CULTURAL SIMILARITIES IN WORLD HISTORY: A STUDY OF SPIRIT POSSESSION IN NIGERIA AND
PACIFIC ASIA
BEING A PAPER PRESENTED
BY
LEWU, MARY A. Y.
08033573113, E-MAIL, [email protected]
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY AND INTERNATIONAL STUDIES
UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN, NIGERIA
AT THE CONFERENCE OF THE ASSOCIATION OF WORLD HISTORY
HELD AT THE LONDON SCHOOL OF ECCONOMICS AND POLITICAL SCIENCE (LSE), APRIL 14-18,2011
Cultural Similarities in World History: A Study of Spirit Possession in Nigeria and Pacific Asia
Abstract
This paper examines the ’Aruta’ spirit possession that is prevalent among the Owe people of Kabba in
North-east Yoruba land, the ‘Bori’ of Hausa land all in Nigeria, the people of Papua New Guinea and
Haiti. An ‘Aruta’ is believed to be possessed by the spirit of the dead titled men and powerful women
in the society hence ‘he’ assumes the powerful ‘fatherly’ role of the deceased. Taking a critical look at
the spirit possession in Hausa land, ‘Bori’, Haitian Voodoo, ‘Iwa’ or ‘aloa’ and Papua New Guinea
‘Jari’ or ‘Magis’, some similarities are discovered. Although the influence of Christianity and western
education has reduced the frequency and importance of Aruta’, its relevance and cultural mileu
cannot be denied among the aforementioned communities.
Introduction
One of the saddest misgivings is the impression that Science can explain everything and
whatever it cannot explain and verify is unreal. This has limited any serious academic research into
some baffling phenomenon in the African experiences as they are dismissed as black magic. This
neglect leaves many areas of African worldview shrouded in secrecy, thereby, encouraging
ignorance and superstition1. Against this background, this paper compares ‘Aruta’ spirit possession
among the Owe Yoruba in North-eastern Nigeria and Voodoo spirit possession in Haiti and Papua
New Guinea. The paper employs a historical perspective and is based on primary source analysis.
Spirit possession is not a new or recent phenomenon, it has been acknowledged since
biblical times. It occurred in most parts of the world, in both primitive and sophisticated societies.
Spirit possession is when a spirit is able to either temporarily or permanently take over the thinking
and/or body functions of a living person.2 Much work has been done on the subject by scholars such
as Ari Kiev, Jane Bello Salisbury and Osterreich. Like the ancient cultures of the Romans, Greeks,
Indians and Chinese, African women expressed themselves through female cults where they can free
themselves from the cultural sanctions within their society. 3
Spirit possession is a culture bound phenomenon as it is closely related to the beliefs,
customs and attitudes of the particular cultural group in which it occurs.4 It is generally believed that
spirit possession is a form of hysteria and a group phenomenon that involves several members of a
particular group of people in a particular setting. 5
Spirit Possession in Africa
Most Africans believe in the concept of the unity of life and time. The important aspect of
the African worldview is the belief that there is continuous communication between the living and
the dead. Therefore, most African cultures believe that the strength and influence of every clan is
anchored by the spirits of its deceased heroes. These heroes are viewed as omnipotent and
indestructible, their importance is comparable to that of the Catholic Saints. To Africans, spirits and
deities are ever present in human affairs as guardians of the established order. Therefore, spirit
possession is an important aspect of cultural development in Africa which had been used in many
ways to the advantage of individuals, groups and societal interests.6 This explains why spirit
possession is widely used as therapy across Africa. ‘Zar, is the name by which spirit possession is
known in Egypt, Somalia, Sudan and Burkina Faso’ and ‘Holi’ in Niger. 7 The ‘Zar’ cult in the Sudan
and some East African cultures is an ethno-medical healing ceremony involving possession typical of
Muslim women. In Africa generally, spirit possession is a form of socialisation between women
when they can express their emotions freely without having to take responsibility for their actions.8
In Nigeria, ‘Bori’ in Hausa land and ‘Aruta’ in Owe land (Kabba) refer to spirit possession.
Spirit possession in Nigeria
Spirit possession is a common practice in many societies in Nigeria, among which are ‘Bori’
in Hausa land and ‘Aruta’ of Owe community in Kabba that are discussed in this paper.
