EKERE MATTHIAS UGWU
PG/M.ED/03/34951
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF STUDENT’S
LEARNING DIFFICULTIES IN THE WRITING AND
BALANCING OF CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
Ugwoke Oluchi C.
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O = University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF STUDENT’S LEARNING
DIFFICULTIES IN THE WRITING AND BALANCING OF
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
BY
EKERE MATTHIAS UGWU
PG/M.ED/03/34951
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA.
NOVEMBER, 2014
i
TITLE PAGE
ANALYSIS AND CLASSIFICATION OF STUDENT’S LEARNING
DIFFICULTIES IN THE WRITING AND BALANCING OF
CHEMICAL EQUATIONS
BY
EKERE MATTHIAS UGWU
PGIM.ED/03/34951
A PROJECT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE
EDUCATION, FACULTY OF EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF
NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN FULFILMENT OF THE
REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS IN
EDUCATION (M.ED).
SUPERVISOR: PROF. Z.C. NJOKU
NOVEMBER, 2014
ii
CERTIFICATION
Ekere, Matthias Ugwu, a postgraduate student of the department of
Science Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, with Registration
number PG/M.Ed/03/34951 has satisfactory completed the requirements
for course and research work for the degree of MASTER of
EDUCATION (CHEMISTRY). The work embodied in this thesis is
original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other Diploma
or Degree of this or any other University we accept it as conforming to
the required standard.
_______________
_________________
Ekere, Matthias U
Student
Prof. Z.C. Njoku
Supervisor
iii
APPROVAL PAGE
This project has been approved for the Department of Science
Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the award of Masters in Education (M.Ed) in
Measurement and Evaluation.
By
____________________
Prof. Z.C. Njoku
Supervisor
_____________________
External Examiner
____________________
Dr. F. O. Ezeudu
Internal Examiner
__________________
Prof. Z.C. Njoku
Head of Department
________________________
Prof. Uju C. Umoh
Dean Faculty of Education
iv
DEDICATION
To my wife, Ekere, Appolonia Uchenna and to all my children.
v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to the Almighty God who in his infinite mercy has made
the completion of this work successful, it is a thing of joy that this work
has come to add to the existing piles of knowledge. Honestly, many
thanks should go to Prof. Z.C Njoku, the able supervisor, who actually
displayed a friendly and brotherly co-operation that made it possible for
this work to be completed at last. The Lord will reward him abundantly
for all he did for me.
Big appreciation should also go to Prof. B.G. Nworgu, Prof. U.M.
Nzewi, Prof. F.A Okwo, Dr J.C. Adigwe, Dr (Mrs’) F. Ezeudu and Dr.
C.R Nwagbo, the intellectual crew that took pains to panel beat this work
to this desired shape in both the design and content. The same
appreciation goes to Dr, R.O. Ezike, Dr. RU. Ezike, Dr. E.U. Idu, and Mr.
Ugwuanyi Christian for their wonderful support during this work. Many
thanks also are extended to the former head of department of chemistry
Federal College of Education, Eha-Amufu, Mr. C. C. Eze, for his
wonderful contribution, and to my other colleagues O.J. Ugwu, CO.D.
Odo, W.O.Ugwuja and Sampson Ogbonna.
The gratitude is also extended to many brothers and sisters
including, Edwin, Dan, Julius, Clementina, Justina and Benedeth, Mrs
Appolonia Ekere (my darling wife) is appreciated for her persistent
vi
prayers and understanding. To our children Chinedu, Chikwado, Ekene,
Chidinma and Chukwuemeka; God bless you all. Worthy of mention also
are friends and relations, Celestine, Fidelia, Esther.
Finally, big thanks go to all the typists who helped to make this
work a wonderful job and others who may have contributed in one way or
the other to the success of this work. God bless you all.
Ekere, M.U
PG’M.ED/03/34951
Science Education,
UNN.
vii
ABSTRACT
Writing and balancing of chemical equation is so fundamental that
without mastery in it, students find every other aspect of chemistry
difficult. This not withstanding, it remains a difficult chemical or
conceptual skill to learn by the majority of the students in secondary
school. This study was therefore carried out to analyze and classify the
students’ learning difficulties in the writing and balancing of chemical
equation. In carrying out this research, cross- sectional developmental
survey design was employed. The sample of the study was 1130 chemistry
students (SS 1 and SS111 from seventeen (17) secondary schools in
Nsukka Educational Zone. The study was guided by six research
questions and four research hypotheses. The analysis of data was carried
out using frequencies and percentages. The chi- square was used to test
the dependence of students’ difficulties in writing and balancing chemical
equation on sex and across various class levels. The findings of the study
revealed that student have difficulty in writing and balancing of chemical
equation at the various class levels of senior secondary school because
(1) they lack knowledge of valency of atoms in the formula of compounds
reacting (ii) they lack knowledge of correct formulae of compounds (iii)
they have poor knowledge of rules guiding the balancing of equation (iv)
they interface or change the formulae of compounds during balancing (v)
they are not able to check each atom on both sides of the equation to
make sure that the coefficient used are all whole numbers and are
reduced to their lowest terms. Finally, the research suggested that similar
studies be extended to other areas of chemistry and order location.
viii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
Certification
Approval Page
Dedication
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
List of appendices
List of tables
List of figure
Abstract
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
viii
ix
x
CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Statement of the Problem
The Purpose of the Study
Significance of the Study
Scope of the Study
Research Questions
Hypothesis
1
4
5
5
6
6
7
CHAPTER TWO - REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Conceptual framework
Chemical formulae
Writing Chemical formulae
Balancing Chemical Equation
Theoretical Framework
Effective Learning Strategies in Science
Gender as a Factor in Students’ Science Achievement
Students’ Difficulties in the Learning of Chemistry at SSCE level
Overload of students’ working memory space
Concept formation
Review of Empirical Studies
Summary of Literature Review
19
12
13
15
16
19
22
23
25
26
27
28
CHAPTER THREE - RESEARCH METHOD
Research Method
Design of the Study
Area of Study
Population of the Study
30
30
31
31
ix
Sample and Sampling Technique
Instrument for Data Collection
Validation of the Instrument
Reliability of the Instrument
Method of Data Collection
Method of Data Analysis
31
32
33
34
34
35
CHAPTER FOUR:- PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Research questions one
Research questions two
Research questions three
Research questions four
Research questions five
Research questions Six
Summary of the Findings
36
39
42
45
49
52
55
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
Discussion of Results
57
Educational implications of the Study
62
Recommendations
63
Summary of the study
64
Suggestions for further studies
67
References
Appendices
I. Writing and Balancing Chemical Equation Diagnostic
Test (WBCEDT
II. Reliability of the Instrument
III. Hypothesis One (HO1)
IV. Hypothesis two (HO2)
V. Hypothesis Three (HO3)
VI. Hypothesis four (HO4)
69
75
81
85
87
89
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the study
Writing and balancing of chemical equation is so fundamental that
without mastery in it, students find every other aspect of chemistry difficult.
Poor foundation in the teaching and learning of writing and balancing of
chemical equation makes the learning of chemistry not effective. When a
student cannot write and balance chemical equations correctly, he cannot
communicate effectively within the chemistry community. The medium of
expression in chemistry is the chemical equation because formulae show
chemistry at a stand still while equation shows chemistry in action.
Writing and balancing of chemical equation had been reported as a
difficult concept in chemistry. In his early study, Johnstone (1974) reported that
the problem areas in the subject chemistry, from the pupils’ point of view,
which persisted into university education, were the mole, chemical formulae
and equation among others. The problem of writing and balancing of chemical
equations appear to be persistent up till now. The West African Examination
Council (WAEC) Chief examiners report had consistently been reporting
candidate’s poor performance in writing and balancing of chemical equation. In
WAEC Chief Examiner’s report 2003, it was stated that candidates performed
poorly in the area of writing of formulae and correct balanced chemical
equation. In 2005, the Chief Examiner’s report stated that candidate’s
1
2
weaknesses included poor knowledge of symbols, formulae and equation while
in 2007, it was stated that candidate’s weaknesses included their inability to
correctly write balanced chemical equations. In 2010, it was reported that
candidates lost marks because of their inability to balance chemical equation.
With these reports, it is clear that the writing and balancing of chemical
equation is a problem area, even though it is the basis of stoichiometry, an
important part of chemistry.
The writing and balancing of chemical equation are also of great
importance because of the information given by chemical equation. Bajah
Teibo, Onwu, Obikweze (1999) stated that the pieces of information conveyed
by chemical equation include:(i)
The molar mass of each compound can be calculated from the relative
atomic masses of the elements forming the compound.
(ii)
Reactions between substances whether elements or compounds, take
place in simple whole numbers of moles of those substances.
Thus in the equation,
CuSO4(aq) + BaCl2(aq)
CuCl2(aq) + BaSO4(s)
I mole of CuSO4 reacts with one mole of BaCl2 to form 1 mole of CuCl2
and 1 mole of BaSO4
(iii)
From the molar mass, the reacting masses of the substance are known. 1
mole of CuSO4 has a mass of 159.6g; 1 mole of BaCl2208g; 1 mole of CuCl2,
134.6g and 1 mole of BaSO4,233g. These are the ratios of the masses of the
3
reactants and of the products. From these ratios, any reacting mass can be
found.
(iv)
If a reactant or a product is a gas, then its volume can be determine from
its mass, by using the fact that the molar volume is 22.4dm3 at STP
(Standard Temperature and Pressure) and correcting for the temperature
and pressure of the external conditions.
(v)
The letter ‘s’, ‘g’ and ‘l’ donate solid, gas and liquid respectively while
‘aq’ donates aqueous, as illustrated in the following equation.
CuCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)
CuSO4(s) + CO2(g) + H2O (l)
Since these pieces of information are needed for a sound foundation in
chemistry by students, proper attention should be paid to the writing and
balancing of chemical equation.
It is obvious therefore that while the writing and balancing of chemical
equations is useful in the teaching of modern chemical theory, and practical it
remains a difficult chemical or conceptual skill to learn by the majority of the
students in secondary schools. Since the writing and balancing of chemical
equation are important in the learning of chemistry it follows, therefore that
when students are deficient in the understanding of the writing and balancing of
chemical equation their overall performance in WAEC and NECO examinations
will be poor. In this light, there is need to find out the specific difficulties
encountered by the students in the understanding of the writing and balancing
chemical equation.
4
This is a major focus of this study. The study is also interested in finding
out whether the difficulties persist as the students acquire more chemical
knowledge from SS I to SS III and to find out whether the difficulties depend on
gender.
Statement of the Problem
Writing and balancing of chemical equations play important roles in
diverse areas of chemistry, such as; stoichiometry, chemical arithmetic,
Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, volumetric analysis. Writing and balancing of
chemical equation are very fundamental and very important chemical skill in
chemistry. Contrary to expectations, most secondary school chemistry students
are yet to achieve a high level of proficiency in writing and balancing chemical
equations; and in solving problems related to the topics where the knowledge is
applied Chief Examiners report on the West African Senior School Certificate
on students’ weakness in writing and balancing chemical equations. For
example, the WAEC Chief Examiners report on the May/June 2005 reported
that candidates weakness included poor knowledge of symbols, formulae and
equation and inability to write correct balanced equations. There were similar
reports on the candidates inability to write correct balanced equation in 2007
and 2010 WAEC reports. The problem of this study is therefore to identify the
students difficulties in writing and balancing chemical equations and to classify
the problems as the students progress in the chemistry study from SS1 to SS3
and to find out whether the difficulties depend on gender.
