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Paintings in the laboratory: scientific examination for art history and conservation
dr. Groen, C.M.
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dr. Groen, C. M. (2011). Paintings in the laboratory: scientific examination for art history and conservation
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Download date: 14 Jun 2017
Colophon
ludith Leyster:A Dutch Master
andHerWorld
is publishedin connection
with the exhibition held at
FransHalsmuseurn,Haarlem
May 16- August 22,1993
WorcesterArt Museum
r9 - December
5,1993
September
DESIGN
Richardvanden Dool, Dordrecht
PRINTING
WaandersPrinters,Zwolle
D IS T R IB UT E D B Y
YaleUniversityPress
@1993Yale UniversitY
A Dutch edition was Published
under the title 'Judith LeYster"
schilderesin een mannenwereld'
il 1993byWaalders Uitgevers,
Zwolle, and the Frans Halsmuseum,
Haarlem.
Al1 rights resewed.
This bookmaY notbe reProduced,
in whole or in Part, ilcluding
illustrations, in anYform (beYonc
that copying Permitted bY Sectioro
ro7 and ro8 ofthe us. CoPlright
Law and excePt bY reviewers for the
public press), without written
peimission from the Publishers.
The paper in this book meets the
guideliles for permanence and
durability of the committee on
Production Guidelines for Book
Longevitfofthe council on Library
Resources.
LI BRARY
O F CO NG R E S S
CATAI O G I NG - I N. PUBLI C A T I O N
DATA
Judith Leyster:a Dutch master
and herworld/ Project directors'
JamesA. Welu and Pieter Biesboer
3gzp, 23ox28o cm
'Worcester Art Museum,
Frans Halsmuseum, Haarlem.'
Exhibition etalog.
Includes bibliographical references
andindq.
rsBNo-3oo-o5564-1
r. Leyster,ludith, 1609-1660Exhibitions. r. Welu' JamesA'
rr. Worcester Art Museum.
rr. Frans Halsmusem.
ND653.L73^41993
759.9492-dczo
93-12478
CP
A cataloguerecord for this book is
available ftom the British Library.
Cover
fi'ont: detail ftom cat.7
back: detail from cat'r6
Iudith Leyster:
ELLA
H EN DR IK S
AND
K A RIN
GROEN
A Technical Examination
of HerWork
Very little technicalinformation concerning
paintingsattributed to Judith Leysterhasbeen
publishedprior to this catalogue,which hasinvolved
systematictechnicalexaminationof 16oil paintings,
somdof which are no longer acceptedasby Leyster.r
Among theseare six signedworks (four of them
dated)which serveaskey points of referencein
Although surviving
comparingexaminationresuits.2
definite
ir,formation
offer
little
documents
concerningLeyster'straining and the practicesof
her studio,we hope that this first technical
examinationof someof her paintingsmay provide
freshinsight into theseissues.
The first of our goalsis to determinewhether
stylesof the paintings
amongthe heterogeneous
examined- which hasbeenexplainedaseclecticmay be considered
any common characteristics
hallmarksof Leyster'spainting technique.Second,
we hope to discoverwhether any similaritiesin her
painting techniquewould support the proposition
that sheapprenticedto FransHals around 1629.
Up until now, the closeaffinity in styleand subject
matter of some of her paintingshassupportedthis
suggestion.Resultsofan earliertechnicalstudy of
paintingsattributedto FransHalsprovideimportant
comparativematerial.3Technicalstudiesof other
paintersthought to havetaught or influenced
Leysterhavenot taken placeon this scaleand are
beyondthe scopeof this project,althoughsome
Finally,we hope to
information is available.a
augmentcurrent knowledgeconcerningthe studio
practicesof paintersin Haarlem in generaland to
provide a foundation for continuedresearch.
The Painting Support
Leyster'sacceptedoeuvreconsistsofabout
twenty oil paintings,all of which appearto date
between:629 and about 1636,when shewasstill
single.This catalogueincludesfifteenof those
paintings,sevenofwhich are on wood panel and
eighton canvas.This is roughly doublethe
proportion of paintingson wood panelfound in
the known production of FransHals from the same
period (r3 out of47 paintings).sLeyster'sfrequent
choiceofwood panelasa paintingsupport,as
indicatedby her known paintings,countersa
generaltendencyfor canyasto supersedewood as
the dominant support in seventeenth-century
Netherlandishpainting.6The largestof Leyster's
panels,CarousingCouple(caI.4)measures68 x 55cm.
For works largerthan this, Leysterturned to canvas
asa support.TThe moderatesizeof her largestknovm
canvas,lolly Toper(cat.z),which hasbeentrimmed
aroundthe edgesand now measures
88.ox 83.7cm,
confirms Leyster'spredilectionfor painting on a
modestscale.
There are severallikely reasonsfor Leyster's
frequent choiceof wood panei for her painting
supports.First,canvasgainedpopularity only
graduallythroughout the seventeenthcentury,and
as the traditional painting support,wood panel
would havebeenreadilyavailable.The small panels
usedby Leystercould be simply made,mostly from
a singleplank (seebelow). Second,the potential
advantageof canvasasa lightweightmaterialthat
could be easilyrolled up for transportwould not
havebeen important for the small-scalepaintings,
mainly genrepieces,in which Leysterspecialized.
It appearsthat sheneverexecutedcommissionsfor
large-scaleportraitsor group portraits on canvasto
comparewith thoseof other Haarlem artists,such
asher purported teachers,FransHals or the De
Grebbers.The production ofher husband,Jan
Miense Molenaer,providesa closercomparison
with Leyster'sspecializationin small-scaleworks.
In generalthe 1668postmortem inventory of
Molenaer'seffectsspecifiesfar more panelsthan
canvasesusedaspainting supports,although two
entriesdo record 'large'and 'extraordinarilylarge'
canvases.8
93
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
203
Wood Panel
This study involvestechnicalexaminationof six
rectangularpaintingson wood panel,whosepresent
dimensionsarelistedbelow.e
[1:"'
r Serenade
8 ManOfferingMoneyto
aYoungWoman
9 A Gameof Tric-Trac
4 ChildrenwithaCatandanEel
4 Portraitofa Woman
player
4o TheRommel-pot
Possibiy
width in the panels,ftomtzz:rto 1.39:r.rr
manufactureof the smallestpanels,which comprise
a singleplank, wasdictatedby the sizeof the planks
deliveredby the sawmill rather than by
predeterminedsizes.The width of a plank was
H;"
il:'.T[:'Jl",*Til*:,"1'letreetrunk'which
^<a
?, <
3o.7
)4.r
traders'inventories
Seventeenth-century
groupedpaintingsunder categoriesof size,named
accordingto Dutch coins(e.8.guldensorstuyvers)'
one stooterbeing
monetaryvaiues(e.g.,stooters,
40.6
58.5-59.5
5J.2
39.o
3r.o
48.0-48.7
4L.t
3o.8
Five of the panels examined each comprise a single
plank. The smallestplank width occursin the
virtually intact Man OfferingMoney to a Young
Woman(cat.8)and measuresz4.r cm.The widest
plankusedoccursinPortraitof aWoman(cat.r+),
which could originallyhavemeasuredas much as
49 cm,unusuallywide. Leyster'slargerpainting on
panel,Childrenwith a Cat and an Eel (cat.r3,fig.4z,
44), now measuresup to 48.7cm wide and showsa
more complexconstruction.In this case,two
vertical plankshavebeenbutt-joined (straightedge
againststraightedge)and glued.As was usual
practice,weakersapwoodportions ofthe planks
(which havebeenprone to woodworm attack)have
beenjoined alongthe inside.ro
sourcessuggestthat
Seventeenth-century
painterscould obtain wood panelsmade by
specialistcabinetmakersand joiners, probably
with standardheight and width dimensionsthat
frames.lI An entry
correspondedto standard-size
in the postmorteminventory of Molenaer'seffects
recordstwenty-sixsinglepiecepanels,all of the same
Although the conceptof uniformity in the
size.12
seventeenthcenturywaslessexactthan it is today,
taken literally this would suggesta reserveof
standardformat panels.Sinceexistingpaintings
on wood panelby someother seventeenth-century
by a systemofstandard
painterscan be characterized
sizes,we wonderedwhetherthis would apply to
Leyster'sproduction.The presentdimensionsof six
vertical rectangularpanelpaintingsattributed to
Leysteraregivenin fig.39.The small sampleof
paintingsconsidered,aswell asthe fact that
examinationsshow that somehaveundergone
slight later changesin format (seenote ro), limit the
conclusionsthat canbe made.However,one can
observea rangein the proportion of height to
equivalent to two and a half stuivers), or subject
matterthathadaparticularformat (e.g.,salvators).
++^**r. L.--,.
have been made to rediscover the
Attempts
^
approximate formats intended by this seventeenthcentury nomenclature.rs All the rectangular
paintings on wood panel attributed to Leyster
with the smallest
can presumablybe associated
categoriesof paintingsnamed in seventeenthcenturyinventories,from the salvatordown to the
thatChildrenwitha
stooter.Ithasbeensuggested
(catq)
with a
associated
could
be
and
an
Eel
Cat
x
cm,
though
salvatorformat measuringabout 6z 49
a possiblereduction in sizeof the panelshould be
On the other hand, the smaller
takeninto account.16
Rommel-PotPlayer(cat.4o),which is now no longer
thought to be by Leyster,can presumablybe
compared to two other small Rommel-PotPlayers
inventories,one
recordedin seventeenth-century
Frc.39 Wood panels
[ ]rrrishr rectansular format
r'4
1.1q
1'3
t'25
E
E
E
S
i
r.2
1'r5
3
+891314
no
Catalogue
94
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
204
40
X-ruy of Portrait of a Woman
(cat.r4). The painting support
is a tangentially sawn plank.
An undulating pattern ofthe
wood grain is made visible by
the x-ray absorbent properties
ofthe lead-white basedground
asa stooterand the other underthe headingof small
stooters(seethe essayby Lely-van Halm in the
presentcatalogue).r7
As with most Netherlandishpaintingsof the
period, oak appearsto havebeenusedfor the wood
supportsof the paintingsexamined.Althoueh
indigenousto Holland,oak wasimportedf-- th"
Hansatownson the Baltic.rsA robustwoocl,oak of
about one centimeterthick provided sufficient
strength.Only three of the six panelsexamined
(A Garneo.fTric-Trac, portrait of a Woman, The
Rommel-PotPlayer;cats.g,14,
40) retain thei,:
original thickness.In raking light (light from the
sidewhich skims the surface),marksfrom the tools
usedto work the timber can be observedon the
reverseofthe planks.The other threepanelsupports
examined, Serenade,Man OfferingMoney to a young
Woman and Childrenwith a Cat ancl
anEel (cats.r,
8, r3) havebeenshaveddown to a few
millimeters
thickness,aspart of laterrestorationtreatments
i ntendedto reducew arpi ng.
Usuallyplankswerecut radially from
the tree,
perpendicularto the annual growth rings,
in order
to reducethe tendencyto warp with changes
in
humidity. This is the casefor A Gameoyiic_Troc
and TheRomtnel-potplayer(cats.g,
4o); in the latter
it resuitsin a natural i,vedge
shapetaperingslightly
toward the left side (correspondingto thelnsie
of
the tree) wherelessbevelingis required.The plank
usedin Portraitof aWoman(cat.r4),in contrast,
has
beencut tangentially,parallelto the annual
srowth
rings,closeto the heart of the tree.A charact-eristic
undulating pattern of the wood grain results,
ciearly
visiblein an x-ray (fig.+o).
Canvas
This study involvestechnicalexaminationof
eight paintingson canvas,which haveall beenlined
(adheredto a backingcanvas)at a iater date.