‘ Bori’ in Hausaland
‘Bori’ is the traditional animist religion of the Hausa people of Nigeria which involves spirit
possession. The spiritual force is believed to reside in physical things therefore, possessing spirits are
usually either spirits or animals of surrounding land and water said to have lived there always. This
belief differs from Christianity and Islam which believe in one supreme God.9
In pre-Islamic Hausa societies in Northern Nigeria, ‘Bori’ spirit possession was a common
ecstatic religious healing cult especially among the rural population. It involved casting out of spirits
during which sick women, especially, those with psychological problem were believed to obtain
relief. Diseases which failed to respond to treatment were referred to the ‘Bori’ cult in the 19th and
20th centuries. It involved the use of hallucinating herbs, hypnotic drumming and animal sacrifice.
The king’s sister, ‘Inna’ (mother of us all) was the leader of devotees. They were responsible for
protecting the society from malevolent forces through possession dances as well as providing
healing and divination.10 Though Isam had been practised in Hausa land since the 14th century, it was
not until the Usman Dan Fodio Jihad of the 19th century that ‘bori’ practice was condemned as
demonic and likened to witch craft. However, ‘Bori’ cult became even more important to Gobir
refugee women who came under the Caliphate through conquest. The women needed healing and
rejuvenation to enable them to cope with the realities of their new situation. Some of them suffered
physical and psychological illnesses as they grapple with loneliness, disorientation and personal
loss.11
The ‘Bori’ cult was suppressed by the Jihadists and the British but the rituals survived in the
refugee Hausa states such as Konni and Dogonduchi (now located in southern Niger) and some rural
parts of Hausa land in Nigeria. The powerful advisory roles of women as exemplified by the ‘Bori’
priestesses either disappeared or were transferred to Muslim women in scholarly, educational and
community leadership roles. British and French colonialists’ exclusion of women in their
administrations led to the virtual disappearance of ‘Bori’s role by the 20th century.12Though, both
men and women were possessed by the ‘Bori’ spirit, it was more common among women. ‘Bori’
rituals provided a powerful corporate identity for women who belong to them through the practice
of traditional healing as well as through the performance of ‘bori’ festivals like the ‘girka’ initiation
ritual.13 The ‘Bori’ cult survived as an Island in the ocean of Islam in Hausa land because of its
feminine nature; it is controlled and dominated by women and it provides freedom for women
unlike in Christianity and Islam. Furthermore, ‘Bori’ provides an avenue for socio-cultural
performance, festivals and other types of interaction. It offers traditional medical and health care
services to the public endearing ‘Bori’ cult to both members and non-members. Hausa belief in the
existence of spirits even in contemporary times also aided the growth of ‘Bori’. Consequently, ‘Bori’
has survived in a predominant hostile Islamic environment because of its flexibility and dexterity
particularly in accommodating Islamic practices alongside pagan ones.14 ‘Bori’ is still practiced in
Northern Nigeria though not as widespread as before, it may not be eradicated any time soon.
Spirit possession is not a prominent feature of Yoruba religion, the practice is limited to
certain traditions and when possession occurs, it is seen as the deity taking absolute control of all
the faculties of the individual possessed. The process is described as ‘gun’ like ‘riding a horse’15
However, ‘Aruta’ spirit possession is indigenous and peculiar to Kabba people in the whole of Yoruba
land.
‘Aruta’ in Kabba.
Owe people inhabit Kabba town and some fifteen villages in the extreme North-eastern part
of Yoruba land just South-west of the rivers Niger and Benue confluence.16 Kabba, the town and
‘Owe,’ the people are used interchangeably in this paper. Kabba town became an important
administrative centre first for the Nupe overlords between the 1820s and the 1860s, and
subsequently for the British colonial administration.17 Qwe people and their neighbours, Abinu,
Ijumu and Yagba constitute the Okun Yoruba people formerly in Northern Nigeria before the
creation of states in 1967.18 In 1990, they were excised from Kwara State to form Kogi State with the
Ebira, Igala, Ogori and other minority groups.
