SRVHVVHGE\DWHDFKHUZKRGRHVQRWKDYHFOHDU
JRDOVDQGLQWHQWLRQVEXWLQVWHDGDFWVLPSXOVLYHO\RULQFRQVLVWHQWO\ZLWKSXSLOV
FDQ OHDG WR QHJDWLYH FRQVHTXHQFHV 6HYHUDO VRXUFHV PD\ FRQWULEXWH WR D
WHDFKHU¶V DXWKRULW\ IRUPDO UROH VFKRRO FXOWXUH DQG FRQVLVWHQF\ DPRQJ VWDII
KLJKTXDOLW\ FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW SHUVRQDO FKDUDFWHULVWLFV VXSSRUW IURP
VRFLDOO\ VWURQJ SXSLOV LQ WKH FODVV VXSSRUW IURP SDUHQWV VRFLHW\¶V JHQHUDO
SRVLWLYH DWWLWXGHV WRZDUGV WHDFKHUV DQG VFKRROV 7KH FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW
HOHPHQW PHQWLRQHG LQ WKH OLVW FRQWDLQV PDQ\ DVSHFWV VRFLDO DQG DFDGHPLF
VXSSRUW WR HYHU\ SXSLO FORVH UHODWLRQVKLSV KLJKTXDOLW\ WHDFKLQJ FOHDU
GHPDQGV FRQVLVWHQW DQG SURDFWLYH EHKDYLRXU PDQDJHPHQW IDLUQHVV KXPRXU
UHVSHFW HWF &ODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW LV OLVWHG DV RQH VRXUFH RI DXWKRULW\
DOWKRXJKWKLVLVOLNHO\WKHRQO\HOHPHQWRQWKHOLVWWKDWFDQQRWEHFRPSHQVDWHG
E\DQ\RIWKHRWKHUV&ODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWDSSHDUVWREHWKHPDVWHUNH\WR
HQKDQFHWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\DQGGLPLQLVKGLVUXSWLYHSXSLOEHKDYLRXUDVZHOODV
DJJUHVVLRQLQVFKRRO)RUWXQDWHO\FODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWFDQEHOHDUQHG
5.5 Future directions
,Q ZRUNLQJ RQ WKLV WKHVLV , DWWHPSWHG WR V\QWKHVLVH D EHKDYLRXU DVSHFW
GLVUXSWLRQ D SHUVRQUHODWHG GLVSRVLWLRQ DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG D FRQWH[WXDO
HOHPHQWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\7KHSURFHVVKDVUHYHDOHGWKDWZLWKLQHDFKRIWKHWUHH
FRPSRQHQWVDVZHOODVWKHLULQWHUDFWLRQVQHZNQRZOHGJHFRXOGEHXVHIXODQG
FRQWULEXWHWRLPSURYHGSUDFWLFH6RPHH[DPSOHVDUHSUHVHQWHGEHORZ
3URDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LV VHQVLWLYH WR HQYLURQPHQWDO LQIOXHQFH DQG WKLV HIIHFW
LQFUHDVHV XQWLO DGROHVFHQFH 7UHPEOD\ 5HVHDUFK VKRXOG H[SORUH
HQYLURQPHQWDODVSHFWVZLWKLQWKHFODVVURRPWKDWLQIOXHQFHSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQ
SRVLWLYHO\ RU QHJDWLYHO\ ,QWHUYHQWLRQ VWXGLHV FRXOG UHYHDO LQIRUPDWLRQ
Discussion
UHJDUGLQJKRZHQYLURQPHQWDOPDQLSXODWLRQPD\DIIHFWSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLQ
FODVV
'LVREHGLHQWSXSLOEHKDYLRXUYDULHVDFURVVJHQGHUDQGSHUKDSVDFURVVDJH7KH
SUHYDOHQFHRIGLVREHGLHQFHLQVSHFLILFJUDGHVDQGLWVDVVRFLDWLRQZLWKUHDFWLYH
DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVV LVDQLQWHUHVWLQJWRSLFIRU IXWXUH UHVHDUFK 6XFK
NQRZOHGJHFRXOGOHDGWRLPSURYHGSUHYHQWLRQVDQGLQWHUYHQWLRQV
7HDFKHU DXWKRULW\ VHHPV WR EH D SRWHQWLDO VROXWLRQ WR VHULRXV FKDOOHQJHV LQ
VFKRROV6WXGLHVRIDXWKRULW\DVDSKLORVRSKLFDORUVRFLRORJLFDOLVVXHFRQWULEXWH
WRXQGHUVWDQGLQJWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\6WLOOWKHFODVVURRPDVDFRQWH[WDQGSXSLOV
DVWKRVHJLYLQJWKHWHDFKHUFUHGLELOLW\PD\EHTXLWHGLIIHUHQWIURPDXWKRULW\LQ
JHQHUDORULQZRUNSODFHRUJDQL]DWLRQV(PSLULFDOVWXGLHVRIWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
H[LVWDOWKRXJKPDQ\TXHVWLRQVPXVWEHLQYHVWLJDWHG6RPHH[DPSOHVIROORZ
)RUUHVHDUFKRQWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\WRLPSURYHKLJKTXDOLW\PHDVXUHVPXVWEH
HPSOR\HGWRDVVHVVDXWKRULW\LQFODVVURRPV9DDODQGDQG(UWHVYnJDQG
(UWHVYnJDQG5RODQGXVHGDQLQVWUXPHQWWKDWDVNHGWHDFKHUVWRUHSRUW
WKHLUSHUFHLYHGDXWKRULW\LQFODVV$SDUDOOHOLQVWUXPHQWEDVHGRQSXSLOUHSRUWV
LV QHHGHG +RZ SDUHQWV SHUFHLYH WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ PD\ DOVR EH RI LQWHUHVW
0RUHRYHU UHOLDEOH PHDVXUHPHQW EDVHG RQ REVHUYDWLRQDO GDWD ZRXOG ODUJHO\
FRQWULEXWHWRWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\UHVHDUFK
:KDWHOHPHQWVFRQVWLWXWHWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\"$UHWKHVHHOHPHQWVKLHUDUFKLFDOO\
RUJDQL]HGLPSO\LQJWKDWVRPHHOHPHQWVDUHPRUHEDVLFWKDQRWKHUVDQGWKHUHE\
QHFHVVDU\ IRU RWKHU HOHPHQWV WR EH HIIHFWLYH" +RZ FDQ WHDFKHUV DFKLHYH WKH
HOHPHQWVRIDXWKRULW\":KDWDERXWVXVWDLQDELOLW\DFURVVWLPHFODVVHVVXEMHFWV
ZRUNLQJ PHWKRGV HWF" )XUWKHU TXHVWLRQV UHJDUG KRZ VFKRRO DQG VRFLHW\
SURPRWHRUKLQGHUWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\
*LYHQWKDWWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\LVDQREMHFWLYHLQFODVVURRPVWRZKDWH[WHQWGR
SXSLOVGLIIHULQZKDWWKH\FRQVLGHUVLJQVRIDXWKRULW\"'RUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLYH SXSLOV DVVHVVWHDFKHUV¶DXWKRULW\GLIIHUHQWO\EHFDXVHWKH\SHUFHLYH
GLIIHUHQW DVSHFWV RI DXWKRULW\" 0RUHRYHU WKH VWDELOLW\ RI WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\
DFURVVFODVVHVVKRXOGEHFRQVLGHUHGWROHDUQPRUHDERXWZKDWIDFWRUVWKDWJLYH
DQGZLWKGUDZDXWKRULW\$ORQJLWXGLQDOGHVLJQIROORZLQJWHDFKHUVDFURVVWLPH
DQGFODVVHVFRXOGDVVHVVWKHVWDELOLW\DQGYDULDELOLW\RIDXWKRULW\
Discussion
)RUSUDFWLFDODQGWKHRUHWLFDOSXUSRVHVUHVHDUFKLVQHHGHGRQDSSURDFKHVWRUH
HVWDEOLVKLQJ WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ LQ KLJKO\ GLVUXSWLYH FODVVHV )LHOG VWXGLHV
IROORZLQJVLQJOHFDVHWXUQDURXQGVDQGTXDVLH[SHULPHQWDOGHVLJQVDUHUHOHYDQW
6FUHHQLQJVRISXSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVVDQGWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\EHIRUHDQGDIWHUWKH
LQWHUYHQWLRQZRXOGEHLQWHUHVWLQJ7KHPHDVXUHRIGLVREHGLHQFHGHYHORSHGLQ
WKLVWKHVLVFRXOGEHXVHGWRJHWKHUZLWKRWKHUPHDVXUHVRIGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPVWR
UHYHDO ZKHWKHU VRPH GLIIHUHQW SDWWHUQV RI EHKDYLRXU DUH W\SLFDO LQ KLJKO\
GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHVDQGZKHWKHUGLIIHUHQWVWUDWHJLHVVHHPWREHXVHIXOLQGLIIHUHQW
W\SHVRIKLJKO\GLVUXSWLYHFODVVHV
*LYHQWKDWWKLVWKHVLVLVDSLORWIRULQYHVWLJDWLQJWKHSRVVLEOHLQWHUSOD\EHWZHHQ
SXSLO DJJUHVVLYHQHVV DQG WHDFKHU DXWKRULW\ DQ LQWHUDFWLRQ GHVLJQ ZRXOG
FRQWULEXWHWRDIXUWKHUXQGHUVWDQGLQJRIWKLVLVVXH3XSLODJJUHVVLYHQHVVFRXOG
EH DVVHVVHG DV D SHUVRQDO IDFWRU WKDW WKH SXSLOV EULQJ WR WKH FODVVURRP
&ODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWDQGWHDFKHUDXWKRULW\FRXOGEHHVWLPDWHGDVFRQWH[WXDO
IDFWRUV%HKDYLRXUDOPHDVXUHVVXFKDVGLVUXSWLRQFRXOGEHVXSSOHPHQWHGZLWK
HJEXOO\LQJDQGPHDVXUHVRISURVRFLDOEHKDYLRXU
,QDGGLWLRQWRUHYHDOLQJQHZWRSLFVIRUUHVHDUFKWKLVWKHVLVSRLQWVWRWKHQHHGWR
VXSSOHPHQW WKH FURVVVHFWLRQDO GHVLJQ /RQJLWXGLQDO GHVLJQV LQWHUYHQWLRQ
GHVLJQVDQGPL[HGPHWKRGGHVLJQVFRXOGSURYLGHLPSRUWDQWFRQWULEXWLRQV
References
6 References
$OODQ-*UHJRU\$0LNDPL$/XQ-+DPUH%3LDQWD5
2EVHUYDWLRQVRIHIIHFWLYH WHDFKHUVWXGHQW LQWHUDFWLRQV LQ VHFRQGDU\
VFKRROFODVVURRPV3UHGLFWLQJVWXGHQWDFKLHYHPHQWZLWKWKH&ODVVURRP
$VVHVVPHQW6FRULQJ6\VWHP6HFRQGDU\School Psychology review, 42
$OOHQ-33LDQWD5&*UHJRU\$0LNDPL$</XQ-$Q
LQWHUDFWLRQEDVHGDSSURDFKWRHQKDQFLQJVHFRQGDU\VFKRROLQVWUXFWLRQ
DQGVWXGHQWDFKLHYHPHQWScience (New York, N.y.)333±
KWWSGRLRUJVFLHQFH
$PHULFDQ 3V\FKRORJLFDO $VVRFLDWLRQ Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association, WK HG:DVKLQJWRQ'&$3$
$QGHUVRQ&$%XVKPDQ%-+XPDQDJJUHVVLRQ$QQXDOReview
of Psychology, 53
$ULVWRWHOHVWUDQVRetorikk2YHUVDWWDY7(LGH2VOR9LGDUIRUODJHW$6
$URQVHQ ( The social animal WK HG 1HZ <RUN 1< :RUWK
3XEOLVKHUV
$UXP 5 )RUG . +RZ RWKHU FRXQWULHV ©'R 'LVFLSOLQHª
Educational Leadership, 70
$UXP 5 9HOH] 0 Improving Learning environments: School
discipline and student achievement in comparative perspective.
6WDQIRUG&$6WDQIRUG8QLYHUVLW\
%DQGXUD$$JJUHVVLRQA social learning analysis(QJOHZRRG&OLIIV
1-3UHQWLFH+DOO,QF
%DQGXUD $ Social foundations of thought and action: A social
cognitive theory(QJOHZRRG&OLIIV1-3UHQWLFH+DOO,QF
%DUNHU('7UHPEOD\5(1DJLQ'69LWDUR)/DFRXUVH(
'HYHORSPHQWRIPDOHSURDFWLYHDQGUHDFWLYHSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQGXULQJ
DGROHVFHQFHJournal of Child Psychology and psychiatry, 47
%DUU\7'7KRPSVRQ$%DUU\&7/RFKPDQ-($GOHU.+LOO.
7KH LPSRUWDQFH RI QDUFLVVLVP LQ SUHGLFWLQJ SURDFWLYH DQG
UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LQ PRGHUDWHO\ WR KLJKO\ DJJUHVVLYH FKLOGUHQ
Aggressive Behavior, 33
References
%DXPULQG ' 3DUHQWLQJ VW\OHV DQG DGROHVFHQW GHYHORSPHQW ,Q -
%URRNV*XQQ5/HUQHU$&3HWHUVRQ(GVThe Encyclopedia of
adolescence SS1HZ<RUN*DUODQG
%HDU * * 6FKRRO GLVFLSOLQH LQ WKH 8QLWHG 6WDWHV 3UHYHQWLRQ
FRUUHFWLRQDQGORQJWHUPsocial development. Educational and Child
Psychology, 15±
%HUNRZLW]/Aggression: Its causes, consequences and control1HZ
<RUN1<0F*UDZ+LOO
%MHUJ + Skoling af lyst. Fantasier og fornemmelser i tre
elevgenerationers erindringer om livet i skolen 1950-2000. 3K'
DYKDQGOLQJ IUD ,QVWLWXWW IRU 8GGDQQHOVH RJ 3 GDJRJLN $DUKXV
8QLYHUVLWHW
%MHUJ+.QXGVHQ+1nUVWUDIIHUWLOIRUKDQGOLQJ,-%.UHMVOHU
/0RRV(GVKlasseledelse –magtkampe i praksis, pædagogik og
politikSS)UHGHULNVKDYQ'DIROR
%M|UNTXLVW./DJHUVSHW]..DXNLDLQHQ$'RJLUOVPDQLSXODWH
DQGER\VILJKW"'HYHORSPHQWDOWUHQGVLQUHJDUGWRGLUHFWDQGLQGLUHFW
DJJUHVVLRQAggressive Behavior, 18
%M¡UQHEHNN * 'LVSRVLWLRQVUHODWHGWRVHQVLWLYLW\LQ WKHQHXURORJLFDO
EDVLV IRU DFWLYDWLRQ RI DSSURDFKDYRLGDQFH PRWLYDWLRQ DQWLVRFLDO
DWWULEXWHV DQG LQGLYLGXDO GLIIHUHQFHV LQ DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRU Social
behavior and personality; an international journal, 35
%ODLU 5 - 5 5HVSRQVLYHQHVV WR GLVWUHVV FXHV LQ WKH FKLOG ZLWK
SV\FKRSDWKLF WHQGHQFLHV Personality and Individual Differences, 27
%RXFKDUG 7 - *HQHV HQYLURQPHQW DQG SHUVRQDOLW\ Science,
264
%RXUJHRLV/-(LVHQKDUGW.06WUDWHJLFGHFLVLRQSURFHVVHVLQ
KLJKYHORFLW\HQYLURQPHQWV)RXUFDVHVLQWKHPLFURFRPSXWHULQGXVWU\
Management Science, 34
%UHQGJHQ 0 'LRQQH * *LUDUG $ %RLYLQ 0 9LWDUR ) 3pUXVVH '
([DPLQLQJ JHQHWLF DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO HIIHFWV RQ VRFLDO
DJJUHVVLRQ$VWXG\RI\HDUROGWZLQVChild Development, 76
References
%UHQGJHQ 0 9LWDUR ) %RLYLQ 0 'LRQQH * 3qUXVVH ' ([DPLQLQJ JHQHWLF DQG HQYLURQPHQWDO HIIHFWV RQUHDFWLYH YHUVXV
SURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQDevelopmental Psychology, 42
%UHQGJHQ09LWDUR)7UHPEOD\5(/DYRLH)5HDFWLYHDQG
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ 3UHGLFWLRQV WR SK\VLFDO YLROHQFH LQ GLIIHUHQW
FRQWH[WVDQGPRGHUDWLQJHIIHFWVRISDUHQWDOPRQLWRULQJDQGFDUHJLYLQJ
EHKDYLRUJournal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 29
%URQIHQEUHQQHU8(FRORJ\RIWKHIDPLO\DVDFRQWH[WRIRQWKHKXPDQ
GHYHORSPHQW 5HVHDUFK SHUVSHFWLYHV Developmental Psychology,
22
%URSK\-0F&DVOLQ07HDFKHUV¶UHSRUWVRIKRZWKH\SHUFHLYHDQG
FRSHZLWKSUREOHPstudents. Elementary School Journal, 93(1), ±
%URZQ.$WNLQV062VERUQH0/0LOQDPRZ0$UHYLVHG
WHDFKHU UDWLQJ VFDOHIRU UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ Journal of
Abnormal Child Psychology, 24±
%UX()DFWRUVDVVRFLDWHGZLWKGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRXULQWKHFODVVURRP.
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 50
%UX ( 6WHSKHQV 3 7RUVKHLP 7 6WXGHQW¶V SHUFHSWLRQV RI FODVV
PDQDJHPHQWDQGUHSRUWVRIWKHLURZQPLVEHKDYLRUJournal of School
Psychology, 40
%U\QLOGVHQ$Frihet og forpliktelse2VOR'UH\HU
%XVKPDQ%-%DXPHLVWHU5)7KUHDWHQHGHJRWLVPQDUFLVVLVP
VHOIHVWHHPDQGGLUHFWDQGGLVSODFHGDJJUHVVLRQ'RHVVHOIORYHRUVHOI
KDWHOHDGWRYLROHQFH"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
75
%XVKPDQ%-+XHVPDQQ/5$JJUHVVLRQ,Q67)LVNH'*
*LOEHUW * /LQG]H\ (GV Handbook of Social Psychology, 5th
edition9ROSS+RERNHQ1-:LOH\6RQV,QF
&DVWHODR&).U|QHU+HUZLJ%'HYHORSPHQWDOWUDMHFWRULHVDQG
SUHGLFWRUVRIH[WHUQDOL]LQJEHKDYLRU$FRPSDULVRQRIJLUOVDQGER\V
Journal of Youth Adolescence, 43, &RKHQ - - )LVK 0& Handbook of school-based interventions:
Resolving student problems and promoting healthy educational
environments. 6DQ)UDQFLVFR&$-RVVH\%DVV6RFLDODQG%HKDYLRUDO
6FLHQFH6HULHV
References
&RRN 7 ' &DPSEHOO ' 7 Quasi Experimentation. Design &
Analysis issues for field settings. %RVWRQ 0$ +RXJKWRQ 0LIIOLQ
&RPSDQ\
&RUQHOO'*:DUUHQ-+DZN*6WDIIRUG(2UDP*3LQH'
3V\FKRSDWK\LQLQVWUXPHQWDODQGUHDFWLYHYLROHQWRIIHQGHUVJournal of
Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, &RVWD370F&UDH551RUPDOSHUVRQDOLW\DVVHVVPHQWLQFOLQLFDO
SUDFWLFH 7KH 1(2SHUVRQDOLW\ LQYHQWRU\ Psychological Assessment,
4
&RWH-$%XFNOH\5(VWLPDWLQJWUDLWPHWKRGDQGHUURUYDULDQFH
*HQHUDOL]LQJ DFURVV FRQVWUXFW YDOLGDWLRQ VWXGLHV Journal of
Marketing Research, 24, &{Wp 6 $UFKHU - 6H[ GLIIHUHQFHV LQ DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRU D
GHYHORSPHQWDODQGHYROXWLRQDU\SHUVSHFWLYH,Q5(7UHPEOD\::
+DUWXS-$UFKHU(GVDevelopmental origins of aggression SS
1HZ<RUN7KH*XLOIRUG3UHVV
&ULFN 1 5 'RGJH . $ $UHYLHZDQG UHIRUPXODWLRQ RI VRFLDO
LQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ PHFKDQLVPV LQ FKLOGUHQ¶V VRFLDO DGMXVWPHQW
Psychological Bulletin, 115
&ULFN 1 5 'RGJH . $ 6RFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJ
PHFKDQLVPVLQUHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQChild Development,
67
&ULFN 1 5 *URWSHWHU - . 5HODWLRQDO DJJUHVVLRQ JHQGHU DQG
VRFLDOSV\FKRORJLFDODGMXVWPHQWChild Development, 66
'DOH ( / Oppdragelse fri fra “mor” og “far”. Pedagogikkens
grunnlag i det moderne samfunn. 2VOR*\OGHQGDO
'LDPDQWRSRXORV $ 6LJXDZ - $ Introducing LISREL. /RV
$QJHOHV&$6DJH
'LFNH7(OOLQJ-6FKPHFN$/HXWHU'5HGXFLQJUHDOLW\VKRFN
WKH HIIHFWV RI FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW VNLOOV WUDLQLQJ RQ EHJLQQLQJ
WHDFKHUVTeaching and Teacher Education
'RGJH . $ 7KH VWUXFWXUH DQG IXQFWLRQ RI UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ,Q'-3HSOHU.+5XELQ(GVThe development and
treatment of childhood aggression SS 0DKZDK 1-
/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP
References
'RGJH . $6RFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJSDWWHUQVDV PHGLDWRUV RI
WKH LQWHUDFWLRQ EHWZHHQ JHQHWLF IDFWRUV DQG OLIH H[SHULHQFHV LQ WKH
GHYHORSPHQWRIDJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRU,Q356KDYHU00LNXOLQFHU
(GVHuman Aggression and Violence. Causes, manifestations, and
Consequences SS :DVKLQJWRQ '& $PHULFDQ
3V\FKRORJLFDO$VVRFLDWLRQ
'RGJH.$&RLH-'6RFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJIDFWRUVLQ
UHDFWLYHDQGSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLQFKLOGUHQ¶VSOD\JURXSVJournal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 53
'RGJH . $ &RLH - ' /\QDP ' $JJUHVVLRQ DQG DQWLVRFLDO
EHKDYLRULQ\RXWK,Q1(LVHQEHUJ9ROXPHGLWRUHandbook of Child
Psychology, WK HG 9RO SS +RERNHQ 1- :LOH\ 6RQV,QF
'RGJH.$/RFKPDQ-(+DUQLVK-'%DWHV-(3HWWLW*6
5HDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LQ VFKRRO FKLOGUHQ DQG
SV\FKLDWULFDOO\ LPSDLUHG FKURQLFDOO\ DVVDXOWLYH \RXWK Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 106
'ROODUG-'RRE/:0LOOHU1(0RZUHU2+6HDUV55
Frustration and aggression. 1HZ+DYHQ&7<DOH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
'UXJOL0%Relasjonen lærer og elev - avgjørende for elevenes
læring og trivsel2VOR&DSSHOHQ'DPP$6
'XHVXQG/8UR,VNROHQ,Q-+6WUD\/:LWWHN(GVPedgogikk
– En grunnbok SS2VOR&DSSHOHQ'DPP$NDGHPLVN
(LVHQKDUGW.0%XLOGLQJWKHRULHVIURPFDVHVWXG\UHVHDUFKAcademy
of Management Review, 14
(LVHQKDUGW.06SHHGDQGVWUDWHJLFFKRLFH+RZPDQDJHUVDFFHOHUDWH
GHFLVLRQPDNLQJCalifornia management Review, 32
(LVHQKDUGW . 0 %RXUJHRLV / - 3ROLWLFV RI VWUDWHJLF GHFLVLRQ
PDNLQJ LQ KLJKYHORFLW\ HQYLURQPHQWV 7RZDUG D PLGUDQJH WKHRU\
Academy of Management Journal, 31
(LVHQKDUGW . 0 6XOO ' 1 6WUDWHJ\ DV VLPSOH UXOHV Harvard
Business Review, 79, (LVHQKDUGW . 0 =EDUDFNL 0 $ 6WUDWHJLF 'HFLFLRQ PDNLQJ
Strategic Management Journal, 13
References
(LVQHU030DOWL7$JJUHVVLYHDQGYLROHQWEHKDYLRU,Q50
/HUQHU(GHandbook of child psychology and developmental science
(7th ed.) 9ROSS+RERNHQ1-:LOH\6RQV,QF
(PPHU(7(YHUWVRQ&0Classroom management for middle
and high school teachers WK HG%RVWRQ3HDUVRQ
(UWHVYnJ 6 . 0HDVXULQJ DXWKRULWDWLYH WHDFKLQJ Teaching and
Teacher Education, 27
(UWHVYnJ6..ODVVHOHGHOVH±WHRUHWLVNHSHUVSHNWLY,Q-+6WUD\/