The
presentmaximum edge-to-edgedimensionsof the
original canvases
arelisted below.re
CAT.NO.
z Jolly Toper
5 Merry Company
6 The Last Drop
7 Self-Portait
38 LaughingYouth with a Wine Glass
39 The Jester
4t StandingCavalier
+z Violinist
HEIGHT
WTDTH
(c v )
(c rur)
88
V,I
74.4
8 8.2
62.9
73.2
65.3
69.o
7 4.1
78.8
6 7.9
)0
61.2
1
49.o
66.4
7 6.2
For their painting supports,seventeenth-century
Netherlandishpaintersmade useof fabricswoven
for other purposes,especiallylinen, which was
commonly usedfor clothing and sails.Haarlem
wasan important centerfor specialized
processing
of linen, suchasbleachingthreadsand damask
weaving.Coarsertypesof linen wereprobably
imported. Ghent wasan important export center
for coarselinen in the earlyseventeenthcenturyand
Spainsupplieda certaincoarseq?e oflinen usedfor
sails.Linen canvaswasavailablein standardwidths,
associated
with particular grades,which weresold
in the appropriatecategoryof market.The standard
widths of canvasstrips availablewere relatedto
standardunits of measurement,like the Brabantel,
which measuredabout 69.5cm. Standardwidths
IUDITH
LEYSTER: A TECHNICAL
€XAIIINATION
OF HER WORK
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
205
95
could be basedon a fourth, an eighth,or evena
sixteenthof an el.2o
With the exceptionof TheLastDrop (cat.6),
the works examinedarepainted on a singlestrip
of canvas.One can generallyassumethat in order
to avoid wastage,the smallestdimensionof the
painting supports(herethe width) correspondsto
the entire width of the canvasstrip used.In this case,
this could not be confirmed sincethe complete
that none ofthe
absenceofselvagessuggests
canvasesexaminedarecompletelyintact.
Nonetheless,allowing for slight changesin format,
one might thereforesuggestthat threepaintings
(Merry Company,Self-Portrait,and Violinist, cats.5,
7, 4z)havebeenpainted on stripsof canvaswhich
are one Brabantel (about 69.5cm) wide. Only lolly
Toper(cat.z)showsa strip width greaterthan one el:
it measuresalmost 85cm, or one and one quarter el.
This is the equivalentof a standardwidth of canvas
calleda zeildoek(sailcloth),usedin the measurement
of sails.2r
An exceptionis the canvassupport of TheLast
Drop (cat.6),which is made up of severalpieces.The
X-ray showsthat the main canvas,which measures
up to 8r.4 cm high and 67.9cm wide, hasbeen
enlargedby three small strips of a different grade
(thread density)ofcanvasattachedalongthe top,
left, and bottom sides.The main canvasappears
virtually intact, showingpronouncedcuspingon
all four sidesand evidenceofthe original rolled
stretchingedgesalong the three sideswith additions,
suggestingthat a one el wide strip wasused.(See
below concerningstretchingcanvas).Examination
of paint layerssuggests
that the strips addedto
enlargethe compositionwere attachedafter the
main painting had beenexecutedand that they are
very early,ifnot original additionsby Leyster.In its
original format, the designwould haveappeareo
incomplete,with part of the headand back of the left
figure cut offat the edgeand the toe anCpipe ofthe
standing figure so closeto the edgethat they would
probably havebeenhidden by the inner edgeofthe
frame. An earlycopy of the painting showsthe
composition in its extendedform.22
Althor"rghsourcessuggesta relation between
the rvidth and the gradeofcanvasstripssold on the
market, the presentexaminationdid not reveala
consistentrelationshipin the paintingsupports
examined.Listedbelow are averagethread densities
of the canvassupportsmeasuredfrom availablexrays or directly on the paintings(cats.38,39, 42).23
VERTICAL
HORIZONTAL
THREADS
TH REA DS
PER CM
PER CM
r3
t4
1l
6 TheLastDrop
7 Self-Portrait
r4
10
16
l5
11.5
13
1Z
12.5
CAT.NO
2 lolly Toper
with
38 LaughingYouth
aWi neGl ass
39 The Jester
4z Violinist
12
The diversityof linen tlpes availableto artists
at the time is reflectedevenin this selectgroup of
which wereall
works. For example,three canvases,
presumablyone Brabantel wide, all show different
thread densities(the main canvasof TheLastDrop,
Self-Portrait, and Violinist; cats.6,7, 4z).2aThe rather
fine threaddensitymeasuredin LaughingYouthwith
a Wine Glass(cat.38)cannot be usedasa criterion to
link this painting with the Utrecht School,assimilar
gradesofcanvashavebeenencounteredin paintings
madein both Utrecht and Haarlem durine this
period.2s
examinedare securely
Only threeof the canvases
attributedto Leysterin this volume; the monogrammedcanvases
of Jolly Toperand TheLastDrop
and her Self-Portrait(cats.z,6, and 7). The thread
densitiesmeasuredin thesepaintingsall fall within
the middle range,but a wider surveyis requiredto
draw valid conclusions.One neednot expectto find
that the painter preferredto usea particulartlpe of
canvas.Studiesofcanvassupportsusedby the workshopsof FransHals and Rembrandthaveshown a
broad rangeofthread densities,evenin closelydated
paintings.Thesecasessuggestthat it wasstudio
practiceto draw on the wide choiceof available
canvasgrades,ratherthan to stock only a few bolts.
Contemporaryrecipesfor priming suggestthat its
function wasto provide a smooth surfaceon which
ofthe gradeofcanvasused.26
to paint, regardless
were lacedonto
Presumably,Leyster'scanvases
a wooden frame or strainerfor preparationasa
painting support,aswasusualpractice(seefig.z7
and cat.33).The canvasedgewould havebeen'
reinforcedby sen'ingit around a cord, in order to
preventa stretchingcord lacedthrough at intervals .
from pulling through. Only the main canvasof The
LastDrop (cat.6)showsevidenceof the original
stretchingedges,which in other paintingsexamined
werecut off during later lining treatment.The
canvaswasdrawn into peaksat the points of
stretchingand the resultingscallopeddeformation,
96
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
206
known ascusping,wasfixed by the applicationof
size(animal glue) and ground layers.Measurements
of the cuspingspan(the distancebetweenscallop
peaks)in the paintingsexaminedsuggestthat the
stretchingcord wasiacedthrough the canvasedge
at regularintervalsranging from 7 to 8 cm.27
The Ground Layer(s)
Panel
This study of ground layersappliedto wood
panel involvessix paintings,of which three are
Man Offering
monogrammedand dated(Serenade,
Money to a YoungWoman,andPortrait of a Woman;
cats.l,8, 14)and one signed(Childrenwith a Cat and
an EeI;cat.r3).Tiny paint samplescould be removed
from the paintingsfor analysis(seefig.4r).
Only two works show the traditional method
of priming a panelthat one would expectin the
seventeenthcentury,A Gameof Tric-Trac(cat.9
andfig.+zr) and the signedChildrenwith a Cat and
an Eel(cat.g and fig.4ze).In his notes on painting
techniquecompiiedfrom 16zoonward, T. T. de
Mayernedescribesthis traditional method of
priming panelusingchalk bound in gluewith an
imprimatura (a thin and slightly colored oii paint
layer) appliedon top to sealthe absorbentchalk
ground.28The chalkground visiblein the paint
samplesfrom thesetwo paintingsis very thin, bareiy
coveringthe grain of the wood.
On the other hand, the three monogrammedand
datedworkshavebeenpreparedwith a lead-white
basedpaint, tinted by the addition of a little ocheror
and
umber and alsosomeblack pigment in Serenade
Man OfferingMoney to a YoungWoman (cats.r,B
FrG.41
Ground Layers
CAT.
TITLE
DATE
CANVAS
COMPOSITION
PANEL
N O.
r
Serenade
1629
p
lead white, umber, very little fine black
z
Jolly Toper
1629
c
1oo pm thick; lead white, very little fine brown ocher or umber
6
The Last Drop
c
>6o pm thick; lead white, brown ocher or umber, fine black
8
Man Ot'fering Money
p
Two layers, >4o pm thick;
lead white, ocher and carbon black.
Bottom layer whitish, top one grayish
P
two layers
1631
to a Young Woman
9
AGame of Tric-Trac
i) chalk
ii) pinkish imprimatura; lead white, umber, a 1itt1ered ocher
13
two layers
P
Children with a
i )chal k
i i ) ni nki sh i mori matura; l ead w hi te, chal k, red ocher
Ca ta n d a n Ee l
14
Portrait of a Woman
37
LaughingYouth
:635
p
lead white, a little ocher or umber
c
double ground
i) r3o-z4o pm thick; fine red ocher
ii) o-45 pm thick; lead white, fine (probably charcoal) black
with a Wine Glass
3g
The lester
c
8o pm thick; lead white, a iittie ocher or umber
39
The Rommel-Pot Player
p
lead white, fine brown ocher or umber
40
Standing Cawlier
c
two layers
i) chalk, a little lead white, umber
ii) lead white, a little umber, very little black
47
violinist
c
>4o pm thick; lead white, very little umber
IUDITH
LEYSTER: A TECHNICAL
EXAMINATION
97
OF HER WORK
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
207
and fig.42c).TheRommel-PotPlayer(cat.4oand
fig.+zo)showsa similar ground. Thesepresumably
oil-basedgroundsare more than twice the thicl<ness
of the oii imprimaturasappliedover the chalk
groundsin A Gameof Tric-Tracand Childrenwith
a Cat and an EeI(cats.9,r3). This makesit unlikely
that chalk groundsarepresentin thesefour
paintingsbut they are simply too thin to be detected
in the paint crosssections.Presumablythe panels
havebeensizedwith giue,without the addition of
chaik,in order to ensuregood adhesionof the
ground and paint layersto the panel.De Mayerne
providesa recipefor the direct applicationofan oil
ground to fill the pores of a panel sizedwith glue
only, a procedurethat he personaliypreferredto the
traditional rnethodof priming.2e
Our previousstudy suggeststhat FransHals,
iike Leyster,seemsto havefoilowed the adviceof De
Mayernein applyingan oii priming to wood panel.3o
Hals'sand Leyster'spracticediffersfrom that of
Rembrandt'sworkshop,where a thin light ocherous
imprimatura appliedover a chalk ground appears
to havebeenthe rule.rt Recentexaminationof
(cat36) hasalso
Molenaer'sseriesof TheFive Senses
revealedthat the panelsareprimed using a thin
ocherousimprimatura on a chalk ground.32One
might wonder whetherthe introduction of oil
ground appliedto panel in paintingsboth by Leyster
and by Hals wasinspiredby the increasingpopularity
of canvaspreparedwith an oil ground among Dutch
artiststhroughout the seventeenthcentury.This is
not supportedby a chronologicalrelation,however,
and,indeed,the oppositeseemstrue.Whereasthe
earlypaneishaveoil grounds,chalk groundswith an
imprimatura occur from about 163oonward. The
appearance
of both tlpes of priming asa painting
must
havebeensimilar so that this would
surface
not havebeena considerationin choosingone
over the other. Possiblythe sizeof the panelwasa
decidingfactor,asthe largestpaintingson wood
a chalkground.33
panelpossess
Canvas
This studyofground layersappliedto canvas
painting supportsinvolvessevenpaintings,of which
one,TheLastDrop (cat.6),is monogrammed,and
another,Jolly Toper(cat.z),is monogrammedand
dated.Tiny paint sampleswereremovedfrom these
paintingsfor analysis.
