MUSEUM OF NEW MEXICO
OFFICE OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDIES
ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS:
SETTLEMENT SYSTEMS AND ADAPTATIONS
edited by
Yvonne R. Oakes and Dorothy A. Zamora
VOLUME 4. CERAMICS, MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACTS,
BIOARCHAEOLOGY, BONE TOOLS, AND FAUNAL ANALYSIS
by
C. Dean Wilson
Sonya O. Urban
David V. Hill
Yvonne R. Oakes
Linda Mick-O'Hara
Patrick Severts
Submitted by
Timothy D. Maxwell
Principal Investigator
ARCHAEOLOGY NOTES 232
SANTA FE
1999
NEW MEXICO
CONTENTS
Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vi
VOLUME 4. CERAMICS, MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACTS,
BIOARCHAEOLOGY, BONE TOOLS, AND FAUNAL ANALYSIS
INTRODUCTION TO CERAMIC STUDIES, by C. Dean Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
POTTERY TRENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
ANALYTICAL APPROACH. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
CERAMIC DATING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
CERAMIC TRENDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
CERAMIC TYPES AND ATTRIBUTES, by C. Dean Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
ANALYSIS PROCEDURES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
DESCRIPTIVE ATTRIBUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
STYLISTIC ATTRIBUTES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
CERAMIC TYPOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
DESCRIPTION OF TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
EARLY TEXTURED BROWN WARE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
PLAIN SMUDGED BROWN WARE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
CORRUGATED BROWN WARE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
MOGOLLON SLIPPED RED TYPES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
MOGOLLON DECORATED AND MIMBRES WHITE WARE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
ANASAZI (SOUTHERN CIBOLA) CERAMIC TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
CIBOLA WHITE WARE TYPES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
OTHER WHITE WARE TRADITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
WHITE MOUNTAIN REDWARE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
PROTOHISTORIC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
CERAMIC DATING, by C. Dean Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
DATING APPROACHES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
ASSIGNMENT AND DATING OF EARLY PITHOUSE PERIOD COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
ASSIGNMENT AND DATING OF LATE PITHOUSE PERIOD COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
ASSIGNMENT AND DATING OF PUEBLO PERIOD COMPONENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
SMALL UNDATED ASSEMBLAGES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
CLAY DISTRIBUTION, USE, AND POTTERY PRODUCTION IN THE NORTHERN
MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS, by C. Dean Wilson and Patrick Severts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
CLAY PASTES AND CERAMIC TRADITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
LUNA PROJECT CLAY SOURCE SURVEY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
CHARACTERIZATION OF CLAY SAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
DESCRIPTION OF CLAY SOURCES FROM THE MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
IMPLICATIONS OF CLAY-BASED DISTRIBUTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
CERAMIC TRENDS AT LUNA PROJECT SITES, by C. Dean Wilson . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
CERAMIC DISTRIBUTIONS IN REGIONAL PERSPECTIVE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
EXAMINATION OF PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION AND EXCHANGE. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
EVIDENCE OF CERAMIC EXCHANGE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
CAUSES OF EXCHANGE PATTERN SHIFTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
CONTENTS
iii
VESSEL FUNCTION AND USE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
SHERD MASS AND POSTDEPOSITIONAL INFLUENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF SELECTED CERAMIC AND CLAY SAMPLES,
by David V. Hill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
REGIONAL GEOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACT ANALYSIS, by Sonya O. Urban. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
ARTIFACT SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
ORNAMENT AND OTHER ARTIFACT USE IN THE MOGOLLON AREA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
BIOARCHAEOLOGY IN THE MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS, by Linda Mick-O'Hara . . . 221
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
BURIALS FROM LUNA VILLAGE (LA 45507) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
BURIALS FROM SPURGEON DRAW (LA 39968) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
BURIALS FROM HAURY'S SITE (LA 39969) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
BURIAL FROM GREAT KIVA AT THE HOUGH SITE (LA 3279). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
BONE TOOL ANALYSIS, by Yvonne R. Oakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
BONE TOOL CLASSIFICATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
BONE TOOLS BY SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
DISCUSSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGE OF THE MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS, by Yvonne R. Oakes . 245
METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
SPECIES FOUND ON THE PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES BY SITE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
TAPHONOMIC PROCESSES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
FAUNAL RESOURCES AND SUBSISTENCE NEEDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
CONCLUSIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
APPENDIX 4.1. CLAYS COLLECTED DURING THE LUNA PROJECT . . . . . . . . . . 307
APPENDIX 4.2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CLAY SAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
iv
CONTENTS
FIGURES
4.1. Various brown ware vessels from the Mogollon Highlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2. Alma Plain and Alma Rough, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.3. Alma Plain and Alma Rough: (a-b) LA 70185; (c) LA 39975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4. Alma scored: (a) LA 45507; (b-d) LA 70196. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.5. Alma scored: (top) LA 39975; (bottom) LA 70196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4.6. Alma incised, LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.7. Alma neckbanded, LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
4.8. Three Circle neck coiled: (a and c) LA 39968; (b) LA 39969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4.9. Reserve smudged rim, LA 70196, exterior (left) and interior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4.10. Reserve smudged rim: (a and c): LA 39969; (b) LA 39968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4.11. Tularosa filleted rim smudged, LA 3279. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.12. Starkweather smudged . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.13. Reserve Plain corrugated, LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4.14. Reserve Plain corrugated, LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.15. Reserve Plain corrugated: (a-b) LA 45510; (c) LA 39969; (d) LA 70189; (e) LA 3563. . . . . . . . . . 39
4.16. Reserve Plain corrugated, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.17. Reserve indented corrugated, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
4.18. Reserve indented corrugated: (a-c) LA 3279; (d) LA 39969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
4.19. Reserve indented corrugated, LA 70135 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
4.20. Reserve indented corrugated, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
4.21. Reserve incised corrugated, LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.22. Reserve incised corrugated, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
4.23. Reserve incised corrugated: (top) LA 45510; bottom LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
4.24. Tularosa patterned corrugated and alternating corrugated, LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4.25. Tularosa patterned corrugated and alternating corrugated, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.26. Tularosa patterned corrugated and alternating corrugated: (a) LA 45510; (b-c) LA 39968 . . . . . . . 51
4.27. Various painted bowls found in the Mogollon Highlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.28. Tularosa White-on-red, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.29. Mogollon Red-on-brown, LA 70210. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.30. Three Circle Red-on-white, LA 70196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.31. Mangus (Mimbres Boldface) Black-on-white, LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
4.32. Mimbres (Classic) Black-on-white, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.33. Cibola White Ware jars from west-central New Mexico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
4.34. White Mound Black-on-white (a-b) LA 45507; (c) LA 70196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.35. Red Mesa Black-on-white: (a-c) LA 45507; (d) LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
4.36. Reserve Black-on-white, LA 39969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.37. Reserve Black-on-white: (a)LA 3563; (b-c) LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.38. Tularosa Black-on-white, LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.39. Tularosa Black-on-white, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.40. (a) Snowflake Black-on-white; (b) La Plata Black-on-white; (c-d) Klageto Black-on-white . . . . . . 83
4.41. Rim radius by site and vessel form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
4.42. Vessel forms from Luna Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
4.43. Shell morphology (adapted from Morris [1975]). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.44. Possible ornament blanks, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.45. Minerals: (a-c) hematite, (d) azurite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.46. Modified minerals: (a) azurite, (b-c) chrysocolla, (d) limonite, (e) gypsum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.47. Miscellaneous stone artifacts: (a-b) concretions, (c) geode, (d) concretions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.48. Crystals, LA 3279: (a) Feature 8; (b) general fill; (c-e) Feature 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.49. Modified crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
4.50. Modified crystals and unmodified crystals from features or floor contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
CONTENTS
v
4.51. Modified crystals, LA 70196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
4.52. Effigies, LA 3279: (a-d) rooms (e-h) kiva. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.53. Effigies, LA 3279: (a-b) great kiva; (c-f) general fill; (g-i) outside of structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
4.54. Effigies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.55. Possible loom weights, LA 70196. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.56. Pipes, LA 45507: (left) stone; (right) ceramic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4.57. Indeterminate items, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
4.58. Shell artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
4.59. Ornaments and pendants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4.60. Miscellaneous bone and stone artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
4.61. Clay and discoidal beads and shaped beads. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.62. Bone tube bead and bone tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
4.63. Gaming piece, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
4.64. Adobe plug, LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
4.65. Comparison of adult and child burials and vessel associations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.66. Length of awls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.67. Mean length of awls by cultural period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.68. Preform with initial grooving prior to splitting, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.69. Awls with intact heads, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.70. Awls, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.71. Awls, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.72. Miscellaneous bone tools, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.73. Athabaskan splinter awl, LA 37917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
4.74. Awls, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
4.75. Awls, LA 39969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.76. Awls, LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.77. Bone tools, LA 70196. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
4.78. Percentage of large and small fauna by phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
4.79. Large game index by area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
4.80. Percentage of processed fauna by phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
4.81. Percentage of large and small game processed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
4.82. Type of processing on Luna fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
4.83. Percentages of burned bone by period. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
TABLES
4.1. Temper of plain brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.2. Vessel forms of plain brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.3. Temper of early textured brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4. Vessel forms of early textured brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.5. Temper of plain smudged brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.6. Vessel forms of plain smudged brown ware types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
4.7. Temper of corrugated brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
4.8. Vessel forms of corrugated brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
4.9. Temper of Mogollon slipped red ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.10. Vessel forms of Mogollon red slipped types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.11. Temper of Mogollon decorated types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.12. Vessel form of Mogollon decorated types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.13. Temper of Cibola Gray Ware types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.14. Vessel form of Cibola Gray Ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.15. Temper of Cibola White Ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4.16. Vessel forms of Cibola White Ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.17. Interior manipulation of Mogollon painted and Mimbres White Ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.18. Exterior manipulation of Mogollon painted and Mimbres White Ware types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
vi
CONTENTS
4.19. Mimbres types by rim thickness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.20. Mimbres types by rim shape. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.21. Mimbres types by rim decoration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.22. Mimbres types by rim design orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.23. Mimbres types by motif number and motif type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
4.24. Temper of White Mountain Redware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.25. Vessel forms of White Mountain Redware types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
4.26. Mogollon dating periods and phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.27. Basis for assignment of ceramic types to scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.28. Ceramic groups by site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.29. Dating phases and scores assigned to Luna Project sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.30. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 70188 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.31. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 39975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4.32. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 45508 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.33. Ceramic type by provenience, LA 39972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4.34. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 70196. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.35. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 45507. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
4.36. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 43786. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.37. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 70201. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.38. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 45510. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.39. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 75792. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.40. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 39969. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4.41. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 3563. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
4.42. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 70189. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
4.43. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 70185. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
4.44. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 89846. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
4.45. Ceramic type by provenience, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.46. Ceramic type by provenience, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
4.47. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 89847. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.48. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 43766. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.49. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 75791. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.50. Ceramic types by provenience, LA 70191. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.51. Ceramic/lithic ratios for selected Luna Project sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
4.52. Distributions of textured and surface treatments of unpainted brown ware types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
4.53. Distribution of spatially distinct ceramic tradition and ware groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
4.54. Distribution of selected rim forms by site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4.55. Vessel form by ware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.56. Rim radius of white and brown ware vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.57. Distribution of vessel forms by site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
4.58. Interior smudging of brown ware types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
4.59. Vessels from Early Pithouse phase sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
4.60. Vessels from Late Pithouse sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.61. Vessels from Reserve phase sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
4.62. Vessels from Tularosa phase sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.63. Whole vessel types from Luna Project sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.64. Vessel forms represented by whole vessels from Luna Project sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4.65. Sooted deposits on whole vessel forms from Luna Project sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4.66. Petrographic sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
4.67. Point count data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
4.68. Petrographic analysis measurement data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
4.69. Number of unmodified and (modified) minerals through time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
4.70. Modified and unmodified minerals from LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4.71. Modified and unmodified minerals from LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
4.72. Modified and unmodified minerals from LA 39969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
CONTENTS
vii
4.73. Modified and unmodified minerals from LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
4.74. Miscellaneous stone artifacts from LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
4.75. Modified and unmodified crystals through time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.76. Modified and unmodified crystals from LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
4.77. Modified and unmodified crystals from LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.78. Modified and unmodified crystals from LA 39975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.79. Modified and unmodified crystals from LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.80. Modified and unmodified crystals from LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.81. Modified and unmodified crystals from LA 70188 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.82. Modified and unmodified crystals from LA 70196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
4.83. Effigies by site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
4.84. Discoidal beads from LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
4.85. Adobe sample measurements, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
4.86. Ornament morphology and material types by age of site. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
4.87. Ornament manufacturing stages and morphology by age of site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
4.88. Shape of pendants and pendant blanks by age of site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4.89. Disarticulated human bone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
4.90. Bone tools by cultural period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.91. Types of awl points. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.92. Awl formation processes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.93. Bone tools by faunal species. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.94. Large mammal tools by area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
4.95. Proveniences of bone tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
4.96. Faunal species recovered from project sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.97. Percentage of faunal types at Luna sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.98. Miscellaneous faunal types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.99. Artiodactyl types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.100. Rabbit types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.101. Bird types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.102. Rodent types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.103. Carnivore types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.104. Amphibian and reptile types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.105. Fish types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
4.106. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.107. Faunal remains, floors and thermal features, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
4.108. Species recovered from floors, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.109. Species recovered from thermal features, LA 3279 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.110. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 3563 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.111. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 39968 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
4.112. Fauna from roof fall, floor, and hearth, LA 39968. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
4.113. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 39969 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.114. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 39972 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4.115. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 39975 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4.116. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 43766 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.117. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
4.118. Comparison of fauna within pit structures, LA 45507 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.119. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 45508 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.120. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 70185 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
4.121. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 70188 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
4.122. Comparison of fauna within pits, LA 70188 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
4.123. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 70196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
4.124. Fauna within pit structure levels, LA 70196 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
4.125. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 70201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
4.126. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 75791 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
viii
CONTENTS
4.127. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 78439 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
4.128. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 89846 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
4.129. Faunal remains from major interpretive units, LA 89847 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
4.130. Large versus small animal indices for the Reserve and Luna areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
4.131. Age of faunal species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.132. Immature faunal species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.133. Types of processing on faunal remains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.134. Burned bone types by period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
4.135. Animal bone retrieved from thermal features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
CONTENTS
ix
x
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO CERAMIC STUDIES
C. Dean Wilson
Investigations conducted by the Office of
Archaeological Studies, Museum of New Mexico,
from 1990 to 1995 resulted in the analysis of
177,661 sherds and 67 vessels from 25 sites. This
analysis was conducted from 1991 to 1997 and was
designed by and conducted under this author.
Employees of the Office of Archaeological responsible for analysis of Luna Project ceramics included
Patrick Severts, Joyce Snodgrass, Christine Sterling,
and Sarah Swedland. In addition, Carol and George
Price conducted analyses as volunteers. Ceramic
studies presented in this volume would not have
been possible without the able contributions of these
individuals.
Luna Project pottery analysis was conducted in
a manner allowing for a relatively detailed characterization of ceramic assemblages from various sites
and components, as well as comparisons of Luna
Project site assemblages to those described in other
studies. These comparisons form the basis for the
examination of various distributions and phenomenon through time and across space. Pottery characterizations resulting from this analysis provide for
the dating of various sites and contexts, as well as
the examination of patterns of pottery production,
exchange, affiliation, and use.
POTTERY TRENDS
Strategies relating to the recording, organization,
and interpretation of pottery data from sites in the
northern Mogollon Highlands and adjacent regions
have been strongly influenced by approaches and
perspectives prevalent during the time period that
various studies were conducted. Approaches and
categories presently employed in the analysis of pottery from sites in the northern Mogollon Highlands
are influenced by the fact that most investigations in
this area took place from the late 1930s to the early
1960s. These studies took a cultural historic
approach, prevalent in this time, emphasizing the
continuity of ceramic production by distinct cultural
groups thought to have occupied the northern
Mogollon Highlands. Most of these were concerned
with the definition of prehistoric culture areas and
determination of their distributions through time and
space (Gladwin and Gladwin 1934; Hawley 1936;
Colton and Hargrave 1937). Thus, the ceramic type
categories and analysis conventions developed during this time, and still commonly employed, were
concerned with the determination of time of occupation and identification of various cultures or peoples
practicing distinct ceramic traditions. Distributions
of ceramic types found in sites dating to various
periods in the northern Mogollon Highlands and
adjacent regions were explained in terms of boundaries associated with a distinct Mogollon cultural
tradition or people. For example, the distinct
Mogollon pottery found in earlier (pre-A.D. 1000)
components scattered throughout the Mogollon
Highlands were thought to indicate the widespread
distribution of the Mogollon culture. The occurrence
of Anasazi white wares along with Mogollon decorated or Mimbres white wares at late (post-A.D.