:LWWHN (GV Pedagogikk – En grunnbok SS 2VOR
&DSSHOHQ'DPP$NDGHPLVN
(UWHVYnJ6.5RODQG(3URIHVVLRQDOFXOWXUHVDQGUDWHVRIEXOO\LQJ
School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 26
(UWHVYnJ 6 . 9DDODQG * 6 3UHYHQWLRQ DQG UHGXFWLRQ RI
EHKDYLRXUDOSUREOHPVLQVFKRRO$QHYDOXDWLRQRIWKH5HVSHFWSURJUDP
Educational Psychology, 27
(YHUWVRQ&0:HLQVWHLQ&6&ODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQWDVDILHOG
RI LQTXLU\ ,Q & 0 (YHUWVRQ DQG & 6 :HLQVWHLQ Handbook of
classroom management. Research, practice, and contemporary issues
SS0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
)DQJHQ5Essays2VOR
)DUULQJWRQ'37WRIL003URWHFWLYHDQGSURPRWLYHIDFWRUVLQ
WKH GHYHORSPHQW RI RIIHQGLQJ ,Q 7 %OHLVHQHU $ %HHOPDQQ 0
6WHPPHU (GV Antisocial behavior & Crime. Contributions of
Developmental and Evaluation Research to Prevention and
Intervention, SS&DPEULGJH0$+RJUHIH3XEOLVKLQJ
)LWH3-6WRSSHOEHLQ/*UHHQLQJ/3UHGLFWLQJUHDGPLVVLRQWRD
FKLOGSV\FKLDWULFLQSDWLHQWXQLW7KHLPSDFWRISDUHQWLQJVW\OHVJournal
of Child and Family Studies, 18, )O\YEMHUJ % )LYH PLVXQGHUVWDQGLQJV ZLWK FDVHVWXG\ UHVHDUFK
Qualitative Inquiry 12
)O\YEMHUJ % &DVH VWXG\ ,Q 1 . 'HQ]LQ < 6 /LQFROQ (GV
Qualitative Research SS&DOLIRUQLD6DJH
)RQWDLQH 5 * 'RGJH . $ 5HDOWLPH GHFLVLRQ PDNLQJ DQG
DJJUHVVLYHEHKDYLRULQ\RXWK$KHXULVWLFPRGHORIUHVSRQVHHYDOXDWLRQ
DQGGHFLVLRQ5('Aggressive behavior, 32
References
)UHLEHUJ +- /DSRLQWH -0 5HVHDUFKEDVHG SURJUDPV IRU
SUHYHQWLQJDQGVROYLQJGLVFLSOLQHSUREOHPV,Q&0(YHUWVRQ&6
:HLQVWHLQ (GV Handbook of classroom management: Research,
practice, and contemporary issues SS ± 0DKZDK 1-
/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP
)UHLUH 3 De undertryktes pædagogik .¡EHQKDYQ &KULWLDQ (MOHUV¶
)RUODJ
)ULFN3-&RUQHOO$+%DUU\&7%RGLQ6''DQH+(
&DOORXVXQHPRWLRQDOWUDLWVDQGFRQGXFWSUREOHPVLQWKHSUHGLFWLRQRI
FRQGXFWSUREOHPVHYHULW\DJJUHVVLRQDQGVHOIUHSRUWRIGHOLQTXHQF\
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 31
)UXGH13HUVSHFWLYHVRQGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRU,Q06FKHUHU,*HUVFK
/ )U\ (GV Meeting disruptive behavior SS ± /RQGRQ
5RXWOHGJH
*DOO 0 ' *DOO - 3 %RUJ : 5 (GXFDWLRQDO 5HVHDUFK $Q
,QWURGXFWLRQWK HG%RVWRQ$OO\Q%DFRQ
*HHW]HOV-:7KHOHQ+$7KHFODVVURRPJURXSDVDXQLTXHVRFLDO
V\VWHP,Q$<HHHGSocial interaction in educational settings SS
(QJOHZRRG&OLIIV1-3UHQWLFH+DOO
*LOOLDP/%¡YORJEDOODGH±QnUE|UQREVWUXHUHUO UHUHVSURMHNW,-
% .UHMVOHU / 0RRV (GV Klasseledelse –magtkampe i praksis,
pædagogik og politik SS)UHGHULNVKDYQ'DIROR
*RRGPDQ50HOW]HU+%DLOH\97KHVWUHQJWKVDQGGLIILFXOWLHV
TXHVWLRQQDLUH$SLORWVWXG\RQWKHYDOLGLW\RIWKHVHOIUHSRUWYHUVLRQ
International Review of Psychiatry, 15, ±
*UDKDP-:0LVVLQJGDWDDQDO\VLV0DNLQJLWZRUNLQWKHUHDOZRUOG
Annual Review of Psychology, 60
*UDKDP6+XGOH\&$QDWWULEXWLRQDOLQWHUYHQWLRQWRUHGXFHSHHU
GLUHFWHG DJJUHVVLRQ DPRQJ $IULFDQ$PHULFDQ ER\V Child
Development, 64
*XHUUD 1 * 6ODE\ 5 * (YDOXDWLYH IDFWRUV LQ VRFLDO SUREOHP
VROYLQJ E\ DJJUHVVLYH ER\V Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology,
17
+DJWYHW . $ 8VLQJ SUHFRQFHSWLRQV LQ TXDQWLWDWLYH DQDO\VLV RI
HPSLULFDOGDWD,Q*,PVHQ(6NDDOYLN$2IWHGDO7HOKDXJ(GV
References
Frontlinjer i pedagogisk forskning SS±7URQGKHLP1RUZHJLDQ
&HQWUHIRU&KLOGUHVHDUFK1RUZHJLDQ5HVHDUFK&RXQFLO
+DOO & 6 /LQG]H\ * Theories of personality 7KLUG HG 1HZ
<RUN-RKQ:LOH\6RQV
+DPLOWRQ'/.DW]/%/HLUHU92&RJQLWLYHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQ
RI SHUVRQDOLW\ LPSUHVVLRQV RUJDQL]HG SURFHVVHV LQ ILUVW LPSUHVVLRQ
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1050-1063.
+DPUH%.3LDQWD5&(DUO\WHDFKHUFKLOGUHODWLRQVKLSVDQGWKH
WUDMHFWRULHVRIFKLOGUHQV¶VVFKRRORXWFRPHVWKURXJKHLJKWJUDGHChild
Development, 72
+DQVHQ ' 7 (SLORJXH WKH VRXUFHV DQG H[SUHVVLRQV RI FODVVURRP
DXWKRULW\,Q-/3DFH$+HPPLQJV(GV&ODVVURRPDXWKRULW\
7KHRU\UHVHDUFKDQGSUDFWLFHSS0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH
(UOEDXP
+DZNHU ' 6 - %RXOWRQ 0 - 7ZHQW\ \HDUV¶ UHVHDUFK RQ SHHU
YLFWLPL]DWLRQDQGSV\FKRVRFLDOPDODGMXVWPHQWDPHWDDQDO\WLFUHYLHZ
RIFURVVVHFWLRQDOVWXGLHVJournal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
and Allied Disciplines, 41GRL
+DZOH\ 3 + 6WUDWHJLHV RI FRQWURO DJJUHVVLRQ DQG PRUDOLW\ LQ
SUHVFKRROHUV $Q HYROXWLRQDU\ SHUVSHFWLYH. Journal of Experimental
Child Psychology, 85
+DZOH\ 3 + 6RFLDO GRPLQDQFHLQ FKLOGKRRG DQGDGROHVFHQFH ZK\
VRFLDO FRPSHWHQFH DQG DJJUHVVLRQ PD\ JR KDQG LQ KDQG ,Q 3 +
+DZOH\7'/LWWOH3&5RGNLQ(GV$JJUHVVLRQDQGDGDSWLRQ
7KH EULJKW VLGH WR EDG EHKDYLRU SS 0DKZDK 1- /DZUHQFH
(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV3XEOLVKHUV
+LJKKRXVH6*LOOHVSLH-='RVDPSOHVUHDOO\PDWWHUWKDWPXFK"
,Q& ( /DQFH 5- 9DQGHQEHUJ(GV Statistical and
methodological myths and urban legends: Doctrine, verity and fable in
the organizational and social sciences SS 0DKZDK 1-
/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP
+MDUGHPDDO ) 9LWHQVNDSVWHRUL , 7$ .OHYHQ UHG Innføring i
pedagogisk forskningsmetode SS2VOR8QLSXE
+XEEDUG-$6PLWKP\HU&05DPVGHQ603DUNHU(+)ODQDJDQ.