In nearlyall the paintirlgson canvasexamined,
the ground appearslight, white to light ocheror
pink in color.The main constituentis leadwhite
mixedwith umber or ocherand sometimesvery
Iittle bright red ocher or blackpigment.The very
early,if not original, additionsin TheLastDrop
(cat.6)havebeenprimed separately
from the main
canvas.The ground on the additionsis a darker
mixture of the sametypicalpigments(leadwhite,
red and brown ocher or umber) in usein the
seventeenthcentury (seefig.4ze,r). Although the
color of the oil primings on canvasresemblesthat of
the oil primings on wood panel,thoseon canvasare
more thickly appiied.The ground measuresup to
8o ;.rmin The]ester(cat.39and fig.4zc),ioo pm in
Jolly Toper(cat.z and fig.4zn), and 6o ytmin The Last
Drop (cat.6and fig.4zn).In virtually everycaseand
that datefrom around t6z9
not only on the canvases
- when it is commonly suggested
that Leystercould
haveapprenticedor assistedin the studio ofFrans
Hals- the color and compositionof the grounds
analyzedagreeswith that found in paintings on
canvasattributed to Hals.Thus the ground layer
cannot be usedasa criterion for attributing a
painting to one artist or the other (see,for example,
StandingCavalier,cat.4t).Giventhat sourcessuggest
paintersdid not necessariiy
that seventeenth-century
preparetheir own painting supportsbut could
readilyobtain them from a professionalprimer,
one cannot rule out the possibilitythat Leysterand
Hals obtainedtheir primed supportsfrom the same
sourcein Haarlem.A documentof t676,preserved
in the Leidentown clerk'sofficearchives,implies
that there was only one authorizedsupplierof
primed canvases
and panelsfor the city of Leiden
(seen.37).In any event,the presentsurveysupports
the conclusionmade earlier,that Haarlempainters
seemto havecontinued the earlyNetherlandish
tradition of the useof a flesh-coloredpriming on
panelevenwhen canvassupportscameinto vogue.3a
This differsfrom the color and compositionof the
groundsfound in other circles,Rembrandt's,for
exampie.35
One painting on canvasexamined,Laughing
Youthwith a Wine Glass(cat.38),showsa very
differentground (seefig.4zr).A graylayer(up to
approximately+r p* thick) which containslead
white and finely ground, possiblycharcoal,black
overliesa thicker layer (approximatelyr3o-z4optm)
of fine, bright red ocher which seemsbound in an
aqueousmedium. This observationcould support
the attribution of this painting to the Utrecht
(seethe essaybyBiesboer
in the
Caravaggistti
whosepaintingson
presentcatalogueand cat.38),
canvasoften show this tlpe ofdouble ground, gray
over red.36Yet the attribution of this painting cannot
be shiftedawayfrom Leystersolelyon the evidence
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
210
Painr crossrcion ofthe yellowish
greenchair back a)ongthe left edgein
A Gane ofTric-Trat (cat.g).
ir'lagnification5oox.Layers:r) chalk
gromd; z) imprimatura of lead white,
umber,dda lisle r€docher;:) thin
layerofumber, lead white, and chalk;
4) grayishlayerofleadwhite, fine black
pigment,and yellowocher;5)bone (?)
and a IittJe
black;6) fine black,,velJow,
brown ocher;7)modernslmthetic
varnish-
B
Painrcrosssectionofthe [ightgreenish
gray background along the top edgein
Children nth a Cat ana an Eel(cat.\3).
Magnification ioox. Layers:r) chalk
ground;2) imprimaturaoflead white,
chalk, and a little red ocher;3) lead
whjt€, umber;4) lead white, fine black
pignrent,ocher;5)varnishtintedwith
blackpigmenl thin, modernvarnish.
C
P a i n t cr o ss se cti o n fr o m th e m a n 's
shadow, along the Ieft ed.ge,in Man
Offeinglr4onel
to a YoungWoman
(cat.8). I,lagnification
ground
containing
ground
brown
z&3)
2oox. Layers: 1)
lead white, finely
ocher, and a little black;
l e a d w h i te , fi n e b l a ck p i g m e n t,
andvery
brown
l i ttl e o ch e r ;4 ) ye l l o w i sh
containing
brown,
yeLlow, and
a Iicle red ocher, Jead white, biack;
5 ) d a r k b r o w n co n ta i n i n g b r o w n
and blackr 6) varnish.
D
Paint crosssectionofthe middle
tone in the girl's greenskirt along the
bosom edgein fie Rommel-PotPlayer
(ca!.40).Magnifi cation 5oox.Layers:
r) ground conlaining leadwhite, fine
brown ocherorumber;2) carbon
black, unrber, Ieadwhite; j) greenish
bluecopperpigmentwith rounded
crystals,
leadwhite,alittlebrown and
red ocherandcarbonblack;4)modern
E
Prin! crosssectionfrom the redsleeve
ofthe right-hand6gurejust abovehis
left hand in TlelasrDrop (cat.6).The
painting wassarnpledbeforecleaning.
Magnification zoox. Layers:t ground
containinB lead whire, fi neiy ground
brown ocher or umber; z) vermiliion
and a little organic red pigment in a
lot ofmedium; j) vermillionand lead
white in a lot ofmedium (layers:& 3
arewet-in-wet);4) varnish.
o ch e r
F
Paintcrosssectionfrom the addition
on the lefi side of IAelNt Drop (.car.6)
sampledabovethe drinker's head along
the Ieft edg€before the painting was
cleaned.Magnifi cation 2oox. Layers:
1)groundcontainingleadwhite wirh
orangebroM ocherousPigments;
2) brown ocher,boneblack,and a little
leadwhite;l) varnish;4)overpaint
with red and black pigment;5) two
layersofvarnish. Although the ground
layercontains
a mifrure that could
havebeen usedin the seventeenth
censry, it is cleariy much darker than
the ground in the main picture.
G
Paini crosssectionfrom a shadowarea
in the red striped costumealong the
bottom edgein T[e/esfer (cat.j9).
Magnifi cation 2oox. l.ayers:1) ground
containing lead white and a little ocher
or umberi 2) bone black and a little red;
3) vermiliionanda littleorganicred
pigment;4) varnishi5) thin layerof
blackoverpaintl6) varnish.
H
Paint crosssectionfrom the gray sleeve
by the right elbow of,lolly Toper(cat.z).
Magnification 2oox- Layers:t) ground
containingleadwhite and fine brown
ocher. Brou'n discolored glue underneath;2) lead white, umber, fine black;
j) thin layerofvarnish;4)remnantof
thingray overpaint?
I
Paint(rosssectionfrom theedgeof
Laughin|Youth with a Wine Glass
(cat.38).
Magnificationzoox.Double
ground grayover red- The first layer
containsfinely groundbrighr red
ocher; the secondcontainsleadwhite,
fi nely ground carbon (possibly
charcoai)black;:) brown painrlay€r
containing a mixture of brown, black,
and a littleredpigment.
J
Detailofwoman's facein AGane o[
Tr;c-'l'rac (car.g).Datk lines ofunder
drawing, painted ivjth organic red
pigment,arevisiblethroughtranslucentfleshpaint aroundherchin,
forehead,and eyes.
K
Paintcrosssectionfrom the greenishgraybackground,
alongthe left edge
in A GameofTric Ttur (c r.gJ.
MaSnificaIion
2oox.Layers:r) ground
containing lead white, a little umber,
and very Iirle red ocher;z) finely
groundboneblack,leadwhite,and
ocher;3)finelygroundboneblack,a
littleleadwhiteandocher.
L
Paint crosssection from the shadow in
the right background,along the righr
edgein Man Ofeing Maney to a Youhg
Wona, (cat.8).Magnificaiion 20ox.
Layers:1& 2) ground layerscontaining
iead whire, a little ocher and black;
3) *en layerofboneblack;4)finely
ground yellow ocher, a little lead whire
and black;j) varnish.
M
Paint crosssectionfrom the gray
backgrovnd, i.n lolly Toper (car.2).
Magnificarion ioox. The lead-white
basedground is visible in rhe botto6
right corner, broken away from the
main paint layerofthe background
during preparationofthe sample.The
background containslead white, fine
(possib)ylamp) black, and a little red
and yellowocher.
N
Deta\l of Serenatle(catt ). Th e rop pain I
layer of the background doesnot quite
extend to theplumed hat, leavinga
margin oflight urderpaint visible
around the sharply lit contour. This
providesa theatricailighting effed.
o
Paint crosssectionfrom the iight
contour around the left side ofthe
black beret in Serenade(cat.r).
Magnification zoox. Layers:r) trace
oIan underlayer containing leadwhitc
with finelygroundocheror umber;
z) brown backgroundcontaininglead
whi!e, possiblya lifile ]eadtin yellow,
Termillion, bone black,brown ocher,
and very linle blue (copper?)pigmenr;
3) leadwhite and umber;4)varnish.
Detail ofmonogrant
Detail ofmonogram
and dare in
Portrait ofa \|oman
lcatt4\.
a
and date in /oll.i,
Toper (cat.2) .
R
Detailofwoman'sfacelit by lamplighr
in lvlan OlfeingMoney to a Young
Wonnr (cat.81revealing giimpsesof
cool grayunderpainr.
s
Detail oftheleft revelerin Marry
Company(cat.5).Curls drawn by
scratchinginto wet paint revealcool
grayunderpaintin his foreheadand
the ljght och€rousgroundeisewhere.
The sratched lines left the underlayers
intactindicatingthat theywerealready
T
Detail ofthe faceof Violinist\cat.42).
Blue (azurite)pigmenrhasbeenmixed
into the top layeroffleshpaint in ord€r
to provide the cool middle tonesvisible
down the sideofthe nose.
dry.
U
Defailofthehandin /olly Toperlcar])
an evenlayeroflight orangeunderParnttor the ruddy fleshrunsunder
lhe Iid ofrhe tankardwhereir shows
throughthin grayprlnt to providc
a reflection
on the melal.This is
emPhasized
by orangeaccentsadded
Detailofthe bluecostumeofrhe left
plaverin A Gane ofTric-Trcc (cat.g).
l he costumeis modeledusingultram:rine glazesappliedoverbrown
underpaintin the shadowsand white
underpaintin the highlights.The
scratchacrossthe player'sshoulderis
an originaldamagein the grcund made
beforeexecurionofthe painting.
P a i n t cr o ss se cl i o n o fth e g i r l 's b l u e
ski(
al o n g th e b o tto m
e d g e i r C h i l d r ci l
||ith a Cat a'd
dt Eel kat.\)
M a g n i fi ca ti o n
zo o x. L a ye r s; r ) ch a l k
g r o u n d ; 2 ) i m p r i m a tu r a
c h a l k an d
o f l e a d w h i te ,
a l i ttl e r e d o ch e r ;:)
b r o w n m i xtu r e o fo ch e r
dark
or umber, a
l i t t l e l e a d w h i te a n d b l a ck;4 )
indigo
a n d l ea d w h i te ; t) m o d e r n , p i g m e n te d
varnish.
X
Detailofthe bluecostumeof the
liolinjil in N4erry Cailrponyl.at.t).
Blue(apparentlyindigo)glazesare
applieddirectlyon the Iightground
in the shadows(contrastfig.4zv).The
transparent
appearance
ofthe blue
sleeveis partlydue to fadingofthe
indigoglazesunderthe influenceof
Iight.The thin glazesarealsoabraded.
I'he ma8nificationof the painr
cross
s€cllonsmentionedarethose
usedin
tnemicroscope.
The paint layersare
numberedFrofi
th€ borromupwards.
98
FtG.42
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
208
Y
Paintcrosssectionofthe boy'sbluehat
along the ieft edge in TheRonntel Por
Pldr?r(cat.40).Magnificationjoor.
Layers:1)ground containingleadwhire
and alittle fine brown ocheror umber;
2) gr;iy-brownwith a littleleadwhite
and very littleblue (copper?)pigmenr;
3) brown and r€d ocherwith a litlle
black;4) indigoand leadwhite;51
nodern varnish.
N.B.During the renoval ofpaint
samplesit wasapparenltha!drepaint
tendsto stickto this typeofmodern,
syntheticvarnish.
=
-
-
'li
'%ir".}
i't'
,,' '
ti' l
:'
I T I D I l 'H
I ]:YS-fER:
A 1 'E C L I N I C A I ,
E X A MIN ATION
OI] H EII
WOITK
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
209
99
groundstructure.One cannotrule
of this unusr-ral
possibility
that paintersoccasionally
the
out
primed in other cities.A case
acquiredcanvases
in poin t i s th e l a rg eg ro u pp o rtra i to n c anvas,
MeagreCompany,documentedasa commission
in Amsterdamthat wasbegun by FransHalsand
completedby PieterCodde.This painting alsoshows
a double,gray-over-reddishlayerstructurewhich is
primings.Hals
unlikeHals'stlpical flesh-colored
may haveobtainedhis primed canvasin Amsterdam,
ratherthan Haariem,for the sakeof convenience;
Rembrandtis known to haveusedthis tlpe of
primed canvasfor his earlyworks in Ainsterdam.3T
Underdrawing
Most of the paintingsby Leysterthat were
examinedreveaigiimpsesof an underlyinginitial
sketchof the composition on the primed painting
support.Formsareschematicallyindicatedwith
paintedlines,suchasthe ellipsesof the woman's
faceand her glassin A Gameof Tric-Trac(cat.9and
fig.+zl),or thoseof the tankardrn JollyToper(cat'z).