5
The Purpose of the Study
This study is to identify, classify the learning difficulties encountered by
chemistry students is writing and balancing of chemical equations. Specifically
the study in aimed at finding out:i. Students’ difficulties in writing chemical formula.
ii. Students’ difficulties in writing chemical equation.
iii. Students’ difficulties in balancing chemical equation.
iv. Classification of the students learning difficulties in writing chemical
equation across class levels.
v. Classification of the students difficulties in balancing chemical equation
across class levels.
Significance of the Study
The study, which is aimed at analyzing and classifying the students’
difficulties in writing and balancing of chemical equations is significant in a
number of ways. In the first instance, knowledge of students’ difficulties in
writing and balancing of chemical equations will motivate the teachers to
explore better methods of teaching the students the skill of writing and
balancing of chemical equations. In effect, when chemistry teaching is geared
towards solving the identified problems encountered by students in writing and
balancing of chemical equation, the students’ understanding of chemistry will
be significantly enhanced. Also, knowledge of students’ difficulties in the
6
understanding of the writing and balancing of chemical equations will be useful
to authors and publishers of chemistry textbooks in determining areas of
emphasis in the course of revision of chemistry textbooks and also in the
publication of new ones.
The result of this study would help in making a strong proposal to the
curriculum planners for the introduction of appropriate teaching techniques that
will help to alleviate the difficulties encountered by SSS chemistry students in
writing and balancing of chemistry equations. Finally, the study would
contribute to the corpus of research works in chemistry teaching and learning.
Scope of the Study
The scope of this study will be limited to the identification of students’
difficulties in writing and balancing of chemical equations in senior secondary
schools.
The reasons for limiting the study to this area is because the concept/skills are
fundamental to the understanding of chemistry.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided this study.
1. What are the difficulties encountered by students in writing chemical
equations at the various class levels of senior secondary school.
2. What are the difficulties encountered by students in balancing chemical
equations at various class levels of the senior secondary school.
7
3. To what extent does the type of difficulty encountered by students in the
writing of chemical equations depend on students’ gender?
4. To what extent does the type of difficulty encountered by students in
balancing chemical equations depend on gender?
5. Which of the difficulties in writing of chemical equation persist across
class levels?
6. Which of the difficulties in balancing of chemical equation persist across
various class levels?
1.6
Hypothesis
HO1: Students’ difficulties in writing chemical equations do not depend on
gender.
HO2: Student difficulties in balancing chemical equations do not depend on
gender.
HO3: Students’ difficulties in balancing chemical equations do not depend on
class level.
8
CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The literature review is presented under the following sub-headings
Conceptual Framework
(i)
Chemical symbol
(ii)
Chemical formulae
(iii)
Writing chemical formulae
(iv)
Writing chemical equations
(v)
Balancing chemical equations.
Theoretical Framework
Effective learning strategies in science
Gender as a factor in students’ chemistry achievement
Students Difficulties in the learning of Chemistry at SSCE level.
(i)
Curriculum content
(ii)
Overload of students’ working memory space
(iii)
Concept formation.
Review of Empirical Studies
Summary of Literature Review
8
9
Conceptual framework
Chemical Symbols.
Chemists have always sought shorthand for describing substances and the
changes which they undergo. John Dalton and Antoine Lavoisier made little
pictures to represent the atoms. Berzelius, a Swedish scientist who lived at the
same time as Dalton, introduced the modern symbols of representing elements.
In the modern system of representing elements, certain principles are applied
(Bajah, 1999).
a.
The first principle uses the first letter of the name of an element as its
symbol. Examples include:
Element
Symbol
Hydrogen
H
Boron
B
Carbon
C
Nitrogen
N
Oxygen
O
Fluorine
F
Phosphorus
P
Sulphur
S
Iodine
I
10
b.
The second principle uses the fact that should the names of two elements
begin with the same alphabet, the first two letters, or in some cases the first
letter and one other are used. Example
c.
Element
Symbol
Helium
He
Lithium
Li
Berylium
Be
Neon
Ne
Magnesuim
Mg
Alumimium
Al
Silicon
Si
Chlorine
Cl
Argon
Ar
Calcium
Ca
Chromium
Cr
Manganese
Mn
Zinc
Zn
Bromme
Br
Barium
Ba
The third principle states that in some other cases, especially where the
names of several elements begin with the same letters, the Latin names of
11
elements are used. As in (a) and (b) above, either the first letter of the Latin
name or the first letter and one other, are used. Examples include:
Element
Latin name
Symbol
Sodium
Natrium
Na
Potassium
Kalium
K
Iron
Ferrum
Fe
Copper
Cuprum
Cu
Silver
Argentum
Ag
Tin
Stannum
Sn
Gold
Aurum
Au
Mercury
Hydrargyrum
Hg
Lead
Plumbum
Pb.
Writing atomic symbols correctly is the basic foundation that should be
given to the students to enable them write chemical formulae correctly and the
above principles should be learnt properly. It would be observed that when an
atomic symbol is represented by one alphabet, it must be written in capital letter
and when it is represented by two alphabets the first letter is written in capital
while the second is in small letter, example ‘H’ for hydrogen and ‘Mg’ for
magnesium and not ‘h’ for hydrogen and ‘mG' for magnesium. When the
12
students learn how to write these symbols that represent the atoms correctly,
writing the chemical formulae will not pose any difficulty, (Nworji 2004).
Chemical Formulae
A symbol represents an atom whereas a formula stands for a molecule. If
a molecule has only one atom, the symbol and the formula are the same. When a
molecule contains two or more atoms of the same kind, a small subscript is used
to indicate the number of atoms present. (Ababio 2007, Zumdahl and Zumdahl
2003) A molecule of Hydrogen containing two atoms of hydrogen is written as
H2; Nitrogen as N2; while Ozone which contains three atoms of oxygen is
written as O3.
Formulae for compounds contain the symbols for the different elements
that are combined chemically to form the compound. The two or more atoms
that are joined together are represented by writing their symbols side by side.
Thus, a calcium oxide molecule is CaO, Iron (II) sulphide is FeS. There may be
few exceptions for example in H2O2 where oxygen is – 1.
If more than one atom of an element is present in a compound a numeral
is placed after and below the symbol to indicate the number of atoms of that
element. Thus FeCl2 means that a molecule of iron (II) chloride contains one Fe
(iron) atom and two Cl (chlorine) atoms. The formula HCl for hydrogen
chloride indicates that I atom of hydrogen and I atom of chlorine are present in
the molecule. Also, the number 1 is understood before the entire formula unless
13
another numeral is used. Three molecules of hydrogen chloride are thus
represented by 3HCl. (Duran, Gold, Haas and Norman 2003)
Sometimes parentheses are used in the formulae of some compounds,
such as Mg (NO3)2, Fe2 (SO4)3 etc. In such case, the numerals outside the
parentheses are multipliers. They show the number of times that the ions within
the parentheses are to be taken. Thus the compound magnesium trioxonitrate
(V), Mg(NO3)2 contains one magnesium atom two nitrogen atoms and six
oxygen atoms. There are rules, which when followed by students will enable
them to write correct chemical formulae. These are shown below.
Writing Chemical Formulae
If one cannot write correct chemical formulae, it will be difficult for one
to balance a chemical equation correctly. To enable us write chemical formulae,
a system of small whole numbers, related to the combining ratios of elements,
has been developed on the basis of arbitrary rules. Such numbers are called
oxidation numbers or oxidations states. (Ababio 2007) Four of the arbitrary
rules are:
1.
An uncombined element has an oxidation state of zero examples are
O2, Fe, Na and H2
2.
In a compound, the more electronegative elements are assigned
negative oxidation states, and the more electropositive (or less
electronegative elements) are assigned positive states. Example, in a
14
compound KCl, K is more electropositive than Cl and is thus assigned
an oxidation state of +1. Cl is therefore assigned -1.
3.
In a compound, the sum of the positive oxidation states and negative
oxidation states is zero.
4.
In an ion, the sum of the oxidation number is equal to the charge on
the ion.
An ion can be an atom that carries a charge or a group of atoms that
carries a charge. Such groups that carry either a positive or a negative charge are
called radicals. An acid radical is thus a small group or cluster of atoms carrying
a negative charge that keeps its identity, or keeps together, in many reactions.
Here are some examples with their oxidation numbers, (Bajah 1999, Chang.
2002)
Oxidation no
-1
-2
-3
-NO2
-CO3
-PO3
-NO3
-SO3
-PO4
-ClO3
-SO4
-MnO4
-CrO4
-OH
-HCO3
-HSO4
15
Here are also some examples of elements with their oxidation numbers.
Elements
Oxidation numbers
Cl
-1
F
-1
Br
-1
I
-1
O
-2 (-1 in peroxides
H
+1 (but -1 in metal hydrides.
When the symbols for elements and the oxidation numbers assigned to
them are known, one is more equipped to write the correct formulae for
chemical compounds. The following rules will help, (Bajah, 1999, Onasanya,
and Orowale, 2007).
1.
write the symbols for the element and radicals
2.
Write the oxidation numbers above and to the right of the symbols.
3.
now write the symbols again, reversing the oxidation numbers,
omitting the sign, and writing the numbers (but not 1) below and to the
right of the symbols.
Balancing Chemical Equation
A chemical equation describes what happens in a chemical reaction. The
equation identifies the reactants (starting materials) and products (resulting
16
substance), the formulas of the participants, the phases of the participants
(liquid, gas, solid) and the amount of each substance. Balancing a chemical
equation refers to establishing the mathematical relationship between the
quantity of reactants and products. The quantities are expressed as grams or
moles.
There are essentially three steps to the process.
1. Write the unbalanced equation
*
Chemical formulas of reactants are listed on the left hand side of the
equation.
*
Products are listed on the right hand side of the equation
*
Reactants and products are separated by putting an arrow between them
to show the direction of the reaction. Reactions at equilibrium will have arrows
facing both direction.
Theoretical Framework
Writing and balancing of chemical equations form the bed rock upon
which chemistry education is built. Gagne (1977) in his theories of learning
hierarchy and learning prerequisite, posited that students can obtain the
prerequisite knowledge of concepts and principles only if they have acquired the
underlying capabilities (in this case, rules guiding the writing and balancing
chemical equations) which are needed to practice and understand science. In
support of this learning theory, Nworji (2004), opined that students have
difficulty in writing chemical formula of compounds because they exhibit poor
17
knowledge of the rules guiding the writing of chemical formulae of compounds.
If the students are properly grounded on the rules guiding writing and balancing
of chemical equations, writing and balancing of equations (which is the
language of chemistry) will not pose any difficulty to them.
Gagne’s theory also gives us some insights into how learning occurs in
the classroom. According to him, the type of learning that occurs in the
classroom requires students to have the prerequisite knowledge to deal with
certain levels of learning tasks. It is important that teachers bear this is mind in
their preparation of lessons. It would be futile to expect students to engage in
problem solving when they are not capable of discrimination or formulating
rules or principles. Before a student can write chemical formulae and balance
chemical equation of a reaction, he or she must have acquired sufficient
knowledge of the chemical symbols and rules guiding the writing of chemical
formulae, and then the writing and balancing of equations. Rules or principles
are better acquired through well organized and sequenced teaching rather than
being left for students to discover for themselves.
David Ausubel’s theory of reception learning/Expository teaching is
another theory that gives support to this study. According to Ausubel, learning
occurs mainly through reception rather than through discovery. Many students
need teachers for school learning. Concepts and principles are better learned
when they are presented and understood but are not discovered. Ausubel called
this method expository teaching with emphasis on meaningful reception
18
learning. Ausubel observed that information prepackaged by a teacher is
organized and can be easily connected with the students’ existing knowledge.