1000) occupations was described in terms of an
Anasazi intrusion and the mingling of different
groups (Haury 1936a, 1988; Danson 1957; Martin
and Plog 1973; Martin 1979).
Unique aspects of Mogollon occupations were
further explained in terms of a long-lived adaption
of a distinct cultural tradition (Martin and Plog
1973; Martin 1979). The Mogollon people were
described as having a preference for and overall
adaptation to a mountain ecological niche, and the
Anasazi were thought to represent a people more
suited to the plateau niche (Danson 1957; Martin
and Plog 1973). While changes in the Mogollon
Highlands were assumed to ultimately reflect influences of the unique ecological resources in this
region, factors other than "cultural" differences
influencing the ceramic technology of this region
were seldom discussed or examined.
More recently, some archaeologists have noted
shortcomings in the characterizations of distributions of material culture solely in terms of cultural
traditions (Tainter and Gillio 1980; Speth 1988;
Wilcox 1988; Tainter and Plog 1994). It has been
recently argued that distributions attributed to the
Mogollon or Anasazi cultures are better explained in
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
1
terms of responses to various conditions associated
with various periods and settings. Thus, material
similarities between groups in areas of the Mogollon
Highlands are seen only partly as a result of cultural
transition between generations of potters making up
a particular tradition. Similarities of pottery found
over wide areas of the Mogollon during various
periods may also reflect similarities in qualities of
available ceramic materials, food acquisition, storage, and preparation techniques, movement of goods
between separated groups, and common symbols
encouraging interaction and exchange. Likewise,
differences in the pottery noted in adjacent regions
may reflect the influences of these same factors.
In this view, pottery distributions are not solely
seen as temporal or cultural markers. Instead, the
range of pottery and other artifacts made and used
by a particular group are seen as means to achieve
various social and economic goals critical to groups
in a particular setting (Schiffer 1992).
Characteristics of pottery must also be evaluated in
terms of qualities that allowed for the successful
performance of various activities that may have
been crucial at a particular time or place. Thus,
changes in characteristics of artifacts may reflect
gradual modifications in ranges of manufacturing,
technological, and decorative choices relating to the
performance needs of pottery for a given set of
behaviors or activities (Schiffer and Skibo 1987;
Schiffer 1992; O'Brien et al. 1994).
Recent "selectionist" approaches have attempted to develop strategies allowing for the examination of the flow of information relating to the production of pottery vessels emphasized in previous
cultural historical approaches as well as the ultimate
causes of ceramic changes or distributions (Neff
1993). This involves the examination of processes of
transmission and selection in pottery-making practices (Neff 1992, 1993). Processes of transmission
relate to the flow of information on how to make and
decorate vessels through time and across space
between interacting groups of potters. Detecting
transmission involves identifying spatial and temporal distribution boundaries of ceramic traits. As previously indicated, traits reflecting these boundaries
are often reflected in type categories of previous
ceramic studies in the Mogollon and other areas of
the Southwest. Processes of selection relate to the
actual causes of adoption or persistence in some
conventions or traits and abandonment or rejection
of others. Examination of processes of selection
involves the determination of potential causes for
the persistence of or changes in ceramic traits noted
through time in terms of the resulting advantages or
2
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
failures of a particular technological or decorative
convention in a given context. Trends are attributed
to selective processes only if they can be demonstrated to represent an improvement over available
alternatives (Neff 1993). Thus, determination of
these processes involves determining how selected
traits were superior or preferable to other available
alternatives not selected (Neff 1993).
One strategy that may be used to examine selective influences on pottery is a comparison of ceramic trends noted in adjacent areas and examination of
local influences that may have resulted in the differences noted. This approach may be particularly useful in the northern Mogollon Highlands, where
archaeologists have long struggled to explain similarities and differences between these pottery assemblages and those found in surrounding regions or
culture areas. As indicated, differences in pottery
observed in sites from adjacent areas of the northern
Mogollon Highlands and the Colorado Plateau have
usually been explained in terms of historical factors
(processes of transmission) relating to the existence
of distinct Mogollon and Anasazi peoples who
employed pottery manufacturing and decorative
practices of their cultural traditions (Haury 1936b;
Martin and Rinaldo 1947; Martin et al. 1952; Martin
and Plog 1973).
Alternative interpretations may result from the
very careful examination of factors influencing the
constructions, firing, and decoration of pottery at a
particular time and location. Such interpretations
should take into account potential influences of
material resources available to potters, the uses of
ceramic vessels, and population and environmental
pressures represented at a particular time and place.
For example, a change in the manipulation of a vessel surface or vessel shape could ultimately reflect
changes in the cooking technology resulting from
increased boiling of corn and ultimately agricultural
intensification. Thus, it is important to employ analytical and reporting strategies that allow for the
comparable examination of a wide range of historical and selective processes that may have influenced
potters in the Mogollon Highlands.
ANALYTICAL APPROACH
Given the nature of the production, decoration,
exchange, and use of pottery vessels in the northern
Mogollon Highlands, a wide range of factors may
have influenced the combination of traits observed
in a particular ceramic assemblage. Thus, it is necessary to develop a consistent and systematic analy-
sis framework, providing for the comparison of various assemblages as well as the examination of a
variety of issues and patterns. Monitoring a wide
range of ceramic traits from various ceramic assemblages is made possible through the recording of
both descriptive attributes and ceramic type categories for all sherds examined. Various descriptive
attributes recorded for large samples of Luna Project
sherds include temper, interior and exterior pigments, interior and exterior surface manipulations,
form, modification, appendages, rim radius, and rim
arc. Other attributes were described in more detailed
studies conducted on selected subsamples of sherds.
All sherds were assigned to typological categories,
which were arrived at by a series of decisions. A
sherd was first placed into a spatially distinct tradition primarily based on temper, paste, and paint
characteristics. Next, ware categories were assigned
based on surface manipulation and form. Sherds
were then assigned to a specific ceramic type based
on temporally sensitive surface manipulations and
design styles. Recording of both of these classes of
categories provides data allowing for the examination of a wide range of phenomenon, including time
of occupation, cultural affiliation, and patterns of
production, construction, firing technology, function, and use. For example, examinations of the distributions and frequencies of ceramic attributes
related to vessel shape, size, wear, surface finish,
and paste, as well as the particular ware class recorded for a ceramic type category, may reflect potential
uses and functions of ceramics from a particular
context.
Discussions of the classification approach and
basis of recognition and description of ceramic
descriptive attributes and type categories recognized
during Luna Project analysis are presented in the
following chapter. In order to facilitate comparisons
between ceramic data from the Luna Project and
those presented in other studies, discussions of
equivalence and similarities in ceramic descriptive
attribute and type categories used during Luna
Project ceramic analysis and those described elsewhere are noted. These form the basis for a detailed
and systematic documentation of ceramic data from
the Luna Project and other recent projects in this
area and provide for the examination of various
trends and patterns discussed in subsequent chapters.
CERAMIC DATING
Because the examination of patterns of change rep-
resented at Luna Project sites requires a precise and
reliable chronology, initial interpretations of ceramic distributions focus on the dating of various sites
and contexts. Ceramic distributions from Luna
Project sites indicate evidence of a very long and
continuous occupation of this area by ceramic-producing groups from about A.D. 200 to 1300.
Chapter 3 presents information relating to dating of
Luna Project sites as indicated by pottery distributions. Assignment of ceramic dates involved a careful review of the somewhat confusing and sometimes contradictory dating discussion for sites in the
Mogollon Highlands and adjacent areas. A review of
this data resulted in the definition of slightly modified ceramic-based dating periods and phases, which
were employed during the present study. Based on
the periods and phases defined here, the dating of
various Luna Project contexts or sites are then presented in order of the earliest to the latest ceramic
phases recognized. Finally, ceramic-based dates are
compared to other dating evidence from various
sites and contexts. The assignment of dates based on
ceramic distributions forms the basis for the examination of trends in population and settlement in this
area of the Mogollon Highlands presented in other
volumes of the Luna Project as well as discussions
and interpretations of ceramic change presented in
subsequent chapters of this volume.
CERAMIC TRENDS
The last two chapters of this volume present frameworks allowing for the examination of various
changes and trends associated with various ceramic
traits. A subsequent chapter presents data relating to
the examination of the potential influence of the distinct clay resources occurring in the Luna Project
area as well as elsewhere in the northern Mogollon
Highlands. This study involved the collection and
characterization of the range of clay resources in this
area as well as pottery-replication experiments using
these clays. Examination and comparisons of clays
and locally produced Mogollon pottery indicate that
characteristics of Mogollon brown wares were
strongly influenced by working qualities and other
traits of the self-tempered volcanic clays found in
this region. The documentation of potential influences of local clay resources allowed for the distinctions of characteristics and trends in Mogollon pottery resulting from cultural interaction and isolation
from those reflecting the selective influences of
these clays on the local ceramic technology. In addition, this and other data are used to examine evi-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
3
dence of ceramic production at various sites. These
data are also used to determine whether Cibola
White Ware pottery could have been produced at
sites in the northern Mogollon Highlands or was
traded from other areas. Such information may provide further clues concerning the nature of ceramic
production and exchange in this region.
Another chapter examines ceramic data relating
to trends in ceramic technology, production,
exchange, and use through time. These examinations are based on the comparison of distributions of
various traits from assemblages assigned to various
4
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
temporal periods. This information is combined
with observations concerning the influence of environmental and population stresses on Luna Project
sites to examine the influences of various pressures
on ceramic technology, exchange, and use. Ceramic
changes reflecting responses to increasing environmental and population pressures through time
include increased exchange with groups in different
environments, increased use of specialized ceramics, and minor improvements in ceramic technology
and design.
CERAMIC TYPES AND ATTRIBUTES
C. Dean Wilson
This chapter discusses procedures and categories
employed during analysis of 170,092 sherds and 67
vessels recovered from Luna Project sites. Ceramic
attributes and types recorded during this analysis
were selected to examine a wide range of issues,
including ceramic dating, determination of cultural
affiliation, and patterns of vessel production,
exchange, and use.
ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
Ceramic analysis involved first separating sherds
into lots from each provenience at a site that exhibited a unique combination of traits. Next, information about each of these sherd lots was recorded as
distinct data lines. Each data line from a particular
provenience was assigned to consecutive lot numbers. Sherds assigned to each lot grouping were
placed into a separate bag along with a slip of paper
recording the site number, provenience, and lot
number. Information recorded during ceramic analysis include typological assignments, descriptive
attribute codings, number of sherds, and total
weight. These procedures allow for the matching of
sherds with data lines recorded during ceramic
analysis.
DESCRIPTIVE ATTRIBUTES
The recording of descriptive attributes provides for
a basic description of the distribution of various
traits represented in a particular ceramic assemblage. Descriptive attribute classes recorded during
the ceramic analysis included temper, interior pigment, exterior pigment, interior manipulation, exterior manipulation, interior slip, exterior slip, vessel
form, vessel appendage, modification, rim radius,
and rim arc. In addition, stylistic attributes were
sometimes recorded for white ware rim sherds
assigned to distinct types. A small subsample of
sherds was also subjected to refiring analysis, and
smaller samples were submitted for petrographic
analysis (Hill, this volume).
Temper
Temper refers to aplastic particles added to the clay
or particles naturally occurring in the clay that
would have served the same purpose as added temper. Temper analysis involved examining freshly
broken sherd surfaces through a binocular microscope. Such characterizations are limited, but broad
temper categories can be recognized based on combinations of color, shape, fracture, and sheen of tempering particles. Temper categories reflect material
sources that were used by prehistoric potters in the
Mogollon Highlands and southern Colorado
Plateau. Temper categories recognized during the
present analysis include the following.
Not recorded refers to samples for which temper type was not recorded. The use of this category
was limited to sites from which very large numbers
of sherds were recovered and information concerning temper distributions had become redundant.
Indeterminate refers to cases where temper was
examined but the type of material was unknown.
None refers to cases in which distinct aplastic inclusions were not present in the clay paste.
Mogollon self-tempered refers to the presence
of natural inclusions common in Mogollon Highland
clay sources. Visual examination and petrographic
analysis of clays from local sources and archaeological contexts in the Luna-Reserve area indicate that
the only suitable paste clays appear to be colluvial or
pedogenic sources ultimately derived from local
volcanic outcrops and volcanic-clastic sandstone
(Wilson 1994). Such clay sources usually contain
numerous natural igneous and sandstone inclusions,
and, in most cases, the addition of separate tempering material would have been unnecessary. Local
sources of easily crushed material are widely available for use as temper. However, this material is
derived from the same parent material as inclusions
found in local clay, so that in many cases it is not
possible to distinguish added volcanic temper from
natural clay inclusions. The inclusions commonly
occurring in brown wares produced in the Mogollon
Highlands tend to vary in size and are often more
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
5
numerous and smaller than crushed temper particles
added in pottery produced in other areas of the
Southwest. Volcanic inclusions found in the local
clay and other deposits consist of angular basalt,
rhyolite, and sand particles (Hill, this volume).
Three separate categories representing variations of
self-tempered igneous clays in the Luna Project area
were recognized.
Mogollon self-tempered igneous shiny lithic
dominated refers to cases where inclusions are dominated by numerous tiny, light to dark, shiny, angular lithic fragments. These fragments often occur
with lower frequencies of sand, sandstone, or tuff
particles. Mogollon self-tempered tuff dominated
refers to similar temper dominated by dull white to
buff-colored tuff fragments. It usually contains
shiny, angular and sand, and sandstone particles.
Mogollon predominantly sand with sand particles
refers to the presence of particles similar to those
previously described but dominated by small,
numerous sand and sandstone particles initially
derived from local volcanic clastic layers (Gila conglomerate sandstones) that often lie above volcanic
deposits but below clay and soil layers. Smaller
amounts of dull and lustrous, angular, igneous particles are also usually present.
Sherd temper refers to the use of crushed potsherds as tempering material. Sherd temper is identified as angular to subangular particles that are relatively small and usually white, buff, gray, or
orange. Small reflective lithic particles may occur
inside or outside the sherd fragments. Crushed sherd
temper commonly occurs in late white ware types
produced in areas of the Colorado Plateau to the
north.
Sand refers to rounded or subrounded, white to
translucent, well-sorted medium to coarse quartz
sand grains added to the clay. Sand grains were often
added to clays derived from shale formations utilized in the Anasazi region. Sand and sherd were
also sometimes noted together and recorded.
Sandstone includes temper derived from crushed
sandstone and consists of rounded sand grains and
matrix. While many of the sand grains occur separately, some are still joined by matrix. Sandstone
and sherd were also sometimes noted together.
Crushed igneous (andesite diorite) refers to
crushed igneous porphyries (such as andesite and
diorite) added to the clay paste. The majority of the
material is white to gray or pinkish, consisting of
feldspar and quartz fragments, along with smaller
rod-shaped black hornblende particles. Other variations of this temper include crushed igneous and
sherd, crushed igneous and sand, and crushed
6
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
igneous, sand, and sherd.
Crushed basalt is identified by the presence of
small angular particles similar in composition.
These particles are usually small and gray, black, or
dark gray. Other variations of this temper that were
noted include basalt and sherd, basalt and sand,
basalt, sand, and sherd, and basalt, sandstone,
sherds.
Pigment
Paint pigment categories were recorded for both
interior and exterior surfaces. Pigment categories
are differentiated by surface relief, sheen, delineation, and color (Shepard 1965). Most of the sherds
did not exhibit paint and were recorded as none.
Paint pigment categories recognized during the
present study include the following.
Indeterminate is assigned to sherds with missing surfaces and the presence or absence of paint
pigment that cannot be determined.
Mineral (black) refers to the use of ground minerals as pigments, usually iron oxides. These pigments were applied as powdered compounds, using
an organic binder. Mineral-based pigments were
almost exclusively employed in the decoration of
both Mimbres and southern Cibola White Ware
occurring in northern Mogollon sites, although the
characteristics of the pigment associated with these
traditions differs slightly. Mineral pigments display
a distinct and well-defined physical layer, resting on
the vessel surface. Mineral pigment is thick and
often exhibits visible surface relief. Mineral pigments were usually dull in appearance, cover, and
obscure surface polish and irregularities. The firing
atmosphere to which mineral pigments were
exposed affects color. Iron-based mineral pigments
fire to black to brown colors in a reduced or neutral
atmosphere, and are placed into a mineral black category. Mineral (red) refers to pigments exhibiting
characteristics of mineral pigment described above
that are orange to red, often indicating exposure to
an oxidizing atmosphere.