Both dark and light painted linesof underdrawing
occur.Dark iines areoften coloredgrayto brown,
but microscopicexaminationof A Gameof Tric-Trac
that the dark lines apparentunder transsuggests
lucent areasoflight fleshcontain red lake (a natural
organicdye stuff). On the other hand, abrasionof
coloredgarmentsoften revealsrelievedwhitish
strokesof underdrawing,which sketchthe foids.
This occursin the grayish-greenbreechesofthe
playerat left in A Gameof Tric-Tracandin the black
dressin Portrait of aWoman (cat.i4).The initial
contoursand folds of the white parts of the costumes
aresimilarly indicatedusing raisedstrokesof whitish
paint, which may be so extensiveasto constitutea
layerof underpaint.Theseunderlying paint strokes
are revealedwherethey cut acrossfinal layersof
paint, suchasin the collarsand cuffs in Serenade
(seefig.+:r), A Gameof Tric-Trac,and Portrait of a
capein
Woman(cats.r,9,t4) or in the seamstress's
Man OfferingMoneyto a YoungWoman(cat.8).
The characterofthe painted sketchin the
examinedpaintingsby Leysteragreeswith that
observedin paintingsattributed to FransHaIs. The
Ronunel-PotPlayer(cat.4o),now attributedto the
studio of FransHals, showsa similar underlying
sketchmadeusing dark and Iight paintedlines.For
exampie,graylinessketchthe zig-zagoutlineof the
triangularlacelobesaround the girl's cap,whereas
relievedwhite strokessketchthe folds of the boy's
jacketat lower left. Further technicalresearchis
requiredto confirm lvhetherthis procedureis
IUDITH
LEYSTER: A TECHNICAL
EXAMINATiON
typicatonly of FransHals,who ntay haveinfluenced
Leyster,or whetherit is commonto other Haarlem
to ha ve
a!)P ear
arl i stsi tr a peri odw henpai l )ters
with a detailedstageof underdrawing.
dispensed
Two of Leyster'sgenrepaintingson wood panel
show a particularlyextensivepaintedsketch:A
Gameof Tric-Tracand Childrenwith a Cat and an
Eel(cat.9,r:). The bo1dlypaintedlinesof under'
drawing are revealedwherethey do not coincide
with the overlyingdesignin the finishedpainting
(seeRevisionsand Pentimenti,below).This suggests
procedure,wherebythe composition
a spontaneous
is sketchedwith paint directly on the primed
support and revisedthroughout subsequentstages.
Again, this agreeswith the characteristicpractice
Examinationof Cardplayersby
of FransHals.sB
Lamplight(cat.z8),which hasonly recentlybeen
attributed to Molenaerand is closelyrelatedin
composition to Leyster'sGameof Tric-Trac(car.g),
did not revealthis samebold stageof painted
underdrawing.3e
Man OfferingMoney to a YoungWoman(cat.B)
showsanothertechniqueof underdrawing.Lines
were scratchedinto the ground layerwhile it wasstill
wet. Converginglinesin the backgroundradiate
from the right sideto the top of the woman's head
and parallelto her left thigh, and a shorterline
marks the far edgeof the floor. Though subsequently
painted over by Leyster,the linesare stili apparentin
raking light and in the x-ray. Theselinesof underdrawing were usedin constructingthe perspectiveof
the asymmetricalcomposition,which focuseson the
figuresin the left foreground.This dramatic effect
heightensthe psychologicaltensionof the scene.a(l
Build-up of Paint Layers
The r668postmorteminventory of JanMiense
Molenaer'seffectslistsa number of paintings
accordingto stageofcompletion: begonnen(begun),
aengelijdt (laid in), gedootverffd( dead-colored)'
(worked up).'a' Although the exact
and opgemaecki
meaningsof theseterms now eludeus, it is further
evidenceofthe separatestagesin the buildup ofthe
paintingsexamined.Surfaceexaminationeven
suggestsdistinct stagesin executionofthe alleged
swift portrait sketchStandingCavalier(cat.4r)'\{ie
shalldescribethe variousstagesin an attempt to
reconstructthe painting procedure,althoughthis
cannot be rigidly defined.a2
Backgrounds
Examinationssuggestthat Leyster's
compositionswerelaid in usingareasof underpaint,
OF HER WORK
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
211
thinly appliedon the light ground. Light and dark
areasofthe backgroundswerefirst estabiishedin
underpaint,working around the areasreservedfor
the figures.Evidenceofthis procedureappearsin
Merry Company(cat.) wherepatchesof underpaint,
visiblethrough the background,outline the main
figures.As in this painting, sometimesthe initial
reservesfor the figuresin other works were not
strictly adheredto in the finishedpainting.a3
Underpaint ofthe backgroundsis often apparent
samplesasthe bottom layerof two thin
paint
in
paint layers.For example,greenishgraybackground
paint in A Gameof Tric-Trac(cat.gand fig.4zx)
hasbeen appiiedin two thin (approximatelyrz pm)
layerswhich contain fine bone black,leadwhite,
and ocher.The underpaintlayeris slightlylighter in
background
color. Similarly,the Iight greenish-gray
in Childrenwith a Cat and an Eel(cat.r3and fig.4ze)
is appliedin two thin layers:a 10pm thick layer of
underpaint containingleadwhite and umber with
a 7 lLmthick layercontainingfine black and yellow
ocher on top. Backgroundpaint sampledon an
addedstrip in TheLastDrop (cat.6)contains
pigmentssimilar to thosein the main background,
though in a darker grayishgreenmixture, and
applied asa singlelayer.The main background
showsa characteristicbuildup of two paint layers,
The two-layerbuildup of
here appiiedwet-in-r,r'et.aa
the backgrounds,generallyobservedin the Leyster
paintingsthat were examined,differsfrom the
simpler buildup of backgroundsfound in paintings
by FransHals. Examinationshaveshown that in
almost everycase,Hals appliedhis commonly
greenishgraybackgroundsto his portraits in one
layer,directly on the ground. Their hue was adjusted
by varying the mixtures of leadwhite, black, ancLeysterseemsto haveuseda
ocher pigments.a5
slightly more elaboratebuildup in order to achieve
a greatervariety ofbackground effects,which
i n fl u enc et he m oodsof h e r p a i n ti n g s .
Sometimesunderpaint is exploitedto provide
atmosphericmodeling of the backgrounds,asin
Merry Company(cat.) . Paleyellow underpaint of
light areasand dark grayunderpaint of shadowareas
in the backgroundhasbeenleft visiblethrough the
light graypaint which hasbeenbrushedstreakilyon
top. This providesthe jovial, daytimescenewith an
airy setting.Leysterfavorsdramatic,artificial
lighting effectsin many of her backgrounds.In the
sceneof Man OfferingMoney to a YoungWoman
(cat.Band fig.4zr),litby an oil iamp, a largeareaof
black underpaint showsthrough the greenishbackground on the right sideto provide a faint shadow
caston the wall. Paint samplesshow this
(approximately+o p-) thick layer of underpaint
to containvery finely ground bone black.Finely
ground yellow ocherhasbeenappliedover the black
underpaintin order to achievethe final greeneffect
In contrast,the backgroundof
ofthe background.a6
(cat.z
and
fig.4zv) appearsas a rather flat
Toper
lolly
and opaquebackdropbehind the figure. In this case,
a thin layer (approximatelyZ p-) of dark gray
underpaintpresentin the right backgroundis not
visibleat the paint surface.It is coveredby a lighter
layerof graypaint of about the samethicknessand
containingthe samelead white, fine black,and a
little red and yellowocherpigments.The background
is slightlymodeledby varying the proportions of
thesemixed pigmentsrather than exploitingthe
visibility of underpaint.The slight contrastbetween
the graycolorsofthe backgroundand the toper's
costume(seefig.4zH),togetherwith his flat pose,
accentuatethe shallowerrelief of this painting.aT
Sometimesa small margin of light underpaint
for the backgroundis revealedaround figures,where
the top paint layerofthe backgrounddoesnot quite
extendto the figure.This technicaldeviceis usedto
highlight the figure contours.Examplesinclude the
Iight contoursof the figureslit by an oil iamp in
to aYoungWoman(cat.8),the
Man OfferingMoney
woman'sleft sleevein Portrait of a Woman(cat.r4),
and the stronglylit black featheredberetin Serenade
(cat.rand fig.4zw,o). In the last example,a paint
sampleconfirms that the light contour is clarifiedby
a localtouch of paint, in the samewhitish color as
the exposedunderpaintofthe backgroundbut
appliedon top. Suchpainterly tricks are frequently
observedin the contours of FransHals'sfigures.
Exceptionallywide margins are left uncoveredby
backgroundpaint around the left- and right-hand
figuresin Merry Company(cat.5),so that they
appearpeculiarlydetachedfrom the background.
One of the final elementsaddedto the backgroundis the signatureand date(seefig.4zr,q). The
monogram and datein lolly Toper(cat.z)is painted
usinggraypaint on the lighter gray background.The
other monogramsand dates,aswell asthe signature
('iudith*') in Childrenwith a Cat and an Eel(cat.t3),
arethinly paintedusingbrown or blackpaint. These
areheightenedwith fine white lines to provide
(cat.t).
trompei'oeil modelingin Serenade
Flesh
In Leyster'spaintings,fleshareasare usually
appiiedasan opaquelayer,although sometimesit is
possibleto catcha glimpseof underpaint in diverse
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
212
colors.Thick,light grayunderpaintoftenappearsin
'cool'areasofflesh,suchasin the faceslit by an oil
lamp in Man OfferingMoney to a YoungWoman
(cat.8and fig.+zn)andA Gameof Tric-Trac(cat.q).
Curls drawn by scratchingthrough wet paint in the
foreheadof the reveleron the left in Merry Company
(cat.5and fig.4zs),similarly revealcool grayunderpaint. Sometimessmall patchesof this underpaint,
or alternativelythe gray ground, arele{1deliberately
exposedto createhalftones in the flesh(seethe
woman's facein Man Offering Money to a Young
Woman andPortrait of aWoman (cats.8,14).
that a different
Microscopicexaminationsuggests
procedurehasbeenusedto achievethe cool grayflesh
tonesin two paintingsof problematicattribution.
Unusually,in TheJester(cat.:g) and evenmore
extensivelyin Violinist(cat.4zand ftg.4zr,43w),blue
pigment hasbeenmlxed (sometimeswith black)
into the top layerof fleshpaint.
In contrast, the ruddy fleshof lolly Toper(cat.z)
hasbeenlaid in using a rather thin and evenlayerof
light orangeunderpaint.The orangeunderpaintof
the man's left hand is allowedto run under the lid of
the tankardwhereit showsthrough thin graypaint to
provide a warm reflectionon the metal,heightened
by touchesoforange paint appliedon top (see
fig.4zu).Color nuancesin the fleshweredetailedat
a latestage.Abrasionrevealsthat the red accentsof
the drinker'snose,flushedcheeks,and lips arethinly
paintedon top of the main layer of light fleshpaint
(seefig.43r).This differs from Leyster'sslightlylater
Self-Portrait(cat.Z),where quite detailedmodeling
of the faceseemsto havealreadybeenestablishedin
the underpaintstage.ln Self-Portralfnumeroustiny
paint iossesrevealunderpaint in a wide varietyof
colors,rangingfrom whitish grayto dark yellow and
pink.as
Costumes
Leyster'sgenresubjectmatter allowsfor more
brightly coloredcostumesthan appearin the
commissionedportraits of FransHals,who was
largelyconfinedto painting somberblack Regent
garmentsfrom the r63osonward. In her costumes
Leysterrepeatscertain colors,achievedby usinga
tlpical rangeof pigmentsand underlayersof a
particularhue.