' 'HDULQJV . ) 6LPRQ 5 ) 2EVHUYDWLRQDO
3K\VLRORJLFDODQGVHOIUHSRUWPHDVXUHVRIFKLOGUHQ¶VDQJHU5HODWLRQV
References
WRUHDFWLYHYHUVXVSURDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQChild Development, 73
+XHVPDQQ / 5 (URQ / ' /HINRZLW] 0 0 :DOGHU / 2 6WDELOLW\ RI DJJUHVVLRQ RYHU WLPH DQG JHQHUDWLRQV Developmental
Psychology, 20
-|UHVNRJ . 6|UERP ' LISREL 8.80. /LQFROQZRRG 6FLHQWLILF
6RIWZDUH,QWHUQDWLRQDO
.DXNLDLQHQ$%M|UNTXLVW./DJHUVSHW].2VWHUPDQ.6DOPLYDOOL&
5RWKEHUJ6«$KOERP$7KHUHODWLRQVKLSVEHWZHHQVRFLDO
LQWHOLOJHQFH HPSKDW\ DQG WKUHH W\SHV RI DJJUHVVLRQ Aggressive
Behavior, 25, .HOOH\++7KHZDUPFROGYDULDEOHLQILUVWLPSUHVVLRQVRISHUVRQV
Journal of Personality, 18
.M UQVOL0-HQVHQ)/ ULQJVPLOM¡HWLVNROHQ,0.M UQVOL
592OVHQUHGFortsatt en vei å gå. Norske elevers kompetanse i
matematikk, naturfag og lesing i PISA 2012 (pp. 261-). 2VOR
8QLYHUVLWHWVIRUODJHW
.OHYHQ7$,NNHHNVSHULPHQWHOOHGHVLJQ,7/XQG5HGInnføring
I forskningsmetodologiV2OVR8QLSXE
.OHYHQ7 $9DOLGLW\ DQG YDOLGDWLRQ LQ TXDOLWDWLYHDQG TXDQWLWDWLYH
UHVHDUFKNordisk Pedagogik, 28±
.OHYHQ7$)RUVNQLQJRJIRUVNQLQJVUHVXOWDWHU,7$.OHYHQUHG
Innføring i pedagogisk forskningsmetode SS2VOR8QLSXE
.UHMVOHU-%0RRV/0DJWNDPSHLSUDNVLVS GDJRJLNRJSROLWLN
(Q LQWURGXNWLRQ WLO NODVVHOHGHOVH , - % .UHMVOHU / 0RRV (GV
Klasseledelse –magtkampe i praksis, pædagogik og politik SS
)UHGHULNVKDYQ'DIROR
.XQQVNDSVO¡IWHW/ UHSODQIRUJUXQQVNROHQRJYLGHUHJnHQGHRSSO ULQJ
'RZQORDGHG 0DUV IURP
KWWSZZZXGLUQR/DUHSODQHU.XQQVNDSVORIWHW
.XSHUVPLGW - % 6WHOWHU 5 'RGJH . $ 'HYHORSPHQW DQG
YDOLGDWLRQ RI WKH VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ DSSOLFDWLRQ $ ZHE
EDVHGPHDVXUHRIVRFLDOLQIRUPDWLRQSURFHVVLQJSDWWHUQVLQHOHPHQWDU\
VFKRRODJHER\VPsychological Assessment, 23,(
References
.YDOH6%ULQNPDQQ6Det kvalitative forskningsintervju QGHG
>7KH TXDOLWDWLYH UHVHDUFK LQWHUYLHZ QG HG@ 2VOR *\OGHQGDO
$NDGHPLVN
/DQJ 3 - 7KHHPRWLRQ SUREH 6WXGLHV RI PRWLYDWLRQ DQG DWWHQWLRQ
American Psychologist, 50(5), /DQVIRUG - ( 'RGJH . $ 3HWWLW * 6 %DWHV - ( Developmental trajectories of reactive and proactive aggression:
Similarities and differences over time. 3DSHU SUHVHQWHG DW WKH
,QWHUQDWLRQDO6RFLHW\IRU5HVHDUFKRQ$JJUHVVLRQ0RQWUHDO4&
/HDU\ 0 $IILOLDWLRQ DFFHSWDQFH DQG EHORQJLQJ 7KH SXUVXLW RI
LQWHUSHUVRQDOFRQQHFWLRQ,Q67)LVNH'**LOEHUW*/LQG]H\
(GVHandbook of Social Psychology (5th ed.)9ROSS
+RERNHQ1-:LOH\6RQV,QF
/HPHULVH($$UVHQLR9)$QLQWHJUDWHGPRGHORIHPRWLRQDO
SURFHVVHV DQG FRJQLWLRQ LQ VRFLDO LQIRUPDWLRQ SURFHVVLQJ Child
Development, 71
/HYLQ - 1RODQ -) Principles of classroom management: A
professional desicionmaking model WK HG%RVWRQ$OO\Q%DFRQ
/HZLQ.%HKDYLRUDQGGHYHORSPHQWDVDIXQFWLRQRIWKHWRWDOVLWXDWLRQ
,Q ' &DUWZUHLJKW (G Field Theory in Social Science. Selected
theoretical papers by Kurt Lewin SS1HZ<RUN+DUSHU
%URWKHUV3XEOLVKHUV
/LQFROQ<6*XED(*Naturalistic inquiry1HZEXU\3DUN&$
6$*(3XEOLFDWLRQV
/LQFROQ < 6 /\QKDP 6 $ *XED ( * 3DUDGLJPDWLF
FRQWURYHUVLHVFRQWUDGLFWLRQVDQGHPHUJLQJFRQIOXHQFHVUHYLVLWHG,Q
1.'HQ]LQ<6/LQFROQ(GV7KH6$*(KDQGERRNRI
TXDOLWDWLYHUHVHDUFKSS7KRXVDQG2DNV&$6$*(
/LQGHOO 0 . :LWKQH\ ' - $FFRXQWLQJ IRU FRPPRQ PHWKRG
YDULDQFH LQ FURVVVHFWLRQDO UHVHDUFK GHVLJQV Journal of Applied
Psychology, 86
/LWWOH7'%UDXQHU--RQHV601RFN0.+DZOH\3+
5HWKLQNLQJDJJUHVVLRQ$W\SRORJLFDOH[DPLQDWLRQRIWKHIXQFWLRQVRI
DJJUHVVLRQMerrill-Palmer Quarterly, 49
References
/LWWOH7 '-RQHV60 +HQULFK&& +DZOH\ 3+
'LVHQWDQJOLQJ WKH ³ZK\V´ IURP WKH ³ZKDWV´ RI DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRU
International Journal of Behavioral Development, 27
/RHEHU5)DUULQJWRQ'37KHVLJQLILFDQFHRIFKLOGGHOLQTXHQF\
,Q 5 /RHEHU DQG ' 3 IDUULQJWRQ (GV Child Delinquents.
Development, Intervention and Service Needs SS 7KRXVDQG
2DNV&$6$*(3XEOLFDWLRQV
/RHEHU5*UHHQ60/DKH\%%6WRXWKDPHU/RHEHU0
'LIIHUHQFHVDQGVLPLODULWLHVEHWZHHQFKLOGUHQPRWKHUVDQGWHDFKHUVDV
LQIRUPDQWVRQGLVUXSWLYHFKLOGEHKDYLRUJournal
of Abnormal Child Psychology, 19, ±
/RHEHU 5 /DKH\ % % 7KRPDV & 'LDJQRVWLF FRQXQGUXP RI
RSSRVLWLRQDO GHILDQW GLVRUGHU DQG FRQGXFW GLVRUGHU Journal of
Abnormal Psychology, 100
/RQH\%5)ULFN3-&OHPHQWV&%(OOLV0/.HUOLQ.
&ROORXVXQHPRWLRQDO WUDLWV LPSXOVLYLW\ DQG HPRWLRQDO SURFHVVLQJ LQ
DQWLVRFLDO DGROHVFHQWV Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent
Psychology, 32
/RSH]'XUDQ1/2OVRQ6/+DMDO1-)HOW%79D]TXH]'0
+\SRWKDODPLF SLWXLWDU\DGUHQDOLQD[LV IXQFWLRQLQJLQ UHDFWLYH
DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LQ FKLOGUHQ Journal of Abnormal Child
Psychology, 37, /XQG 7 7KH TXDOLWDWLYHTXDQWLWDWLYH GLVWLQFWLRQ 6RPH FRPPHQWV
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 49
/XQG7+DXJHQ5Forskningsprosessen2VOR8QLSXE
0DUFXV1HZKDOO $ 3HGHUVHQ : & &DUOVRQ 0 0LOOHU 1 'LVSODFHGDJJUHVVLRQLVDOLYHDQGZHOO$PHWDDQDO\WLFUHYLHZ
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78
0DUVHH0$ )ULFN 3- ([SORULQJWKHFRJQLWLYH DQGHPRWLRQDO
FRUUHODWHVWRSURDFWLYHDQGUHDFWLYHDJJUHVVLRQLQDVDPSOHRIGHWDLQHG
JLUOVJournal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 35
0DU]DQR 5- ZLWK0DU]DQR- 6 3LFNHULQJ '- Classroom
management that works. Research-based strategies for every teacher.