Organic paint refers to the use of vegetal pigments only. The organic paint is soaked into rather
than deposited on the vessel surface. The painted
surface is lustrous, depending on the degree of surface polishing. The edges of the painted designs are
often fuzzy and indistinct. Pottery decorated with
organic pigments is extremely rare in northern
Mogollon assemblages.
White clay refers to painted decoration applied
with a white clay slip as a paint and sometimes
occurs on White Mountain Redwares and Tularosa
White-on-red. Black mineral and white clay refer to
the use of mineral pigments and white clay paint.
Glaze pigments contain a fluxing agent such as
lead. Surfaces of glazed pigments are vitrified and
glassy in appearance, and may be orange, gray,
black or green. As most sites in the Luna area were
abandoned prior to the use of true glaze paints, this
pigment is very rare and is represented only at the
very latest components in this area.
Manipulation
Manipulation refers to surface treatments resulting
from the presence of unobliterated coils and type of
coiled construction, as well as evidence of subsequent polishing. Manipulation categories recorded
include plain unpolished, plain polished, scored,
incised, punctated or punched, applique, filleted
(neckbanded), coiled, clapboarded, plain corrugated,
overlapping (plain) corrugated, indented corrugated,
patterned corrugated, incised corrugated, thin plain
corrugated polished, indeterminate, polished on coil
surface, alternating corrugated, punched corrugated,
pinched, punched incised corrugated, single fillet,
and pinched corrugated.
Slip
Slips are defined here as intentional applications of
distinctive clay, pigment, or organic deposits over
the entire vessel surface. This is usually done to
achieve a black, white, or red surface color, not
obtainable using paste clays normally employed.
Slip categories recognized for northern Mogollon
ceramics include none, indeterminate, white slip,
red slip, smudged, and fugitive red.
jar, isolated single coil, and olla neck.
Vessel Appendages
Data relating to the presence of vessel appendages
provide information concerning intended vessel use.
This category refers to the presence and forms of
handles or appliques. Because a variety of
appendages can be associated with a wide range of
vessel forms, the two categories were recorded independently. Most sherds did not exhibit evidence of
appendages and were recorded as none. Vessel
appendage categories employed during Luna ceramic analysis include indeterminate, ladle handle
(solid), ladle handle (hollow), lug handle (solid), lug
handle hollow, strap handle, coil handle, indeterminate handle stub, pinch or nub, and coil only.
Postfiring Modifications
Evidence of the intentional modification of vessels
or sherds from repair or for subsequent uses were
also noted. Most sherds did not contain evidence of
modification and were recorded as none.
Modification categories recognized during analysis
include indeterminate, drill hole (indeterminate),
drill hole (repair), drill hole (suspension), incomplete drill hole, jar modified into bowl, pendant,
small regular form (abraded), small regular form
(chipped), ceramic scraper, modified edge (truncated), modified edge (outer beveled), modified edge
(inner beveled), modified edge (multiple beveled),
spindle whorl, drill hole, serrated edge, dipper wear,
rim chipping, gaming piece, punched hole indeterminate, serrated edge, small regular abraded form
and indented drill hole, spindle whorl with serrated
edge, and pigment on interior.
STYLISTIC ATTRIBUTES
Vessel Form
Vessel form categories were assigned to all sherds
and vessels based on observed shape. The resolution
of vessel form characterization assigned to sherds is
dependent on sherd size and portion of the vessel
represented. The consistent placement of all sherds
into similarly defined vessel form categories still
provides a basic comparison for sherd-based assemblages from various contexts. Vessel form categories
recognized during the present study include indeterminate body (polished both sides), bowl rim, bowl
body, jar body, wide mouth (cooking storage) jar, jar
neck, indeterminate, seed jar rim, handle only, pipe,
olla rim, ladle, effigy, canteen rim, beaker, miniature
Stylistic analysis was conducted on a subset of
painted sherds assigned to specific types. During
this analysis, attributes relating to rim treatments,
surface manipulation, and painted styles were
recorded.
Surface Treatment
Surface treatment attributes are similar to those
recorded during preliminary analysis but may
include more detailed descriptions. For example,
polished surfaces are divided into those which are
lightly, moderately, and heavily polished. Slipped
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
7
surfaces are divided into similar groups.
Motif Filling
Rim Thickness
This category refers to the type of filling in each
motif. Categories include indeterminate, hatched,
cross hatched, checkered, dotted, alternating
thick/thin parallel lines, and wavy hatchured.
This refers to vessel wall thickness as measured 1
cm below the rim, or at the lowest part of the vessel.
Measurements were taken there to be consistent.
Rim Shape
This category refers to the basic profile of the rim.
Rim forms recorded during analysis of white ware
sherds include not applicable, tapered, rounded,
flat, angled, lipped, and indeterminate.
Rim Decoration
This category refers to the presence or type of painted decoration found along the top of a rim sherd.
Rim decoration categories include not applicable,
undecorated, solidly painted, ticked with dots or
squares, and indeterminate.
Rim Design Orientation
This category refers the presence or absence of
framing lines and over-all orientation of the design
in regard to the rim. This category provides stylistic
information that may be of both temporal and spatial
significance. Rim orientation categories include not
applicable, indeterminate, indeterminate no framing
lines, indeterminate single thin framing line, indeterminate single thick framing line, indeterminate
single thin incorporated line, and single incorporated line not near rim.
Design Motif Type
This category refers to motif type noted on sherds.
Dominant motifs were usually recorded first. After
each motif was recorded, motif type, fillings, line
thickness, and distance between associated lines was
recorded. Prior to the recording of each motif, a
sequential number was assigned to identify that
motif.
Motif Type
Motif type refers to the basic shape or form of
design motifs. Motif classes included various forms
of lines, triangles, hatchure, checkerboard, ribbon,
scrolls, and dot motifs.
8
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Line Thickness (in mm)
The thickness of lines occurring independently and
in hatchure was recorded.
Line Spacing
This refers to the average distance between lines. It
also applies to the distance between hatchure lines.
CERAMIC TYPOLOGY
All sherds and complete vessels were also assigned
to ceramic types. Approaches and terminology used
to assign pottery from sites in the Mogollon
Highlands to various typological categories reflect
an almost century-long history of description and
classification of the pottery from prehistoric sites in
this region.
Previous Ceramic Type Studies
The earliest descriptions of the distinctive pottery
from sites in the Mogollon Highlands resulted from
surveys and excavations along the upper Gila and
Salt drainages by Hough (1907, 1914, 1919). While
Hough did not define any specific types, he divided
Upper Gila pottery into a "smoothly finished brown"
and a "hard white gray" ware group. These divisions
appear to correspond with brown ware and white
ware types as defined later.
Much of the early attention given to pottery
from areas now assigned to regions of the Mogollon,
resulted from descriptions and illustrations by
Fewkes (1914, 1915) of the remarkable decorated
pottery with life-forms from large pueblos in the
Mimbres area. Investigations by Bradfield (1931) at
Cameron Creek Village and Three Circle Ruin in the
Mimbres area resulted in the earliest systematic
descriptions of Mogollon pottery. Bradfield (1931)
described the pottery using a classification system
based on paste characteristics. While this system is
no longer used, Bradfield's descriptions still provide
useful information concerning characteristics of pottery from the Mimbres branch of the Mogollon.
Investigations by the Cosgroves at Swartz Ruin and
by Nesbitt at the Mattox Ruin resulted in further
descriptions of pottery from the Mimbres branch of
the Mogollon, including the recognition of Mimbres
White Ware, for which they defined two varieties:
Mimbres Boldface Black-on-white and Mimbres
Classic Black-on-white (Nesbitt 1931; Cosgrove
and Cosgrove 1932).
Early investigations of sites in the Mogollon
Highlands, sponsored by the Gila Pueblo
Foundation, were concerned with the recognition
and definition of a distinctive Mogollon culture area
(Gladwin and Gladwin 1934; Haury 1936b, 1985a).
Much of the case for the recognition of a distinct
culture area was, in fact, based on the distinct characteristics of pottery from sites in the Mogollon
Highlands (Gladwin and Gladwin 1934; Haury
1936a, 1985a; Hawley 1936). Investigations sponsored by the Gila Pueblo Foundation resulted in the
first descriptions of pottery types from the Mogollon
Highlands. Of particular significance were descriptions of pottery types recovered from Harris and
Mogollon villages (Haury 1936a, 1936b). Ceramics
from these investigations still provide the basis for
the definition and description of almost all
Mogollon Brown Ware, Mogollon Red Ware,
Mogollon decorated, and Mimbres White Ware dating prior to A.D. 1000 (Haury 1936a). Mogollon
types defined by Haury (1936a) included Alma
Plain, Alma punched, Three Circle neck corrugated,
Alma scored, Alma punched, Alma incised, San
Francisco Red, San Lorenzo Red-on-brown,
Mogollon Red-on-brown, and Three Circle Red-onwhite. He also further described the previously
defined Mimbres Boldface Black-on-white. Haury
also used the distribution of various types from
dated contexts to define a series of temporal phases
for the Mogollon area (Haury 1936a, 1936b), which
are still used with only slight modifications.
Haury's investigations were followed by a
series of studies in the northern Mogollon
Highlands. Investigations by Nesbitt (1938) at
Starkweather Canyon Ruin near the town of Reserve
contributed new information concerning the nature
and sequence of ceramic change in the northern
Mogollon Highlands. Nesbitt (1938) described both
earlier types noted by Haury (1936a) as well as other
types associated with the Pueblo period occupations
in the Mogollon Highlands. Additional types
described by Nesbitt (1938) included Reserve Plain,
Reserve Polychrome, Reserve Red, and Upper Gila
Polychrome. While some of Nesbitt's type names
were subsequently modified (Rinaldo and Bluhm
1956), the descriptions of most of these remain
valid.
The large number of archaeological investigations that took place in the Southwest by the 1930s
resulted in a number of Southwest ceramic syntheses, which included descriptions of pottery from various areas of the Mogollon Highlands (Gladwin and
Gladwin 1934; Hawley 1936; Colton and Hargrave
1937; Colton 1939). The unique characteristics of
pottery occurring at sites in the Mogollon Highlands
contributed to the definition of a distinct Mogollon
culture or branch. Paste and surface colors noted in
Mogollon ceramics were interpreted as indicating an
oxidation technology distinct from those employed
by groups associated with the Anasazi culture to the
north (Haury 1936a, 1985a; Colton 1939).
Questions stemming from these initial excavations and syntheses led to a long-term program of
investigations in the Pine Lawn Valley during the
1940s and 1950s by Paul Martin of the Chicago
Field Museum, and later in east-central Arizona.
These investigations resulted in the excavation of a
large number of sites spanning the entire occupation
of the northern Mogollon area (Martin 1943; Bluhm
1957; Martin and Rinaldo 1947, 1950a, 1950b;
Martin et al. 1949, 1952, 1954, 1956, 1957; Rinaldo
and Bluhm 1956; Bluhm 1957; Martin and Plog
1973). Analysis of pottery from these investigations
allowed for the characterizations of ceramic change
in the Pine Lawn Valley for a period spanning over
a millennium (from about A.D. 200 to 1350). Martin
(1943) described Alma Rough based on excavations
of the SU site. Later Mogollon types were defined
by Rinaldo and Bluhm (1956) and include Reserve
Plain corrugated, Reserve Plain corrugated smudged
interior variety, Reserve indented corrugated,
Reserve indented corrugated smudged interior variety, Reserve punched corrugated, Reserve incised
corrugated, Reserve incised corrugated smudged
interior variety, Tularosa patterned corrugated,
Tularosa patterned corrugated smudged interior
variety, Starkweather smudged decorated, Tularosa
White-on-red, and Tularosa Black-on-white.
Additional information concerning characteristics and distribution of ceramics over a wide area in
the northern Mogollon Highlands and adjacent areas
of the Colorado Plateau resulted from extensive surveys (Danson 1957) and excavations (Smith 1973;
McGimsey 1980) conducted as part of the Gila
Expedition Surveys by the Peabody Museum. These
investigations provided a regional comparison of
sites and ceramics from various drainages of the
Mogollon Highlands (Danson 1957; Washburn
1977). The classification system employed for
ceramics from the many sites excavated during this
project did not always use previously defined types,
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
9
so that it is sometimes difficult to compare ceramics
recovered from these investigations to those
described in other studies, although associated illustrations are useful (McGimsey 1980). A study of
whole vessels conducted by Washburn (1977)
resulted in the only detailed descriptions of design
styles in the general region. More recent excavations
of Sandstone Hill Pueblo were included in the Gila
Expedition Survey (Barnett 1974). The Sandstone
Hill Pueblo report includes a brief description of the
small number of ceramics from this area, as well as
illustrations of a large number of decorated vessels
from private collections from this area (Barnett
1974).
Much of the subsequent investigation of
Mogollon sites in west-central New Mexico has
resulted from "salvage" or CRM projects associated
with highway clearance conducted by the Museum
of New Mexico (Schroeder and Wendorf 1954;
Borhegyi 1956; Peckham et al. 1956; Wendorf 1956;
Peckham 1957, 1958, 1963; Hammack et al. 1966;
Allen 1969; Kayser 1972a, 1972b, 1972c, 1975,
1976; Berman 1979, 1989; Akins 1998b). These
investigations utilized previously defined ceramic
types, because no new types were defined during
these investigations, and few detailed descriptions
of the associated ceramics were presented. Together,
descriptions and discussions of pottery from various
investigations conducted in the northern Mogollon
Highlands and adjacent regions provide the foundation for the ceramic typology still employed.
While the Mogollon ceramic types and
sequences were being defined for the northern
Mogollon Highlands, other investigations were
defining similar pottery and sequences in other
regions of the Mogollon Highlands in southwest
New Mexico and southeast and eastern Arizona.
These investigations resulted in the definition of
similarly defined types associated with various
branches of the Mogollon.
The basic pottery typology mainly defined during investigations in the northern Mogollon region
has long been employed in the Mimbres area to the
south, where similar pottery was produced over long
spans of time (Haury 1936a, 1936b; Anyon and
LeBlanc 1980; LeBlanc 1982a; Woosley and
McIntyre 1996; Graybill 1975). Differences in the
pottery between areas of the southern and northern
Mogollon Highlands appear to be limited to later
occupations during which fairly distinct regional
types such as Mimbres corrugated and Mimbres
Classic were produced in areas of the Mimbres
branch (Woosley and McIntyre 1996). Distinctions
between pottery types of the Cibola branch and
10
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Mimbres branches of the Mogollon in western New
Mexico appear to be limited to later (post-A.D.
1000) occupations, where regionally specific types
such as Mimbres Classic were produced in the
Mimbres country (LeBlanc and Whalen 1980;
LeBlanc 1983; Lekson 1992a; Woosley and
McIntyre 1996).
Investigations also resulted in the recognition of
areal variants of the Mogollon in regions to the west
in Arizona. Excavations by Haury, sponsored by the
University of Arizona, resulted in the documentation of a long sequence of ceramic change in the
Forestdale Valley (Haury 1941, 1985b, 1985c;
Haury and Sayles 1947; Stafford 1980; Reid 1989).
Investigations by Sayles (1945) in the southwestern
Mogollon country resulted in the definition of similar ceramic sequences for the San Simon branch.
Excavations associated with the Point of Pines project in east-central Arizona by the University of
Arizona resulted in the definition of types associated with the Black River branch of the Mogollon
(Wheat 1954; Breternitz 1959).
Studies in these various regions resulted in a
synthesis by Wheat (1955) of the Mogollon area
which incorporated information from these regions.
While no attempt is made in the present study to
define other regional varieties of Mogollon types,
many of the types defined here are similar to those
noted in various regions or branches of the
Mogollon.
DESCRIPTION OF TYPES
The following type descriptions focus on Mogollon
brown wares produced in the Northern Mogollon
Highlands in west-central New Mexico as well as
intrusive types commonly exchanged into this area.
Intrusive types described here include some decorated white ware produced in the Mimbres branch of
the Mogollon as well as Cibola Gray Ware, Cibola
White Ware, and White Mountain Redware produced by Anasazi groups in the southern Colorado
Plateau.