Blue costumesare most often paintedusingdark
blue indigo, mixed with various proportions of lead
white in order to model folds.aeRatherthan using
pure indigo in the shadowsas one might expect,
Leysteroften mixed it with leadwhite and appiied
it over brown underpaint in order to obtain a very
LEYSTER: A TECHNICAL
EKAEIINATION
dark blue (see,for example,A Ghmeof "l-ric-Trac
(cat.9and lrg.4zv) and Childrenwith a Cat and an
Eel(cat.4and fig.4zw).This procedurewas
preferable,
aspure indigo is a strongcolorand
would havelookedblackinsteadof blue.in places
whereindigo (a vegetablecoloring matter) was
thinly appiiedand not mixed with leadwhite, it has
tendedto fadefrom exposureto light. This partly
accountsfor the transparentappearanceofthe
violinist'sblue costumein Merry Company(cat.5and
figs.4zx,43n), reveaiingthe light ground beneath.In
this case,there is no underpaintand the reflectance
ofthe ground (the propertyofthe palegroundto
reflectlight) is exploitedto intensift the color of
indigo glazesapplieddirectly on top. Indigo also
appearsin the blue costumesin TheRommel-Pot
Player(cat.4oand fig.4zv) and Violinist(cat.4z).
The useof indigo was not recommendedin the
seventeenthcentury;nonetheless,Leysterand her
contemporariesin Haarlem,including FransHals
and Molenaer,appearto haveusedit despiteits
tendencyto fade.so
Azurite, a more greenish-bluepigment than
indigo, hasbeenusedin the greencostumesin
TheRommel-PotPlayer(cat.4oand figs.4zo,43n).
This copper pigment wasmixed with leadtin yellow
and lead white to obtain green- usualpracticein
the seventeenthcentury asno ideaigreenpigment
existed.In the girl's skirt, the greenpaint mixture
hasbeenappliedon top oflight gray underpaintin
the light folds and thin brown underpaintin the
jacketof the
shadows.The adjacentgreenish-gray
boy showsa similar buildup. Unlike the natural
form of azuriteidentified in the mixed greensof
the tableclothin lolly Toper,thechair in Portrait of
a Woman,and the landscapein StandingCavalier
(cats.z,t4,4t andfig.+le), an artificial form of
azuritewith small and regularlyrounded crystalscan
be observedin TheRommel-PotPlayer(seefig.43n).
Use ofartificial copper greenhasbeennoted in
paintingsby FransHais, but artificial copperblue
and greenpigmentsareknown to havebeenin use
evenbeforethe seventeenthcentury.5r
In the paintingsexamined,blue is often setoff
againstbright red costurnesor details.Different
shadesof red havebeenobtainedusingvarious
combinationsof opaquevermilion and transparent
red lake pigments,sometimesmixed with black-For
example,the red featherin the cap of JollyToper
(cat.zand figs.43c,o) waslaid in using a dark
mixture of red lake and black and then detailed
using strokesof vermilion and thick touches
(approximately6o trrm)of red lake paint applied
OF HER WORK
'UDITH
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
213
103
on top. Similarly,the red costumetn TheLastDrop
(cat.6and fig.+ze)showsa dark led underpaint
containing vermilion and organicred, with light
folds painted on top using vern-rilionmixed with
leadwhite. The dark purplish shadowareaof the
costumeof TheJester(cat.39and fig.+:E)showsa
brownish-blackunderlayercontainingbone black
and a little vermilion, with bright strokesof
vermilion painted on top.52
As mentioned above,collarsand cuffs usually
show white underpaint.A calculatedprocedurewas
followed in painting the ruff in Portrait of a Woman
(cat.r4and fig.+fr). Whereasthe light part showsthe
usual undersketchin white paint applieddirectly on
the ground, the dark part hasbeenthinly painted
over the finishedbackgroundin order to provide
shadow.Unusuaily,light pink underpaint (microa mixture of leadwhite
scopicexaminationsuggests
and red lake) appearsunder the whitish cap and
fashionableflat collar in Leyster'sSelf-Portrait(cat.7
and fig.+:c). Although increasedtransparencyofthe
lead-whitepaint has causedthe pink underpaint to
becomemore apparent,presumablyit was always
visiblethrough the thiniy painted cap and collar.
Possiblythis wasintendedto imitate the effectof the
pinkish ground or imprimatura showingthrough
translucentwhite paint, which can often be observed
in the collarsand cuffs of portraits by FransHals. In
this painting, the ground layer appearswhitish. The
pink underpaint providesa warm tint in the collar,
contrastedby cool grayshadowswhich contain a
fine blue pigment.
Sequenceof Painting Parts
As one might expect,areasof the composition
that invoived a different palettewere not necessarily
rvorkedup together.Studyofthe overlapofpaint
layersrevealsthe sequencein which differentareasof
the paintingswere completed.A generalprocedure
appearsto be a progressionfrom backgroundto
foreground features.Thus figureswereusually
completedafter the background,which they overlap
around the edges.This is sometimesdifficuit to
establish,sincethe figure contourshavebeen
reworkedwith local touchesof paint. However,
the two principai figuresin Merry Company(cat.5
and fig.43u) show a straightforwardprocedure;the
reservein
figureshavebeenfiiled into an excessive
the finished background,which they overlapin
places.On the other hand, the figure in lolly Toper
(cat.zand fig.+Zt)was largelyfinishedwhen the top
paint layer of the backgroundwasappliedaround it,
generallyoverlappingthe figure and cutting abruptly
acrosshis right ear.The tankard,his fingersholding
it, and the finai detailsof the costumewere the
over the backremainingfeaturesto be con.rpleted
ground. The precisephysiognomyof the character
portrayedhasled to the suggestionthat it represents
an actualportrait (seecat.z).In this case,one might
suggestthat dependenceupon the presenceof the
sitter may havedeterminedthe unorthodox
procedurefollowed.Where the backgroundoverlaps
the figures,ratherthan the vice versa,this may also
indicatethat the backgroundhasbeen reworkedin
order to disguisea pentimento,or changein the
original design,asin TheLastDrop (cat.6).53
Conforming to a generalsequenceof completing
backgroundelementsbeforeforegroundelements,
Leysterusuallyfinishedundergarmentsbeforethose
on top. Thus collarsand cuffs and other costume
embellishmentsare usuallydetailedlast,although
exceptionsoccur.In the caseoftwo figuresin
ro), whereit is
TheLastDrop and Concert(.cats.6,
theircostumesareworn over normal
suggested
clothing,the undergarmentswerecompletedlast,
Sometimesa pentimento
overlappingthe collars.sa
can explaina reversedprocedureasin A Gameof
Tric-Trac(cat.9and fig.+:l). Two red ribbons on the
capehavebeenlargelyobliteratedby
seamstress's
white paint appliedduring the modification of her
right sleeve.
Slightadjustmentsweresometimesnecessary
to draw togetheradjacentareaswhich had been
For example,the lute player's
paintedsuccessively.
(cat.rand fi9.+:x) hasbeen
Serenade
right cuffin
extendedto meet his hand. Suchobservations
provide evidencethat, especiallywhen Leysterwas
dependentupon the presenceof a portrait model,
the facemay havebeenpaintedseparatelyfrom the
restof the figure.This practiceis not surprising.
ConstantijnHuygensrecountshow the painter Jan
Lievensfirst painted Huygens'sclothing and bare
handsand postponedthe painting of his faceuntil
spring,sincethe dayswereso short.55In Leyster's
Portrait of aWoman (cat.r4and fig.$r), strokesof
paint addedacrossthe neck draw togetherthe
separatelyexecutedheadand body, and the collar
hasbeenslightlyextendedwherethe two meet.
Siightadjustmentsto the width of the collar anc
shouldersweremade at a late stage,presumablyin
relationto the head.Evenmore clearlytn Concert,
(cat.ro),the headsand neckshavebeen addedlater,
overlappingthe finishedcollarsand background.
The impastoof the white collarsappearto havebeen
dry when the faceswere addedon top, suggestinga
significanttime interval betweenthe painting of the
ro4
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
214
two components.Onceagain,the right figureshows
minor pentimenti,which suggest
that it was
necessary
to realignthe collar and shoulderswith
respectto the addedhead.Theseobservationslend
support to the suggestionthat the facesportrayed
in Concertareactualportraits ratherthan ideaiized
(seecat.ro).
characters
Revisions and Pentimenti
Examinationoften revealsthat the initial painted
sketchhasbeenrevisedduring subsequentstagesin
the painting procedure.Suchadjustmentsare often
made to costumedetails,suchasthe sizeor form of
collarsand cuffs (cats.3,9, lo, 13,r4), substitutionof
the girl's kerchieffor a ruff in Childrenwith a Cat
and an Eel(cat.g), or shorteningof the blue jacket
in A Gameof Tric-Trac(cat.g).Another detail
frequently modified is the placementof handsor
fingers (cats.z,g,:r3,Ld wherethe gestureofplaying
a musicalinstrumentmay be refined (cats.3,5, ro
and fig.43u,N).
Examinationsalsorevealchangesmade to the
placementor poseof figures,notably in Merry
Companyandtn Childrenwith a Cat and an Eel
(cats.5,13;fr9.44.Thesetwo paintingsshow a
spontaneousprocedurewherebythe composition
wasworked out during the act of painting rather
than through a preliminary study.Two alternative
indicationsfor a higher position for the cat in
Children with a Cat and an Eel suggestthat Leyster
changedher mind more than once;the right
shoulderand eyeofthe boy holding the cat have
alsobeenlowered.The legsand feet ofthe revelers
in Merry Companyhavebeenslightlyrepositioned
and the poseof the centralfigure seemsto havebeen
resolvedat a late stagewith partsaddedover the
background.s6
Microscopicexaminationof Leyster'sSef
Portrait (cat.7and fig.+:o) confirms the presenceof
a faceunderlyingthe presentpainting of a fiddler
to the right of the main figure and providesfurther
evidencefor the sequenceofunderlying paint
layers.57
Finaliy,this examinationuncoveredtwo
unsuspectedpentimenti in TheRommel-PotPlayer
(seethe essayby Levy-vanHalm in the present
catalogueand cat.4o).First,microscopic
examinationsuggests
that the laughingboy in a fur
hat initially wore a floppy red hat, modeledwith
brownish shadows.A paint sampleconfirmed that
this first hat waspainted usingvermilion mixed with
a little black and wasstill wet when the fur hat was
painted on top(seefig.+ln,q). Second,infrared
IUDITH
LEYSTER: A TECHNICAL
EXAMINATION
reflectography(figs.+;and 43n) revealsthat two
facesin the right doorwayoriginallyturned in the
oppositedirection,to their left around the doorpost.
Beforethesetwo changesweremade,the
compositionwould havebeencloserto that found in
contemporaryand laterversionsof this theme,one
of which hasbeenattributedasa protot).ireversion
by FransHals (seefig.4oa).The boy in a ftir hat
recallsother figurespaintedby FransHals between
c.r6z5-3o.s8
Paint Application
One remarkablefeatureof the paintings
examinedis the diversityof their paint application
(regardless
of the materiaiof the paintingsupport),
which doesnot permit a singleencompassing
descriptionof Leyster'scharacteristicmethod.
Leyster'sSelf-Portrait(cat.7)displaysan arrayof
rounded,tapering,and splayedbrushessuitablefor
manipulatingpaint in variousways.In the background and costumeof lolly Toper(canvas,cat.z),
stiff and opaquepaint mixtures havebeenspread
usingbold zig-zagandstraightstrokes,appliedwetin-wet (seefig.43s).Also dated t629,Serenade
(panel,
cat.r) similarly shorvsopaqueand viscouspaint
appliedto the fleshareasusing succincttouches
(seefig.43u).Thesetwo paintingscontrastwith the
generaliythinner applicationof paint in Merry
Company(canvas,cat.5),and the signedChildren
with a Cat and an EeI(panel,cat.r3).In this lastcase,
the thin applicationof paint over a sketchilybrushed
brown underlayeris exploitedto provide the socalledturbid medium effect,wherebya light color
Iaid over a dark one appearscooler becauseofthe
scatteringofthe blue light and the absorptionofred
and yellow light. Increasedtransparencyofthiniy
appliedlight paint areashascausedthe brown
underlayerto becomemore apparentin the animals
and costumes.
LaughingYouthwithaWine Glass(cat.38)shows
an exceptionalpaint applicationin the exaggerated
reliefofstiffbrushstrokesapplied in light paint areas
(seefig.43v).Microscopicexaminationrevealsa
pitted structureof the paint, which might suggest
useof an emulsionpaint mixture to achievethis
effect.se
Paint hasalsobeenthickly appliedin the
grayand yellow costumeof StandingCavalier(cat.