Spirit possession is a cross-cultural phenomenon which is not generally limited to any
gender, though, only women are possessed as ‘ Aruta’ in Kabba. Upon the death of an ‘Orota’, a
two-titled chief or an ‘Ololu’, a three-titled chief, their mothers and powerful women in the
traditional hierarchy of Kabba political system; a spontaneous spirit possession of their wives or
female relations takes place. The wives must be indigenes of Kabba, probably to safeguard the
secret of the cult. Those possessed may not be physically present for possession to occur, one of the
‘Arutas’, of Oba Ologbonyo Arokoyo , the Kabba traditional ruler, who died in 1957, was possessed in
far away Lagos, (some 300 kilometres away) She travelled to Kabba without prior knowledge of her
father’s
demise. 19
‘Aruta’ spirit possession and its origin are shrouded in secrecy hence few literature is
available on why a person is possessed or who determines those to be possessed. Most data are
obtained from oral sources which are given in hush voices. However, according to Akadi and
Agbaetan, spirit possession was first noticed during the reign of Oba Obarofun Obaoloko Oparaja in
the 19th century. They further opined that the process of becoming titled men could be a pointer to
how those to be possessed are pre-determined. Akadi and Agbaetan assumed that while the
prospective ‘Orotas’ and ‘Ololus’ were in seclusion for at least 3 days, they performed certain rituals
that set out who their ‘A rutas’ would be upon their death. The secrecy already mentioned makes
this only a presumpsion.20
According to Aiyewumi, the minimum number of ‘Aruta’ the deceased can have is a
maximum of 21 and minimum of 3. The wife is usually the first to be possessed, and is refeered to as
the ‘Olori’, ‘head’ who becomes the spokesperson for the others. She is also referred to as ‘baba’,
symbolising the deceased who would speak through ‘him’ as the ‘olobese’ or messenger. The ‘Aruta’
in the middle is referred to as ‘awe opon’, while the last is called ‘arugba’, bearer of the calabash
who runs errands for the others as well as carry their luggages. The possession of ‘Aruta’ usually
occurs during the popular ‘Ogun’ dance, a rigorous and energetic dance performed by men and
women around the town in honour of the dead after which she receives an ‘Opa’, a staff or rod as
her symbol of authority.21
The process of possession is referred to as ‘gbamu’, meaning ‘captures’ her. Thereafter, she
goes under the total influence of the deceased and practically replicates the dead man’s actions,
mannerisms, habits such as smoking, limping and even preference of food. She then becomes a
‘man’ and is oblivious of her previous life’s experiences and becomes elevated above other women
and even me; ‘he’ is given the usual respect accorded the deceased while was alive. 22 The ‘Arutas’
are fed and catered for in the deceased man’s compound throughout the duration of possession.
Their shave heads and body are painted with cam wood, a reddish substance obtained from the bark
of certain trees. The first and head wears the dead man’s clothes while the others throw wrappers
across their shoulders like men do. ‘Arutas’ are characterised by stiff necks, mood swing, peculiar
behaviour, those not familiar with the culture may look at it as ‘madness.’ 23
They are well fed daily with freshly prepared smoked fish sauce and pounded yam (yam dough)
while they reside in the dead man’s house for up to 3 months after the burial ceremonies. There after, the ‘Arutas’ return to their homes and families after certain rituals and animal sacrifices are
performed to de-possess them. However, whenever the deceased has a message for the family, the
‘Aruta’, especially, the ‘baba’ is repossessed and ‘comes home’ to relay the messages which could be
to warn the family or community leaders of an impending danger to which sacrifices are prescribed
to avert such dangers. On the death of elderly relatives of the deceased or a serious and sensitive
family feud, the ‘Aruta also ‘comes home’ to sympathise and mediate and ‘his’ decisions are final. If
the family needs to retrieve certain items hidden by the dead man, the ‘Aruta’ ‘comes home’ and
locates such items.24 An ‘Aruta’ remains one for life with occasional possession whenever necessary.
No institution is perfect, the ‘Aruta’ cult is not an exception therefore it has some good and not so
good impact on the society.
The Positive Effects of ‘Aruta’ Cult on Kabba Society.
