Tibetan History
Tibet and China under the Mongols: The Yuan Dynasty (13th-14th
Centuries)
Both Tibet and China fell under the control of the Mongol empire: the Tibetans
after peaceful submission in 1244-47. Chinese historians now claim that Tibet
was thus "officially incorporated into the territory of China's Yuan Dynasty"
(China White Paper, p.3). They then go on to argue, somewhat inexplicably, that
Northern Burma, North Vietnam, Korea and large areas of Siberia were likewise
all part of the vast Mongol Empire, yet none are claimed by Beijing today. Tibetan
monks in fact enjoyed some dominance in religious affairs, after "Lamaist"
Buddhism was made the official religion of the Mongol Empire.
The Emergence of the Dalai Lamas and the Chinese Ming Dynasty
(15th-17th Centuries)
By the 15th century, political authority in Tibet had passed into the hands of
contending religious hegemonies, which were eventually replaced by a system
of rule under the Dalai Lamas. In China, the native Ming Dynasty overthrew the
Mongols, and then concentrated much of its attention on economic expansion and
maritime exploration.
There is no evidence whatsoever to suggest that Tibet was
subordinate to China at this stage. During this period both Tibet and China existed
as separate and fully sovereign states.
Tibet under the Influence of the Manchus: The Qing Dynasty (18th-19th
Centuries)
In 1644, Manchu armies captured Beijing and established the Qing Dynasty.
During their expansion into southern China, local resistance was crushed with
brutal violence. In Tibet, the 5th Dalai Lama therefore sought to establish peaceful
relations with this emerging Manchu power, and was subsequently invited to
Beijing in 1652.
Over the course of the next 50 years, the Manchus were able to exploit differences
between rival groups within the Tibetan Government, and so established some
degree of influence in Lhasa: Manchu officials called 'ambans' were stationed
there from 1728 until the fall of the dynasty in 1911.
There is, however, much disagreement over the actual extent of their power. Tibet
did fall under some form of Manchu "protection" at this time - subordinate in
name to a government in Beijing; and the region of Amdo was placed under direct
military control after an anti-Manchu uprising in 1724. But this government and
occupation, just like that of the Mongols, was not an ethnic Chinese one.
Tibet Subject to 'Western Aggression': The Simla Convention (1914)
By the end of the 19th century Tibet had acquired massive strategic importance
for Britain and Russia, as both were in the process of expanding their
imperial "spheres of influence" in Central Asia. After a series of trade missions
and then military expeditions, the British were able to gain an advantage, and so
convened a tripartite conference to discuss Tibet's status at Simla in 1914.
The Tibetans arrived at the conference with written evidence proving the historical
independence of Tibet. The Chinese delegation simply argued that Tibet's
subjugation by the Mongols and the Manchus proved it had become an integral
part of China, and should therefore now be ruled as part of the new Republic of
China from Beijing. Negotiations were difficult, and the solution eventually put
forward guaranteed the autonomy of western Tibet, and provided for complete
Tibetan control over internal affairs.
The Chinese representative at the conference initialled the agreement, but did not
proceed to a full signature under pressure from Beijing. Britain and Tibet then
declared that they would abide by the provisions of the agreement, while China
would be unable to enjoy any of the privileges contained within.
The Chinese now
claim that their failure to sign the agreement left it "null and void"
The legal status of the Simla Convention is still open to debate, but its true
significance lies in its recognition of Tibet as an independent nation with which
binding agreements could be negotiated (eg: the Lhasa Treaty of 1904).
Throughout the Nationalist (Guomindang) period, no Chinese government was
able to exert any influence over Tibet.
Communist Invasion (1949-59)
The invasion of Tibet by troops from the People's Liberation Army in 1949-50
is described in official Chinese histories as a "peaceful liberation". A 17 Point
Agreement was signed between the Communist Government and Tibetan officials
in May 1951.
In March 1959, growing Tibetan resistance exploded in an uprising against the
Chinese occupation. The 14th Dalai Lama fled into exile in northern India, and the
Chinese crackdown in Tibet was brutal. Even the Chinese figures record 87,000
deaths in the National Uprising and its aftermath; Tibetan sources suggest as many
as 430,000 were killed in the Uprising and subsequent years of guerrilla warfare.