He emphasized prior knowledge as the key to understanding new materials or
information. To facilitate reception learning, the teacher structures the learning
situation so that meaningful learning can take place. Example, in writing and
balancing of chemical equations, the teacher teaches the students chemical
symbols, atomicity, valencies of elements and radicals followed by the rules
guiding the writing of formulae and the rules guiding the writing and balancing
of chemical equations otherwise, no meaningful learning can take place.
Ausubels’ expository teaching has three phases.
1.
Presentation of advance organizer which is an introductory statement
broad enough to encompass the information to be presented and to relate
it to the students’ existing knowledge. Advance organizer gives the
students the information they will need to make sense of the upcoming
lesson and to help them remember and use information they already have
but which they may not realize is relevant to the lesson (Woolfolk, 1998).
2.
Presentation of learning task or material by presenting the subordinate
content or learning material. and
3.
Strengthening cognitive organization. This final phase involves students
putting together what has been taught.
All information must be integrated into what students already know if it is
to be remembered.
19
These learning theories constitute the framework on which this study is
built. Ausubel’s findings are confirming that if the writing and balancing of
chemical equations are not well handled there will be difficulties in students
understanding the concepts. It is a common knowledge that where the
foundation is weak, the entire structure on it will not be strong. If the students
are not well grounded in the language of chemistry. It will be difficult for them
to understand chemistry generally.
Effective Learning Strategies in Science
(i)
Use of metacognitive instructional strategies.
Over the years, the increasing fund of chemical knowledge including its
fact, concepts and general conclusion have led to the reorientation of the
teaching of chemistry in a way that is designed to increase students’ scientific
literacy, sustain their interest in the subject and help develop relevant problem
solving skill. (Ekewere, 1997)
In spite of these attempts to make chemistry more meaningful and relevant to
students, conceptual difficulty with various chemical concepts have been
established in a number of studies (Bello 1990)
However, from the point of view of improving students’ learning and
performance in writing and balancing of chemical equations, it has become
necessary to seek innovative strategies to enhance the quality of instruction, and
learning in chemistry. Basically metacognitive strategies are strategies that
20
empower the learner to take charge of his/her own learning in a highly
meaningful fashion, metacognitive learning in evident wherever a person
spontaneously produces or acquires some general strategy, matches it with
motive and task to produce a desired outcome (Ekewere, 1997). This study
explores the metacognitive strategies of concept mapping and framing with a
view to finding the efficacy or otherwise of the strategies aimed at improving
the teaching and learning of writing and balancing of chemical equation.
Concept mapping is a strategy for diagrammatic presentation of links and
inter-relationships, between and among concepts for the purpose of organizing
and representing knowledge structure in memory. Framing is a strategy for
visual display of substaintial amount of information in form of a grid, matrix or
framework. Frames include labels of main ideal in rows and columns and allow
information about the main ideal to be entered in slots form of facts, examples,
concepts, descriptions, explanations, processes and procedures to show
relationship among them.
In teaching and learning of writing and balancing of chemical equations,
concept mapping and framing can be used to show the relationship between,
symbols, valences/oxidation numbers of atoms, radicals and their oxidation and
numbers, writing of chemical equations and balancing them.
(ii)
The use of information communications technology (ICT)
Another effective strategy for students to learn chemistry in general and
writing and balancing of chemical equations in particular is the use of ICT
21
facilities; Akudolu (2002) said that effective education can be achieved through
active teaching and learning with adequate relevant and effective instructional
materials like the information and communication technology (ICT) facilities.
Jajua (2006) opined that one of the recent drives of the society towards making
education relevant is making ICT a common feature of the education process.
ICT is that process of utilizing information and data dissemination through
electronic facilities such as computers, videos, radios and phones.
Using the computer, writing and balancing of chemical equation can be
programmed and stored in the computer or in software packages as tutorials,
drill and practice and simulation. Each of these options yields immediate
feedback to the learner and teacher, with the programmed chemistry lessons in
the computer or software packages the students will have access to the lessons
even after they have been taught in the class by the teacher. With these
programmed chemistry topics stored in the computer slow learners ca go
through the topics over and over again. With repealed attempts, the learner will
understand the topics no matter how difficult the topics may be. Writing and
balancing of chemical equations will be well understood and mastered by
repeatedly using the tutorials or programmed learning in the computer software.
According to Ezeliora (1997), computer, programmed chemistry software
package are written by subject specialist who are chemists. The subject
specialists not only have good mastering of chemistry topics but also have
knowledge of teaching strategies and understanding of the level of development
22
of the learner. Radios, Videos and television set, can also be used to teach and
learn writing and balancing of chemical equations.
Gender as a Factor in Students' Chemistry Achievement
Studies carried out to Nworgu (1985) Aigomian (1985) when they
worked in physics and Ochuba (1985) in biology, showed that boys achieved
better than girls in the affected science subjects. Girls do not go into science,
mathematics and technology because these are not many female teachers there
in to serve as role models to the yonger ones. Nwande, (1991) confirmed this.
Also even where and when you have female teachers in science, mathematic
and technology, such female teachers unconsciously discourage girls who are
in, or planning to go into such disciplines.
Also in the studies carried out by Nworgi (2004) in the difficulties
encountered by senior secondary school chemistry students in the understanding
of the mole concept showed that the extent of difficulties encountered by the
students in understanding of the mole concept is dependent on gender. The mole
concept is fundamentally mathematical in background and most females shy
away from mathematics related areas and sciences. This observation is in
agreement with Baja (1979).
Eze (1995), worked on students’ difficulties in IUPAC nomenclature and
showed that the extent of difficulties encountered by students in IUPAC
nomenclature is independent of sex this result is in agreement with the result, of
23
earlier studies carried out by Okeke (1979), Offiong (1983) and Onyishi (1991)
in Biology H.P.E, and chemistry respectively. These researches found out that
sex had no significant effect on students’ performance in their respective subject
areas. From the foregoing, one can conclude that results of previous studies on
gender – related differences in students’ achievement in science have been
generally inconsistent.
Students’ Difficulties in the Learning of Chemistry at SSCE level
The areas of difficulty for the students at SSCE will be discussed under
the following sub-headings.
Curriculum content
The advent of revised school syllabuses in many countries saw a move
towards the presentation of school chemistry in a logical order, the logic usually
being that of the experienced academic chemist. Similarly, early chapters in
many textbooks for senior secondary school chemistry start with topics like
atomic theory, bonding, formulae and equations etc. this is the grammar and
syntax (Jankins, 1992) of chemistry but is daunting for the student. Johnstone
(2000) has made arguments against this ‘logical’ presentation logically. The
logical order may not be psychologically accessible to the learner.
Much school chemistry taught before 1980, laid great emphasis on
descriptive chemistry, memorization being an important skill to achieve
interpretation and symbolic representation were left until later
24
(See Figure 1)
Descriptive (macro)
Sub-microscopic (micro)
Symbolism
(Representation)
Figure 1: The Chemistry triangle
Today, the descriptive is taught along side both the ‘micro’ and
‘representational’. In the case of writing and balancing of chemical equations,
atoms of the elements are represented by chemical symbols. The concept of
atom is an abstract concept, and the representation of atoms by symbols is also
abstract. The atoms have oxidation numbers or valencies which they use in
combining, and balancing of equations, a skill that must be mastered well. Gatel
(1999) argued that the learner cannot cope with all three levels of abstract
concepts being taught at once.
Indeed, today, there is danger that chemistry depends so much on the
representational, with inadequate emphasis on the descriptive. Chemical
knowledge is learned at three level: “sub-microscopic, “Macroscopic”, and
“symbolic”, and the link between these levels should be explicitly taught
(Ebenezer 2000, Reavielo 2001, Treagust Etall 2003). Also, the interaction and
distractions between them are important characteristics of chemistry learning
and they help in comprehending chemical concepts. Eg. In writing and
25
balancing chemical equations, the students should be taught the guidelines for
representing atoms by symbols and the proper way of doing that: the atomic
structure, atomic number, valences of atoms and radicals, writing chemical
formulae; writing of chemical equation and balancing of chemical equation.
Overload of students’ working memory space.
The working memory space is of limited capacity (Baddeley, 1999). This
limited shared space is a link between, what has to be held in conscious
memory, and the processing activities required to handle it, transform it,
manipulate it, and get it ready for storage in long-term memory.
When students are faced with learning situation where there is too much
to handle in the limited working space, they have difficulty selecting the
important information from the other less important information. For example,
in writing and balancing of chemical equations, the topic should be broken
down into units that can be easily understood within a limited space of time.
The topic should be treated in piece meal with copies exercises and practice
until they are able to write and balance. Faced with new and often conceptually
complex material, the chemistry student needs to develop skills to organize the
ideals so that the working space is not overloaded. Without the organizing
student frequently has to resort to rote learning; which does not guarantee
understanding. In line with the above observation NTI (2003) identified that
teachers do rush the pupils so as to finish the scheme of work for what they call
“lack of time”, consequently this leads to failure.
26
Concept formation.
Chemistry learning requires much intellectual thought and discernment
because the content is replete with many abstract concepts. Concept such as
dissolution, particulate nature of matter, chemical bonding, writing and
balancing of chemical equations are fundamental to learning chemistry
(Nakhleh, 1992). Unless these fundamentals are understood, topics including
reaction rate, acids and bases, electrochemistry, chemical equilibrium, chemical
stoichiometry and solution chemistry become arduous. Therefore, inquiring into
students conception of the fundamental concepts in chemistry has been a
research focus of several researchers in many countries for the past two decades.
(Ayas and Demirbas 1997, Ayas and Costus, 2001; Calik, 2005).
Real understanding requires not only the grasp of key concepts but also
the establishment of meaningful links to bring the concepts into a coherent
whole. Ausubel’s important work (1968) has laid the basis for understanding
how meaningful learning can occur in terms of the importance of being able to
link new knowledge on the network of concepts, which already exist in the
learner’s mind. Concepts develop no new ideas are linked together and the
learner does not always correctly make such links. This may well lead to
misconceptions. Conception or pieces of intellectual thought either reinforce
each other or act as barrier for further learning.
27
Review of empirical studies.
Many studies (Eze 1995, Nworji 2004) had been done on various aspects
of student’s difficulties in the learning of chemistry at SSCE level. Nworji
(2004) studied difficulties encountered by senior secondary school chemistry
students in the understanding of the mole concept. A sample of four hundred
and twenty (420) students drawn randomly from fifteen secondary schools
constituted the sample. The instrument used was the mole concept diagnostic
Test (MCDT). The data generated from student’s responses to the various test
items in the MCDT were analyzed quantitatively using frequency tables, mean
and percentages. Two hypotheses were tested using chi-square (x2 test at 5%
level of significance and the following results were found:
• Students have poor knowledge of rules guiding the writing of chemical
formulae.
• Students lack knowledge of the rules guiding the balancing of chemical
equation.
• Gender has an influence on the extent of difficulties encountered by
students in mole concept.
Similarly, Eze (1995) studied the secondary school students’ difficulties
in the application of the current IUPAC system of nomenclature in inorganic
chemistry. The study was carried out in Nsukka Education Zone. A sample of
five hundred and eighty four (584) SS 3 students randomly selected from fifteen
(15) school, constituted the sample. The instrument used was IUPAC
28
nomenclature diagnostic test (INDT). Five research question were answered
using frequency tables while two hypotheses were tested using the chi-square
test. The result of the study showed that
• Students had poor knowledge of the rules guiding the determination of
oxidation numbers of element.
• Students use wrong oxidation numbers of central elements in naming
compounds containing such elements.