1. The cult immortalises the dead ancestors.
2. It provides a link with the ancestors.
3. It unites the families as well as the community by providing a rallying point for all.
4. It accords more prestige and respect to the women that are possessed, thereby becoming
more relevant in traditional state affairs.
5. It perpetrates the culture and identity of Kabba people.
6. People are entertained while watching the ceremonies.
The Adverse Effects of the ‘Aruta’ Cult on Kabba Society
1. During the process of possession, much resource is expended in the upkeep of the ‘Arutas’
who are also not productive while in seclusion. The high financial implication could be a drain
in the economic resources of the society.
2. An ‘Aruta’ remains one for life even after she has been de-possessed or ‘ho’. Despite the
rituals and sacrifices, ‘Arutas’ may become more forgetful, experience more frequent
headaches and unexplained general ill health.
3. Some men may prefer not to marry ladies who had been possessed by the ‘Aruta’ spirit.
4. Christians and Muslims see the ‘Aruta’ cult as fetish and satanic.
5. The cult discriminates against women even in death because those who distinguish
themselves in Owe society do not have ‘Arutas’ when they die while titled men with lesser
achievements have ‘Aruta’ after their death.
Prospects of ‘Aruta’ Cult in Kabba.
The prospects for ‘Aruta’ cult are bleak. Christianity and Western education have impacted
negatively on the cult because fewer girls are available for possession as ‘Arutas’. In addition the
men who acquire the ‘Orota’ and ‘Ololu’ titles now omit the fetish rituals that make them
possess their relatives after their death, probably out of religious conviction or the huge financial
involvement. However, those already possessed continue to be relevant in the socio-cultural
activities of Owe people as agents of peace and cultural continuity in their capacity as
intermediaries between the living and the dead.25
Spirit Possession in Pacific Asia.
Ari Kiev describes spirit possession in Haiti as a culturally recognised and accepted way of
‘going crazy’. The possessed is believed to have the opportunity to express much repressed and
suppressed feelings and thoughts.26 While Langness describes spirit possession in his ‘Hysterical
Psychosis in New Guinea Highlands’ as an escape route for Bena bena male aged between 22-23
to deal with the cultural factors that generally created extreme tension. To him, ‘’those who
were constitutionally less able to bear the cultural pressures before they made the necessary
adjustment to life ‘’ succumb to spirit possession in Pacific Asia serves as a form of therapy just
like in Africa. 27
Spirit possession is one of the strongest links between the cultures of the West African coast
and those of the African diaspora. As non-material values, possessing spirits were among the
very few ‘belongings’ African slaves were able to bring across the Atlantic. The ‘Vodun’ religion
and possession practices in present day Benin Republic and Togo is similar to Voodoo practice in
Haiti, while the ‘Sango’ and ‘Ogun’ religious practice in Yoruba land (Nigeria) and ‘Candomble’ in
Brazil and ‘Santeria’ in Cuba are very similar. In Africa and the diaspora, cultures and religions of
possession co-exist with and borrow from monotheistic religions such as Christianity and Islam.28
Voodoo Spirit possession in Haiti.
Haiti is a tiny island country off the American coast where Christopher Columbus first
touched his foot on the New World. The beautiful country is the world’s oldest black republic
having defeated Napoleon’s army in the rebellion of August 22, 1791 to protect their right to
practice Voodoo. After the defeat, Haiti declared independence on January 1, 1804 and began to
export Voodoo to America, mostly New Orleans as early as 1800 through the efforts of Marie
Laveau, a famous Voodoo queen.29 Haiti is the home of Voodoo though, Roman Catholicism is
also firmly entrenched and the official state religion; 95% still practice some form of Voodoo.
Voodoo is a dominant religion in Haiti, it is an amalgamation of African spirit religion and
Catholicism. Both men and women are Voodoo priests whose duties include performing religious
ceremonies, healing, pacifying spirits, telling the future, reading dreams, casting spells (from love
spells to death spells) Religious rites are usually held outside and everyone participates. Drums
are central to the accompanying music as well as dancing. A master of ceremonies is often
present and ‘Iwa’ often comes and take over a person’s body. Nearly every Voodoo service has
animal sacrifice. Voodoo consists of peaceful Voodoo called ‘Rada’ and the dangerous one called
‘Petro’ which encompasses black magic with death curses and the making of Zombies.30 Haitian
Voodoo has long been associated with ghosts and mummies, it not all bad because it is used as a
method of diagnosis today in parts of Haiti.31
Voodoo possession occurs during religious ceremonies lasting only during the event and is
referred to as ‘’mounting the horse’’. The spirit ‘rides’ on the victim who ‘manifests’ the spirit.