While many recent studies have relied on the
same basic types defined in earlier type descriptions,
a recent modification employed in the classification
of utility ware includes the use of descriptive names
for basic surface manipulations rather than previously established geographic-based type names
(Fowler 1985; Mills 1987; Kayser and Carroll
1988). This was done in part to avoid the difficulties
involved in assigning small sherds to vessel-oriented categories. Examples of sherd-based descriptive
categories include plain brown and indented corrugated brown.
During analysis of Luna Project ceramics, a
combination of categories defined and utilized during various studies was employed. Typological categories were based on combinations of characteristics
previously demonstrated to be temporally, spatially,
or functionally sensitive. Pottery was assigned to
previously existing categories utilizing a system
involving the determination of ceramic tradition,
then ware, and finally type. The initial determination
of associated ceramic tradition involved the separation of ceramics into broad groups indicating postulated area of origin or "cultural" association. During
the analysis, pottery was first assigned to the
Mogollon or southern Anasazi ceramic tradition
based on pastes and surface characteristics. Next,
sherds were divided into ware groups based on surface manipulation and decoration. Finally, they were
assigned to types or groupings based on painted decorations or textured treatments known to be temporally sensitive. The basis for the various type categories recognized during the Luna Project are discussed below.
Ceramic Traditions
The distribution of ceramics assigned to various
Mogollon and Anasazi types has long played an
important role in the definition and differentiation of
Southwest culture areas (Gladwin and Gladwin
1934; Colton 1939; Wheat 1955; Danson 1957;
Martin and Plog 1973). As the majority of the
ceramics from the northern Mogollon Highlands
represent Mogollon brown wares, this area is
assumed to represent the northern extension of the
Mogollon culture area, although certain Anasazi
white wares are fairly common in later components
in the northern Mogollon Highlands. Mogollon pottery types are similar in construction and decoration
to Anasazi but differ in surface appearance (Haury
1936a; Colton 1939) and the presence of brown,
dark gray, or red surface and paste colors, as
opposed to the gray or white colors prevalent in
Anasazi types. These color differences are often
attributed to oxidation firing atmospheres for
Mogollon brown wares, in contrast to reduction or
neutral atmospheres for Anasazi gray and white
wares (Haury 1936a; Hall 1950). Other distinct
attributes noted for Mogollon brown wares include
the presence of very fine temper and the common
occurrence of polishing and interior smudging on
utility ware forms.
Differences in characteristics of Mogollon and
Anasazi pottery are often interpreted as reflecting
distinctive culture traditions or affiliation (Hall
1950; Danson 1957; Haury 1985a). For the northern
Mogollon Highlands and southern Colorado
Plateau, the dominance of Mogollon Brown Ware as
opposed to Anasazi types are used to define the distribution and boundaries of the Anasazi and
Mogollon culture areas (Mera 1934; Wendorf 1953;
Danson 1957). Recent survey, collection, and analysis of clay sources in west-central New Mexico, discussed in a following chapter, indicate that distributions of ceramics belonging to the Mogollon and
Anasazi traditions may actually be a reflection of
resources and associated technologies available to
and employed by prehistoric potters in the Mogollon
Highlands versus the Colorado Plateau (Wilson
1994).
Definition of Ceramic Types
Sherds and vessels were assigned to specific types
based on temporally sensitive surface manipulations, painted designs, or textured treatments.
Categories employed during recent analyses include
both formal and descriptive type categories. For
cases where both formal and descriptive types have
been used to describe a particular set of surface
characteristics, both type and descriptive names are
presented.
The use of both formal types and descriptive
categories during the ceramic analysis resulted in
the recognition of a very large number of categories
which, in certain cases, could be overwhelming and
cumbersome. Thus, for some previously described
types, categories were combined to form a small
number of groupings which provide very basic
descriptive and temporal information. The basic
groups defined include indeterminate, plain brown
ware, plain smudged brown ware, corrugated brown
ware, red slipped brown ware, Mogollon decorated
or Mimbres White Ware, Cibola White, and White
Mountain Redware. In some cases ceramic type
descriptions and trends common to these types are
presented by these groupings.
The great majority of the pottery occurring in
the northern Mogollon Highlands belong to ceramic
traditions associated with one of two Southwestern
cultures, the Mogollon and southern Anasazi.
Almost all the utility ware represents Mogollon
brown wares, and similar pastes persist in the great
majority of the brown utility ware produced through
the entire Mogollon occupation of this region.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
11
Mogollon decorated or Mimbres white wares represent the dominant decorated pottery until about A.D.
1000, after which Cibola Anasazi types such as
Reserve Black-on-white and Tularosa Black-onwhite are the dominant decorated types. The appearance of Anasazi White Ware in the northern
Mogollon Highlands has been generally explained
in terms of increased Anasazi intrusion or influence
after A.D. 1000, resulting in the joint production of
Mogollon Brown Ware and Anasazi White Ware by
local potters, although evidence discussed elsewhere
in this volume questions such interpretations.
The following section describes pottery
assigned to various ceramic traditions, wares, and
types identified during the analysis. Detailed
descriptions are presented for ceramic groups commonly occurring in sites in the northern Mogollon
country and include Mogollon Brown Ware, early
Mogollon (Mimbres) decorated and White Ware,
and Late Anasazi White Ware types. Brief descriptions are presented for ceramic groups that were
occasionally encountered but rare, including
Anasazi Gray Ware, early Anasazi White Ware, Late
Mimbres White Ware, and White Mountain
Redware.
Indeterminate Tradition Types
Indeterminate tradition types refer to pottery that
could not be assigned to a specific tradition. This
category was seldom used and was limited to rare
situations where sherds were tempered with material or inclusions or exhibited manipulations not
attributed to known traditions. Types assigned to
indeterminate traditions represent only .1 percent of
the pottery from Luna Project sites. Indeterminate
white ware refers to white ware sherds for which tradition and basic time of occupation could not be
determined. Indeterminate late white ware refers to
white ware exhibiting late characteristics for which
the tradition cannot be determined. Indeterminate
red ware refers to red slipped sherds belonging to an
unknown tradition.
Mogollon Brown Ware Types
The great majority (94.5 percent) of sherds from
Luna Project sites were assigned to Mogollon
Brown Ware types (Fig. 4.1). Mogollon Brown
Ware, as defined here, refer to unslipped pottery
constructed of self-tempered, volcanic-derived clays
with high iron content, common throughout the Mogollon Highlands.
12
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
The great majority of unslipped brown ware sherds
display no painted decoration, although a single type
(Mogollon Red-on-brown) contains red pigment
painted over an unslipped brown surface.
Brown ware pastes are somewhat soft, and
sherds often break along an even plane. Pastes of all
brown ware types consistently fired to yellow-red or
red when exposed to a controlled oxidization atmosphere. In addition, the majority of brown ware contained temper dominated by small angular particles
of volcanic rock and sand particles. Lower frequencies of brown ware contained similar inclusions but
were dominated by tuff or sand particles. Alluvial
clays occurring throughout this area fired to similar
colors, indicating the use of local self-tempered
clays.
Similar utility wares were produced by Salado
groups who reoccupied portions of the Mogollon
Highlands after the abandonment of this area by the
Mogollon groups (Nelson and LeBlanc 1986;
Lekson 1992c). Similarities in the utility ware pottery associated with these temporally separated traditions result from the use of similar clay resources
as well as manufacturing and firing conventions.
While the distribution of types from Mogollon and
Salado pottery assemblages differ, similarities in
brown utility ware result in the common occurrence
of self-tempered pottery with brown surfaces, often
exhibiting plain polished exteriors. In addition,
brown ware associated with both traditions may
exhibit red slipped surfaces and smudged interiors.
Such similarities may create problems in assigning
individual sherds to these traditions, particularly for
sites in the Mogollon Highlands reoccupied by
Salado groups. No evidence of a Salado occupation,
however, has been identified on the Luna Project, so
it is safe to assume that almost all the brown utility
ware sherds and vessels identified during the present
study represent Mogollon period types.
Mogollon Brown Ware was assigned to specific
types primarily based on differences in textured surface decorations. The following presentation of type
categories presents a compromise between studies
using various typing conventions in that both formal
types defined during earlier studies (Haury 1936a;
Rinaldo and Bluhm 1956) and more recent descriptive names (Fowler 1985; Kayser and Carroll 1988;
Mills 1987) are discussed.
Plain Brown Ware Types
Plain brown ware represent the most common category at Luna sites and represent 43.5 percent of the
Figure 4.1. Mogollon Brown Ware types: (a) Alma Plain jar, (b) Reserve indented corrugated jar, (c)
Reserve indented corrugated bowl, (d) Reserve smudged bowl, (e) Tularosa fillet rim bowl, (f) alternating
corrugated jar. (Examples not from the Luna project sites.)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
13
Table 4.1. Temper of Plain Brown Ware Types
Temper
Alma Plain
Rim
Alma Plain
Body
Alma Rough
Rim
Alma Rough
Body
N
N
N
N
%
%
%
N
%
Not examined
36
2.0
616
1.8
2
.3
28
.3
682
1.5
Not recorded
0
.0
10
.0
0
.0
0
.0
10
.0
None
0
.0
3
.0
0
.0
0
.0
3
.0
Mogollon lithic
and sand
1332
74.2
26681
79.0.
444
67.9
7751
72.0
36208
77.1
Mogollon tuff
174
9.7
2057
6.1
34
5.2
456
4.2
2721
5.8
Mogollon
sand
253
14.1
4393
13.0
174
26.6
2522
23.4
7342
15.6
Sand
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
.0
1
.0
Sand and
sherd
1
.1
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
.0
Crushed
igneous
0
.0
2
.0
0
.0
4
.0
6
.0
Sandstone
0
.0
2
.0
0
.0
0
.0
2
.0
1796
100.0
33746
100.0
654
100.0
10762
100.0
46976
100.0
Total
pottery identified. Types include Alma Plain rim and
body, and Alma Rough rim and body. Color is variable in all plain brown wares. Although the majority of sherds exhibit brown surfaces, a significant
number of sherds also exhibit yellow-red, light gray,
and dark gray colors. As is the case with other
Mogollon Brown Ware groups, the majority of plain
brown wares exhibit fine volcanic lithic and sand
temper (Table 4.1). While tempers for plain brown
wares are similar to those noted for other types, the
frequency of sherds dominated by large tuff inclusions are significantly higher at sites occupied during the Early Pithouse period, while that for sherds
dominated by sand inclusions is lower. The relative
size of temper particles found in plain brown ware is
larger at contexts dating to the Early Pithouse period. Surfaces are sometimes bumpy, and walls are
often uneven in thickness. The majority of the
sherds assigned to types of this category appear to
be derived from wide mouth cooking or storage jars,
although a smaller but significant frequency are
from bowls (Table 4.2). Other forms are represented
in extremely low frequencies, although sherds
derived from seed jars are fairly common and may
even dominate some components dating to the Early
Pithouse period.
14
%
Total
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Alma Plain Rim (Plain Polished Rim)
Alma Plain or Plain polished rim refers to completely smoothed plain rim sherds with at least one polished surface (Figs. 4.2-4.3). Alma Plain rim sherds
are assumed to have derived from vessels whose
entire surface was smoothed and polished. This category is only assigned to rim sherds, because similar body sherds could have also derived from vessel
forms exhibiting coiled or corrugation treatments
along the rim or neck.
This type occurs during all occupations,
although it is particularly common in the Early
Pithouse period. There is a significant change in vessel form in Alma Plain through time. The majority
of rim sherds from sites dating to Early Pithouse
phases are derived from seed jars, followed by
bowls and then cooking jars. The great majority of
Alma Plain rim sherds from later occupations are
derived from cooking/storage jars and bowls. Wall
thickness range from 4.0 to 7.0 mm and average 6.2
mm.
Alma Plain Body (Plain Polished Body)
Alma Plain body or plain polished body refers to
smoothed polished brown ware body sherds or ves-
Table 4.2. Vessel Forms of Plain Brown Ware Types
Vessel Form
Alma Plain
Rim
N
Indeterminate
body, polished
Bowl rim
Bowl body
Jar body
Cooking jar rim
%
Alma Plain
Body
Alma Rough
Rim
Alma Rough
Body
N
N
N
%
%
Total
%
N
%
3
.1
3939
7.0
0
.0
39
.2
3981
5.1
848
23.7
14
.0
399
38.1
4
.0
1265
1.6
0
.0
23.5
1
.1
36
.2
35
1.0
60.4
3
.3
13256
34091
13104
80.8
13293
47233
17.2
61.1
72.4
63
.1
565
53.9
11
.1
3227
4.2
12
.3
3750
6.6
2
.2
975
6.0
4739
6.1
Jar body
corrugated and
polish
0
.0
14
.0
0
.0
2
.0
16
.0
Indeterminate
22
.6
1312
2.3
18
1.7
1917
11.8
3269
4.2
Seed jar rim
46
1.3
0
.0
36
3.4
0
.0
82
.1
Handle only
2
.1
4
.0
0
.0
32
.2
38
.0
Pipe
0
.0
4
.0
0
.0
1
.0
5
.0
14
.4
1
.0
10
1.0
2
.0
27
.0
Ladle
0
.0
4
.0
0
.0
4
.0
8
.0
Effigy/fetish
0
.0
1
.0
0
.0
24
.1
25
.0
Canteen rim
0
.0
0
.0
2
.2
0
.0
2
.0
Jar miniature
3
.1
5
.0
11
1.0
51
.3
70
.1
Isolated single
coil
0
.0
1
.0
0
.0
14
.1
15
.0
Olla neck
0
.0
14
.0
0
.0
2
.0
16
.0
Plate rim
0
.0
0
.0
1
.1
0
.0
1
.0
Whole jar
1
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
.0
3574
100.0
56473
100.0
1048
100.0
16218
100.0
77313
100.0
Cooking jar neck
Olla rim
Total
2588
sels. Plain body sherds are placed into a category
separate from plain rim sherds known to have
derived from completely smoothed vessels, since
they could have been derived from Alma Plain rim
vessels as well as the lower portions of neckbanded
or corrugated vessels. Because both jar and bowl
sherds were sometimes polished on the interior and
exterior surfaces, it is often difficult to determine the
type of vessel from which a particular body sherd
may have derived. Sherds from the nonrim portion
of a neck can often be identified based on the distinct curve associated with this form. Body sherds
exhibiting equal polish on both surfaces were
assigned to indeterminate body-polished. Those
exhibiting greater polish on the interior surface were
often classified as bowls, while those with a higher
degree of polishing on the exterior surface were usually classified as jars. While jar body sherds represent the most common vessel category to which
Alma Plain body sherds were assigned, other vessel
categories are also present in significant frequencies. An examination of vessels from which Alma
Plain body sherds were recovered, however, indicates it is often very difficult to determine the vessel
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
15
16
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.2. Alma Plain and Alma Rough ceramics from LA 39969.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
17
Figure 4.2. Continued. Alma Plain and Alma Rough ceramics from LA 39988.
Figure 4.3. Alma Plain and Alma Rough ceramics; (a-b) LA 70185, (c) LA 39975).
form from which a body sherd derived. Therefore,
discussions of distributions of vessel forms for plain
brown ware sherds are primarily limited to rim
sherds. A high frequency of the Alma Plain body
sherds were polished on the exterior surface, while
the frequency of sherds exhibiting polishing on the
interior surface was much lower.
Alma Plain body sherds are common at sites
dating to all phases of the Mogollon. While it is
often assumed there was a decline in the frequency
of this type from early to late phases (Haury 1936a),
examinations from Luna Project assemblages indicate they are commonly associated with all phases,
although the range of types with which Alma Plain
sherds are associated does increase significantly
during the late Tularosa phase.
Alma Rough Rim (Plain Unpolished Rim)
Alma Rough rim or Alma Plain unpolished rim
refers to unpolished plain rim sherds (Figs. 4.2-4.3).
Sherds assigned to Alma Rough rim vessels are
assumed to have derived from vessels with
smoothed and unpolished surfaces. A careful examination of sherds indicates that some classified as
Alma Rough actually derived from Alma Plain vessels from which the polish had worn off, partly from
the soft surfaces of Alma Plain. This may be a par-
18
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
ticularly common occurrence in surface assemblages where sherds have been subjected to various
weathering processes.
Most of the Alma Rough rim sherds from Luna
Project sites are from cooking/storage jars. Other
forms include bowls, seed jars, and ollas. Seed jars
represent the dominant vessel form for this type at
sites dating to the Early Pithouse period, and cooking/storage jars are the dominant form during later
occupations. By definition, sherds assigned to this
type were not polished on the interior or exterior
surface. Wall thickness in a small sample of Alma
Rough sherds ranged from 4.6 to 7.5 mm and averaged 5.67 mm.