4r), in contrastto the thinly brushedbackground.
The different grayshadesof the costumehavebeen
achievedusingvariousopaquemixtures of gray
paint. This techniquediffersfrom the juxtapositron
of alternatingtranslucentand opaquetouchesof
paint, exploitingthe turbid medium effectto
OF HER WORK
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
215
105
provide a rich variety of cool to warm grays,which
one usuallyobservesin the costurnesof FransHals.60
In the paintingsexamined,Leystershowsa rather
refinedtreatmentof contours.Contours areformed
whereadjacentpaint areaseitherjust meetor do not
quite meet,with a subtleaccentoccasionallyadded
alongthe boundary (seefig.43x).Sheappearsnot to
havebeeninfluencedby the bold and jaggedcontour
linesthat alreadyappearin Hals'sgenreportraits of
the late r6zos,which would becomeespeciallytypical
ofhis iater portraits. Infrared reflectographyand
other methodsof examinationrevealthat these
contourswerebuilt up using a seriesof touches
paint layers.6r
appliedin successive
This difference
in techniqueneednot refutethe suggestionthat
Leystertrained in the studio of Hals around 1629.
Survivingpupils' contractsspecif, only the most
generaiobligationsregardingwhat the masterwould
be expectedto teachthe pupil of his method. How
closelythe pupil assimilatedthe master'stechnique
must havevariedin eachcaseaccordingto the
status,inclination, and ability of the pupil (seethe
essayby Lely-van Halm in the presentcatalogue).62
Examinationof Violinist(cat.4z),attributedto
the circleof FransHais,revealsa detailedtreatment
ofthe contours.The bold blackishcontour around
the undersideof the violinist's left hand, aswell as
the finer contoursbetweenthe fingers,show a
delicatehatchedstructure(seefig.43v).Someof the
contour linesappearto havebeensweptacrosswith
a brush while they were still wet, in order to achieve
this effect.More obvious hatchedbrushwork can
be found in paintingsby Hals dating from the late
r6zos.63
Other featuresof paint applicationrecallthe
techniqueof FransHals,suchasthe juxtapositionof
red lake accents,sometimesover dark contours,and
the highlightsin the fleshwhich are drawn by the
impastoedgesof fluid brush strokes.
Summary
In this first attempt to describethe painting
techniqueof Judith Leysterbasedon detailed
technicalanalysis,six signedworks provide
important points of reference,and severalpaintings
of more problematicattribution were alsoexamined,
Despitethe variedstylesof the paintingsexamined,
it waspossibleto observecommon technical
features,someassociated
with generalseventeenthcenturyDutch painting practice,otherswith a
specificHaarlemtraditiot.r,and othersparticularto
Leyster.
First,Leystershowsa frequent useof wood
panel,the traditionalnaterial,for her smallest
painting supports.Presumablythe wood panels
relateto the smallestqpes listed in seventeenthcenturyinventories,but a selectsurveysuggested
that they could not be characterizedbya systemof
standardproportions,asone might expect.Possibly
the sizesof the smallestpanels,eachof which is
made from a singleplank, weregovernedby the size
of plankssuppliedby the sawmill ratherthan by the
standardof a predeterminedsize.Leysterfollowed
common practicein using lightweightcanvasfor her
largerpaintings,althoughthese,too, weremodestin
scale.
With one exception(LaughingYouthwith a
Wine Glass,cat.38),the color and compositionof
the priming layersexaminedmatch thosegenerally
found in paintingsattributedto FransHals. Useof
fleshcoloredgroundsappiiedto canvasand the
introduction of oil groundson wood panel differ
from the methodsof priming encounteredin
Amsterdamduring this period and appearto be a
specificallyHaarlempractice.PossibiyLeysterand
Hals obtainedtheir primed painting supportsfrom
the samesourcein Haarlem.Yet severallarger
paintingson panelby both artistsshow the
traditional method of priming, with an oil
imprimatura over a chalk ground. Togetherwith
other differences,suchasthe texture ofpaint
application,the unusualground structureobserved
in LaughingYouthwith a Wine Glasscould provide
evidenceto associate
this painting with the Utrecht
School.
Like FransHals,Leysterseemsto havesetto
work without detailedpreliminary studies,sketching
the compositiondirectly on the primed support with
the brush and revisingit throughout subsequent
stagesof painting. Two paintingsin particularshorv
this spontaneousapproach;A Gameof Tric-Trac
(cat.9)and Childrenwith a Cat and an Eel(cat.r3).
More major pentimenti wereconfirmed in SelfPortrait (cat.7),and discovere
d in TheRommel-Pot
Player(cat.4o),no longerthought to be by Leyster
but by anotherartistworking in the circle of Frans
Hals.Pentimentisometimesexplaina deviation
fron-rwhat appearsto havebeenLeyster'stypical
practiceof finishing backgroundelementsbefore
foregroundelements.The separateexecutionof
headsand bodiesobservedin a number of alleged
portraitsmay indicatea paintingprocedure
dependentupon the availabilityofa portrait sitter.
The moods of Leyster'sgenrescenesand
portraits arepartly setby variedcharacterofthe
backgrounds,tlpically appliedin two paint layers.
Ur.rderpaint
playsa particularlyimportantrole in
roB
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
218
14
X rav of Cltildreu with a Cnt
and an Eel (cat.g). The rvood
support comprises two vertical
planks. Sapwood portions of
the planks are ioined aiong the
inside. shorving past woodworm altack. A cradle, applied
to the reverseat a later date,
appearsas a grid. fhe x-rav
also shows a nunber of
pentimenti occuring in areas
with lead white paint.
C.
Detail ofthe red feather in the cap
of lolly Toper(cat.z).Strandsof the
featherare drawn using alternative
s!rokesof opaquevermillion 6nd
transparentorganic red lake paiot.
Seefig.+3o.
D
Paint crosssectionofa darkred strand
of the featherin,loil.l,Ioper (cat.:).
Magnification zoox. Layers:r) ground
containing leadwhjte and veaylirtle
ocher;2) organic red pigment miled
with black;3) organic red pigment and
vermillion (lessvermillion toward th€
toP)'
E
Paint crosssectionofa red stripe in ihc
shadow areaofthecostume along rhe
bottom edge in Tre /ester(car.39).
Magnification 2oox. Layers:r) ground
containinglead white and verylitde
ocheror umber;2) boneblack,a little
vermillion and brown ocher;
3) vermillion.
G
Detail ofthe collarand cap in SefPorfrdir (cat.7).Pink underpaint covers
the whirish ground and showsthrough
the translucenlpaint ofthe collarand
cap to provide a waam middle tone, in
contrast to thecool highlights and
shadorvs(mixed with bluepigment)
detailedon top.
H
Detail oftheviolinisas legin Merry
Company(cat.5J.The leg was fi Iled into
an arearesewedin thelight gray background, which it overlapsaround the
ou$loe-
I
Detail of the ear of.folly Toper(cat.2J
overlappedby the top paint layer of the
background.The figure waslargely
finished beforethebackground in this
painting (contrastfi 9.43H).
Detaiiofthe woman'scapeinAGafre
of Tric-Trac (cat.9).Two red ribbons
were largelycoveredbywhite paint
when Leysterrevisedthe position of
her right sleeve.
L
Detai\ of Portroit of a Woman (cat-t4).
Strokesof paint addedacrossthe neck
seile to draw togerherthe separately
executedhead and body, and thecollar
hasbeenslightlyext€ndedwhere the
M
Detail ofSerenade(cat.3)showing a
pentimento ofrhe lure player'slittle
finger, which hasbeen shifted to the
right.
N
Detail ofa pentimento in Merl
Company (cat.5);the vjolinist's liltle
fingerwas initially extendedand the
bowheld higher.
o
Detail ofa pentimento in Self-Portroit
(cat.z).Tle lips.ofan underlying face,
exmuted usingred lake glazesapplied
over light underpaint, are cleariyvisibie
in the paintingofa fiddler.
R
Detail ofa pentimento in the facesin
the doorway jn Ti?eRommel-Pot Player
(cat.4o).The two facesin the right
dooruay originallyrurned to their left
(conrparefigs.45and 4oa)-
S
Detail ofzig-zag strokesusedto spread
stiffpain( in the costumeof loUToper
{cat.2j.
T
Detail ofthe nouth in,lolt, Toper
(cat.2).Abrasion revealsthat ihe lips
are thinlypainted on top ofthe flesh.
FIeshpaint is appliedasan opaqu€
Iayer.
w
Detail of mouth in Violirir (cat.4l)
showing a more fluid and rhinner
applicationof paiit. Blue(azurite)
pjgment is mix€d into the cool accents
around the mouth (seealso fig-+er).
x
Detailof IollyToper(cat z). A fine, lighr
contour is formed where the gray painl
ofthe backgrounddoes not quite
extend to the figure.
Y
Microphoto ofa hatchedcontour
betweenthe fingersof YiofiniJl
(cat.42).Wet painl hasbeenswept
acrosswith thebrush to achievethis
efect.
Paintcrosssectionfrom thc grftn
Iandscapein Srondirg Cavalier Lc^r.4\)
Magnification 5oox.La,vers:l) ground
containing lead white and brorvn
ocher; z) fineiyground azuriie mixed
with leadwhire,brown, a litil€ red
ocher, and verl, little black.
(A varnish layeron rop can hardly
be disting!ished in the photog.aph.)
Paintcrosssection
ofa dark gray
shadowin theboy'sjacketalongthe
bottom edgein TlsRonmel-Pot Player
(cat.40),Magnification Joox. Lay€rs:r)
ground containing lead white, carbon
black,and a littlebrown and red ocher;
2) thin transluc€ntbrown
layer:3)
anifi cial greenish-bluecopper pigment
{rounded crystals)mixed with lead
white, lead tin (?) yellow, and a little
red ocher;4) thin layer ofoverpaint
with fine blackpigmenti 5) modern
varnlsh.
F
Detatlof the rttf in Pofrait of a
Wo#an (cat.r4)showinga calculated
procedureof execu!jon.
The light part
waslaid inatan earl,vstageusing rvhite
underpaintapplied directly on the lighl
ground. The shadowpart wasadd€d
later, painted thinlyover the dark
background.
DetaiJofa cuffin Sereaade(cat.r).
Thecuffhas beenextendedto meet the
seParatelyexecuted
hand. A shorter
cuffwas 6rst indicated using thick
strokesof light underpaint.
P
Derailofa pentimentoin rhe furhat in
TheRonxnel-PatPlayet(cat.4o).The
bright red contourofao underlying
floppy hat jsvisible around the lower
leftside ofthe presentfur ha( (conrpare
fi g.4or and seealsofig.+3o).
U
Microphotographolthe mouth in
Sercrdde(cat.r).
SriflFaintis rhickly
trppliedusing succincttouches.
106
a
Paint crosssectionofthe fur hat,
revealinga bright red paint layer of
an underlying hat, in Tre Rommel-Pot
Player(cat.4o).Magnification 5oox.
[.ayers:r) ground containing lead whire
and a lirtle finebrown ocher or umber;
2) possiblyvermillion mixed wirh a
little black; 3) brown mixture of bone
(?)blackand a littJevermillion
and Iead
whte.
Detailofthe mouth in LaughingYouth
with aWine Glass(cat.)7).Light areas
of fl eshpaint shorvscratchybrushwork.
The lips arethinly paintedon top.
F tG.43
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
216
t
@ @ffi @ @
C
ffiffiruffiff
")
ffiWffiffiffi
o
WMffiffiff
]
Wr e WW
s
107
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
217
J U I ) I 1 'H
L E Y S ] 'I i R :
. {'f
ECHNICAL
E X A M I N A TION
OI] FIER
WOR K
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
219
109
achievingthe dramaticlighting effectsof her
nocturnalscenes.In Man OfferingMoney to a
YoungWoman(cat.8),drama is alsoprovided by
the stronglyasymmetricalcomposition,which our
was constructedwith the aid
examinationsuggests
ofperspectivelines scratchedinto the ground layer.
Leyster'spaintingsshow a more consistentstageof
underpaintingthan do thoseof FransHals,not only
in the backgrounds,but alsoin the costumesand
fleshareas.The degreeof modeling in the appearance
in the underpaint stageappearsto
offlesh suggested
vary in differentpaintings.