• Sex had no influence on the extent of difficulties encountered by
students in IUPAC nomenclature.
Akpan (1988) carried out a study to identify the major areas of students’
difficulties in the content of school certificate chemistry. It was found that some
students perceive some chemistry topic as being totally difficult, while others,
perceived the following topics as being difficult relative to others: electrolysis,
atomic structure, writing and balancing of chemical equation, chemical
equilibrium and oxidation and reduction among others.
Summary of literature review.
(i)
Chemical symbols, formulae and equations are used to write, describe
substances and the changes which they undergo. In doing this, certain
principles are observed in the exercise.
(ii)
Gagne’s theories of learning hierarchy and learning prerequisite and
David Ausubel’s theory of reception learning/Expository teaching gave
strong Support to this study in that they were talking of students having
29
prerequisite knowledge deal with certain levels of learning tasks and
learning occurring through reception rather than through discovery. They
constitute the frame-work on which this study is built. These theories
contain that if the writing and balancing of chemical equation are not well
taught there will be difficulties in students understanding the concepts. If
the students are not well grounded in the language of chemistry it will be
difficult for them to understand chemistry generally.
(iii)
There are strategies in teaching and learning of writing and balancing of
chemical equation which are very effective. They include:-
a
use of metacongnitive instructional strategies
b.
use of information and communications technology, (ICT)
(iv)
The result of previous studies on gender-related differences in students’
achievement in chemistry have been generally inconsistent.
(v)
The areas of difficulty for the student at SSCE level like curriculum
content; over-load of students working memory space and concept
formation should be properly addressed to enhance real understanding of
the writing and balancing of chemical equations.
(vi)
Previous empirical studies on students’ difficulties in chemistry at SSCE
level show that writing and balancing of equations constitute a difficulty
in the learning of chemistry. There is, therefore, the need to actually find
out the specific problems which students encounter in the course of
writing and balancing of chemical equation.
30
CHAPTER THREE
Research Method
This section presents the general method and procedure for the study. It
comprises the following sub-headings: design of the study, area of the study,
population of the study, sample and sampling procedure/technique, instrument
for data collection, validation of the instruments, reliability of the instruments,
method of data collection and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
The study is a survey design. Survey research is generally conceived as a
type of research in which a group of people or items is studied by collecting and
analyzing data from only a few people or items considered to be representative
of the entire group” (Nworgu, 2006). The type of survey technique that was
used in this study was the developmental survey. A developmental survey
according to Nworgu (2006) is one which seeks to ascertain how some
dimensions, variables or characteristics of a given population change with time.
A developmental survey could either be longitudinal or cross-sectional in
approach. This study was a cross-sectional one in which, instead of following a
group of subjects over a period of time, a cross-section of the subjects of
varying ages is sampled and studied at the same time. The characteristics of the
subjects at different age levels were examined and analyzed to reveal possible
trend in the development of such characteristics.
30
31
This study was aimed at finding out the students’ difficulties in writing
and balancing chemical equations and the classifications of the problems across
class level, reflecting students of different levels of development.
Area of Study
This study was conducted within the Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu
State. The zone is made up of three local government areas namely: Nsukka,
Igbo-Etiti and Uzo-Uwani. The researcher will use only Nsukka zone for easy
access and coverage
Population of the study
The population of the study comprised all the chemistry students from
year one to year three in the fifty four (54) secondary schools offering chemistry
in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State. The choice of all chemistry students
in the senior secondary school was to find out whether the difficulties persisted
or disappeared from SS 1 to SS 3 as they got more chemical knowledge.
The fifty four schools were made up of thirteen (13) secondary schools of
boys only, eleven (11) secondary schools of girls only, while thirty (30) were
co-educational.
Sample and sampling technique
The sample of this comprised 1130 SSI, SSII and SS III Chemistry
students from seventeen secondary schools (representing thirty one percent) out
of the fifty-four (54) secondary schools in the Nsukka Education zone of Enugu
State. The seventeen secondary schools that were used for the study were
32
drawn, by disproportionate stratified random sampling across gender. The strata
included thirteen (13) boys’ schools, eleven (11) girls’ schools and thirty (30)
co-educations.
The sampling technique would ensure that the sample taken was
representative of the population and took care of gender as a variable. The
disproportionate stratified random sampling technique was used to sample five
girls’ schools, schools to make sure that the number of males and female
students was representative.
However, in each of the seventeen schools that was sampled for the study
one intact class each from SS I, SS II and SS III chemistry students was used
since all the students studying chemistry were qualified to be sampled.
Instrument for data collection
The instrument for data collection in this study was the writing and
balancing chemical equation diagnostic Test (WBCEDT) developed by the
researcher. The WBCEDT was formulated to diagnose the various difficulties
encountered by secondary school students in the writing and balancing of
chemical equations. Three sets of questions were set differently for SS 1, SS 11
and SS 111 because all of them have not attained the same level of chemical
knowledge. The instrument consisted of two parts. Part 1 was designed to gather
background information about the respondents which included school name and
gender. Part II sought information on the respondents difficulties encountered in
writing and balancing chemical equations.
33
The WBCEDT was developed in line with the application of the writing
and balancing of chemical equations as the main language of chemistry, linking
many aspects of the subject throughout the syllabus. Also it was developed in
accordance with the contemporary curriculum philosophy, to use the broadest
generalizations and to reveal the inner logic of the subject matter. The current
senior school certificate (SSCE) syllabus on chemistry examinations were the
materials that guided the researcher in the construction of the test items upon
which the students’ difficulties in the writing and balancing of chemical
equations were to be tested.
The instrument was partitioned into clusters and each cluster deals with
one of the following: writing the chemical symbols, writing chemical formulae,
writing chemical equations and balancing them, balancing ionic equations.
Validation of the instrument
The type of validation done was face validation. The validation was done
by two specialists in the department Science Education UNN and an
experienced chemistry teacher in the secondary school system. During
validation the test items were scrutinized in terms of clarity, appropriateness of
language, ambiguity, relatedness to research questions and hypothesis, proper
technicality and relevance to difficulties encountered by SSCE chemistry
students in writing and balancing chemical equation. After validation, the
instrument was completely, rearranged and overhauled to reflect the specialist
contributions in the validations.
34
Reliability of the instrument
The sample size for this research was large that the researcher could not
assess or score all the instruments that would be administered to the sample.
The researcher employed four chemistry lecturers in the department of
chemistry, Federal college of Education Eha-Amufu (FCEE). The researcher
assessed the extent of agreement of the scores to ensure that the scoring pattern
of all the scores were the same. The scorers reliability was determined through a
technique developed by Kendall otherwise known as Kendall Coefficient of
concordance or Kendalls’ estimate of inter-rater reliability.
W = 125
N2 (K3 – K)
Using the above technique, W was found to be 0.082
Method of data collection
The instrument WBCEDT was administered on subjects by the researcher
with the assistance of the chemistry teachers in the schools sampled. The
students responded to the instrument under close supervision by the researcher
and their chemistry teachers. This was done to guard against cheating on the
part of the students. Students were made to write their responses in the spaces
provided in the instrument. The instruments were collected back by the
researcher/teachers after the students must have responded to it.
35
Method of data analysis
Students’ responses to the various test items in the WBCEDT were
analysed to find out why or causes of the difficulties, especially the students
reasoning processes that led to the difficulties/misconceptions in various aspects
of writing and balancing of chemical equation.
The research questions were answered using frequency and percentage.
The hypotheses were tested using the SPSS version 16.0 for the test of
significance. The chi-square was used to test the dependence of students’
difficulties in writing and balancing chemical equation on sex and across
various class levels.
36
CHAPTER FOUR
The research questions and hypothesis have been addressed using data
obtained from the respondents. This involved the analysis of students’ responses
to the various test items in the writing and balancing of chemical equation
diagnostic test (WBCEDT).
In the tables below, results of data analysis relating to each research
question as well as hypothesis are presented.
Research question one
Research question one sought to determine the difficulties encountered by
students of various class levels, in writing of chemical equations. Table 1
presents the percentages or proportions of the respondents who indicated
different levels of difficulties in writing of chemical equations?
36
37
Table 1: Proportions of students with difficulties in writing chemical
equations by sex and class level.
S/
N
1
2
3
4
5
6
Classification
of Student’s
difficulties in
writing
chemical
equation
Use of wrong
and small
letter in
writing the
symbols of the
atoms
involved
Poor
knowledge of
rules guiding
the writing of
chemical
formulae of
compounds
Misplacement
of numbers
attached to the
formulae of
chemical
compounds
Lack of
knowledge of
valency of
atoms and
radicals
Lack of
knowledge of
correct
chemical
formulae of
atoms and
compounds
Lack of
accuracy in
writing
chemical
formulae of
compound
SS I
SS II
SS III
Tota
l
resp
ond
ents
No
with
diffic
ulties
(%)
No
with Tot
difficulty by al
sex
resp
ond
M
F
ents
No
with
diffic
ulties
(%)
No
with Tot
difficulty by al
sex
resp
ond
M
F
ents
No
with
diffic
ulties
(%)
No
with
difficulty by
sex
M
F
409
340
168
172
254
130
124
200
109
91
(83.13)
(49.41)
(50.59)
(67.20)
(51.18)
(48.82)
(58.31)
(54.50)
(45.5)
346
170
176
245
120
125
190
86
104
(84.60)
(49.13)
(50.87)
(64.81)
(48.98)
(50.02)
(55.39)
(45.26)
(54.74)
300
158
142
246
121
125
160
75
85
(73.35)
(52.72)
(47.33)
(65.08)
(49.19)
(50.81)
(46.65)
(46.88)
(53.12)
350
188
162
265
130
135
210
100
110
(85.57)
(53.67)
(46.29)
(70.11)
(49.06)
(50.94)
(61.22)
(47.62)
(52.38)
340
165
175
264
130
134
220
105
115
(83.13)
(48.13)
(51.47)
(69.84)
(49.24)
(50.76)
(64.14)
(47.73)
(52.27)
360
175
185
270
135
135
215
100
115
(88.02)
(48.61)
(51.39)
(71.43)
(50.00)
(50.00)
(62.68)
(46.51)
(53.49)
409
409
409
409
409
378
378
378
378
378
378
343
343
343
343
343
343
38
Table 1 shows that the students difficulties in writing chemical equations
are within the classes identified in table 1. These difficulties include – use of
wrong and small letters in writing the symbols of atoms involved; poor
knowledge of rules guiding the writing of chemical formulae of compounds;
misplacement of numbers attached to the formula of chemical compounds; poor
knowledge of valency of atoms and radicals; poor of knowledge of correct
chemical formulae of atoms and compounds and poor knowledge chemical
formulae of compounds. In SS I, 83.13% of the students sampled had
difficulties in the use of wrong and small letter is writing the symbols of atoms,
while the percentage of those with difficulties in the same area in SS II and SS
III were 67.20% and 58.31% respectively. The proportion of students that
indicated difficulty in this concept decreased as the class level advanced. In SS
1 – SS 3 high a proportion of female students indicated more difficulties than
male students.
In the area of poor knowledge of the rules guiding the writing of chemical
formulae of compounds the percentage difficulties in SS I, SS II and SS III were
84.60%, 64.81% and 55.39 respectively. Again as expected the proportion of
students experiencing difficulty decreased as class level advanced. Generally
high proportion of female students than male students experienced this
difficulty at all class levels.