While Alma Rough body sherds occur at sites
dating to all phases of the Mogollon, the frequency
of this type decreased during the Late Pithouse period and increased during the Pueblo period. This may
reflect basic changes in vessel use and construction
through time. Plain brown wares produced during
this time are softer, more crumbly, and not as well
smudged or polished.
Alma Rough Body (Plain Unpolished Body)
Alma Rough body or plain unpolished body refers to
unpolished brown ware body sherds. Body sherds
are placed into a distinct category because they
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
19
7
0
0
0
Seed jar rim
Olla rim
Canteen rim
Jar miniature
279
3
Indeterminate
Cooking jar neck
0
148
Cooking jar rim
Corrugated
exterior bowl
45
61
Jar body
11
Bowl body
N
4
Total
.0
100.0
.0
15.9
3.1
81.0
%
10 0.0
.0
.0
.0
2.5
1.1
.0
5 3.0
2 1.9
1 6.1
3.9
1.4
%
Alma Scored
258
Bowl rim
Vessel Form
Total
0
41
Mogollon sand
Sand and
sherd
8
209
Mogollon lithic
and sand
Mogollon tuff
0
N
Alma Scored
Not examined
Temper
0
.0
100.0
.0
15.3
1.4
83.3
%
4
114
0
0
0
0
5
0
44
22
25
14
N
10 0.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.4
.0
3 8.6
1 9.3
2 1.9
1 2.3
3.5
%
Alma Incised
72
0
11
1
60
N
Alma Incised
0
.0
100.0
.0
18.8
.0
81.3
%
1
159
0
20
15
123
N
.6
100.0
.0
12.6
9.4
77.4
%
Fillet Alma
Neckbanded
0
739
1
131
12
595
N
.0
100.0
.1
17.7
1.6
80.5
%
Th ree Circle
Neckbanded
0
20
0
1
1
18
N
.0
100.0
.0
5.0
5.0
90.0
%
Pinched
N
4
0
0
0
4
0
1
7
3
7
42
1
0
2
0
2
0
19
N
10 0.0
2.4
.0
4.8
.0
4.8
.0
4 5.2
2.4
1 6.7
7.1
1 6.7
%
Alma
Punched
3
3
2
171
0
0
2
0
0
0
126
35
N
10 0.0
.0
.0
1.2
.0
.0
.0
7 3.7
2 0.9
1.8
1.8
1.2
%
Fillet Alma
Neckbanded
2
743
0
1
0
0
0
2
513
198
16
11
N
.3
100.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.3
69.0
26.6
2.2
1.5
%
Three Circle
Neckbanded
33
2
0
0
2
1
0
4
0
8
5
11
N
100.0
6.1
.0
.0
6.1
3.0
.0
12.1
.0
24.2
15.2
33.3
%
Pinched
8
0
0
0
1
0
0
5
0
1
0
1
.0
.0
.0
100.0
10 0.0
.0
.0
.0
1 2.5
.0
.0
6 2.5
.0
1 2.5
.0
1 2.5
%
Pu nched
Incised
N
.0
100.0
%
Punched
Incised
Table 4.4. Vessel Forms of Early Textured Brown Ware Types
16
0
3
0
13
N
Alma
Punched
Table 4.3. Temper of Early Textured Brown Ware Types
15
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
10
1
1
N
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
%
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
6.7
13.3
66.7
6.7
6.7
%
Alma
Applique
2
0
0
0
2
0
N
Alma
Applique
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4
0
1
2
N
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
%
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
12.5
50.0
.0
12.5
25.0
%
Single Fillet
Rim
1
0
0
0
1
0
N
Single Fillet
Rim
1
1413
3
1
4
10
11
2
861
323
115
49
33
N
Total
1271
1
207
37
1025
N
8.1
3.5
2.4
%
100.0
.1
16.3
2.9
80.6
.1
%
100.0
.2
.1
.3
.7
.8
.1
60.9
22.9
Total
could have been derived from Alma Plain rim vessels as well as the lower portions of neckbanded or
corrugated vessels. Almost all Alma Rough body
sherds were assigned to jar body, although it is likely that some of these were derived from bowls. By
definition, sherds assigned to this type were not polished on the interior or exterior surface. While Alma
Rough body sherds occurs at sites dating to all phases of the Mogollon, the frequency of this type
decreases during the Late Pithouse period and
increased during the Pueblo period.
EARLY TEXTURED BROWN WARE TYPES
Early textured brown wares exhibit surface manipulations produced before the production of corrugated types, although such forms were produced in low
frequencies after the introduction of corrugated
brown wares. Surface textures associated with these
types are usually present only on the upper portion
of a vessel, so that sherds derived from the lower
portions of the same vessel are usually assigned to
plain brown ware types. Only .8 percent of all sherds
represent textured types, although this includes a
wide and varied range of types. Early textured types
identified during the present study include Alma
scored, Alma incised, Alma punched, Three Circle
punched, Alma pinched, Alma punched incised,
Alma applique, and Alma single fillet rim. Surface
colors and paste characteristics are similar to those
described for plain brown wares. Distribution of
temper types is also similar to those noted in plain
brown wares (Table 4.3). The majority of the sherds
assigned to this category appear to be derived from
wide mouth cooking or storage jars, although a
smaller but significant frequency are from bowls
(Table 4.4). Other forms are represented in extremely low frequencies.
Alma Scored (Plain Scored)
Alma scored or Alma Plain scored sherds are differentiated from Alma Plain by the presence of shallow
grooves or striations (Figs. 4.4-4.5). Scored treatments consist of a series of distinctive straight or
slightly curving striations which are almost always
oriented vertically on the vessel (Haury 1936a).
Striated treatments are usually very close to each
others and may be .1 to 2.0 mm across. These striations are parallel in orientation, although they occasionally intersect at angles. The orientation of these
striations probably resulted from the wiping of the
wet vessel with a corn cob, plant brush, or other tool.
20
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
While all sherds exhibiting scored treatments were
assigned to this type, the great majority of Alma
scored sherds represent rim or neck sherds, indicating that scored treatments were usually executed
near the rim or neck of a vessel. Scored treatments
usually occur in bands beginning at the rim and
measure between 20 and 60 cm in thickness. While
striated portions of a vessel are unpolished, the
smoothed area below is often polished. Interior portions of vessels, not exhibiting surface striations, are
almost always polished. While utility ware with
scored treatments occur throughout the Southwest,
the surface treatments noted for Alma scored appear
to be different from those noted in any other
Southwest types. Thus, Alma scored represents one
of the very few examples of a decorative convention
that appeared to have been almost exclusively limited to the Mogollon region.
Most of the Alma scored sherds in the present
study appear to be derived from cooking/storage
jars, although examples of bowl rim, bowl body, jar
body, seed jar, and indeterminate forms were noted.
Scored treatments were present on the exterior surface only. The majority of sherds were polished on
the interior surface. Wall thickness in a small sample
of Alma scored sherds ranged from 4.8 to 7.6 mm
and averaged 5.67 mm.
Alma scored first appeared during the later part
of the Early Pithouse period. This type is found in
similar frequencies at sites of the Early Pithouse and
Late Pithouse periods. Alma scored almost always
disappears by the beginning of the Reserve phase.
Alma Incised (Plain Incised)
Alma incised or Alma Plain incised is similar to
Alma Plain but has incised patterns (Fig. 4.6).
Incised lines are deeper and wider than noted in
Alma scored and reflect patterns made with a fine or
sharp tool or fingernails. The most common pattern
includes straight, rectilinear, curving, and zigzag
lines. These include single lines as well as a series of
parallel, intersecting, and crossing lines. These lines
are usually sparsely executed and limited to specific
areas of a vessels such as the rim. Another style of
incised designs consists of rows of fingernail-shaped
incisions along the rim.
The majority of Alma incised sherds appear to
be derived from cooking/storage jar vessels,
although bowl and indeterminate forms were also
noted. For all sherds, the incised treatment occurred
on the exterior surface, which was often polished. A
slight majority of these sherds were also polished on
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
21
Figure 4.4. Alma scored; (a) LA 70196, (b) LA 45507, (c-d) LA 70196.
Figure 4.5. Alma scored; (upper) LA 39975, (lower) LA 70196.
22
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.6. Alma incised from LA 70185.
the interior surface.
Alma incised is always extremely rare but may
be present in components dating to all phases. It is
probably most common in the San Francisco phase.
Alma Punched (Plain Punched)
Sherds assigned to Alma punched or Alma Plain
punched are identical to polished plain, except the
surface is covered with punched indentations, often
circular. These indentations appear to have been created using an implement or stick as a punch. This
category is equivalent to previous definitions of
Alma punched (Haury 1936a; Nesbitt 1938). A few
sherds exhibiting both incised and punched decorations were classified as Alma punched incised.
Only seven Alma punched sherds were recovered during the Luna Project. Punched decorations
were limited to exterior surfaces, although a small
number of the interior surfaces were polished. Alma
punched is most common at sites dating to the Late
Pithouse and Pueblo periods, where it is present in
trace frequencies.
Other plain brown ware types exhibited simple
decorations applied in relief. These were classified
as Alma pinched or Alma applique, given the nature
of the application of these designs.
Alma Neckbanded (Wide Neckbanded)
Alma neckbanded sherds are recognized by the
presence of two to six rows of unobliterated coils or
fillets on the neck (Fig. 4.7). Coils are relatively
wide compared to other coiled or corrugated types,
range from 4 to 200 mm, and average about 10 mm
(Haury 1936a; Kayser and Carroll 1988). Rows of
coils lie directly above each other, and there is little
overlap or relief between coils. Junctures between
coils are sometimes distinct, although in some cases
they may be only partially obliterated and difficult to
define. Execution of coils is often sloppy, and thickness of a given coil may vary considerably. Portions
of vessels exhibiting coiled and smoothed treatments are often polished.
Manipulations indicative of Alma neckbanded
are limited to the upper portions of vessels. Almost
all sherds assigned to this type appear to have
derived from cooking/storage jar vessels. Wall
thickness measurements for a small sample of
sherds ranged from 4.6 to 7.5 mm and averaged 5.7
mm.
Alma neckbanded represents the first attempt
by potters in the Mogollon Highlands to leave
unobliterated coils on the surface. Coiled decorations on this type are similar to the first textured
types in other areas of the upland Southwest such as
the Colorado Plateau. For example, characteristics
of the coil treatments on Alma Plain are similar to
those noted on early Anasazi textured types such as
Kana'a Gray, Moccasin Gray, or Rosa Gray (Windes
1977; Blinman and Wilson 1993). Alma neckbanded appeared toward the end of the Early Pithouse
period, or Georgetown phase, and is most common
at sites dating to the San Francisco phase. It is present in lower frequencies during the Three Circle
phase. Sherds of this type also occur in trace frequencies in the Pueblo period, although these may
sometimes be mistaken for varieties of wide-coiled
corrugated types, particularly forms of Mimbres
corrugated produced in the Mimbres region to the
south. A very few sherds exhibited a single application of similar wide coils and were classified as single fillet rim.
Three Circle Neck Coiled (Neck Corrugated )
Three Circle neck corrugated or neck coiled is similar to, but distinguished from, Alma punched by the
thickness and shape of unobliterated neck coils
(Haury 1936a; Fig. 4.8). The term neck coiled is
more appropriate because it is best considered a later
neckbanded or neck coiled rather than a corrugated
type. Pottery with corrugated treatments limited to
the neck area were still assigned to corrugated types.
Three Circle neck coiled vessels exhibit from 5 to 15
rows of unobliterated coils along the neck, which
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
23
Figure 4.7. Alma neckbanded from LA 45507.
24
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.7. Continued. Alma neckbanded from LA 45507.
may cover the upper third of some vessels. Junctures
between all rows of coils are distinct. Coils are usually unpolished, although occasional polished examples were noted. Coils from a sample of Three Circle
neck coiled sherds range from about 4 to 12 mm in
thickness and average 7.7 mm. Coils tend to be thin
and flat, sometimes overlapping each other, or
rounded. Texture treatments of this type include
rounded coils (30.3 percent), clapboard coils (69.1
percent), and thin overlapping coils (.3 percent). The
majority of the interior surfaces were polished,
while a minority of sherds assigned to this type were
polished over the coils on the exterior surface.
Three Circle neck coiled displays characteristics that are intermediate between those noted in
Alma neckbanded and plain corrugated types and
represents part of a progression of development of
textured wares occurring throughout the upland
Southwest. Coil treatments are similar to those
described for later Anasazi neckbanded types such
as Mancos Gray. Three Circle neck coiled is usually
distinguished from corru-gated types in that coils
tend to be limited to the neck area, are usually thicker. There is less likely to be a difference in thickness
between the top and lower coils.
Coil manipulations used to define Three Circle
neck coiled are limited to the upper portions of vessels. The great majority of sherds appear to be
derived from cooking/storage jars. Wall thickness
measurements recorded for a small sample of sherds
ranged from 4.6 to 7.5 mm and averaged 5.7 mm.
Three Circle neck corrugated appeared during
the San Francisco phase and is most common at sites
dating to the subsequent Three Circle phase. Trace
frequencies of sherds occur at sites dating to this
type and probably represent variation found in plain
corrugated types.
PLAIN SMUDGED BROWN WARE TYPES
Plain smudged brown wares exhibit pastes and temper similar to those of plain brown wares, but with
interior smudging (Table 4.5). The common occurrence of smudged interiors represents one of the
major traits distinguishing much of the pottery produced by prehistoric groups in the Mogollon
Highlands and other regions of the upland
Southwest. Plain smudged brown wares include
sherds exhibiting a plain surface on the exterior surface and a distinct deposit of soot on the interior surface. Exterior surfaces on most smudged Mogollon
brown wares are usually red, brown, or gray brown
and indicate that most of the vessel was exposed to
low oxidation or neutral firing conditions. Smudged
surfaces reflect the intentional deposition of soot or
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
25
Figure 4.8. Three Circle neck coiled; (upper) LA 39968 and LA 39969, (lower) LA 39968.
26
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Table 4.5. Temper of Plain Smudged Brown Ware Types
Temper
Reserve
Smudged Bo dy
N
Smudged
Fillet Rim
%
N
Plain Smud ged
Rim
%
N
Smudged
Painted
Early Smudged
%
N
%
N
Total
%
N
%
Not
examined
29
.3
6
2.1
6
.4
0
.0
0
.0
41
.3
Mogollon
lithic and
sand
7287
65.6
31
10.6
994
67.7
8
1 00.0
9
69.2
8329
64.6
Mogollon
tuff
1909
17.2
214
73.3
188
12.8
0
.0
2
15.4
2313
17.9
Mogollon
sand
1882
16.9
41
14.0
281
19.1
0
.0
1
7.7
2205
17.1
Sand and
sherd
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
7.7
1
.0
Sandston e
1
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
.0
11108
100.0
292
100.0
1469
100.0
8
1 00.0
13
100.0
12890
100.0
Total
Table 4 .6 . Vessel Forms of Plain Smudged Bro wn Ware Types
Vessel Form
Reserve
Smudged Body
N
%
Smudged Fillet
Rim
N
%
Plain Smudged
Rim
N
%
Early
Smudged
N
Smudge d
Painted
%
N
Total
%
%
%
N
Ind eterminate
body polished
65
.2
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
65
.2
Bowl rim
52
.2
27
3.1
3045
97.9
1
11.1
25
30.5
3150
8.4
3 2002
96.1
84 4
95.9
3
.1
8
88.9
55
67.1
32912
88.0
647
1.9
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
647
1.7
Cookin g jar
rim
4
.0
1
.1
45
1.4
0
.0
0
.0
50
.1
Cookin g jar
neck
104
.3
4
.5
7
.2
0
.0
1
1.2
116
.3
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
1.2
1
.0
428
1.3
4
.5
2
.1
0
.0
0
.0
434
1.2
Seed jar rim
0
.0
0
.0
7
.2
0
.0
0
.0
7
.0
Olla rim
0
.0
0
.0
2
.1
0
.0
0
.0
2
.0
Effigy/fetish
2
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
2
.0
Jar miniature
1
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
.0
3 3305
1 00.0
88 0
100.0
3111
100.0
9
100.0
82
100.0
37387
100.0
Bowl body
Jar body
Corrugated
exterior bowl
Ind eterminate
Total
carbon material over a well-polished surface during
the last stages of firing. Experimental firings indicate that this effect was probably achieved by placing large amounts of organic material, such as bark,
inside an upside-down vessel. While this does not
affect the exterior surface, it results in localized
smudging of the interior during the last stages of fir-
ing. This technique usually resulted in the smudging
of the entire vessel's interior surface only. On rare
occasions, vessels fired using this technique may
exhibit unsmudged areas along the interior near the
rim or smudged bands near the rim on the exterior
surface. Interestingly, smudged Mogollon brown
wares from the Luna Project exhibit a similar varia-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
27
Figure 4.9. Reserve smudged from LA 70196, interior and exterior.
tion in the location of smudged surfaces as noted in
these experimental firings, further indicating the use
of this technique to achieve smudged interiors.