$OH[DQGULD 9$ $VVRFLDWLRQ IRU 6XSHUYLVLRQ DQG &XUULFXOXP
'HYHORSPHQW
0D\5Freedom and destiny1HZ<RUN::1RUWRQ
References
0F&UDH 5 5 &RVWD3 7 $FRQWHPSODWHG UHYLVLRQ RI WKH 1(2
ILYHIDFWRU LQYHQWRU\ Personality and individual differences, 36
0HVVLFN 6 9DOLGLW\ RI SV\FKRORJLFDO DVVHVVPHQW 9DOLGDWLRQ RI
LQIHUHQFHV IURP SHUVRQV¶ UHVSRQVHVDQG SHUIRUPDQFHVDV VFLHQWLILF
LQTXLU\LQWRVFRUHPHDQLQJAmerican Psychologist, 50
0HW]0+)RUHZRUG,Q-/3DFH$+HPPLQJV(GVClassroom
authority. Theory, research, and practiceSSYLL[YL0DKZDK1-
/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP
0LOJUDP6%HKDYLRUDOVWXG\RIREHGLHQFHJournal of Abnormal and
Social Psychology, 67
0LOJUDP6/LEHUDWLQJHIIHFWRIJURXSSUHVVXUHJournal of Personality
and Social Psychology, 1
0LOJUDP6Obedience to authority1HZ<RUN1<+DUSHU5RZ
0LOOHU1(7KHIUXVWUDWLRQDJJUHVVLRQK\SRWKHVLV,Q5/DZVRQ(G
Frustration: The development of a scientific concept SS1HZ
<RUN0DFPLOOLDQ
0LVFKHO :7RZDUG D FRJQLWLYH VRFLDO OHDUQLQJ FRQFHSWXDOL]DWLRQ RI
SHUVRQDOLW\Psychological Review, 80
0RQVYROG7%HQGL[HQ0+DJHQ5+HOYLN$6([SRVXUHWR
WHDFKHU EXOO\LQJ LQ VFKRROV $ VWXG\ RI SDWLHQWV ZLWK SHUVRQDOLW\
GLVRUGHUV Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 65
0RRV / 'LVNXUVHU RJ VW\ULQJVORJLNNHU L NDPSHQ RP GHPRNUDWLVN
GDQQHOVH,-%.UHMVOHU/0RRV(GVKlasseledelse –magtkampe
i praksis, pædagogik og politik SS)UHGHULNVKDYQ'DIROR
0RUULV9&3DL<Philosophy and the American school QG HG
%RVWRQ+RXJKWRQ0LIIOLQ&RPSDQ\
0RUVHOOL'3DVVLQL65LJKWVGHPRFUDF\DQGYDOXHV$FRPSDULVRQ
EHWZHHQ WKHUHSUHVHQWDWLRQV RI REHGLHQFH DQG GLVREHGLHQFH LQ ,WDOLDQ
DQG)LQQLVKVWXGHQWV,QWHUQDWLRQDOJournal of Intercultural Relations,
36
References
0RVNRZLW]'6&RPSDULVRQRIVHOIUHSRUWVUHSRUWVE\NQRZOHGJHDEOH
LQIRUPDQWV DQG EHKDYLRUDO REVHUYDWLRQ GDWD Journal of Personality,
54±
0XWKpQ%2/DWHQWYDULDEOHPRGHOLQJRIORQJLWXLGLQDODQGPXOWLOHYHO
GDWD ,Q $ 5DIWHU\ (G 6RFLRORJLFDO PHWKRGRORJ\ SS %RVWRQ%ODFNZHOO3XEOLVKHUV
0XWKpQ/.0XWKpQ%20SOXVXVHU¶VJXLGHWK HG/RV
$QJHOHV&$0XWKpQ0XWKpQ
0XWKpQ % 2 6DWRUUD $ &RPSOH[ VDPSOH GDWD LQ VWUXFWXUDO
HTXDWLRQPRGHOLQJSociological Methodology, 25
1MHJRYDQ%59XFDGLQRYLü01HãLü/*&KDUDFWHULVWLFVDQG
W\SHV RI DXWKRULW\ WKH DWWLWXGHV RI \RXQJ SHRSOH $ FDVH VWXG\
Sociologia,43
1RUGDKO 7 .ODVVHQ VRP O ULQJVPLOM¡ RJ O UHUHQV DQVYDU , - %
.UHMVOHU / 0RRV (GV Klasseledelse –magtkampe i praksis,
pædagogik og politik SS)UHGHULNVKDYQ'DIROR
1RUXVLV6366Juide to data analysis. &KLFDJR,/3UHQWLFH+DOO
,QF
1RUZHJLDQ 1DWLRQDO &RPPLWWHHV IRU 5HVHDUFK (WKLFV 1(6+ )RUVNQLQJVHWLVNHUHWQLQJVOLQMHUIRUVDPIXQQVYLWHQVNDSKXPDQLRUDMXVV
RJ
WHRORJL
)RUVNQLQJVHWLVNH
NRPLWHHU
KWWSVZZZHWLNNRPQRJOREDODVVHWVGRFXPHQWVSXEOLNDVMRQHUVRP
SGIIRUVNQLQJVHWLVNHUHWQLQJVOLQMHUIRUVDPIXQQVYLWHQVNDS
KXPDQLRUDMXVVRJWHRORJLSGI'RZQORDGHG)HEUXDU\
1XQQDOO\-&%HUQVWHLQ,+Psychometric theory UG HG1HZ
<RUN1<0F*UDZ+LOO
2JGHQ 7 Sosial Kompetanse og ProblematIHUG L 6NROHQ 2VOR
*\OGHQGDO
2OZHXV'6WDELOLW\RIDJJUHVVLYHUHDFWLRQSDWWHUQVLQPDOHV$UHYLHZ
Psychological Bulletin, 86
2OZHXV ' 3UHYDOHQFH DQG LQFLGHQFH LQ WKH VWXG\ RI DQWLVRFLDO
EHKDYLRU'HILQLWLRQVDQGPHDVXUHPHQWV,Q0:.OHLQ(GCrossnational research in self-reported crime and delinquency SS ±
1RUZHOO0$.OXZHU$FDGHPLF
References
2SSO ULQJVORYHQ
GRZQORDGHG
$SULO
KWWSVORYGDWDQRGRNXPHQW1/ORY
IURP
2URELR GH &DVWUR % 9HHUPDQ - : .RRSV : %RVFK - ' 0RQVKRXZHU+-+RVWLOHDWWULEXWLRQRILQWHQWDQGDJJUHVVLYH
EHKDYLRU$PHWDDQDO\VLVChild Development, 73
2VWURY-0*RGOHVNL6$7RZDUGDQLQWHJUDWHGJHQGHUOLQNHG
PRGHO RI DJJUHVVLRQ VXEW\SHV LQ HDUO\ DQG PLGGOH FKLOGKRRG
Psychological review, 117
3DFH-/+HPPLQJV$8QGHUVWDQGLQJFODVVURRPDXWKRULW\DVD
VRFLDO FRQVWUXFWLRQ ,Q -/ 3DFH $ +HPPLQJV (GVClassroom
authority. Theory, research, and practice SS 0DKZDK 1-
/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP
3DV (7 &DVK $+ 2¶%UHQQDQ / 'HEQDP .- %UDQGVKDZ &3
3URILOHV RI FODVVURRP EHKDYLRU LQ KLJK VFKRROV $VVRFLDWLRQ
EHWZHHQ WHDFKHUV FODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW VWUDWHJLHV DQG FODVVURRP
FRPSRVLWLRQJournal of School Psychology, 53
3HUOD 5 - 3URYRVW 06 -XGJPHQW VDPSOLQJ $ KHDOWK FDUH
LPSURYHPHQWSHUVSHFWLYHQuality Management in Health Care, 21
3HWLFOHUH $ 7UHPEOD\ 5 ( &KLOGKRRG GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU
GLVRUGHUV 5HYLHZ RI WKHLU RULJLQ GHYHORSPHQW DQG SUHYHQWLRQ
&DQDGLDQ -RXUQDO RI 3V\FKLDWU\ Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie,
54
3HXJK-/(QGHUV&.0LVVLQJGDWDLQHGXFDWLRQDOUHVHDUFK$
UHYLHZRIUHSRUWLQJSUDFWLFHVDQGVXJJHVWLRQVIRULPSURYHPHQWReview
of Educational Research, 74
3LDQWD 5 & &ODVVURRP PDQDJHPHQW DQG UHODWLRQVKLSV EHWZHHQ
FKLOGUHQDQGWHDFKHUV,PSOLFDWLRQVIRUUHVHDUFKDQGSUDFWLFH,Q&0
(YHUWVRQDQG&6:HLQVWHLQHandbook of classroom management.