73.35% of SS I, 65.08% of SS II and 46.65% in SS III students had
difficulties in the misplacement of numbers attached to the formula of chemical
39
compounds, respectively. The difficulty area of lack of knowledge of valency of
atoms and radicals had the percentage difficulty of the students as 85.57 in SSI,
70.11 in SS II and 61.22 in SS III. Another difficulty area where students had
difficulty was in the area of lack of knowledge of correct chemical formulae of
atoms and compounds, where the percentage difficulty was 83.13 in SS I, 69.84
in SS II and 64.14 in SS III. Lastly in the area of lack of accuracy in writing
chemical formulae of compound, the percentage difficulties in SS I, SS II and
SS III students stood at 88.02, 71.43 and 62.68 respectively. It can be seen from
table 1, that all the difficulty areas persisted from SS I to SS III, even though the
percentage degree of the difficulties reduced as the students acquire more
chemical knowledge from SS I to SS III.
Research Questions Two
Research question 2 sought information on the difficulties encountered by
students of various class levels in the balancing of chemical equations. The 2
shows the proportions or percentages of the respondents who indicated different
levels of difficulties in the balancing of chemical equations.
40
Table 2: Proportion of students experiencing different difficulties with
balancing of chemical equations by sex and class level.
S/
N
Nature of
difficulties
1
2.
3
4
5
6
SS I
No
with N
difficulty by
sex
M
F
N
No
with
diffic
ulties
(%)
Lack of
knowledge
correct
formulae of
compounds
Lack of
knowledge of
valency of
atoms in the
formulae of
compounds
reacting
Poor
knowledge of
rules guiding
the balancing
of equation
Interfering/cha
nging the
formulae of
compounds
during
balancing
Ability to
check each
atom on both
sides of the
equation to
make sure that
the equation is
balanced
409
328
(80.20)
158
(98.17)
170
345
(84.35)
168
(48.70)
177
345
(84.35)
170
(49.28)
175
320
(78.24)
150
(46.88)
175
348
(85.09)
169
(48.56)
170
Ability to make
sure that the
coefficients
used are all
whole numbers
and are reduced
to their lowest
terms.
409
345
(84.35)
175
(50.72)
170
409
409
409
409
378
(51.83)
378
(51.30)
378
(50.72)
378
(54.69)
378
(48.85)
(49.28)
378
SS II
No
No
with N
with
difficulty by
diffic sex
ulties M
F
(%)
225
(59.52)
98
127
(43.56)
(56.44)
270
(71.43)
130
140
(48.15)
(51.85)
302
(79.89)
150
152
(49.67)
(50.33)
225
(59.52)
102
123
(45.33)
(54.67)
270
(71.43)
140
130
(51.85)
(48.15)
302
(79.89)
145
157
(48.01)
(51.99)
343
343
343
343
343
343
SS III
No
No
with
with difficulty by
diffic sex
ulties M
F
(%)
172
80
92
(50.15)
(46.57)
(53.49)
240
118
122
(69.97)
(49.17)
(50.83)
240
120
120
(69.97)
(50.00)
(50.00)
155
70
85
(45.19)
(45.16)
(54.84)
240
116
124
(69.97)
(48.33)
(51.67)
240
(69.97)
115
125
(47.92)
(52.08)
41
In table 2, shows that the students difficulties in balancing chemical
equations are within the classes identified in table 2. These difficulties include –
poor knowledge of correct formulae of compounds, poor knowledge of valency
of atoms in the formulae of compounds reacting, poor knowledge of rules
guiding the balancing of equation, changing the formulae of compounds during
balancing, inability to check each atom on both sides of the equation to make
sure that the equation is balanced, inability to make sure that the coefficients
used are all whole numbers and are reduced to their lowest terms.
In the area of poor knowledge of correct formulae of compounds, the
percentage difficulties stood as 80.20 in SS I, 59.52 in SS II and 50.15 in SS 3.
The proportion of students that indicated difficulty in this area decreased as the
class level advanced. Generally higher proportion of female students than male
students experienced this difficulty at all class levels.
Lack of/poor knowledge of the valency of atoms in the formulae of
compounds reacting had percentage difficulty of 84.35 in SS 1, 71.43 in SS 2
and 69.97 in SS 3. The proportion of students that indicated difficulty in this
concept decreased as the class level advanced. Again, higher proportion of
female students than male students experienced this difficulty at all class levels.
In the poor knowledge of the rules guiding the balancing of chemical
questions, 84.35% had difficulty in SS 1, 79.89% in SS 2 and 69.97% in SS 3.
42
Research Question Three
Research question 3 sought information on the extent which the type of
difficulty encountered by students in the writing of chemical equation depend
on gender.
Table 3 presents the total number of students sampled by gender and the
percentage of the respondents with difficulty in each area of difficulty by
gender.
Table 3 – Proportion of students with difficulties in the writing of chemical
equation by gender (at all the class levels).
S/N Student difficulty in writing chemical Total no. of
equation
Students
Sampled
Male Female
No. of students
with difficulty and
%
Male
Female
1
Use of wrong and small letter in writing
550
580
407
(74.00)
387
(66.72)
550
580
376
(68.36)
405
(69.83)
368
(66.91)
354
(64.36)
370
(63.79)
352
(60.69)
the symbols of the atoms involved
2
Poor knowledge of rules guiding the
writing of chemical formulae of
compounds
3
Poor knowledge of names of compounds
550
580
4
Misplacement of numbers attached to the 550
580
formulae of chemical compounds
5
Lack of knowledge of valency of atoms
550
580
418
(76.00)
407
(70.17)
550
580
550
580
400
(72.73)
410
(74.55)
424
(73.10)
435
(75.00)
and radicals
6
7
Lack of knowledge of correct chemical
formulae of atoms and compounds
Lack of accuracy in writing chemical
formulae of compound
43
Out of five hundred and fifty (550) males and five hundred and eighty
(580) females sampled, 74% of the males and 66.72% of the females had
difficulty in the use of wrong and small letter in writing the symbols of the
atoms involved. In the area of poor knowledge of rules guiding the writing of
chemical formulae of compounds, 68.36% of the males had difficulty while
69.83 of females were affected by the difficulty. 64.36% of males and 60.69%
of females had difficulty of misplacement of numbers attached to the formulae
of chemical compounds. The difficulty of lack of knowledge of valency of
atoms and radicals affected 76% of the males and 70.17% of females. In lack of
knowledge of correct chemical formulae of atoms and compounds, 72.73% of
males and 73.10% of females were affected by the difficulty while 74.55% of
males and 75% of females had difficulty in writing chemical formulae of
compounds accurately from the percentages of the males and females affected
the difficulties, it does not seem that the type of difficulty encountered by the
students in the writing of chemical equation depend on gender.
Hypothesis One (HO1)
Hypothesis one (HO1) compared the proportion of male and female
students that experience difficulties in the writing of chemical equations.
44
Table 4: is a summary of x2 test comparing the proportions male and
female students who experience difficulties in writing of chemical
equation. (See appendix III for details)
X2
S/N Student difficulty in Percentage of df (6- X2
writing
chemical Students with 1) (2- calculated (table
equation
difficulty
1) at
value)
0.05
Male Female
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Use of wrong and small
letter in writing the
symbols of the atoms
involved
Poor knowledge of rules
guiding the writing of
chemical formulae of
compounds
Poor knowledge of names
of compounds
Misplacement of numbers
attached to the formulae
of chemical compounds
Lack of knowledge of
valency of atoms and
radicals
Lack of knowledge of
correct chemical formulae
of atoms and compounds
Lack of accuracy in
writing chemical formulae
of compound
74
68
68
70
67
64
64
61
76
70
73
73
75
75
5
0.524
4.35
Table 4 above indicates that the calculated value of chi-square (x2) is
0.524, while the table value at 0.05 level of significance at 5 degree of freedom
(df) is 4.35. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the null
hypothesis (HO1) is accepted. The meaning of this is that students’ difficulties
45
in the writing of chemical equation do not depend on gender. Both males and
females experience difficulties in the writing of chemical equations.
Research Question Four
Research question 4 sought information on the extent which the type of
difficulty encountered by students in balancing chemical equation depend on
gender.
Table five presents the total number of students sampled by gender and
the percentage of the respondents with difficulty in each area of difficulty by
gender.
46
Table 5: Proportions of students with difficulties in the balancing of
chemical equations by gender
S/N Students difficulty in balancing Total no.
chemical equation
Students
Sampled
1
2
3
4
5
6
Male
of No. & percentage
of students with
difficulty
by
gender
Female Male
Female
Lack of knowledge correct
formulae of compounds
550
580
Lack of knowledge of valency of
atoms in the formulae of
compounds reacting
Poor knowledge of rules guiding
the balancing of equation
550
Interfering/changing the formulae
of compounds during balancing
550
336
389
(61.09) (67.07)
580
416
439
(75.64) (75.69)
550
Ability to check each atom on both 550
sides of the equation to make sure
that the equation is balanced
Ability to make sure that the
550
coefficients used are all whole
numbers and are reduced to their
lowest terms.
580
580
440
447
(80)
(77.07)
322
378
(58.55) (65.17)
580
425
433
(77.27) (74.66)
580
435
452
(79.09) (79.95)
Number and percentage of students affected by the difficulty by gender
There are five hundred and fifty (550) males and five hundred and eighty
(580) females sampled. In the difficulty areas of lack of knowledge of correct
formulae of compounds 61.09% of males and 67.07% of females were affected.
75.64% of males and 75.69% of females were affected by the problem of lack
of knowledge of valency of atoms in formulae of compounds reacting. Poor
knowledge of the rules guiding the balancing of equation affected 80% of males
47
and 77.07% females while interfering with or changing the formulae of
compounds during balancing affected 58.55% of males and 65.17% of females.
In the students ability to check each atom on both sides of the equation to make
sure that the equation is balanced, 77.27% of males and 74.66% of females were
affected while 79.09% of males and 77.95% of females were affected by the
difficulty of inability to make sure that the coefficients used are all whole
numbers and are reduced to their lowest terms. Generally, both males and
females experienced difficulties in the various problem areas. While higher
proportion of females than males had difficulties in three difficulty areas, the
reverse was also the case in the other three difficulty areas.
Hypothesis two (HO2)
Hypothesis two (HO2) compared the proportion of male and female
students that experience difficulties in the balancing of chemical equations.
48
Table 6
is a summary of chi-square test (x2) comparing the proportions
of male and female students who experience difficulties in the
balancing of chemical equations. (See appendix iv for details)
X2
S/N Student difficulty in writing Percentage of Df (6-1) X2
chemical equation
Students with (2-1) at calculated (table
difficulty
0.05
value)
Male Female
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Lack of knowledge correct
formulae of compounds
Lack of knowledge of
valency of atoms in the
formulae of compounds
reacting
Poor knowledge of rules
guiding the balancing of
equation
Interfering/changing the
formulae of compounds
during balancing
Ability to check each atom on
both sides of the equation to
make sure that the equation is
balanced
Ability to make sure that the
coefficients used are all
whole numbers and are
reduced to their lowest terms.
Lack of accuracy in writing
chemical formulae of
compound
61
67
76
76
80
77
59
65
77
75
79
78
75
75
5
0.658
4.35
Table 6 above indicates that the calculated value of chi-square (x2) is
0.658, while the table value at 0.05 level of significance at 5 degree of freedom
(df) is 4.35. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the null
49
hypothesis (HO2) is accepted. The implication of this is that students’
difficulties in balancing chemical equation do not depend on gender.
Research question five
Research question five sought which of the difficulties in writing of
chemical equation persist across class level.
Table seven shows the proportions of the respondents who indicated different
levels of difficulties in writing of chemical equations across class levels.
Table 7:
Proportions of students experiencing different difficulties in
writing chemical equations across class levels.