During the analysis, pottery exhibiting both
smudged interior and corrugated exterior surfaces
were assigned to smudged varieties of corrugated
types. Plain smudged browns comprise 21.0 percent
of all sherds. Plain smudged browns include
Reserve smudged body, Reserve plain smudged rim,
Tularosa filleted rim smudged, early smudged, and
painted smudged. The exterior surfaces of smudged
vessels exhibit the same range of colors noted for
other brown wares. The majority of plain smudged
sherds contain similar frequencies of types of inclusions described for other nonsmudged plain wares,
although the size of particles in smudged types tend
to be smaller. This may be a reflection of the suitability of finer nonplastics in highly polished surfaces. The great majority of the sherds belonging to
this category appear to be derived from bowls,
although jar forms are represented in extremely low
frequencies (Table 4.6).
Reserve Smudged Body (Plain Smudged Body)
Reserve smudged or plain smudged body is similar
to Alma Plain except for the presence of heavily
28
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
smudged interiors (Nesbitt 1938). Interior surfaces
are highly polished with a thick smudged layer.
Occasionally, sherds may be smudged on both the
interior and exterior surface, but when exterior
smudging is present, it is almost always limited to
areas near the rim. The reduction and sooting of the
interior surface is often very deep, and black color
often penetrates halfway into the vessel wall. This
often results in a streaky profile in which the exterior half of the vessel wall exhibits a brownish to reddish color, while the interior part exhibits a black to
dark gray color.
The majority of the exterior surfaces also exhibit polished treatments. Polishing ranges from light
sporadic polishing to very highly polished surfaces.
These exterior surfaces include those that are evenly smoothed and heavily polished surfaces as well as
less smoothed dimpled surfaces. The great majority
of the Reserve smudged sherds represent bowl body
sherds.
While it is sometimes implied that smudged
brown wares did not appear until the Late Pithouse
period, a low frequency of the sherds from Early
Pithouse period assemblages exhibit interior polishing and smudging that may have been intentional.
These sherds are slightly different in appearance
from Reserve smudged, and were sometimes classi-
fied as early smudged. Sherds and vessels consistently exhibiting characteristics described for
Reserve smudged sherds appear in significant frequencies during the Late Pithouse and Pueblo periods. Reserve smudged appears to represent a common type in assemblages dating to these periods.
Plain smudged and include tapered and rounded
rims similar to those in other Mogollon brown
wares, as well as rims exhibiting various degrees of
flared treatments. Wall thickness measurements for
a small sample of filleted rim smudged sherds range
from 4.8 to 7.5 mm and average about 6.2 mm.
Reserve Smudged Rim (Plain Smudged Rim)
Starkweather Smudged (Smudged Decorated)
Reserve smudged rim or Reserve Plain smudged rim
refers to plain rims with polished interiors (Figs.
4.9-4.10). Wall thickness measurements for a small
sample ranged from 4.8 to 7.5 mm, averaging 6.2
mm.
The majority of sherds assigned to this category represent bowl rim sherds, although cooking/storage jars are also represented. Bowl rim sherds exhibit a wide range of profiles and shapes. While depth
and shape of bowls vary considerably, bowls are
often unusually deep and steep compared to shapes
noted for other Mogollon types. Rim profiles were
also extremely variable and included tapered and
rounded rims similar to those noted in other
Mogollon brown wares, as well as rims exhibiting
various degrees of flaring. These include slight
flares and distinct eversion in the rim profile.
Examples exhibiting flared rims are most common
during later (Tularosa phase) occupations.
Starkweather smudged or smudged decorated refers
to pottery with painted decorations under an
unslipped brown ware surface covered by a
smudged surface (Fig. 4.12). Sherds assigned to this
category are identical to those previously classified
as Starkweather smudged (Nesbitt 1938; Rinaldo
and Bluhm 1956). Other than the presence of painted decorations, characteristics described are the
same as for sherds classified as Reserve Plain
smudged. The few sherds recovered during the Luna
Project are derived from bowls. Vessel walls range
from 4.5 to 8.0 mm and average 6.3 mm. The painted surface was polished, painted, and finally intentionally covered with a soot deposit during firing.
Decorations are identified as duller black lines covered by the polished black smudged surface. Painted
designs are often difficult to recognize, and it is likely that some of the sherds assigned to plain smudged
types may contain decorations not readily visible
through the smudged treatments. Painted areas are
usually black or dark gray, although in rare cases
they may be dark red or white.
Designs usually consist of fine to parallel,
straight, zigzag, chevron, or spiraled lines. Lines
ranges from about 1 to 5 mm in thickness. Other elements noted on Starkweather smudged sherds
include triangles, squares or diamonds, dots, scrolls,
and anthromorphs. Orientations of designs are very
simple and crudely executed. Starkweather Blackon-white occurs in Reserve and Tularosa phase contexts and represents one of the few painted types
produced in the northern Mogollon during the
Pueblo period. Design elements are very distinct
from Reserve Black-on-white and Tularosa Blackon-white, the dominant painted types found at
Pueblo period sites in this area, as well from
Mimbres Black-on-white produced in the Mimbres
region. Types and orientation of these designs indicate that Starkweather smudged was not a copy of
contemporaneous painted types from either the
Mimbres Mogollon or southern Cibola Anasazi
regions, but probably derived out of Three Circle
Red-on-white or Mangus Black-on-white, occurring
in Late Pithouse period assemblages in this area.
Tularosa Filleted Rim Smudged
Tularosa filleted rim smudged is similar to plain
smudged rim but exhibits thin bands of textured
manipulations near the exterior rims of bowls (Fig.
4.11). Rim sherds are distinguished from Reserve
smudged by the presence of a fillet, and bands of
textured decoration are often located below these fillets. These decorations may include one to five rows
of textured decorations in rows of corrugated, fingernail incised, and punctate decorations. Three
rows of textured decorations are most common.
Width of rows range from 1.5 to 9.0 mm. For the
sample of sherds examined, the width of these bands
ranges from 6.4 to 14.3 mm and averages 10.2 mm.
The rows of coils or other treatments are often not
polished, whereas the smoothed exterior of both the
rim fillet and lower body are always well polished.
The combination of this exterior effect and the very
polished black sooted interiors creates a particularly
effective aesthetic effect. This type appears to be
limited to later (Tularosa phase) occupations.
Vessel forms appear to be limited to bowls. Rim
profiles are similar to those described for Reserve
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
29
Figure 4.10. Reserve smudged; (a, c) LA 39969, (b) LA 39968.
30
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.11. Tularosa fillet rim smudged from LA 3279.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
31
Figure 4.11. Continued. Tularosa fillet rim smudged, LA 3279.
Figure 4.12. Starkweather smudged.
32
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
33
Total
232
0
69
Mogollo n sand
Sandstone
22
Mogollo n tuff
141
0
None
Mogollo n lithic and sand
0
Indeterminate
N
0
Temper
%
.3
.0
.1
.0
.0
100.0
.0
29.7
9.5
60.8
%
.0
100.0
.0
20.4
17.1
62.1
Alternating
Corrugated
3428
Not examin ed
Total
0
699
Mogo llon sand
Sandstone
585
2129
Mogo llon tuff
Mogo llon lithic and sand
10
0
Indetermin ate
Non e
5
N
Not examined
Temper
Reserve Plain
Corrugated
0
0
1
0
0
0
1981
0
235
63
1683
N
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
100.0
.0
11.9
3.2
85.0
%
.0
100.0
.0
28.3
25.3
46.2
%
Overlap
Corrug ated
40 3
0
11 4
10 2
18 6
N
Reserve Plain
Corrugated
Smudged
.0
.0
.9
0
1
0
214
0
36
4
173
N
.0
.5
100.0
.0
16.8
1.9
80.8
%
.0
10 0.0
.0
1 6.9
4 7.7
3 4.4
%
Overlap
Corrugated
Smudged
2744
0
465
1310
945
0
0
24
N
Reserve
Corru gated
Indented
1 00.0
.0
20.6
48.2
30.0
.0
.0
1.1
%
1
0
1
964
1
180
68
713
N
.1
.0
.1
100.0
.1
18.7
7.1
74.0
%
Indeterminate
Corrugated
436
0
90
210
131
0
0
5
N
Reserve
Corrug ated
Indented
Smudged
162
0
16
84
48
0
0
14
N
N
63
0
9
5
48
0
0
1
0
7
2
5
0
0
0
N
100.0
.0
14.3
7.9
76.2
.0
.0
1.6
.0
.0
.0
0
0
2
166 2
0
24 3
90
132 7
N
N
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
100.0
%
.0
.0
.1
11
1
54
12 413
1
2 179
2 548
7 619
N
100.0
.0
14.6
5.4
79.8
%
Incised
Corrugated
Punctated
Incised and
Corrugated
100.0
.0
50.0
14.3
35.7
%
Tu larosa
Corrugated
Patterned
Smudged
14
%
Punctated
Corrugated
100.0
.0
9.9
51.9
29.6
.0
.0
8.6
%
Tularosa
Corru gated
Patterned
Table 4.7. Temper of Corrugated Brown Ware Types
0
0
1
Total
1 09
0
16
2
90
N
.0
.0
.9
.1
.0
.4
100.0
.0
17.6
20.5
61.4
%
100.0
.0
14.7
1.8
82.6
%
Incised
Corrugated
Smudged
34
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
100.0
0
0
3 29
7
Plate rim
Whole jar
Total
.0
2
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
3.2
Indetermina
te bowl/jar
corrugated
exterior
1 05
Indetermina
te
.4
1
12
Corrugated
exterior
bowl
1.7
Jar
miniature
57
Jar body,
corrugated
and polish
55.1
0
1 81
7
Cooking jar
neck
7.6
Effigy/fetish
2 50
Cooking jar
rim
25.4
0
8 38
Jar body
.8
.0
5.7
%
Olla rim
1 88
Bowl body
1
26
N
Bowl rim
Indetermina
te body
polished
Vessel
Form
Reserve Plain
Corrugated
0
4 45
0
0
0
1
0
0
13
19
18
73
10
17
2 46
48
N
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
2.9
4.3
4.0
16.4
2.2
3.8
55.3
10.8
%
Reserve Plain
Corrugated
Smudg ed
3
2308
1
0
6
3
1
2
82
15
49
855
322
778
154
37
N
.1
100.0
.0
.0
.3
.1
.0
.1
3.6
.6
2.1
37.0
14.0
33.7
6.7
1.6
%
Reserve
Corrugated
Indented
1
522
0
1
8
0
0
0
19
35
15
42
5
19
263
144
N
.2
100.0
.0
.2
1.5
.0
.0
.0
3.6
6.7
2.9
8.0
1.0
3.6
50.4
21.8
%
Reserve
Corrugated
Indented
Smudged
8
1
0
254
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
4
108
29
101
N
.4
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.8
.4
1.6
42.5
11.4
39.8
3.1
%
Tu larosa
Corrugated
Patterned
0
46
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
3
1
3
0
4
19
14
N
.0
100.0
.0
.0
4.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
6.5
2.2
6.5
.0
8.7
41.3
30.4
%
Tularosa
Corrugated
Patterned
Smudged
1
1
1 362
0
0
2
0
0
0
13
1
9
1 131
66
113
25
N
.1
.1
10 0.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
1.0
.1
.7
8 3.0
4.8
8.3
1.8
%
Incised
Corru gated
Table 4.8. Vessel Forms of Corrugated Brown Ware Types
3
0
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
2
62
3
4
22
N
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.0
.0
2.0
62.0
3.0
4.0
22.0
3.0
%
Incised
Corrugated
Smudg ed
0
418
0
0
0
0
0
0
10
3
10
207
14
108
46
19
N
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.4
.7
2.4
49.5
3.3
25.8
11.0
4.5
%
Alternating
Corrugated
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
35
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
Indeterminate
Olla rim
Effigy/fetish
Jar miniature
Indeterminate bowl/jar
corrugated exterior
Plate rim
Whole jar
1258
1
Corrugated exterior bowl
Total
15
Jar body corrugated and
polished
958
154
Jar body
Cooking jar neck
66
Bowl body
49
8
Bowl rim
Cooking jar rim
0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.6
.1
1.2
76.2
3.9
12.2
5.2
.6
.0
158
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
2
50
2
2
88
11
0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.9
1.3
31.6
1.3
1.3
55.7
7.0
.0
%
N
N
%
Overlap
Corrugated
Smudged
Overlap
Corrugated
Indeterminate body
polished
Vessel
Form
9
1028
0
0
2
0
0
1
96
2
7
458
124
225
81
23
N
100.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.1
9.3
.2
.7
44.6
12.1
21.9
7.9
2.2
.9
%
Indeterminate
Corrugated
Table 4.8. (continued)
7
0
0
121
0
0
2
0
0
0
5
2
3
79
3
20
N
.0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
1.7
.0
.0
.0
4.1
1.7
2.5
65.3
2.5
16.5
5.8
%
Punctuated
Corrugated
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
1
1
1
1
0
N
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
33.3
16.7
16.7
16.7
16.7
%
Punctuated
Incised
Corrugated
15
11323
2
1
24
5
1
3
356
97
192
5845
878
2384
1214
306
N
Total
100.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
3.1
.9
1.7
51.6
7.8
21.1
10.7
2.7
.1
%
While such examples were not noted during the
present study, such a technology could account for
the occurrence of Mogollon Red-on-brown sherds at
later contexts in other areas to the south (Lekson
1990). As Starkweather decorations occur on
smudged interiors, this type appears to be limited to
bowl forms.
CORRUGATED BROWN WARE TYPES
Corrugated brown wares are usually distinguished
from earlier neckbanded types in that the unobliterated coils or corrugations tend to be thinner and are
often present over the entire vessel. Observations of
corrugated pottery from the Luna Project support
those from studies that emphasize the complexity
and wide variety noted in surface texture treatment
in Mogollon Brown Ware corrugated types (Stone
1986). In order to document the variability in corrugated vessels, a number of corrugated types were
differentiated based on coil shape, thickness, degree
of overlap, presence and type of indentation or
tooled treatment, and the presence of interior
smudging. The wide range of corrugated treatments
noted in Mogollon Brown Ware resulted in the
recognition of a number of distinct corrugated
brown wares. Many of the types presented here were
first described by Rinaldo and Bluhm (1956), whose
descriptions were based on examinations of ceramics from a number of different sites near Reserve
dating to the Reserve and Tularosa phases, based on
excavations by Paul Martin. Some of the variation
noted in corrugated treatments were used to define
additional types not defined by Rinaldo and Bluhm
(1956). A total of 7.0 percent of the sherds from
Luna Project sites were assigned to corrugated
brown wares. Corrugated brown wares in Luna
ceramic analysis include indeterminate corrugated,
Reserve Plain corrugated, Reserve Plain corrugated
smudged, plain overlapping corrugated, plain corrugated, Reserve indented corrugated, Reserve indented corrugated smudged, Reserve incised corrugated,
Reserve punched corrugated, Reserve punctated
corrugated smudged, Tularosa patterned corrugated,
Tularosa patterned corrugated smudged, alternating
corrugated, alternating corrugated smudged, and
incised punched corrugated.
Paste, paste characteristics, and surface color
are similar to those noted for other brown wares
(Table 4.7). Most of the paste cross sections from
unsmudged corrugated sherds were brown throughout the wall, although sherds with gray and reddish
profiles or gray cores were also fairly common.
36
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Corrugated sherds exhibiting smudged interiors
revealed darker profiles toward the interior side.
Tempering inclusions are similar in other brown
ware types except particles tend to be smaller for
corrugated types exhibiting smudged or highly polished interiors.
The majority of corrugated sherds appear to be
derived from cooking/storage jars, although significant frequencies are from bowls (Table 4.8). Other
forms are represented in extremely low frequencies.