The victims often enter a trance, dance and do things they would not have been able to do in
their conscious state. For instance, elderly or physically challenged persons have displayed
unique ability or behaviour.32 The possessing spirit is referred to as ‘Iwa’ or’ Chwal’ or ‘Aloa’,
‘’horse of the spirit’’, some of which are believed to be able to prophesy about upcoming events
or situations concerning the person possessed. Most of those possessed by the spirit get a
feeling of blackness or energy flowing through their body as if they were being electrocuted.
When this occurs, it is a sign that a possession is taking place. When ‘Iwa’ leaves the person
possessed, there is no recollection of the event and the possessed person feels tired and
wonders what had happened during the possession.33
This probably accounts for Lewis’
assertion that the possessing spirit ‘aloa ’enters the victim’s head and displaces the person’s
soul. Lewis further acknowledges that spirits repeatedly possess particular groups within a
population, citing the historical evidence that the wives and daughters of Japanese Emperors
were particularly prone to spirit possession. 34
Not every practitioner can be possessed, the belief is that only the ‘Iwa’ can choose who it
wants to possess, probably someone who can carry out a spiritual mission. It is believed that the
‘Iwa’ probably possess those with matured souls and spiritually advanced. 35 People who try to
feign spirit possession to attract attention and the feeling of importance (because those who are
possessed carry high importance in ceremonies) undergo some form of trial to test the
genuineness of their possession. Such a test involves the offering of ‘pimet’, a potent alcoholic
drink, which if consumed by the ‘chwal’ without showing any discomfort is regarded as being
genuinely possessed.36
Spirit Possession in Papua New Guinea
Papua New Guinea is a country in the Oceania on the eastern half of the Island of New
Guinea and some offshore Islands. The Western part of the Island is a part of Indonesian province of
Papua and west Papua. It is located in the South-eastern Pacific Ocean in an area defined as
Melanesia since the 19th century. Papua New Guinea is one of the most culturally diverse countries
on earth with over 850 indigenous languages and at least as many traditional societies with a
population of just under 7 m. With only 18% urban population, it is one of the most rural societies in
the world. The country is one of the least explored culturally and geographically and many of its
plants and animals are still waiting to be discoverd.37
Before the advent of christianity in papua new guinea, ‘jari’ or ‘magis’ spirit possession
was a common practice among the people. A 2000 census showed that 96% of the population
identified with Christianity though many combine Christianity with some pre- Christian traditional
religious practices.38 Seers among the Aasabano people living at Duranmin near the center of
Papua New Guinea, called ‘ol glass man’ (glass men) in their lingua franca, Tok Pisin practiced spirit
possession. Both men and women were practitioners of soul travel similar to Shamanism and spirit
possession used by mediums to contact supernatural beings though men were more common.38 The
Glass men had direct contact to super natural beings through altering consciousness and dreaming.
They were able to see spirits and deceased ancestors who the Asabano believed provided wild
game, enable healing and gave other support for people. Glass men could also see the nefarious
activities of witches, sorcerers and evil spirits of tree, stones and water. They were able to see these
spirit- beings because ‘sprites put something in their eyes’ and they were able to travel to travel at
night, primarily in dreams to visit the supernatural beings. Glass men also smoked tobacco to consult
with the ‘sprites’ who they claim sat on their backs, caused them to shake and told them what to
say. 39
Sick people consulted the Glass man to find out the cause because the Asabano believed
that sickness was caused by witches who cannibalised people, sorcerers who poisoned them or
vindictive spirits of stones, trees and waters who trapped human souls. Glass men then compelled
tree spirits to release the souls by offering a pig, singing and identified witches and sorcerers who
could be killed. This was done to achieve healing for the sick.40
Missionaries in the 1970s and within a decade, all the Asabano were converted to Baptist
Christianity. This new religion brought about ‘Spirit women’ who claimed to be possessed by the
Holy Spirit. Christian spirit work has replaced traditional work with ‘sprites’ who missionaries and
Pastors labelled ‘Satan’ family. However, some aspects of the traditional religion had been adapted
into the practice of Christianity.41 Thus Christianity co-exists with the traditional religion in Papua
New Guinea.