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
Student difficulty in writing Percentage of difficulties class by class
chemical equation
in writing chemical equation
SS1
SS2
SS3
Use of wrong and small letter in 83
67
58
writing the symbols of the atoms
involved
Poor knowledge of rules guiding 85
65
55
the writing of chemical formulae
of compounds
Misplacement of numbers
73
65
47
attached to the formulae of
chemical compounds
Lack of knowledge of valency of 86
70
61
atoms and radicals
Lack of knowledge of correct
83
70
64
chemical formulae of atoms and
compounds
Lack of accuracy in writing
88
71
63
chemical formulae of compound
A close look at table 5 reveals that the percentage level of students
affected by the classes of difficulties in SS I, SS II and SS III is high. However
there is a reduction in the percentage level from SS I to SS III. For example in
50
the area of use of wrong and small letter in writing the symbols of the atoms
involved, 83% of SS I students were affected by the difficulty while the
percentage level reduced to 67% in SS II and 58% in SS III. The same
observation was made in the other difficulty areas. The difficulties therefore
persisted in all the difficulty areas with a reduction as the students get more
chemical knowledge from SS I to SS III.
Hypothesis Three (HO3)
Hypothesis three (HO3) compared the proportions of students that
experience difficulties in writing of chemical equations according to class
levels.
51
Table 8
is a summary of chi-square test (x2) comparing the proportion
of students that experience difficulties in the writing of
chemical equations according to class levels. (See Appendix V
for details)
of
difficulties
S/N Student difficulty Percentage
in
writing (observed
frequency)
&
chemical equation expected frequency class by
class in writing chemical
equation (see appendix – for
details)
SS I
SS II
SS III Total
df
X2
X2
(6-1) calculated (table
(2-1)
value)
at
0.05
1
10
2
3
4
5
6
Use of wrong and
small letter in
writing the
symbols of the
atoms involved
Poor knowledge of
rules guiding the
writing of
chemical formulae
of compounds
Misplacement of
numbers attached
to the formulae of
chemical
compounds
Lack of knowledge
of valency of
atoms and radicals
Lack of knowledge
of correct chemical
formulae of atoms
and compounds
Lack of accuracy
in writing
chemical formulae
of compound
83
67
58
208
(84.12) (67.61) (56.27)
85
65
55
205
(82.91) (66.64) (55.46)
73
65
47
185
(74.82) (60.13) (50.05)
86
70
61
217
(87.76) (70.54) (58.71)
83
70
64
217
(87.76) (70.54) (58.71)
71
63
222
88
(89.78) (72.16) (60.06)
4.73
10.34
52
Table 8 above indicates that the calculated value of chi-square (x2cal) is
4.73, while the table value at 0.05 level of significance at 10 degree of freedom
(df) is 10.34. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the null
hypothesis (HO3) is accepted. The implication of this is that students’
difficulties in writing chemical equation do not depend on class level.
Research question Six
Research question six sought to find out which of the difficulties in
balancing of chemical equations persist across various class levels.
Table nine shows the proportion of the respondents who indicated
different levels of difficulties in balancing of chemical equations across class
levels.
53
Table 9:
Proportion of students experiencing different difficulties in
balancing chemical equations across class levels
S/N
Student Difficulty in Balancing Percentage of difficulties class by class
Chemical Equation
in writing chemical equation
SS1
SS2
SS3
1
Lack of knowledge correct
formulae of compounds
Lack of knowledge of valency of
atoms in the formulae of
compounds reacting
Poor knowledge of rules guiding
the balancing of equation
Interfering/changing the
formulae of compounds during
balancing
Ability to check each atom on
both sides of the equation to
make sure that the equation is
balanced
Ability to make sure that the
coefficients used are all whole
numbers and are reduced to their
lowest terms.
2
3
4
5
6
80
60
50
84
75
69
84
80
70
78
60
45
85
75
70
84
80
70
Table 9 indicates that the percentage difficulties across various class
levels, is high even though there is generally a reduction in percentage level
from SS I to SS 3. For example, in the area of difficulty due to lack of
knowledge of correct formulae of compounds, the percentage experiencing
difficulty in SS I is 80, SS II 60 and SS III, 50. This trend is true for all the other
classes of difficulty across class levels.
54
Hypothesis four (HO4)
Hypothesis four (HO4) compared the proportions of students that
experience difficulties in balancing of chemical equations across class levels.
Table 10
is a summary of chi-square test (x2) comparing the proportions
of students that experience difficulties in balancing chemical
equations across class levels. (See Appendix VI for details).
S/N Student difficulty in Percentage of difficulties (observed
writing
chemical frequency) & expected frequency
equation
class by class in writing chemical
equation (see appendix – for
details)
SS I
SS II
SS III
Total
df (6- X2
1) (2- calculated
1) at
0.05
X2
(table
value)
1
10
9.342
2
3
4
5
6
Lack of knowledge
correct formulae of
compounds
Lack of knowledge of
valency of atoms in the
formulae of compounds
reacting
Poor knowledge of
rules guiding the
balancing of equation
Interfering/changing the
formulae of compounds
during balancing
Ability to check each
atom on both sides of
the equation to make
sure that the equation is
balanced
Ability to make sure
that the coefficients
used are all whole
numbers and are
reduced to their lowest
terms.
80
(72.40)
60
(62.89)
50
(54.70)
190
84
(86.88)
75
(75.47)
69
(65.64)
288
84
(89.16)
80
(77.45)
70
(67.37)
234
78
(69.73)
60
(60.57)
45
(52.68)
183
85
(87.64)
75
(76.13)
70
(66.22)
230
84
(89.16)
80
(77.45)
70
(67.37)
234
4.86
55
Table 10 shows that the calculated value of chi-square (x2cal) is 4.86,
while the table value at 0.05 level of significance at 10 degrees of freedom (df)
is 9.342. Since the calculated value is less than the table value, the null
hypothesis (HO4) is accepted. The implication of this is that students’
difficulties in balancing chemical equations do not depend on class level.
Summary of Findings:
The summary of findings includes the major findings of each research
question and hypothesis.
-
Chemistry students have difficulties in writing of chemical equations
across class levels in all difficulties areas considered even though the
difficulties tend to reduce as the students advance in chemical knowledge
-
Students also generally experience difficulties in balancing of chemical
equation across class levels but the difficulties tend to reduce from SS I to
SS III.
-
Both males and females experience difficulties in the writing of chemical
equations but higher proportion of females indicated more difficulties
than the males in SS I to SS 3.
-
In the balancing of chemical equations, both males and females
experienced difficulties in the various problem areas, while higher
proportion of females than males had difficulties in three areas, the
reverse was the case in the other three areas.
56
-
The students’ difficulties in writing and balancing of chemical equations
do not depend on class level. Generally there is a reduction in the
proportion of the students experiencing the difficulties as the students
advanced in class.
57
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND SUMMARY
In this chapter, the discussion of the results presented in the previous
chapter, the conclusion, the recommendations for improvement and the
summary of the entire work is carried out. Also a discussion of the educational
implications of the findings of the study is also included.
Discussion of Results
Students’ Difficulties in Writing Chemical Equations
Analysis of students’ responses to the test items in the WBCEDT in
respect of research question one show that the students difficulties in writing
chemical formulae can be as a result of their use of wrong and small letters in
writing the symbols of the atom involved, poor knowledge of rules guiding the
writing of chemical formulae of compounds, poor knowledge of names of
compounds, misplacement of numbers attached to the formulae of chemical
compounds, lack of knowledge of valency of atom and radicals, lack of
knowledge of correct chemical formulae of atom and compounds and lack of
accuracy in writing chemical formulae of compounds. However, the percentage
of the students affected by each difficulty was highest in SSI and decreases as
the students move to SS III.
57
58
Students’ difficulties in balancing chemical equation at various class levels
of the senior secondary school
The analysis of data obtained from the respondents to the test items in the
WBCEDT in respect of research question two indicates that the students’
difficulties in balancing chemical equations can be as a result of the students
lack of knowledge of correct formulae of compounds, lack of knowledge of
valency of atoms in the formulae of compounds reacting, poor knowledge of
rules guiding the balancing of equation, interfering or changing the formulae of
compounds during balancing the formulae of compounds during balancing,
ability to check each atom on both sides of the equation to make sure that the
equation is balanced, ability to make sure that the coefficients used are all whole
numbers and are reduced to their lowest terms.
It is disheatening to find out that chemistry students in SSIII who have
studied chemistry from their SSI to SS III, could not write and balance simple
chemical equations. Even though the percentage level of the difficulty areas
decrease as the students get more chemical knowledge, it was only in the area of
lack of knowledge of correct formulae of compounds and interfering/changing
of the formulae of compounds during balancing that the problems tend to
minimize. From the researcher’s classroom experience, it was always observed
that students do not write correct chemical formulae and balancing the chemical
equation was also difficult. In balancing of equation, the reactants and the
products are always written for students either in text-books or in the classroom
59
and the teacher will try to balance it to the understanding of the students. Even
when assignments and class work are given thereafter, students still find it
difficult to balance equations. This is in accordance with Okoko (2008)
observation that a particular problem which seems to be persistent with each
passing class (from SSI to SS III) was giving the reactants alone, students were
not able to write the products and balance the equation correctly.
To what extent does the type of difficulty encountered by students in the
writing of chemical equation depend on gender?
The result of the analysis the students’ responses shows that the type of
difficulty encountered by students in the writing of chemical equation do not
depend on gender. This is because the mean percentage of the boys and the
girls, all are above the percentage indicating difficulty area.
The null hypothesis (HO1) was tested in order to verify whether or not
gender on the part of students had any significant effect on the extent of
difficulties encountered by chemistry students in writing chemical equations.
The null hypothesis was accepted on the result of chi-square test. This, however,
invariably means that the extent of difficulties encountered by the students in
writing chemical equation is not dependent on gender.
60
To what extent does the type of difficulty encountered by students in
balancing chemical equation depend on gender?
The result of the analysis indicates that both the male and the female
encountered difficulty in the six areas. So the type of difficulty encountered by
students in balancing chemical equation do not depend on gender.
The null hypothesis (HO2), was tested on order to verify whether or not
gender on the part of the students had any significant effect on the extent of
difficulties encountered by chemistry students in balancing chemical equation.
The null hypothesis was accepted on the result of chi-square test. This, however,
invariably means that the extent of the difficulties encountered by the students
in balancing chemical equations is not dependent on gender.
Which of the difficulties in writing of chemical equation persist across class
levels?
The table on research question five showed that the difficulties persist in
all the difficulty areas.
However, the percentage the percentage level of the difficulties continued to
reduce as the students get more chemical knowledge from SSI to SSIII but not
to the level of not being a difficulty. This result is in accordance with Okoko
(2008) observation that a particular problem which seems to be persistent with
each passing class (SS I to SS III) was giving the reactants alone, the students
were not able to write the products and balance the equations correctly.
61
The null hypothesis (HO3) was tested to verify whether the students’
difficulties in writing chemical equations do not depend on class level. The null
hypothesis was accepted on the result of the chi-square test. This means that the
students’ difficulties in writing chemical equations do not depend on class level.
This invariably, means that the extent of the students’ difficulties in writing
chemical equations do not depend on class level, even though the percentage of
the students’ difficulties reduced as the students move from SS I to SS III.
Which of the difficulties in balancing of chemical equations persist across
various class levels?
The table on research question six, showed that the difficulties persisted
in all the difficulty areas. There is reduction in the percentage of difficulties
encountered by the students as the students get more knowledge of chemistry.