Bowl forms are usually represented by corrugated
sherds with smudged interiors. Corrugated jars are
often very everted near the rim. Some sherds were
polished on the exterior surface. About half of these
sherds were also polished on the interior surface.
The thickness of vessel walls near the rim ranges
from 5.0 to 7.5 mm and averages 6.4 mm.
Indeterminate Corrugated
Indeterminate corrugated refers to corrugated sherds
for which the type of coiled treatment could not be
determined, usually as a result of small sherd size.
Therefore, attributes of this type cannot be
described.
Reserve Plain Corrugated (Very Fine Plain
Corrugated)
Reserve Plain corrugated or very fine plain corrugated is characterized by very thin coils not exhibiting spaced indentations on vessel exteriors (Figs.
4.13-4.16). Junctures between coils are usually very
distinct and display considerable relief relative to
thickness. Coils usually, but not always, overlap
each other, producing a clapboard effect. Coils are
usually unpolished, although rare polished examples
were noted. Polishing is usually limited to nonoverlapping coils. Sherds assigned to this category are
very similar to those classified as Three Circle neck
corrugated and overlapping corrugated, and there is
definite overlap between sherds assigned to these
three types. Sherds classified as Reserve Plain corrugated are often distinguished from these two categories by thinner coils. Reserve Plain corrugated is
also distinguished from Three Circle neck corrugated by the common occurrence of unobliterated coils
along the lower portions of vessels and the presence
of a wider and distinct top fillet. The width of coils
of Reserve Plain corrugated ranges from 1.5 to 6.0
mm and averages 3.4 mm.
Reserve Plain corrugated is present in assemblages dating to both the Reserve and Tularosa phas-
Figure 4.13. Reserve Plain corrugated, LA 45507.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
37
Figure 4.14. Reserve Plain corrugated, LA 70185.
38
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.15. Reserve Plain corrugated; (a-b) LA 45510, (c) LA 39969, (d) LA 70139, (e) LA 3563.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
39
Figure 4.16. Reserve plain corrugated, LA 3279.
es and appears to represent the dominant corrugated
type at contexts dating throughout the Reserve phase
as well as during the early part of the Tularosa
phase.
Reserve Plain Corrugated Smudged (Very Fine
Plain Corrugated Smudged)
Reserve Plain corrugated smudged or very fine plain
corrugated smudged refers to vessels with polished
smudged interiors and treatments on vessel exteriors
identical to those described for plain (very fine) corrugated. Smudged forms represent 7.8 percent of all
very fine plain corrugated sherds.
Plain Overlapping Corrugated
The utilization of the plain overlapping category
represented an attempt to divide sherds previously
assigned to Reserve Plain corrugated into distinct,
potentially temporal, sensitive groupings. Plain
overlapping corrugated was defined in an attempt to
distinguish sherds exhibiting coil treatments intermediate in characteristics between those described
for plain (very fine) corrugated and neck coiled.
Sherds appear to be similar to those previously
assigned to Reserve Plain corrugated (Rinaldo and
40
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Bluhm 1956). Ideally, this category was developed
to discern the wider (more than 5 mm) clapboard
effect observed in plain corrugated sherds. A reexamination of sherds indicates that this effort was
largely unsuccessful, because there is considerable
overlap in characteristics assigned to the very fine
plain corrugated and plain overlapping corrugated.
While differences in distributions of sherds assigned
to Reserve Plain corrugated versus plain overlapping corrugated may provide some potentially useful information, it is recommended that in future
studies these categories be lumped together.
Plain Overlapping Corrugated Smudged
This category refers to sherds exhibiting manipulation identical to those described for plain (overlapping) corrugated with the addition of an intentionally smudged interior. Smudged forms represent 10.4
percent of all sherds exhibiting exterior treatments
described for plain overlapping corrugated.
Reserve Indented Corrugated (Indented
Corrugated)
Reserve indented corrugated or indented corrugated
is similar to Reserve Plain corrugated except all the
Figure 4.17. Reserve indented corrugated, LA 39968.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
41
42
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.18. Reserve indented corrugated; (a-c) LA 3279, (d) LA 39969.
c
a
b
d
Figure 4.19. Reserve indented corrugated, LA 70135.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
43
Figure 4.20. Reserve indented corrugated, LA 3279.
coils exhibit a series of evenly spaced indentations
(Figs. 4.17-4.20). Of all the corrugated types defined
for Mogollon brown wares, those for Reserve
indented corrugated most closely resemble textures
noted in the corrugated gray ware at Anasazi sites
dating to the Pueblo II and Pueblo III periods.
Despite these similarities, individual corrugated
treatments on Reserve corrugated tend to be smaller
in size and shape and more precise in execution as
compared to contemporaneous Anasazi indented
corrugated types. Individual corrugated treatments
may be square, rectangular, or triangular in shape.
Coils are usually unpolished, although rare polished
examples were noted. Polishing is usually limited to
surfaces exhibiting more or less pronounced corrugations. Indentations on sherds assigned to this type
tend to be distinct, and corrugated treatments are
fairly pronounced. Indented areas are sometimes
spaced in a manner to create vertical or angular patterns down the vessel. The length of individual corrugated treatments ranges from 2.5 to 15 mm across
and averages 8.0 mm. The width of coils ranges
from 1.9 to 12 mm and averages 4.7 mm. Almost all
indented corrugated sherds contain an unobliterated
top fillet, and these mostly range from 6 to 30 mm in
thickness and average 17.7 mm. The indented corrugated treatments usually cover the entire vessel,
although in some cases only the neck or the neck and
upper portions of the body are corrugated. The
44
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
thickness of vessel walls near the rim ranges from
4.5 to 10 mm and averages 7.1 percent mm.
Reserve corrugated appears to have been produced during the Reserve and Tularosa phases. The
date given for this type is A.D. 1050 to 1250,
although I suspect it spans from about A.D. 1000 to
1300. The relative abundance of Reserve corrugated
sherds appears to be the highest at later Pueblo period occupations, particularly those dating to the late
Tularosa phase.
Reserve Indented Corrugated Smudged
(Indented Corrugated Smudged)
Reserve indented corrugated smudged or indented
corrugated smudged are characterized by exterior
treatments described for indented corrugated, with
the addition of smudging on a highly polished interior, and is contemporaneous with this type.
Smudged forms represent 9.6 percent of all sherds
exhibiting exterior treatments described for Reserve
indented corrugated.
Reserve Incised Corrugated (Tooled
Corrugated)
The great majority of ceramics classified as incised
corrugated or tooled corrugated exhibit exterior
Figure 4.21. Reserve incised indented, LA 70185.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
45
46
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.22. Reserve incised corrugated, LA 39968.
Figure 4.23. Reserve incised indented; (upper) LA 45510, (lower) LA 39968.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
47
treatments similar to those described for Reserve
Plain indented corrugated, but with the addition of
incised decorations (Figs. 4.21-4.23). A few sherds
exhibiting manipulations similar to those for
Reserve indented corrugated with incised decorations were also classified as Reserve incised corrugated. Incised lines are usually thin and somewhat
shallow but easily identified. Incised lines range
from 2 to 4 mm in width. Wear patterns associated
with these lines indicate that most of these were
made with a solid thin tool such as a stick, although
the presence of thin parallel striations indicate a few
were created using a softer fibrous brushlike tool.
The effect created by incising corrugated surfaces
somewhat resembles the effect noted in indented
corrugated, although actual indentations created by
incised lines are thinner and more linear, and spacing between compressed or incised areas is wider.
Patterns created by indented lines are fairly consistent and include a series of parallel lines going vertically or angling down from the rim. Spacing
between parallel lines measures from 4 to 30 mm
apart and averages 9.6 mm. The orientation of these
lines is often parallel or angular to the unobliterated
coils, creating a series of hatchured patterns framed
by these lines. In rare cases, incised lines were
embellished with a series of evenly spaced short
lines or ticks. Within the overall vessel, parallel lines
may intersect, creating larger patterns of nested triangles, cross-hatching, stepped elements, zigzags,
and rectilinear patterns. There is remarkable consistency in designs represented in incised corrugated
pottery found in the Mogollon Highlands because
Reserve incised corrugated appears to represent a
fairly unique and uniform type. In some cases,
indented and punched decorations occur together to
create a single effect. Incised decorations commonly dominate, and in such cases ceramic items are
classified as Reserve incised corrugated. Other characteristics, including width of coils and fillet width,
are identical to those noted in plain corrugated not
exhibiting incised treatment.
While incised corrugated forms also occur in
Anasazi types, they are much rarer, and the common
occurrence of this decoration in the upland
Southwest may be unique to northern Mogollon
brown utility ware. The use of incised decorations in
Mogollon brown utility wares began during the
Early Pithouse period with the production of Alma
incised and continued with incised corrugated
forms, as indicated by similarities in the incised decorations associated with these different types. The
earliest form of Reserve incised may have included
incised forms of Three Circle neck corrugated or
48
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
neckbanded. This results in a beginning date as early
as the Three Circle phase for the type. Reserve
incised corrugated became more common during the
Reserve phase as true corrugated forms of this type
were produced during both the Reserve and Tularosa
phases.
Reserve Incised Corrugated Smudged (Incised
Corrugated Smudged)
This category is similar to incised corrugated except
the interior is highly polished and smudged.
Smudged forms represent 4.2 percent of all sherds
exhibiting exterior treatments described for Reserve
incised corrugated sherds.
Reserve Punched Corrugated (Punctate
Corrugated)
Reserve punched corrugated or punctate corrugated
refers to sherds exhibiing a combinatin of corrugated and punctate treatments. Most of such decorations were probably created by using a stick with a
small circular or elongated point, rounded and
pressed into an unobliterated coil. Punctations are
usually small (less than 4 mm across). Numerous
punched decoration were placed to create a series of
parallel lines, nested lines triangles, diamonds, and
rectilinear patterns. Shapes and effects created by
these numerous punctations are similar to those
noted in Reserve incised corrugated. This type is
thought to have been produced during the Reserve
and Tularosa phases, sometime between A.D. 1050
and 1300.
Tularosa Patterned Corrugated
Tularosa patterned corrugated refers to the presence
of indented coils on plain corrugated vessels spaced
to produce geometric patterns within the vessel
(Figs. 4.24-4.26). Pottery assigned to this type differs from those classified as alternating corrugated
in that variation between indented and plain treatments is within rather than between coils. A series of
regular spaced indentations appear along intervals of
thin plain coils to form distinct geometric patterns.
These include diamonds, triangles, connecting triangles, stepped triangles, and square, rectilinear, or
chevron-shaped patterns (Kayser and Carroll 1988).
Coils are often very thin, and patterns are usually
precisely executed. This is among the finest made
utility ware produced anywhere in the prehistoric
Southwest, and was probably made between A.D.
Figure 4.24. Tularosa patterned corrugated and alternating corrugated, LA 70185.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
49
Figure 4.25. Tularosa patterned corrugated and alternating corrugated, LA 3279.
50
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
a
b
c
Figure 4.26. Tularosa patterned corrugated and alternating corrugated; (a) LA 45510, (b) LA 39965, (c)
LA 39968.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
51
1050 and 1350.
Tularosa Patterned Corrugated Smudged
(Smudged Patterned Corrugated)
Sherds placed into this category are distinguished
from patterned corrugated by highly polished and
smudged interior surfaces. Smudged forms represent 7.5 percent of all sherds exhibiting exterior
treatments described for Tularosa patterned corrugated smudged.
Alternating Corrugated
Sherds assigned to an alternating corrugated category are, in part, included in previous definitions of
Tularosa patterned corrugated (Rinaldo and Bluhm
1956). Alternating corrugated refers to the presence
of rows of alternating bands exhibiting decorations
described for plain and patterned corrugated. Within
a vessel, coils of both plain and indented coils create
the effect of several alternating bands usually ranging between 8 to more than 50 mm wide. Coils associated with this treatment exhibit ranges of thicknesses, although these coils tend to be fine and well
executed.
MOGOLLON SLIPPED RED TYPES
Mogollon red wares exhibit pastes and tempers similar to those described for brown ware types (Table
4.9) with the addition of a red slip. Basic forms associated with slipped red types are similar to those in
unslipped brown wares, and there appears to be little functional basis for the division of these two
ware groups (Fig. 4.27). A total of 2.3 percent of the
pottery from the Luna sites was assigned to
Mogollon red wares. Types include San Francisco
Red, other red slipped, corrugated red slipped,
smudged interior red, and Tularosa White-on-red.
Mogollon red wares recovered during the Luna
Project exhibit similar refired paste color and temper
distributions, indicating that they were probably
locally produced. High proportions of sherds representing types of this category are derived from both
necked jar and bowl forms (Table 4.10). Other forms
are represented in very low frequencies.
San Francisco Red (Red Slipped Brown)
San Francisco Red is similar to Alma Plain but
exhibits a deep-red slip applied over a brown ware
paste clay. Surfaces are well polished and sometimes
52
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
exhibit a lustrous sheen (Haury 1936a). The red slip
tends to be thin, and temper fragments are sometimes visible through the slip. Slips adhere very well
to the surface, although the weathering of the soft
surfaces may result in obliteration of evidence of the
slipped surface. Such examples may be misclassified as Alma Rough. In earlier examples, polishing
streaks on slipped surfaces run parallel to the rim
and may extend from the rim to the center, forming
a radiating pattern. The great majority of the San
Francisco Red sherds were polished on the interior
surface and exterior surfaces.
A small portion of brown ware sherds from all
temporal components displayed red slips, so that
San Francisco Red has a very long temporal span,
similar to that of Alma Plain. It is the only other type
occurring along with plain brown ware during the
Early Pithouse period, when it is most common. San
Francisco Red sherds from Early Pithouse period
occupations appear to be similar to those noted for
contemporaneous Alma Plain and Alma Rough
sherds, although bowl forms are more common.
Very low frequencies of San Francisco Red occur
during all other Mogollon phases as well, although
total frequencies decline during the San Francisco
phase. Forms associated with San Francisco Red
sherds from later occupations parallel those associated with contemporaneous Alma Plain.
Red Slipped with Corrugated Exterior
This category refers to later red ware forms with
interiors exhibiting a distinctive red slip over a corrugated exterior. Such forms are always very rare
but appear to be most common during the Tularosa
phase.
Smudged Red Ware
This category refers to sherds with red slipped exteriors and smudged interiors. While included here
with red ware types, this essentially represents a red
slipped version of Reserve smudged. Such forms
appear to be most common during the Tularosa
phase.
Tularosa White-on-red (Red Slipped White
Clay Paint)
Along with Starkweather smudged decorated,
Tularosa White-on-red may represent the only painted type produced in the northern Mogollon
Highlands. It is similar to Tularosa smudged fillet
Figure 4.27. Various painted bowls; (a, c) Three Circle Red-on-white, (b) Mimbres Boldface Black-onwhite, (d) Mimbres Black-on-white, (e) side and top view of St. Johns Polychrome bowl.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
53
Table 4.9. Temper of Mogollon Slipped Red Ware Types
Temper
Tularosa
White-on-re d
N
%
San
Francisco
Red
N
Other
Corrugated Red
Slipped
%
N
%
Corrugated Red
Slip ped
N
%
Red Ware
Smudge d
N
Total
%
N
%
Not examined
0
.0
4
.5
0
.0
0
.0
1
2.9
5
.4
Mogollon lithic
and san d
2
2.1
396
57.3
366
80.4
3
23.1
12
34.3
779
58.3
92
94.8
86
11.7
31
6.8
1
7.7
13
37.1
223
16.7
Mogollon sand
3
3.1
250
33.9
58
12.7
9
69.2
8
22.9
328
24.5
Sand
0
.0
1
.1
0
.0
0
.0
1
2.9
2
.1
Total
97
100.0
734
100.0
455
100.0
13
100.0
34
100.0
1333
100.0
Mogollon tuff
Table 4.10. Vessel Forms of Mogollon Red Slipped Types
Vessel Form
Tularosa
White-on-red
N
Ind eterminate
body, polished
%
San Francisco
Red
N
%
Other Red
Slipp ed
N
%
N
Red Ware
Smudged
%
N
Total
%
N
%
0
.0
9
.3
34
7.0
0
.0
0
.0
43
1.0
32
9.0
99
3.7
27
5.5
3
1.7
5
1.2
166
4.0
319
88.8
619
23.3
128
26.2
18
10.4
420
98.1
1501
36.6
Jar body
3
.8
1726
65.0
217
44.4
69
39.9
1
.2
2016
49.1
Cookin g jar
rim
0
.0
20
.8
5
1.0
27
15.6
0
.0
52
1.3
Cookin g jar
neck
1
.3
158
5.9
71
14.5
55
31.8
0
.0
285
6.9
Ind eterminate
4
1.1
18
.7
4
.8
0
.0
2
.5
28
.7
Seed jar rim
0
.0
5
.2
3
.6
0
.0
0
.0
8
.2
Olla rim
0
.0
2
.1
0
.0
1
.6
0
.0
3
.1
356
100.0
2656
100.0
489
1 00.0
173
100.0
428
100.0
4102
100.0
Bowl rim
Bowl body
Total
except for the presence of designs executed in clay
paint over a slipped exterior (Fig. 4.28). Exterior
surfaces are covered by a slip which ranges from
orange to red. Rows of textured decoration are often
located on the exterior just below the rim. These
decorations may include one to five rows of textured
decorations in rows of corrugated, fingernail
incised, or punctated decorations. Painted designs
include chevrons, rectilinear, zigzagged, and spiraled lines. Forms are limited to bowls.