Differences Between ‘Aruta’ Spirit Possession and Spirit Possession in Pacific Asia
1. Only a female can be possessed as ‘Aruta’, while both male and female are possessed in Haitian
Voodoo and ‘Jari’ in Papua New Guinea.
2. ‘Aruta’ spirit possession is spontaneous while possession is induced in the pacific.
3. ‘Aruta’ is normally associated with burial rites but Voodoo and ‘Jari’ are not.
4. ‘Aruta spirit possession lasts longer (up to months) but spirit possession in the pacific lasts only
till
the end of the ceremonies.
5. ‘Aruta’ spirit possession is not a performance for healing like spirit possession in the Pacific.
6. There is no initiation into ‘Aruta’ cult as occurs in the Pcific Asian spirit possession.
7. Only the spirit of the dead can possess the ‘Aruta’ while in Voodoo and ‘Jari’, the possessing spirit
could be that of plants and animals or rock.
Similarities Between ‘Aruta’ and Spirit Possession in Pacific Asia
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The possessed assumes the nature and characteristics of the possessing spirit.
Possession usually occurs during some form or ritual drumming and dancing.
Those possessed can foretell future events.
People from another culture may see the possessed as crazy or fake.
Those possessed are prone to have multiple personalities.
People who are possessed may have usual or inappropriate speech accent, foreign or
unknown language
They often do not remember what happened while under possession.
In all the societies spirit possession co-exists with Christianity and Islam.
Spirit possession serves as a unifying factor in all the societies.
People are entertained by watching spirit possession rituals and ceremonies
11. Sprit possession is more prevalent among people of ethnic background.
12. Spirit possession is common in more rural areas.
13. Spirit possession serves as therapy for people in Africa and Pacific Asia
The similarities are obviously more than the differences showing that human beings are
basically the same. Under similar conditions, they respond in the same way by using what is
available to them to cope with their surroundings.
Conclusion
We have seen the functions of spirit possession and how it brings people together in times
of need and helps them cope with difficult situations in life. This paper has tried to bring to the fore
the importance of spirit possession among African women as an avenue to express their suppressed
feelings as well as being relevant in traditional religious and social activities of their communities.
The fact that spirit possession has co-existed with Christianity and Islam and still remains relevant in
the societies studied is acknowledged. Also the African connection of Voodoo in Haiti has been
established though it differs from the origin of ‘Jari’ in Papua New Guinea (which originated from
East Asia) yet the similarities in both practices are undeniable. It could then be safely concluded that
despite the time and space that separate the societies discussed, spirit possession is a common
practice amongst the people showing the cross-cultural nature of spirit possession.
Notes and References
1. Udo, Etuk, ‘’Christianity and Traditional Health-Care,’’ in Religion and Cultural Identity.
Ibadan. Hope Publications Limited, 2992, pp. 75-76
2. http://www.soulrescuesite.com/spirit-possession-attatched-spirits.htm
3. Teoh, C. L. and Dass, D, ‘Spirit Possession In An Indian Family: A Case Report’, Singapore
Medical Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, March 1973, p.62
See also Kiev, A., ‘’Spirit Possession in Haiti’’, American Journal of Psychiatry, No. 118. Pp.
133-138. Osterreich, T. K., ‘’Possession,’’ New York, Smith Publishers, 1930. Salisbury. R.
‘’Possession’’ in the New Guinea Highlands’’, International Journal of Social Psychiatry, No.
16, 1968, pp. 85-94.
4. http://www.academon.com/Term-Paper-Spirit-Possession-in-Sudan. Accessed, Nov. 17,
2010, 15:52 GMT.
5. Teoh, C.L. and Dass, D., Spirit Possession In An Indian Family: A Case Report, Singapore
Medical Journal, Vol. 14, No. 1, March, 1973, pp. 62-64.