'Leyster's
choiceof pigmentsis in keepingwith
thoseusuallyfound in seventeenth-century
Dutch
paintings.Somebrightly coloredcostumesare
repeated,with certainpigmentsalwaysbeing used
for the samecolor. Typicaily,indigo appearsin the
blue costumes,in spiteof the fact that its usewas
not recommendeddue to its tendencyto fade.Two
paintingsof problematicattribution show unusual
mkture of blue pigment to provide'cool'flesh tones,
ratherthan by the exploitationofa grayunderlayer
observedin paintingsby Leyster.
On the basisof our current study,it is not
possibieto draw any firm conclusionsasto whether
or not Leysterapprenticedwith FransHals. Our
research,which hasrevealedboth similaritiesand
differencesbetweentheir painting technique,is an
important stepin understandingthe influenceof
Hals on his contemporaries.This first technical
examinationof Leyster'spaintingsdoesnot give
all the answersto the many questionsregarding
Leyster'sstudio practices;yet it doesbring us one
stepfurther in our appreciationof not only her work
but Haarlemgenrepainting in general.
Notes
A few technical photos ofindividual works have been published.
Hofrichter r989, plates 54-58,and Maclaren and Brown r99r,
plate 48.
We are grateful to the following institutions and collectors who
have kindly allowed us to examine their paintings and who have
assistedus in our research:Rijksmuseum, Amsterdami Art
Institute ofChicago; Mauritshuis, The Hague; StaatlicheKunsthalle, Karlsruhe; The National Gallery, London; and Collection
ofHer Majesty Queen Elizabeth rr, Buckingham Palace,London;
Noortman Bv, Maastricht; Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York; Philadelphia Museum of An; Virginia Museum of Fine An.
Richmond: National Gallerv of Art and the Wallace and
Wilhelmina Holladay Collection; and the Worcester Art Museur
Most of the paintings were examined in situ. These circumstancer
limited examinatron of Concert (cat.ro) to scrutiny with the nake<
eye. Other paintings were also examined with a stereomicroscope
using magnifications up to 4ox. Select photographs were made
to record obseruations. Eisting x-rays and infrared and other
technical photos and information were kindly made available to
w.X-rays of Jolly Toper (cat.z) and Portrait of a Woman (cat:4)
were made by the R6ntgen Technische Dienst, Rotterdam. We
were able to scan three paintings (The Rommel-Pot Player, cat.4o;
Violinist, cat-42; A Game ofTric-Trac, cat.9) using an infrared
vidicon camera. In almost every casethe owners ofthe paintings
granted permission to remove one or more tiny paint samples
(about o.u5 pm'?) from the edges ofthe painting or existing
damages, so that we might gain further insight into the
composition and buildup ofpaint layers. Cross sectionswere
made by embedding each paint sample in a block ofpolyester
resin. The block was ground down and polished to expose the
sample at one surface. The cross sections were then examined
under a Leitz microscope in normal and long wavelength ultraviolet incident light. Remains of the sample material were used fo:
microscopic examination in polarized light and for microchemica
tests. Elements pres€nt in very small selected areas ofthe samples
were further identified using the scanning electron microscope
with energy dispersivex-ray analysis (sau-Enx), carried out by
nsv Research.
A false Frans Hals monogram, executed with a warm brown giaze,
is visible both with the naked eye and with the microscope in
Violinist (cat.4z). It is located in the background, directly below th
scroll ofthe violin and above the figure's sleeve. We are grateful to
Carol Sawyer,conseruator ofpaintings at the Virginia Museum of
Fine Arts, for carrying out technical examinations ofthe monograr
and confirming that it has clearly been added later, over abraided
paint layers. The presence ofage cracks suggeststhat the monograr
is definitely oid.
3 Groen and Hendriks r989; Hendriks and Lery-van Halm r99r.
4 Christie and Wadum 1992;Houtzager et al. ry67.
Statisticalsurey ofpainting supports used by Frans Hals based or
oeuvre attributed in Slive r97o-74 cat.nos.6z-1o8,dated c.r6z8-3o
and c.r635-38.Thirty-three ofthe paintings are on canvas and one
on copper.
The suruiving works ofcontemporary painters active over a longer
period, including Frans Hals and Rembrandt, show an increasing
use ofcanvas in place ofwood panel. SeeGroen and Hendriks
i989-9o, p.122,n.9, and Van de Wetering 1986,p.15,n.r. In the
Netherlands, the use ofcanvas did not supersedethat ofwood
panel to the same extent as in Itaiy. SeeMiedema and Meijer r979,
p.82.
The dimensions of Carousing Couple are those listed in Hofrichter
r989, p.46. Miedema r981,p.33,notes an approximate transitional
format ofTo x 55 cm in the substitution ofcanvas for panel for
paintings attributed to Rembrandt. Groen and Hendriks r989,
p.1o9,note an approximate transitional format of 60 x 5o cm for
paintings attributed to Frans Hals.
Vasari mentions that an advantageofcanvas is that it is'oflittle
weight and, when rolled up, easyto transpofi' (see Vasari on
Technique,ed. G. B. Brown r9o7, Dover Publications, New York
1960,p.236).Mention ofLeyster in the context ofthe De Grebbers
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
220
i:fL::,
,l:ltl
i. *r:i,
,?:j:
Infrareddetailof Pentimento
in TheRommel-PotPlaYer
(cat.4o).Darkpaintedlinesof
underdrawingrevealthat two
facesin the right doorwaY
originallyturnedin the
oppositedirectionaroundthe
doorpost.
IUDITH
LEYSTER: A TECHNiCAL
EXAMINATION
OF HER WORK
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
221
(seethe essaysby Broersen and Biesboerin the present catalogue)
the right and bottom sides.There are margins ofdamage along
the sidesofthe reduced painting. A close copy ofthe painting
has led to the suggestion that Leyster apprenticed with them until
about 1628,although she never adopted their practice of painting
9
on a large scale.For large canvassupports listed in Jan Miense
Molenaer's eifects, seeHofrichter r989, p.98, entries 253and 256.
Hofrichter 1989,p.5o incorrectly lists the dimensions of A Game of
Tric-Trac (cat.g) as 62.2 x 40.6 cm. Hofrichter 1989,p.64 appears to
shows the uncropped composition; cat.9A in Hofrichter r989,
The National'I rust, Goodwood House, Chichester.
zo Van de Wetering 1986,pp.18-19.Hendriks and Lery-van Halm r99r,
pp.5-6. For sourcesconcerning the linen industry, see:l. Bastin,
De Gentselijnwaadmarkt en linnenhandel in de zeventiende eeuw
(rq68); l. A. Boot'Het linnenbedrijfin Twente omstreeks r7oo,'
Textielhistorische Bijdragen 7 fi966), pp.zr-64; G.A.H. (Municipal
Archive, Haarlem), Keuren en Ordonnantidn d.erStad Haarlem rcr
have misinterpreted the overpainted later additions in Children
with a Cat and an Eel (cat.g) as a painted trompe I'oeil effect of a
window or door frame behind the two children. The later additions
around this painting and around Serenade(cats) are excluded
t775,vol. z, pp.zot-75;and S.A.G. (Municipal Archive, Ghent),
Ordonnance et reglement concernent le Marchd aux toiles de Ia ville
de Ganele(fio6).
from the listed measuremenu.
ro The wooden support of Man Offering Money to aYotLngWotnan
(cat.8) has been thinned for application ofa cradle, applied in
r9r5 and since rernoved. This treatment removed all traces ofthe
original beveled edges (to facilitate framing), on the reverse.
zr Van de Wetering 1986,p.19.
22 We are graleful to Mark Tucker, who carried out recent restoration
of The LastDrop (cat.6), for confirming and supplementing
Microscopic examination suggests,howeyer, that the top and
bottom edges ofthe panel are intact. Paint and ground layers
rvhich ran over the edgesofthe panel during execution ofthe
painting are still preserued along the bottom edge and in one place
observationsmade during our technical examination ofthe
painting before the cleaning. The treatment was at an early stage
at the time ofwriting this article, when no clear evidence had yet
come to light to refute the possibility that the very early additions
could be by Leyster despite the fact that no other examples of
along the top edge. On the other hand, paint and ground layers are
chipped offalong the right and left edgesofthe painting. tudging
from the completeness ofthe compositiot1 however, these are only
slightly reduced.
original format alterations in her work are known.
One curious feature ofthe added strips ofcanvas is their manner
ofattachment. Contfary to what one might expect, the x-ray does
not show that they have not been sewn on, but their frayed edges
Examination of Portrait of a Woman (catt4), suggeststhat the
bottom edge ofthe panel is intact. A margin oforiginal beveling,
rqhich measures r.5-4.o cm and tapers towards the left side, is
preserued along the bottom. In addition, microscopic examination
suggeststhat paint and ground layers run over the right side ofthe
bottom edge. On the other hand, paint and ground layers are
chipped offalong the other three sides,which have been reduced.
Remains oforiginal beveling, up to o.5 cnl in width, are present
s i m pl y abut the edgesofthe m ai n c anv as .
The copy ofthe composition in its extended form mentioned is
cat.no.roa in Hofrichter r989, canvas93 x 69 cm, Kunsthandel
P. de Boer, Amsterdam.
z3 Most ofthe thread densitieswere measured from available x,rays,
in which the canvasweave is made visible by the x-ray absorbing
properties ofthe lead white based ground layers. The results listed
along the top stde, suggestingthat up to J.5 cm could have been
removed. Beveling is absent along the right and Ieft sides,
here are the averageofseveral measurements made in both
directions. Where no x-rays were available, measuiements were
made directly on three paintings; LaughingYouth with a Wine
suggestingthat these are each reduced as much as 4 cm.
Examination ofthe panel support of Children with a Cat and an
Eel (cat.q) was hindered by a cradle applied to the reverseside
Glass, The Jester,and Violinist (cats39,39, 42). In these casesthe
measurements are less reliable, due to the fact that they were
limited to small areasof damage where the canvas was exposed.
and later additions around the edges.Nonetheless,it appearsthat
original beveling has been removed along the top and bottom sides
This enabled fewer measurements,over shorter distances,to be
made in each painting. The thread density listed for The Last Drop
(cat.6) is that ofthe main canvas.
ofthe panel, suggesting that these are reduced. As all four sidesof
the painting are slightly extended by later additions, it seemslikely
that the right and left sides have also been cropped. The present
rvidth ofthe two vertical planks joined together is 23.5cm and
2.1.8cm, from left to right.
z4 Other surveyshave been unable to conclude a consistent relationship between the width and thread densitiesofcanvas supports
exanrined.SeeHoutzager et al. ry67, p.62. For paintings on canvas
attributed to Frans Hals, seeGroen and Hendriks 1989,p.112and
Hendriks and Lery-van Halm r99r, p.8. Hendriks and Lery-van
Halm nade the general obseruation that the widest canvasesused
Bruyn r979; Miedema r98r.
I2 Flofrichter r989, p.97, entry 222.
13 The dinrensions of Carousing Couple (cat.4) plotted are those
Iisted in Hofrichter r989, since we did not examine this painting.
11
Miedema, r981,notes a general height to width proportional
relationship ofr.z5:r in north Netherlandish upright rectangular
paintings ofthe sixteenth and seventeenthcenturies. In a broad
statistical suruey ofpaintings on wood panel attributed to
Rembrandt, four groupings ofstandard panel sizesemerged.
In Groen and Hendriks 1989,p.1o9,a survey offorty upright
rectangular paintings on wood panel attributed to Frans Hals did
not reveal any groupings ofstandard sizes,but did agreewith a
general height-width proportional relationship of r.z5:t observed
by Miedema.
4
B a u ch a n d F cki te i n lg8r , especiallypp.:53 ar r d zs5.A dendr ochronological suruey ofpaintings on wood panel by Rembrandt
shows that the smallest planks were cut from inner heartwood,
in orc'lerto use valuable tinrber efficiently.
l5 Bruyn r979.
r6 Bruyn ry/-9, pp.io6-o7- Seen.ro above, regarding a possibie
reduction in sizeof Children with a Cat and an Eel (cat.r:).