The reduction in the percentage of difficulties in SS II from SS I and the
reduction in SS III from SS I shows that the students improve on the skills of
balancing chemical equation as they spend more years in school.
The null hypothesis (HO4) was tested to verify that the students’
difficulties in balancing chemical equation do not depend on class level. The
null hypothesis was accepted on the result of the chi-square test. This means
that the students’ difficulties in balancing chemical equation do not depend on
class level. Therefore, the extent of the students’ difficulties in balancing
chemical equations do not depend on class level, but the percentage level of the
difficulties reduced from SS I to SS 3. This observation is in line with WAEC
62
Chief examiners report which consistently had been reporting that students had
difficulties various aspects of writing and balancing chemical equations. (2003,
2005, 2007 and 2010).
EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
The findings of this study have obvious implications for education. The
fact that the students generally had difficulty in writing and balancing chemical
equations is indicative of their difficulty in understanding other topics in
chemistry, especially the ones that involve the calculation of molar mass of each
compound, the reacting masses of the substance, mass volume relationship, the
stoichiometry of chemical equations, Faraday’s laws of electrolysis, volumetric
analysis etc.
Students’ difficulty is writing and balancing of chemical equations could
be seen as a reflection of the quality of teaching being done in secondary
schools of recent. It is worthy to note that when students are given the basics in
chemistry and are groomed properly from SS I to SS III, they are not likely to
encounter much difficulty in writing and balancing of chemical equations which
are fundamental to the successful learning of chemistry. The concept of
chemical equation is so fundamental that without mastery in it, students find
every other aspect of chemistry difficult. Consequent to this there is then the
need for regular supervision of instruction in schools by the relevant education
authorities.
63
Also workshops and seminars should also be organized at regular
intervals for chemistry teachers to enable them update their knowledge in the
subject. Chemistry teachers could be educated on effective methods through
such workshops and seminars. However, students’ understanding of chemistry t
will be significantly enhanced when chemistry teachers utilize such
opportunities which undoubtedly will better equip them to teach their students.
RECOMMENDATIONS
With regards to the findings of this study the following recommendations
are made as means of improving students understanding of the writing and
balancing of chemical equation.
i.
All pre-requisite concepts leading to the concept of writing and balancing
of chemical equations should be properly taught before teaching the
concepts of writing and balancing of chemical equations. Chemistry
teachers should make frantic efforts to expose students to as many areas
in Chemistry regarding the use of the writing and balancing of chemistry
equation. Chemistry teachers need to repeat lessons several times on the
writing and balancing of chemical equations.
ii.
The importance of the writing and balancing of chemical equation should
be well emphasized by chemistry teachers when teaching the topic
because it is the foundation of chemistry as a subject. It is also peculiar to
chemistry.
64
iii.
Students should be given plenty of practices in the writing and balancing
of chemical equations.
iv.
Chemistry teachers should use effective strategies in teaching and
learning of writing and balancing of chemical equations.
v.
Any chemical equation poorly written and balanced should not score any
marks in classwork, tests, internal examination, external examinations
e.g. in WAEC and NECO. This should be made clear in the marking
scheme. When students are aware of this fact they will take the writing
and balancing of chemical equations more seriously.
SUMMARY OF STUDY
This study was prompted by the consistent poor performance of
secondary school students in school Certificate and National Examination
Council. Examination in chemistry, The poor performance of the student in such
examination appear to the indicative of the fact that they have difficulties in
properly understanding certain concept or topics in chemistry, one of which is
the writing and balancing of chemical equations. The main purpose of the study
was therefore, to find out specially, student difficulties as writing and balancing
of chemical equations.
The following research question guided the study: what are the
difficulties encountered by students in.
65
i.
Writing chemical equation at the various class level of senior
secondary school.
ii.
Balancing of chemical equation at the various class levels of senior
secondary school.
iii.
To what extent does the type of difficulty encountered by students in
writing chemical equation depending gender.
iv.
To what extent does the type of difficulty encountered by students in
balancing chemical equation depend on gender?
v.
Which of the difficulties in writing of chemical equation persist
across class levels.
vi.
Which of the difficulties in balancing of chemical equation persist
across class levels.
Research questions 3,4,5 and 6 were converted to the following mull
hypothesis:
H01
Student difficulties in writing chemical equation do not depend on
gender.
H02
Student difficulties in balancing chemical equations do not depend
on gender.
H03
Student difficulties in writing chemical equation do not depend on
class level as measured………..
H04
Student difficulties in balancing chemical equations do not depend
on class level.
66
The relevant theoretical and empirical literature were reviewed. A sample
consisting of drawn from seventeen secondary schools in Nsukka Educational
Zone was used for the study. The sample was obtained by disproportionate
stratified random sampling across gender. Also an instrument was used for data
collection during the study and the instrument was known as writing and
balancing chemical equation diagnostic Test (WBCEDT) developed by the
researcher.
However, the research questions were answered using frequency tables
and percentages which the four null hypothesis were tested at 0.05% level of
significance using chi-square as the statistical tool. From the ongoing, the result
indicated that:
1.
Students have difficulty in writing chemical equation at the various class
levels of senior secondary school because i) they use wrong and small
letters is writing the symbols of the atoms involved.
ii)
they have poor knowledge of rules guiding the writing of chemical
formulae of compounds.
iii)
they misplace the numbers attached to the formulae of chemical
compounds
iv)
they lack knowledge of valency of atom and radicals.
v)
they lack knowledge of correct chemical formulae of atoms and
compounds
vi)
they lack accuracy in writing chemical formulae of compounds
67
2.
Students have difficulty in balancing chemical equations at the various
class levels of senior secondary school because:
i) they lack knowledge of correct formulae of compounds
ii) they lack knowledge of valency of atoms in the formulae of
compounds reacting
iii) they have poor knowledge of rules guiding the balancing of equations
iv) they interfere or change the formulae of compounds during balancing
v) they are not able to check each atom on both sides of the equation to
make sure that the equation is balanced.
vi) they are not able to make sure that the coefficient used are all whole
numbers and are reduced to their lowest terms.
3)
The extent of the students’ difficulties in writing and balancing chemical
equations does not depend on gender.
4)
Students’ difficulties in writing and balancing chemical equations persist
across class levels with a reduction in the percentage level of the
difficulties. Class level has an influence on the extent of difficulties that
the students encounter.
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
In the light of this work, more researches are recommended in the
following areas.
1.
Teaching techniques that will enhance the learning of writing and
balancing of equations by chemistry students.
68
2.
Relationship between performance in the writing and balancing of
chemical equations and their ability to solve mathematical problems in
chemistry.
3.
The present study can also be replicated using a larger population as well
as area of study.
69
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75
APPENDIX 1
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equation Diagnostic Test (WBCEDT)
Part I
Name of School: ………………………………………………..
Sex: ………………………………………………………………
Class: SSI
Part II
Attempt all the questions. Answer each question in the space provided.
Write the physical states of the reactants and products.
1. Write the balanced equation for the following reactions.
a. Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas
…………………………………………………………………
b. Burning magnesium in oxygen
…………………………………………………………….
c. Action of water on calcium oxide
……………………………………………………………
d. Reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
……………………………………………………………
e. The combustion of sulphur to form sulphur (iv) oxide
……………………………………………………………
f. The combination of sulphur (vi) oxide with water
……………………………………………………………
g. Reaction of tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and sodium hydroxide
………………………………………………...
h. The combination of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) and hydrochloric acid
………………………………………...
i. Zinc dust dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid
……………………………………………………………
j. Reaction between copper (ii) oxide and hydrogen
gas………………………………………………………...
k. Heating Iron filings with powdered sulphur
……………………………………………………………
l. Aluminum chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide
……………………………………………………………
m. Roasting sulphur in air …………………………………..
n. Reaction of sodium metal and water
……………………………………………………………
o. Chemical combination of hydrogen and nitrogen gas
……………………………………………………………
p. Passing steam over red hot Iron fillings ………………………….
76
q. Combination of Ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas
……………………………………………………………
r. Action of ethanoic acid on ethanol
……………………………………………………………
s. Action of carbon (iv) oxide and carbon (coke)
……………………………………………………………
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equation Diagnostic Test (WBCEDT)
Part I
Name of School: ………………………………………………..
Sex: ………………………………………………………………
Class: SSII
Part II
Attempt all the questions. Answer each question in the space provided.
Write the physical states of the reactants and products.
1. Write the balanced equation for the following reactions.
a. Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas
…………………………………………………………………
b. Burning magnesium in oxygen
…………………………………………………………….
c. Action of water on calcium oxide
……………………………………………………………
d. Reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
……………………………………………………………
e. The combustion of sulphur to form sulphur (iv) oxide
……………………………………………………………
f. The combination of sulphur (vi) oxide with water
……………………………………………………………
g. Reaction of tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and sodium hydroxide
………………………………………………...
h. The combination of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) and hydrochloric acid
………………………………………...
i. Zinc dust dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid
……………………………………………………………
j. Reaction between copper (ii) oxide and hydrogen
gas………………………………………………………...
k. Heating Iron filings with powdered sulphur
……………………………………………………………
77
l. Aluminum chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide
……………………………………………………………
m. Roasting sulphur in air …………………………………..
n. Reaction of sodium metal and water
……………………………………………………………
o. Chemical combination of hydrogen and nitrogen gas
……………………………………………………………
p. Passing steam over Iron fillings ………………………….
q. Combination of Ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas
……………………………………………………………
r. Action of ethanoic acid on ethanol
……………………………………………………………
s. Action of carbon (iv) oxide and carbon (coke)
……………………………………………………………
2.
Write and balance the ionization or dissociation equation of the
following compounds.
(a) Sodium tetraoxo sulphate (vi) ……………………………….
(b) Potassium tetraoxo manganate (vii) …………………………
(c) Silver trioxonitrate (v) ………………………………………..
(d) Trioxonitrate (v) acid ………………………………………
(e) Iron (II) Sulphide ……………………………………………..
(f) Ammonium chloride ………………………………………….
(g) Trioxosulphate (iv) acid ……………………………………
(h) Trioxosulphate (iv) acid ……………………………………
(i) Tetraoxophosphate (v) acid …………………………………...
(j) Ethanoic acid ………………………………………………….
3. Write and balance the neutralization equation for.
(a)
Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
…………………………………………………………….
(b)
Copper (II) oxide and trioxosulphate (iv) acid
……………………………………………………………..
(c)
Calcium hydroxide and tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
……………………………………………………………..
78
(d)
Ammonium hydroxide and trioxonitrate (v) acid
…………………………………………………………….
(e)
Potassium hydroxide and tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
……………………………………………………………..
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equation Diagnostic Test (WBCEDT)
Part I
Name of School: ………………………………………………..
Sex: ………………………………………………………………
Class: SSIII
Part II
Attempt all the questions. Answer each question in the space provided.
Write the physical states of the reactants and products.
(1) Write the balanced equation for the following reactions.
b.
Hydrogen gas reacts with oxygen gas
…………………………………………………………………
c.
Burning magnesium in oxygen
…………………………………………………………….
d.
Action of water on calcium oxide
……………………………………………………………
d. Reaction of hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide
……………………………………………………………
e. The combustion of sulphur to form sulphur (iv) oxide
……………………………………………………………
f. The combination of sulphur (vi) oxide with water
……………………………………………………………
g. Reaction of tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and sodium hydroxide
………………………………………………...