6. Lambo, Adeoye T., ‘Psychotherapy in Africa’, in Conformity and Conflict, Readings in Cultural
Anthropology, Spradley, James P., and MacCurdip, David, W., (eds) Fourth Edition, Boston,
Little Brown and Company, 1980, pp. 368-378
7. Boyd, J. and Mack, B.B., The Collected Works of Nana Asma’u, Daughter of Usman Dan
Fodiyo, 1763-1864, East Lansing, Michigan State University Press, 1993, p. 384
8. http://www.academon.com/Term-Paper-Spirit-Possession-in-Sudan. Accessd, Nov. 17, 2010,
15:52
9. http://www.academon.com/Term-Paper-Spirit-Possession-in-Sudan. Accessed, Nov. 17,
2010, 15:52
10. Boyd, J. and Mack, B.B., One Woman’s Jihad: Nana Asma’u, Scholar and Scribe, Bloomington,
Indiana University Press, 2000, p. 36. Also see Boyd, J., and Mack, B.B., The Caliph’s Sister,
Nana Asma’u, 1793-1865, Teacher, Poet and Islamic Leader, Frank Cass and Co. Limited,
London, 1989, p. 14
11. Opcit. p. 36
12. Palmer, R. H., ‘Bori’ Among the Hausa, Man, Vol. 14, 1974, pp. 113-117
13. Palmer, R. H. Opcit. pp 113-117
14. Habila, U. And Danfulani, D., Factors Contributing to the Survival of the ‘Bori’ in Northern
Nigeria, Numen, Vol. 46, No. 4, Leiden, Brill Publishers, 1984, pp. 412-447
15. Olajubu, O., Women in the Yoruba Religious Sphere, State University of New York Press,
Abany, 2003, pp. 113-114
16. Lloyd, P.C., ‘Political and Social Structure’, in Sources of Yoruba History, Biobaku, S.O. (ed)
Ibadan University Press Limited, 1987, p. 205
17. Lloyd, P.C., Opcit. p.207
18. Obayemi, A., ‘States and Peoples of the Niger-Benue Confluence Area’, in Obaro, Ikime (ed)
Groundwork of Nigerian History, Heinemann, Ibadan, 1980, pp. 144-164.
19. Oba Michael Olobayo the 65 year old paramount ruler and custodian of the Owe people’s
tradition was interviewed in Kabba on December 12, 2010.
20. Chief Olu Akadi, 70 years old and a community leader was interviewed at his residence,
Aiyeteju, Kabba on Januay 3, 2011. Madam Comfort Agbaetan, 76 was also interviewed at
the same venue and date.
21. Aiyewumi, Aina 80 years was herself one of the 7 ‘ Arutas’ of her late husband, Chief George
Aiyewumi.
22. Madam Olojo Memudu, 90 years was a little girl when her mother was an ‘Aruta’ to her late
uncle.
23. Balasire, E., 62 years old is a Medical Doctor in private practice in Kabba whose mother was
an ‘Aruta’
24. Lewu, Solomon, 80 years old is a community leader whose father had many ‘Arutas’
25. Madam Janet Aworo, 85 years old and community leader catered for her late father’’.s
‘Arutas
26. Kiev, A., ‘Spirit Possession in Haiti’, American Journal of Psychiatry, No. 118, 1961, pp. 133138.
27. Langness,L.L., ‘Hysterical Psychosis in the New Guinea Highlands: A Bena Bena example’,
Psychiatry, No. 25, 1965, pp. 258-277
28. http://www.spirit-possession-in-West-Africa. Com
29. http://www.a-brief-history-of-voodoo-in-haiti.html. Accessed-April 8, 2011, 17:54
30.
http://wwwacademon.com/db/serch?KEYW=Spirit+Possession+Ritual.
November 17, 2010, 16:13.
Accessed
31. Opcit.
32. http://www.themystica.com/mystica/articles/SpiritPossession.html, Accessed, October
23, 2010.
33. Opcit.
34. Opcit.
35. Opcit.
36. http://www.academon.com/db/Serch?KEYW=Spirit+Possession+Ritual. Accessed Nov
November 17, 2010, 16:13.
37. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea. Accessed April 12, 2011, 17:45
38. Opcit.
39. Opcit.
40. Opcit.
41. Opcit.