Research, practice, and contemporary issues SS0DKZDK
1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
3RGVDNRII 30 0DF.HQ]LH 6% /HH -< 3RGVDNRII 13 &RPPRQPHWKRGELDVHVLQEHKDYLRUDOUHVHDUFKFULWLFDOUHYLHZRIWKH
OLWHUDWXUHDQGUHFRPPHQGHGUHPHGLHVJournal of Applied Psychology,
88
References
3RVWKROP 0 % .YDOLWDWLY PHWRGH (Q LQQI¡ULQJ PHG IRNXV Sn
IHQRPHQRORJL HWQRJUDIL RJ NDVXVVWXGLHU XWJDYH >4XDOLWDWLYH
PHWKRGQG HG@2VOR8QLYHUVLWHWVIRUODJHW
5DLQH$'RGJH./RHEHU5*DW]NH.RSS//\QDP'5H\QROGV&
6WRXWKDPHU/RHEHU 0 /LX - 7KH UHDFWLYHSURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ TXHVWLRQQDLUH GLIIHUHQWLDO FRUUHODWHV LQ UHRDFWLYH DQG
SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ LQ DGROHVFHQW ER\V Aggressive Behavior, 32
5HQRXI $ %UHQGJHQ 0 3DUHQW 6 9LWDUR ) =HOD]R 3 ' %RLYLQ 0
'LRQQH * 7UHPEOD\ 5 ( 3pUXVVH ' 6pJXLQ - 5 5HODWLRQVEHWZHHQWKHRU\RIPLQGDQGLQGLUHFWDQGSK\VLFDODJJUHVVLRQ
LQNLQGHUJDUWHQ(YLGHQFHRIWKHPRGHUDWLQJUROHRISURVRFLDOEHKDYLRU
Social Development, 19
5HQRXI$%UHQGJHQ06pJXLQ-59LWDUR)%RLYLQ0'LRQQH*
7UHPEOD\ 5 ( 3pUXVVH ' $ ,QWHUDFWLYH OLQNV EHWZHHQ
WKHRU\ RI PLQG SHHU YLFWLPL]DWLRQ DQG UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ-RXUQDORIAbnormal Child Psychology, 38
5RELQVRQ6/5LFRUG*ULHVHPHU60+HOSLQJLQGLYLGXDOVWXGHQWV
ZLWKSUREOHPEHKDYLRU,Q & 0 (YHUWVRQ & 6:HLQVWHLQ(GV
Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice and
contemporary Issues SS±0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP
5RH $ .M UQVOL 0 5HVXOWDWHW IUD VNROHVS¡UUHVNMHPDHW , 0
.M UQVOL 5 9 2OVHQ UHG Fortsatt en vei å gå. Norske elevers
kompetanse i matematikk, naturfag og lesing i PISA 2012, pp. 237-260.
2VOR8QLYHUVLWHWVIRUODJHW
5RODQG((OHYNROOHNWLYHWQG HG6WDYDQJHU5HEHOO)RUODJ
5RODQG(School influences on bullying. 6WDYDQJHU5HEHOOIRUODJ
5RODQG(Mobbingens psykologi QGHG2VOR8QLYHUVLWHWVIRUODJHW
5RODQG(*DOORZD\'&ODVVURRPLQIOXHQFHVRQEXOO\LQJ
Educational Research, 44, ±
5RODQG(,GVRH7$JJUHVVLRQDQGEXOO\LQJAggressive Behavior,
27, ±
6DOPLYDOOL & +HLWHHQYXRUL 7 5HDFWLYH EXW QRW SURDFWLYH
DJJUHVVLRQ SUHGLFWV YLFWLPL]DWLRQ DPRQJ ER\V Aggressive Behavior,
33
References
6FKORPHU*/%DXPDQ6&DUG1$%HVWSUDFWLFHVIRUPLVVLQJ
GDWD PDQDJHPHQW LQ FRXQVHOLQJ SV\FKRORJ\ Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 57
6FKZDUW]16HOIUHSRUWV+RZWKHTXHVWLRQVVKDSHWKHDQVZHUV
American Psychologist, 54(2), 93–105.
6KDGLVK :5 &RRN 7 ' &DPSEHOO ' 7 Experimental and
quasi-experimental designs for generalized causal inference %RVWRQ
0$+RXJKWRQ0LIIOLQ&RPSDQ\
6NDDOYLN(06NDDOYLN6Skolen som læringsarena.
Selvoppfatning, motivasjon og læring. 2VOR8QLYHUVLWHWVIRUODJHW
6NLED 5 - 7KH IDLOXUH RI =HUR7ROHUDQFH Reclaiming children and
youth, 22
6NLED 5 - 5DXVFK 0 . =HUR 7ROHUDQFH VXVSHQVLRQ DQG
H[SXOVLRQ4XHVWLRQVRI(TXLW\DQGHIIHFWLYHQHVV,Q&0(YHUWVRQ
& 6 :HLQVWHLQ (GV Handbook for classroom management:
Research, Practice, and Contemporary Issues SS 0DKZDK1-/DZUHQFH(UOEDXP$VVRFLDWHV
6OHH 5 (YROYLQJ WKHRULHV RI VWXGHQW GLVHQJDJHPHQW D QHZ MRE IRU
'XUNHKLP¶V FKLOGUHQ" Oxford Review of Education, 40 '2,
6OHH 5 %H\RQG D SV\FKRORJ\ RI VWXGHQW EHKDYLRXU Emotional and
Behavioural Difficulties, 20
6SHFWRU30HWKRGYDULDQFHLQRUJDQL]DWLRQDOUHVHDUFK7UXWKRUXUEDQ
OHJHQG"Organizational Research Methods, 9
6WDNH5(4XDOLWDWLYHFDVHVWXGLHV,Q1.'HQ]LQ<6/LQFROQ
(GVThe Sage Handbook of Qualitative Research UG HGSS
7KRXVDQG2DNV6DJH
6WDWLVWLFV 1RUZD\ Standard Classification of Municipalities, 1994
2VOR6WDWLVWLFV1RUZD\
6WLFNOH750DULQL9$7KRPDV-1*HQGHUGLIIHUHQFHVLQ
SV\FKRSDWKLF WUDLWV W\SHV DQG FRUUHODWHV RI DJJUHVVLRQ DPRQJ
DGMXGLFDWHG \RXWK Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 40,
References
6WRFNGDOH 06 +DQJDGXDPER 6 'X\V ' /DUVRQ . 6DUYHOD 3'
5XUDOHOHPHQWDU\VWXGHQWV¶SDUHQWV¶DQGWHDFKHUV¶SHUFHSWLRQV
RIEXOO\LQJAmerican Journal of Health Behavior, 26±
6WRUYROO (( :LFKVWU¡P / .ROVWDG $ 3DSH + 6WUXFWXUH RI
FRQGXFWSUREOHPVLQDGROHVFHQFHScandinavian Journal of Psychology,
43, ±
6W¡UNVHQ6,GVRH75RODQG(6FKRRO\DUGFRUQHUVRFLHW\UHODWLQJ
PHPEHUVKLS WR UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLYHQHVVEmotional and
Behavioural Difficulties, 16H
6XQ5&)6KHN'7/D&ODVVURRPPLVEHKDYLRULQWKHH\HVRI
VWXGHQWV$TXDOLWDWLYHVWXG\The Scientific World Journal'2,
6XQ5&)6KHN'7/E6WXGHQWFODVVURRPPLVEHKDYLRU$Q
H[SORUDWRU\VWXG\EDVHGRQWHDFKHUV¶SHUFHSWLRQVThe Scientific World
Journal'2,
7HOKDXJ$2%DUQHRJHOHYVHQWUHUWWHQNQLQJLKLVWRULVNSHUVSHNWLY
Barn, 21RUVN6HQWHUIRU%DUQHIRUVNQLQJ
7KRUQEHUU\ 7 3 .URKQ 0 ' 7KH VHOIUHSRUW PHWKRG IRU
PHDVXULQJ GHOLQTXHQF\ DQG FULPH Criminal Justice, Vol. 4:
Measurement and Analyses of Crime and Justice, 7KXHQ ( %UX ( /HDUQLQJ HQYLURQPHQW PHDQLQJIXOQHVV RI
VFKRROZRUN DQG RQWDVN RULHQWDWLRQ DPRQJ 1RUZHJLDQ WK JUDGH
VWXGHQWVSchool Psychology International, 21
7LUUL.3XROLPDWND77HDFKHUDXWKRULW\LQVFKRROV$FDVHVWXG\
IURP)LQODQG. Journal of Education for Teaching, 26
7RE\-(YHU\GD\VFKRROYLROHQFH+RZGLVRUGHUIXHOVLW
American Educator, 17±±
7RIIOHU$Future shock/RQGRQ3DQ
7RSSLQJ.6FKRROVDQFWLRQV\VWHPV0\WKDQGUHDOLW\,Q1+DVWLQJV
-6FKZLHVR(GVNew directions in educational psychology SS
±/RQGRQ7KH)DOPHU3UHVV
7UHPEOD\ 5 ( 'HYHORSPHQW RULJLQV RI GLVUXSWLYH EHKDYLRXU
SUREOHPV WKH ³RULJLQDO VLQ´ K\SRWKHVLV HSLJHQHWLFV DQG WKHLU
FRQVHTXHQFHV IRU SUHYHQWLRQ Journal of Child Psychology and
Psychiatry, 51
References
7UHPEOD\5((QYLURQPHQWDO*HQHWLFDQG(SLJHQHWLFLQIOXHQFHVRQ
WKHGHYHORSPHQWDORULJLQVRIDJJUHVVLRQDQGRWKHUGLVUXSWLYHEHKDYLRUV