79
h. The combination of calcium trioxocarbonate (iv) and hydrochloric acid
………………………………………...
i. Zinc dust dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid
……………………………………………………………
j. Reaction between copper (ii) oxide and hydrogen
gas………………………………………………………...
k. Heating Iron filings with powdered sulphur
……………………………………………………………
l. Aluminum chloride reacts with sodium hydroxide
……………………………………………………………
m. Roasting sulphur in air …………………………………..
n. Reaction of sodium metal and water
……………………………………………………………
o. Chemical combination of hydrogen and nitrogen gas
……………………………………………………………
p. Passing steam over Iron fillings ………………………….
q. Combination of Ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas
……………………………………………………………
r. Action of ethanoic acid on ethanol
……………………………………………………………
s. Action of carbon (iv) oxide and carbon (coke)
……………………………………………………………
(2) Write and balance the ionization or dissociation equation of the
following compounds.
(a) Sodium tetraoxo sulphate (vi) ……………………………..
(b) Potassium tetraoxo manganate (vii) ………………………
(b) Silver trioxonitrate (v) ……………………………………
(c) Trioxonitrate (v) acid ………………………………………
(d) Iron (II) Sulphide …………………………………………
80
(e) Ammonium chloride ………………………………………
(f) Trioxosulphate (iv) acid ……………………………………
(g) Trioxosulphate (iv) acid ……………………………………
(h) Tetraoxophosphate (v) acid ………………………………
(i) Ethanoic acid ………………………………………………
(3) Write and balance the neutralization equation for.
(a) Sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid
…………………………………………………………….
(b) Copper (II) oxide and trioxosulphate (iv) acid
……………………………………………………………..
(c) Calcium hydroxide and tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
……………………………………………………………..
(d) Ammonium hydroxide and trioxonitrate (v) acid
…………………………………………………………….
(e) Potassium hydroxide and tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid
…………………………………………………………….
(4) Write and balance the following equation.
(a) Copper (II) ions combines with chloride ions to give copper (II)
chloride ………………………………………………..
(b) Zinc ions combines with tetraoxosulphate (vi) ions to give zinc
tetraoxosulphate (vi) ………………………………….
(c) Sodium ions combines with chloride ions to form sodium chloride
…………………………………………………….
81
APPENDIX II
RELIABILITY OF THE INSTRUMENT.
Raw scores of the students per rater/score
Raters
Raw scores of the students per rater.
Raters
1
2
3
4
5
6
Ugwu
38
40
40
44
47
67
Eze
35
43
45
47
50
70
Odo
35
37
35
47
50
72
Ugwuja
55
48
33
50
67
62
Ranks of the score of students per rater
Raters
1
2
3
4
5
6
Ugwu
5
5
5
4
3
1
Eze
6
4
4
3
2
1
Odo
6
6
6
3
2
1
Ugwuja
2
3
6
2
1
1
RJ
19
18
21
12
8
4
Kendall W 125
N2 (K3 –K)
Where S
=
(Rj -
Rj/K)2
82
Where Rj/K = sum of the ranks for each student
Where Rj/K – mean of the total ranks for all the students
N = number of raters
K = number of candidates being rated.
S – (19 -14)2 + (18 – 14)2 + (12 – 14)2 + (21 – 14)2 + (8 – 14)2 ( 4 – 14)2
W = 12 x 230
42 (63 – 6)
= 2760
3360
=
0.82
0.82 is the index of concordance of the scores/raters.
83
APPENDIX III
Hypothesis One (HO1)
Student’s difficulties in writing chemical equation do not depend on
gender as measured by the number of male and female students that had
difficulties in (the various classes of difficulty) responding to the (WBCEDT)
S/N Student difficulty in writing chemical Percentage of Students
equation
with difficulty
Male
Female Total
1
Use of wrong and small letter in
writing the symbols of the atoms
74
68
142
(72.16) (69.64)
involved
2
Poor knowledge of rules guiding the
writing of chemical formulae of
68
70
139
(70.64) (68.36)
compounds
3
Misplacement of numbers attached to
the formulae of chemical compounds
64
61
125
(63.52) (63.52)
4
Lack of knowledge of valency of atoms 76
70
146
(74.19) (71.81)
and radicals
5
Lack of knowledge of correct chemical
formulae of atoms and compounds
6
Lack of accuracy in writing chemical
formulae of compound
Total
X2 =
∑
(O − E ) 2
=
E
73
73
146
(74.19) (71.81)
75
75
150
(76.23) (76.23)
430
(74 − 72.16) 2
(68 − 96.84) 2
+
72.16
69.84
417
+
847
(68 − 70.64) 2
+
70.64
84
(70 − 68.36)2
(64 − 63.52)2
+
68.36
63.52
(76 − 74.19)2
+
74.19
(70 − 71.81) 2
71.81
(75 − 76.23)2 +
75 − 76.25
76.25
76.23
=
+
+
(61 − 63.52) 2
63.52
(73 − 74.19) 2
74.19
+
+
(76 − 74.19) 2
63.52
+
(73 − 71.81)2 +
71.81
0.05 + 0.05 + 0.10 + 0.04 + 0.0036 + 0.10 + 0.03 + 0.05 + 0.02
+ 0.02 + 0.02 + 0.02 = 0.524.
X2 critical for df (6 – 1) (2 – 1) = 5 at -.05 level of significance = 4.35.
85
APPENDIX IV
Hypothesis two (HO2)
The students difficulties in balancing chemical equations do not depend
on gender as measured by the percentages of male and females that had
difficulties in balancing chemical equation.
S/N Student difficulty in writing chemical Percentage of Students
equation
with difficulty
Male
Female Total
1
2
3
4
5
Lack of knowledge correct formulae of
61
compounds
(63.56) (64.44)
Lack of knowledge of valency of atoms
76
in the formulae of compounds reacting
(75.48) (76.52)
Poor knowledge of rules guiding the
80
balancing of equation
(77.96) (79.04)
Interfering/changing the formulae of
59
compounds during balancing
(61.57) (62.43)
Ability to check each atom on both sides 77
of the equation to make sure that the
67
76
77
65
75
128
152
157
124
152
(75.48) (76.52)
equation is balanced
6
Ability to make sure that the coefficients 79
used are all whole numbers and are
78
157
(77.96) (79.04)
reduced to their lowest terms.
Total
X2 =
(O − E )2
(61 − 63.56) 2
=
E
63.56
432
+
(67 − 64.44) 2
64.44
+
438
(76 − 75.48)2
75.48
870
86
+
(76 − 76.52)2
76.52
(65 − 62.43) 2
62.43
+
(79 − 77.96) 2
77.96
X2
=
+
(80 − 77.96)2
77.96
+
+
(77 − 75.48) 2
75.48
+
(78 − 79.04) 2
79.04
(77 − 79.04) 2
79.04
+
(75 − 76.52)2
+
76.52
(59 − 61.57) 2
61.57
+
0.10 + 0.10 + 0.004 + 0.004 + 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.05 + 0.11 +
0.11 + 0.03 + 0.03 + 0.01 + 0.01 = 0.658.
X2 critical for df = (6 – 1) (2 – 1) = 5 at 0.05 = 4.35.
87
APPENDIX V
Hypothesis Three (HO3)
The students difficulties in writing chemical equation do not depend on
class level.
S/N Student difficulty in writing Percentage of difficulties (observed
chemical equation
frequency) & expected frequency
class by class in writing chemical
equation (see appendix – for details)
SS I
SS II
SS III
Total
1
Use of wrong and small letter in 83
writing the symbols of the
67
58
208
(84.12) (67.61) (56.27)
atoms involved
2
Poor knowledge of rules
85
65
55
guiding the writing of chemical
(82.91) (66.64) (55.46)
205
formulae of compounds
3
Misplacement of numbers
73
65
47
attached to the formulae of
(74.82) (60.13) (50.05)
185
chemical compounds
4
5
Lack of knowledge of valency
86
70
of atoms and radicals
(87.76) (70.54) (58.71)
Lack of knowledge of correct
83
70
61
64
217
217
chemical formulae of atoms and (87.76) (70.54) (58.71)
compounds
6
Lack of accuracy in writing
88
71
63
chemical formulae of
(89.78) (72.16) (60.06)
222
compound
Total
499
408
348
1254
88
X2
(O − E ) 2
=
E
=
(83.84.12) 2
84.12
(67 − 67.61) 2
67.61
+
(85.82.91) 2
(88 − 78.86) 2
(63 − 63.39)2
+
+
+
+
82.91
78.86
63.39
+
(73 − 74.82)2
74.82
+
(65 − 60.12)2
60.13
+
(58 − 56.27) 2
56.27
+
(44 − 52.75)2
52.75
(47 − 50.05) 2
(86 − 87.76) 2
+
50.05
87.76
+
(70 − 70.54)2
70.54
+
(84 − 58.71)2
(88 − 89.78) 2
(71 − 72.16) 2
(63 − 60.06)2
+
+
+
.
58.71
89.78
72.16
60.06
+
(61 − 58.71) 2
(83 − 87.76) 2
(70 − 70.54) 2
+
+
58.71
87.76
70.54
X2 = 0.01 + 0.01 + 0.05 + 0.45 + 1.06 + 0.002 + 1.45 + 0.04 + 0.39 +
0.19 + 0.04 + 6.004 + 0.09 + 0.26 + 0.004 + 0.48 + 0.04 + 0.02 +
0.14 = 4.73
X2 critical for df (6 – 1) (3 – 1) = 10 at 0.05 = 10.34
89
APPENDIX VI
Hypothesis four (HO4)
The students’ difficulties in balancing chemical equation do not depend
on class level.
of
difficulties
S/N Student difficulty in writing chemical Percentage
equation
(observed
frequency)
&
expected frequency class by
class in writing chemical
equation (see appendix – for
details)
SS I
SS II
SS III Total
1
Lack of knowledge correct formulae of
compounds
2
Lack of knowledge of valency of atoms
in the formulae of compounds reacting
3
Poor knowledge of rules guiding the
balancing of equation
4
Interfering/changing the formulae of
compounds during balancing
5
Ability to check each atom on both
sides of the equation to make sure that
80
60
(72.40) (62.89)
50
190
(54.70)
84
75
(86.88) (75.47)
69
288
(65.64)
84
80
(89.16) (77.45)
70
234
(67.37)
78
60
(69.73) (60.57)
45
183
(52.68)
85
75
(87.64) (76.13)
70
230
(66.22)
84
80
(89.16) (77.45)
70
234
(67.37)
495
374
the equation is balanced
6
Ability to make sure that the
coefficients used are all whole numbers
and are reduced to their lowest terms.
Total
430
1299
90
X2 =
(O − E )2
(80 − 72.40)2
=
E
72.40
(84 − 86.88)2
86.88
+
+
(60 − 62.89) 2
+
62.89
(75 − 75.47) 2
75.47
+
(50 − 54.70)2
54.70
+
(69 − 65.64)2
(84 − 89.16) 2
+
+
65.64
89.16
(80 − 77.45) 2
(70 − 67.37) 2
+
77.45
67.37
+
(78 − 69.73) 2
+
69.73
(60 − 60.57) 2
+
60.57
(45 − 52.68) 2
52.68
+
(85 − 87.64) 2
87.64
+
(75 − 76.13) 2
76.13
(70 − 66.22) 2
+
66.22
(84 − 89.16) 2
89.16
+
(80 − 77.45) 2
+
77.45
+
(70 − 67.37) 2
.
67.37
X2 = 0.79 + 0.13 + 0.40 + 0.05 + 0.00 + 0.17 + 0.29 + 0.08 + 0.10 + 0.98 +
0.00 + 1.11 + 0.07 + 0.01 + 0.21 + 0.29 + 0.08 + 0.10 = 4.86
X2 critical for df (6 – 1) (3 – 1) = 10 at 0.05 level of significance = 9.342