17 Brtyn ry79,p.r.
r 8 K l e i n e t a l . r9 8 7 .
r9 Hofrichter r989, p.4r, lists larger dimensions for Merry Compuny
(cat.5) of 88 x73.j cm. This was the size of the painting with later
additions, which were removed during its restoration in r987.
Before restoration the painting natched the present format of 7he
Last Drop (cat.6). The original canvas support of Merry Company
(cat.5) has been cut on all sides,removing cusping, especialiyalong
by Frans Hals show a relatively fine, though not necessarilyregular
weave. Six small canvases,which measure one Brabant el lvide or
lessare most coarseiywoven, with twelve threads or feurerper cm.
2j Houtzager et al. ry67, pp.zz6, zz8, z4z, and z44lists thread densities
ofcanvasesused by the Utrecht painters Hendrick ter Brugghen
and Gerard van Honthorst.
26 For studies of canvasthread densitiesused by the workshops of
Rembrandt and Frans Hals, seerespectivelyVan de Wetering r986,
pp.3r-37and a smaller suruey in Groen and Hendriks 1989,p.rt3.
De Mayerne givesseveralrecipeswhich suggestsmoothing the
priming layer using a curved priming knife or pumice stone; see
Van de Graaft958, pp.138-42,nos.6-20.
z7 An x-ray of The Last Drop (cat.6) shows thickenings of the ground
layer along the top, left and bottom sidesofthe main canvas,which
would have accumulated along the rolled stretching edgeswhen
the ground layer was applied. The original stretching edgeshave
been unrolled and trimmed offclose to the painted area, slightly
further in along the right side where no ridge ofground is
apparent. Concerning preparation ofcanvas support seeVan de
Wetering 1986,pp.3r-37;Groen and Hendriks r989-9o, p.rr3.
z8 Van de Graafr958, p.r35,nos.r and z.
:9 Van de C r aaf r 958,p.tJ 8, no.a.
Jo Groen and Hendriks 1989,p.u5.
3r Groen ry77.Yan de Wetering r986r pp.17-20.
jz Christie and Wadum 1992.
33 Frans Hals's large pendant portraits Cornelia Claesdr Vooght
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
222
(cat.zz) and Nico laesvan der Meer (seefig.zza), painted on wood
panels which measure r26.5x ror.o cm and 128.0x roo.5 cm
containing lead white and fine black, also underlies the shadow of
the man on the Ieft side.
respectively,have the traditionai priming of an oil imprimatura
on a chalk ground. SeeGroen and Hendriks 1989,pp.u5 and rz4.
Leyster's Children with a Cat and an Eel (cat.r3), painted on a wood
panel which now measuresup to 59.5cm x 48.7 cm, sirnilarly shows
4Z Paint samples show that the gray paint mixtures ofthe background
and clothing both chiefly contain lead white and black (lanp
black?), mixed with umber in the costume and very little fine red
pigment in the background.
the traditional priming.
48 Pitted paint lossesare most extensivein the upper background,
excluding two margins along the top ofthe right and left sides.
J4 For Leiden document, seeVan de Wetering 1986,pp.19-2o.
Concerning Haarlem practice, seeGroen and Hendriks 1989,p.u6.
J5 Most (ifnot all) grounds on canvasanalyzed from the first ten
years oIRembrandt's activity in Amsterdam, show two layers;a
gray over a red ocher ground. SeeVan de Wetering 1986,p.42.
Ground layers containing a little ocher and up to 8o percent quartz
have been found in some canvasesfrom the 164osonwards. See
Kiihn r96z and Bomford et al. 1988,pp.27-3r.
i6 Use of an aqueous binding medium for the first red ocher ground
in LaughingYouth with aWine Glassis suggestedby its porous
structure apparent in the paint sample cross section. K. Groen
has examined paint sample cross sections from paintings by the
Utrecht painters Adriaen Bloemaert, Gerard van Honthorst, and
Hendrick ter Brugghen all ofwhich showed double, gray-over-red
grounds.
j7 Meagre Compafll (Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam) was commissioned
from Hals in 1633,but in 1636when he had not yet finished it, it was
given to Pieter Codde for completion. The large canvas support is
prepared with a grayon top ofa reddish brown ocher ground; see
Bijl r989, p.to4. Seen.35above, concerning use ofsimilar double
grounds by Rembrandt. Two late genre portraits by Frans Hals also
have a cool gray over a red ocher double ground, Man in a SIotLch
Hat (Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Kassel)and Porrrait of a Mqn
The fact that paint areascontaining lead white are most damaged
suggeststhe action of an acid substanceperhaps applied during
earlier restoration treatment. Ifexcessive heat was the cause,one
would expect dark paint areasto show most damage. In any event,
the numerous tiny paint lossesallow an unusually complete
picture ofthe stageofunderpainting in flesh areas.An x-ray of
the painting suggeststhat a more bulbous face was indicated in the
rndern2int
ct2 o P
49 Microscopic examination suggesteduse of indigo in the blue
costumes in Serenade(cat.t), Merry Company (cat.), The Last
Drop (cat.6), and Self-Portrait (cat.7). Indigo has been identified by
analysis in paint samples in Jolly Toper (cat.2), Man Offiring Money
to a Young Woman (cat.8 ), A Game of Tric-Trac (cat.g), Children
with a Cat and an Eel (cat.r3), The Rommel-Pot Player (ca't.4o), and
Violinist (cat.4z).
5o Indigo has been identified in: Haarlem Civic Guard group portratts
by Frans Hals (seeVan Grevenstein et aI.1990, pp.9z-93 and Groen
and Hendriks r98 9,p.rt7), Offcers ofthe St. Adrian Civic Guard. at
Haarlein,l6jo, attributed to Hendrick Pot (M. M. Bang r99t,
restoration report in Frans Halsmuseum) and Jan Miense
Molenaer's Touch (cat36; seeChristie and Wadum r99z). Indigo
(Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge); seeGroen and Hendriks, t989,
pp.115-116.
One might suggestthat theseprimed canvaseswere
also appearsto have been used by JohannesCornelis Verspronck
in the tablecloths ofhis Regentesses
of St. Elkabeth's Hospital at
Haarlem,r64r and his Regentexesof the House of the Holy Ghost
similarly obtained in Amsterdam. A document of 1676records that
following the death ofone authorized supplier, painters in Leiden
against the use ofindigo, seeVan de Graafrgj8, p.44.
were obliged, at great trouble and expense, to go and buy their
primed canvases and panels in another city. SeeVan de Wetering
1986,p.20.
J8 Groen and Hendriks r989, pp.u6-u7.
39 Valentiner and Von Moltke 1939,p.182,private collection, London,
wood panel, 44.2 x 5r.8 cm- For past attributions ofthe painting to
lan Miense Molenaer and to Leyster, see cat.28. Examination with
a stereomicroscope and with an infrared vidicon suggests that the
composition has been thinly laid in using areasof monochrome
underpaint rather than boldly sketched using painted lines.
Notably, pentimenti reveal that the vesselheld by the woman and
an adjacent chair back were initially laid in using dark gray paint.
4o Arbitrary scratchesand indentations made in the primed supports
of The Rommel-Pot Player (cat.4o),Leyster's Game ofTric-Trac
(cat.9), and Molenaer's Touch (cat.36) appear to be accidental
damages which occurred before the main paint layers were applied.
4r Hofrichter 1989,pp.8Z-1o3.For a definition of terms, seeDe Pauwde Y een 969, pp.z5t- 254.
42 Surface examination occasionally revealsthat one layer ofpaint
was allowed to dry before another was applied on top, indicating
a break in the painting procedure. For example, hairs drawn by
scratching into wet paint reveal an intact and therefore presumably
dry layer of underpaint (Merry Company, cat.5), or haks scratched
into a layer ofunderpaint which was allowed to dry were left
undisturbed when details were painted on top (The Rommel-Pot
Player, cat.4o, and Standing Cavalier, cat.4t). Separate stages of
paint application can also be distinguished in paint sample cross
sections. A clear separation oflayers is usually apparent when one
layer was allowed to dry before another was applied on top. This is
not the case when one paint layer was applied over another that
was still wet.
4j ln Merry Companl black underpaint for a shadow ofthe table outlined a reseruefor the calfofthe adjacent figure in an alternatrve
position. The shadow was subsequentlypainted out by the yellow
floor.
44 The pigments identified in the background are yellow and brour
ocher, bone black, and lead white.
45 Groen and Hendriks 1989,p.rzo.
46 A paint sample shows that a thin layer ofgray underpaint,
JUDITH
LEYSTER: A TECHNICAL
EXAMINATION
at Haarlem,t64z, Frans Halsmuseum. For De Mayerne's advrce
5i Artificial copper green has been identified in severalpaintings by
Frans Hals, including a Haarlem Civic Guard group portrait and
the late Regent and Regentess group portraits. See Groen and
Hendriks 1989, p.119.Another tnre of blue prgment called smalt
(glass colored by cobalt oxide) was found together with lead white
in the slcy of Sranding Cavalier. Avery fine (approximately ro pm
particles) and therefore pale variety has been used.
52 Microscopic examination suggests that the bright vermilion and
yellow stripes in the jester's costume are thinly painted on top of
whitish and pink strokes ofunderpaint.
5J Our microscopic examination of The Last Dropltefore restoration
revealed that the figure contours were overlapped by green background paint. During cleaning, Mark Tucker noted that this green
paint, associated with reworking the additions around the edges
'extends in a thin layer well into the picture, worked in around the
figures.' Flaking losses revealed a cooler gray underlayer.
54 The blue undergarment ofthe figure with a wine tankard in lhe
Last Drop (cat.6) was finished after his red jacket and white collar,
which it overlaps.The gray color ofthe lute player's undergarment
in Concert(cat.rc) was applied last, covering a bright blue underlayer (apparently indigo) and two ribbons hanging from his lacetrimmed collar.
55 Constantijn Huygens, Mijn Jeugd, translation and commentary
by C. L. Heesakkers, 1987.Huygens (1j96-1687) wrote about his
meeting with Jan Lievens in an autobiographical sketch ofhis own
youth around 1629.A similarly idiosyncratic sequenceofpainting
has been obserued in portraits attributed to Frans Hals, seeGroen
and Hendriks r989, p.u9.
56 A study ofthe overlap ofpaint layers suggeststhat the red
costumed figure in front was already finished when parts ofthe
central figure were added. A bright red layer under the shoulders
ofthe central figule, which runs under the background up to the
figure in red costume, similarly suggests a pentimento. Finally,
white and red contour lines covered by the floor drew his leg in
another position. The yellow paint ofthe floor also conceals
changesin position of the two feet in the middle of the
composition.
57 The features ofthe face underneath the painted figure ofthe fiddler
are clearly visible through his costume, especially the mouth,
OF HER WORK
113
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
223
which is painted using a red lake glazeappliedover a light
yellou'ishunderlayer.Flakinglossesrevealtwo paint layerson the
ground, under the presentpainting ofa fiddler. First, a light blue
paint layer,which apparentlycontainsindigo, extendsbetweenthe
legsofthe fiddler's indigo costume.On top is a red layer,which
continuesunder the artist'spaletteand terminatesalonga white
impastoline under the fiddler's right thigh. This marksa transition
to a grayunderlayer,alsopresentunder the top part ofthe painted
canvas.
58 For bther verstonsol TheRommel-PotPlayer,seeSlivery7o-74,
cat.L3-1and Slive1989-9o,cat.8.For paintingsdepictinga boy in
a fur hat attributed to FransHals,seeSlive1989-9o,cat.z6.
that the
59 Groen i988,especia$ pp.59-6r.Researchsuggests
formation ofpits or holesthroughout the body ofcertain emulsion
paint mixturescan be causedby bubblesoftrapped solvenr.An oil
usedfor grinding pigments
paint, in which hydrophilic substances
got trapped,could show this samephenomenon.
6o Hendriks and Levy-vanHalm i991,pp.4o-41.
6r Hendriks and Levy-vanHalm r99r, pp.3z-34and 5o.
62 Delager D9o, pp.69-111.
63 Seenotably: YoungMan with a Skullc. t6z6-28,ftg.5o.
rr4
PAINTINGS IN THE LABORATORY: Scientific Examination for Art History and Conservation
224