,Q 7 %OLHVQHU $ %HHOPDQQ 0 6WHPPOHU (GV Antisocial
behavior & Crime SS&DPEULGJH0$+RJUHIH3XEOLVKLQJ
7XYEODG & 5DLQH $ =KHQJ 0 %DNHU / $ *HQHWLF DQG
HQYLURQPHQWDO VWDELOLW\ GLIIHUV LQ UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
Aggressive Beahvior, 35
7ZHPORZ6:)RQDJ\36DFFR)&7KHHWLRORJLFDOFDVWWRWKH
UROHRIWKHE\VWDQGHULQWKHVRFLDODUFKLWHFWXUHRIEXOO\LQJDQGYLROHQFH
LQVFKRROVDQGFRPPXQLWLHV,Q65-LPHUVRQ606ZHDUHU'/
(VSHODJH (GV Handbook of bullying in schools. An international
perspective SS1HZ<RUN5RXWOHGJH
7ZHPORZ 6 : )RQDJ\ 3 6DFFR ) & %UHWKRXU -U - 5 7HDFKHUVZKREXOO\VWXGHQWV$KLGGHQWUDXPDInternational Journal
of Social Psychiatry, 53
8QGHUZRRG 0 . Social aggression among girls 1HZ <RUN 1<
*XLOIRUG3UHVV
8WGDQQLQJVGLUHNWRUDWHW .ODVVHOHGHOVH 'RZQORDGHG 0DUV IURP
KWWSZZZXGLUQR/DULQJVPLOMR%HGUHODULQJVPLOMR.ODVVHOHGHOVH
9DDODQG*6*RGVWDUW±XWYLNOLQJDYNODVVHQVRPVRVLDOWV\VWHP,8
9 0LGWKDVVHO ( %UX 6 . (UWHVYnJ ( 5RODQG (GV Tidlig
intervensjon og systemrettet arbeid for et godt læringsmiljø SS
2VOR8QLYHUVLWHWVIRUODJHW
9DDODQG * 6 (UWHVYnJ 6 . /HDGLQJ RU ORVLQJ" ±/RVW LQ WKH
FODVVURRP
5HWULHYHG
IURP
KWWSODULQJVPLOMRVHQWHUHWXLVQRJHWILOHSKS6$)7LOQHGODVWOHDGL
QJORVLQJFODVVURRPSGI
9DLOODQFRXUW7,QGLUHFWDJJUHVVLRQDPRQJKXPDQVVRFLDOFRQVWUXFWRU
HYROXWLRQDU\DGDSWLRQ",Q5(7UHPEOD\::+DUWXS-$UFKHU
(GV'HYHORSPHQWDORULJLQVRIDJJUHVVLRQSSH1HZ<RUN
7KH*XLOIRUG3UHVV
9HODQG-0LGWKDVVHO89 ,GVRH7 3HUFHLYHGVRFLRHFRQRPLF
VWDWXV DQG VRFLDO LQFOXVLRQLQ VFKRRO ,QWHUDFWLRQV DQG GLVDGYDQWDJHV
Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 53
9LWDUR)%RLYLQ07UHPEOD\5(3HHUVDQGYLROHQFH$WZR
VLGHGSHUVSHFWLYH,Q'-)ODQQHU\$79D]VRQ\L,':DOGPDQ
References
(GV7KH&DPEULGJHKDQGERRNRI9LROHQW%HKDYLRUDQG$JJUHVVLRQ
SS&DPEULGJH0$&DPEULGJH8QLYHUVLW\3UHVV
9LWDUR ) %UHQGJHQ 0 3URDFWLYH DQG UHDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ $
GHYHORSPHQWDO SHUVSHFWLYH ,Q 5 ( 7UHPEOD\ : : +DUWXS -
$UFKHU(GVDevelopmental origins of aggression SS1HZ
<RUN7KH*XLOIRUG3UHVV
9LWDUR ) %UHQGJHQ 0 6XEW\SHV RI DJJUHVVLYH EHKDYLRUV
(WLRORJLHV GHYHORSPHQW DQG FRQVHTXHQFQHV ,Q 7 %OLHVQHU $
%HHOPDQQ06WHPPOHU(GVAntisocial behavior & Crime (SS
&DPEULGJH0$+RJUHIH3XEOLVKLQJ
9LWDUR ) %UHQGJHQ 0 %DUNHU ( ' 6XEW\SHV RI DJJUHVVLYH
EHKDYLRUV $ GHYHORSPHQWDO SHUVSHFWLYH International Journal of
Behavioral Development, 30
:DONHU-7$XWKRULWDWLYHFODVVURRPPDQDJHPHQW+RZFRQWURODQG
QXUWXUDQFH ZRUN WRJHWKHU Theory Into Practice, 48, '2,
:DVFKEXVK ' $ :LOORXJKE\ 07 3HOKDP :( -U &ULWHULRQ
YDOLGLW\ DQG WKH XWLOLW\ RI UHDFWLYH DQG SURDFWLYH DJJUHVVLRQ
&RPSDULVRQWRWKHDWWHQWLRQGHILFLWK\SHUDFWLYLW\GLVRUGHURSSRVLWLRQDO
GHILDQWGLVRUGHUFRQGXFWGLVRUGHUDQGRWKHUPHDVXUHVRIIXQFWLRQLQJ
Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 27±
:HEHU0Social and Economic Organization1HZ<RUN7KH
)UHH3UHVV
:HQGHOERUJ&Mobbing, diskriminering og uro i klasserommet.
Analyser av Elevundersøkelsen 2012. 7URQGKHLP 1718
6DPIXQQVIRUVNQLQJ
:HQGHOERUJ&Mobbing, krenkelser og arbeidsro I skolen. Analyse av
Elevundersøkelsen skoleåret 2015/16
7URQGKHLP 1718
6DPIXQQVIRUVNQLQJ
:HQW]HO . 5 $UH HIIHFWLYH WHDFKHUV OLNH JRRG SDUHQWV" 7HDFKLQJ
VW\OHVDQGVWXGHQWDGMXVWPHQWLQHDUO\DGROHVFHQFHChild Development,
73
:LQGOH 0 $ ORQJLWXGLQDO VWXG\ RI DQWLVRFLDO EHKDYLRU V LQ HDUO\
DGROHVFHQFHDVSUHGLFWRUVRIODWHDGROHVFHQFHVXEVWDQFHXVH*HQGHUDQG
HWKQLFJURXSGLIIHUHQFHVJournal of Abnormal Psychology, 99, ±
References
:RRGVLGH $ * :LOVRQ ( - &DVH VWXG\ UHVHDUFK PHWKRGV IRU
WKHRU\EXLOGLQJJournal of Buisness & Industrial Marketing, 18
<LQ Case Study Research. Designs and methods WK HG 7KRXVDQG
2DNV&$6$*(
Paper I
7KLVDUWLFOHZDVGRZQORDGHGE\>9DDODQG*UHWH6ºUHQVHQ@
2Q)HEUXDU\
$FFHVVGHWDLOV$FFHVV'HWDLOV>VXEVFULSWLRQQXPEHU@
3XEOLVKHU5RXWOHGJH
,QIRUPD/WG5HJLVWHUHGLQ(QJODQGDQG:DOHV5HJLVWHUHG1XPEHU5HJLVWHUHGRIILFH0RUWLPHU+RXVH
0RUWLPHU6WUHHW/RQGRQ:7-+8.
6FDQGLQDYLDQ-RXUQDORI(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK
3XEOLFDWLRQGHWDLOVLQFOXGLQJLQVWUXFWLRQVIRUDXWKRUVDQGVXEVFULSWLRQLQIRUPDWLRQ
KWWSZZZLQIRUPDZRUOGFRPVPSSWLWOHaFRQWHQW W
$JJUHVVLYHQHVVDQG'LVREHGLHQFH
*UHWH6ºUHQVHQ9DDODQGD7KRUPRG,GVRHD(UOLQJ5RODQGD
D
8QLYHUVLW\RI6WDYDQJHU
2QOLQHSXEOLFDWLRQGDWH)HEUXDU\
7RFLWHWKLV$UWLFOH9DDODQG*UHWH6ºUHQVHQ,GVRH7KRUPRGDQG5RODQG(UOLQJ
$JJUHVVLYHQHVVDQG'LVREHGLHQFH
6FDQGLQDYLDQ-RXUQDORI(GXFDWLRQDO5HVHDUFK٢
7ROLQNWRWKLV$UWLFOH'2,
85/KWWSG[GRLRUJ
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf
This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or
systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.
The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses
should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,
actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly
or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
Not available in UiS Brage due to copyright
Paper II
Not available in UiS Brage due to copyright
Paper III
Not available in UiS Brage due to copyright
Back on track: Approaches to managing highly disruptive school classes
Grete S. Vaaland
Norwegian Centre for Learning Environment and Behavioural Research in Education,
University of Stavanger, Norway
Correspondence should be addressed to Grete S. Vaaland, Norwegian Centre for Learning
Environment and Behavioural Research in Education, University of Stavanger, N-4036
Stavanger, NORWAY. Telephone +47 51 83 29 00, e-mail: [email protected]
1
© Copyright 2026 Paperzz