54
Corrugated
Red Slipped
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
MOGOLLON DECORATED AND MIMBRES WHITE
WARE TYPES
Mogollon decorated types identified during the
Luna Project include one unslipped painted type
(Mogollon Red-on-brown) and slipped Mimbres
white wares. Mimbres White Ware refers to the
white slipped and painted pottery apparently produced in the Mogollon region. Mogollon painted
and Mimbres White Ware exhibit similar pastes and
temper as unslipped brown wares (Table 4.11).
Figure 4.28. Tularosa White-on-red.
Figure 4.29. Mogollon Red-on-brown, LA 70201.
Painted decorations are executed in iron-based mineral pigments applied over a white, slipped surface
and usually polished over. Surfaces are usually
moderately to lightly polished but not as lustrous as
contemporaneous white wares from other regions.
The slip tends to be soft and easily weathered,
resulting in the common obliteration of painted or
slipped surfaces. Painted decorations are executed in
a mineral pigment and are usually polished, resulting in a lustrous appearance, as opposed to the duller
appearance noted in Cibola white wares. Painted
decorations are often distinct from contemporary
painted types produced in other regions of the
Southwest. A long-lived tradition reflecting the
gradual development of Mimbres White Ware from
Three Circle Red-on-white to Mimbres Black-onwhite is indicated. A total of .4 percent of the sherds
were assigned to Mogollon decorated or Mimbres
White Ware. Mogollon painted or Mimbres White
Ware were distinguished by the presence of a slip,
paint color, and stylistic attributes. Types distinguished during the analysis include Mogollon Redon-brown, Mimbres slipped unpainted, Mimbres
slipped red paint, Three Circle Red-on-white,
Mangus Black-on-white, Mimbres transitional
black-on-white, Mimbres indeterminate, and
Mimbres Black-on-white. Tables 4.12-4.20 show
the distribution of attributes related to vessel surface, rim thickness, rim shape, rim decoration, and
painted designs for various Mogollon painted and
Mimbres white wares examined during the stylistic
analysis. The majority of sherds from this category
represent bowls, although jars are present in low frequencies (Table 4.12).
Mogollon Red-on-brown
Mogollon Red-on-brown represents one of the earliest painted type found in the Mogollon region
(Haury 1936a; Colton and Hargrave 1937). During
the present study, no pottery clearly representing the
earliest painted sherds, such as San Lorenzo Red-onbrown or Dos Cabezas Red-on-brown (Haury
1936a; Sayles 1945), were found, so the very few
red-on-brown sherds identified from Luna sites were
classified as Mogollon Red-on-brown (Fig. 4.29).
Vessel surfaces are well smoothed and highly polished. Mogollon Red-on-brown is distinguished
from earlier and contemporaneous Mogollon brown
wares by the additional presence of a red design executed in either high-iron slip or hematite pigments.
It is likely that this type evolved out of San
Francisco Red, in which similar red slips or pigments were applied over the entire vessel surface. In
addition to the red designs, vessels surfaces may be
unslipped or slipped with a soft, light brown to light
red clay.
The red pigment applied as a decoration is often
polished, creating a blurred effect. Rims are often
solidly painted. Painted motifs usually consisted of
relatively broad straight lines and single or connected triangles arranged together in simple patterns,
producing a sawtooth design. Designs were often
organized into four wedge-shaped sections. Each
quarter was often organized around a single or group
of solid triangles suspended by a single line and surrounded by a series of parallel curvilinear or
chevron lines. These designs are simple and repetitive compared to later painted decorations. Such
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
55
56
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
6
2
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
Mogollon
tuff
Mogollon
sand
Sand
Sand and
sherd
Crushed
igneous
Sandstone
Basalt,
sand, and
sherd
Leucocratic
igneous
Total
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
11.1
22.2
66.7
111
0
0
0
0
1
0
8
33
69
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.9
.0
7.2
29.7
62.2
%
N
N
%
Slip
Unpainted
Mogollon
Red-on-brown
Mogollon
lithic and
sand
Temper
38
0
0
0
0
1
0
3
14
20
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.6
.0
7.9
36.8
52.6
%
Slip Painted
Red
36
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
18
17
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.8
50.0
47.2
%
Slip Pigment
Black
89
0
0
1
0
0
1
9
11
67
N
100
.0
.0
1.1
.0
.0
1.1
10.1
12.4
75.3
%
Three Circles
Red-on-white
305
0
0
0
0
1
0
30
94
180
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.3
.0
9.8
30.8
59.0
%
Mangus
Black-on-white
73
1
0
0
1
1
0
8
19
43
N
100
1.4
.0
.0
1.4
1.4
.0
11.0
26.0
58.9
%
Mimbres
Indeterminate
N
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
3
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
25.0
.0
75.0
%
Transitional
Black-on-white
Table 4.11. Temper of Mogollon Decorated Types
41
0
1
0
0
3
0
1
8
28
N
100
.0
2.4
.0
.0
7.3
.0
2.4
19.5
68.3
%
Classic
Black-on-white
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
N
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
%
Mimbres
Polychrome
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
50.0
.0
50.0
%
Slip
Paint Brown
Clay
709
1
1
1
1
7
1
63
200
434
N
Total
100
.1
.1
.1
.1
1.0
.1
8.9
28.2
61.2
%
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
57
6
2
0
0
0
0
10
Jar body
Cooking jar
rim
Cooking jar
neck
Indeterminate
Seed jar rim
Total
1
Bowl rim
Bowl body
1
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
20.0
60.0
10.0
10.0
118
1
3
4
0
8
92
6
4
100
.8
.4
3.4
.0
6.8
78.0
5.1
3.4
%
N
N
%
Slip
Unpainted
Mogollon
Red-on-brown
Indeterminate
body polished
Vessel
Form
39
0
0
0
0
1
32
5
1
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.6
82.1
12.8
2.6
%
Slip Painted
Red
37
0
0
0
1
0
33
3
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
2.7
.0
89.2
8.1
.0
%
Slip Pigment
Black
1
89
0
0
0
1
6
61
20
N
100
.0
.0
.0
1.1
6.7
68.5
22.5
1.1
%
Three Circle
Red-on-white
0
312
0
0
1
1
17
218
75
N
100
.0
.0
.3
.3
5.4
69.9
24.0
.0
%
Mangus Blackon-white
0
122
0
0
0
1
9
81
31
N
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.8
7.4
66.4
25.4
%
Indeterminate
Mimbres
0
0
0
0
1
4
8
0
13
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
7.7
30.8
61.5
.0
%
Transitional
Black-on-white
Table 4.12. Vessel Form of Mogollon Decorated Types
49
0
0
1
0
2
30
16
0
N
100
.0
.0
2.0
.0
4.1
61.2
32.7
.0
%
Classic
Black-onwhite
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
N
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
%
Mimbres
Polychrome
N
2
0
0
0
0
0
1
1
0
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
50.0
50.0
%
Slipped with
Brown Clay
7
792
1
3
6
4
46
558
167
N
Total
100
.1
.4
.8
.5
5.8
70.5
21.1
.9
%
designs often covered the entire interior of the vessel.
Mogollon Red-on-brown is primarily represented by bowls, although jars are present in very low
frequencies. Forms for sherds include bowls, bodies,
and jars. Mogollon Red-on-brown was probably
first produced just after A.D. 650 and may have
been produced until A.D. 900.
Descriptive Mimbres White Ware Types
These include sherds exhibiting brown pastes and
white slips but lacking distinct designs used in the
definition of previously defined formal types based
on the presence or type of painted decorations.
Unpainted sherds with brown ware pastes and white
slips were classified as Mimbres slipped unpainted.
The majority of sherds assigned to this category are
derived from bowls, while those from jars are present but very rare. Mimbres slipped painted (red pigment) refers to sherds with brown ware paste and
white slip and red pigment that cannot be assigned
to a specific type because of the lack of diagnostic
designs. Such sherds often appear to belong to Three
Circle Red-on-white. Mimbres slipped painted
(black pigment) refers to sherds with brown ware
paste and a white slip, but containing indistinct
design styles that cannot be assigned to a specific
type.
Slipped Painted, Brown Clay Pigment
This represents an unusual type consisting of a few
vessels with painted decoration that is applied in a
brownish clay paint over a white slip.
Three Circle Red-on-white
Three Circle Red-on-white is the earliest white ware
found in the Mogollon region and probably developed from Mogollon Red-on-brown (Fig. 4.30).
This type is distinguished from earlier painted types
by the presence of a white slip and bridges the gap
between the earliest Mogollon red painted pottery
and Mimbres White Ware (Haury 1936a). Paste
cross sections are often slightly redder than in other
Mogollon slipped-painted types, indicating these
sherds may have been exposed to a slightly more
oxidizing atmosphere than the other types. Exterior
surfaces of bowls and interior surface of jars are
usually unslipped and brown to red. The white
slipped surface contrasts significantly with the
brown ware paste and tends to be buff to white and
chalky. Slips also tend to be soft and often flake off.
58
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
The slip is often crackled, and most examples of
Three Circle Red-on-white from Luna sites exhibit
small glittery (mica) fragments. Similar fragments
commonly occur in local weathered tuff deposits,
and these are assumed to represent the source of the
white slip.
Design styles noted on Three Circle Red-onwhite pottery are intermediate between those
described for Mogollon Red-on-brown and Mangus
Black-on-white. Designs were similar to but more
precisely executed than earlier types. Motifs include
straight and squiggle lines, scrolls, and isolated and
connected triangles. Designs are often arranged in
quartered layouts similar to that noted in Mogollon
Red-on-brown. Lines are often organized in chevron
or rectilinear patterns and are often oriented around
solid designs. While design motifs and layouts are
similar to those found on Mogollon Red-on-brown,
the proportion of solid to line fillers is greater.
Unfortunately, it is sometimes difficult to distinguish misfired red-on-white examples of Mangus
Black-on-white from Three Circle Red-on-white,
although they may be distinguished by differences
in the color and inclusions of slips and overall
design styles.
The majority of sherds assigned to this category represent bowl sherds, although jar forms are also
present. Thickness of vessel walls near the rim
ranges from 3 to 6 mm and averages 4.6 mm. The
great majority of these sherds are polished on the
interior, and all are polished on the exterior surfaces.
Three Circle Red-on-white appears to have been
mainly produced during the San Francisco period
and was short-lived and may not have been made in
as large an area as other early Mogollon painted
types.
Mangus (Mimbres Boldface) Black-on-white
The earliest black-on-white type common on the
Luna Project is Mangus (or Mimbres Boldface)
Black-on-white (Fig. 4.31). Early excavations in the
Mimbres area noted the presence of black-on-white
pottery that appeared to predate Classic Mimbres
Black-on-white. Given the nature of the design
styles, this pottery was referred to as Boldface
Black-on-white (Bradfield 1931; Cosgrove and
Cosgrove 1932). Gladwin and Gladwin (1934), in
keeping with the rules that were then being developed for Southwest pottery classification, assigned
similar pottery to Mangus Black-on-white. This
term never fully gained acceptance by Southwest
archaeologists, and more recently different investigators use various terms to describe this pottery
Figure 4.30. Three Circle Red-on-white, LA 70196.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
59
Figure 4.31. Mangus (Mimbres Boldface) Black-on-white, LA 45507.
60
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.31. Continued. Mangus (Mimbres Boldface) Black-on-white, LA 45507.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
61
Figure 4.31. Continued. Mangus (Mimbres Boldface) Black-on-white, LA 45507.
62
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
(Brody 1977; LeBlanc 1983; Lekson 1990; Woosley
and McIntyre 1996). Because the term Mangus
Black-on-white is more consistent with the rules of
Southwest taxonomy, that term is used here. Some
recent studies have also placed ceramics, which
would here be sorted into Mangus or Boldface
Black-on-white, into a Mimbres Style I or Early
Style II (Shafer and Brewington 1995) or Phase I
(LeBlanc 1983) category.
While paint color is obviously an important
attribute in separating this type from earlier Three
Circle Red-on-white, other attributes are also important indicators of this type, because a small but significant frequency of examples may exhibit decorations in brown to red paint. Pastes tend to be brown
to gray. Slips tend to be white to pink and are often
soft and chalky. Slipped surfaces are usually very
smoothed and exhibit a relatively high polish. The
exterior of bowls and interior of jars are usually
unslipped but exhibit a slight polish. Unslipped surfaces are usually gray to brown. The majority of
sherds assigned to this type are derived from bowls,
although jars are also present. The thickness of vessel walls near the rim ranges from 4 to 7 mm and
averages 5.2 mm. The great majority of the bowl
sherds are polished on the interior and exterior surfaces. Rims are usually rounded to tapered and
solidly painted.
Designs are executed in bold designs covering
much of the decorative surface. Motifs include
straight and wavy lines, triangles, curvilinear
scrolls, occasional life forms, and ribbons with wavy
hatchures. While design styles are similar to those
noted on earlier Mogollon painted types, there were
definite changes in the organization of these designs
(Brody 1977). Designs are often arranged into quartered or banded patterns where different elements
were combined together to form larger motifs. These
often included a mixture of hatchured and solid
designs. These sections were often separated from
similar pattern combinations by a series of thin precisely executed lines. Three distinctive layouts commonly occur on this type: designs which are divided
into quadrants, circular layouts, and the extension of
unbroken fields across the surface (Brody 1977).
Lines tend to be finer and better executed than early
forms but not as much so as in Mimbres Classic
Black-on-white.
Mangus Black-on-white represents the earliest
Mogollon type consistently decorated with black
paint and appears to have been produced sometime
between A.D. 750 and A.D. 1000. Similar elements
and layouts appear to have been executed in pottery
associated with contemporaneous pottery produced
in other Southwestern regions. For example, painted
styles described for Mangus Black-on-white are
similar to those noted in Santa Cruz Red-on-buff and
Gila Butte Red-on-buff in the Hohokam region
(Gladwin et al. 1937; Haury 1976; Wallace 1995)
and Red Mesa Black-on-white in the Anasazi region
(Gladwin 1945; Toll and McKenna 1987; Windes
1977; Fowler 1994).
Mimbres (Transitional) Black-on-white (Style
II)
Later Mimbres white wares exhibit paste, slip, and
paint categories very similar to those described for
Mangus Black-on-white but exhibit different painted styles. These late types are rare in the northern
Mogollon Highlands, so they are only briefly
described here. Mimbres transitional refers to pottery exhibiting styles that are intermediate between
those noted in Mangas Black-on-white and Mimbres
Classic Black-on-white. This type is distinguished
from Mangus Black-on-white by the use of thin
straight hatchures framed by thick lines, which often
replace the wavy lines found on earlier forms
(Brody 1977). There is also a general refinement in
the execution of designs from earlier types. Pottery
assigned to this category is similar to that recently
placed into Mimbres Late Style II (Shafer and
Brewington 1995).
Mimbres (Classic) Black-on-white (Style III)
Mimbres Classic represents the last decorated type
of this series and appeared at about A.D. 1000 (Fig.
4.32). While sherds exhibiting late styles are usually classified as Mimbres Classic (Haury 1936a),
they are sometimes referred to as Mimbres Blackon-white Style III. Mimbres Classic Black-on-white
is mainly represented by bowl forms. The thickness
of vessel walls near the rim ranges from 5 to 6 mm
and averages 6.3 mm.
Characteristics of Mimbres Classic Black-onwhite include the use of fine, regularly spaced hatchure bordered by thin lines. A diagnostic feature of
this type is the presence of framing lines near the
rim. These framing lines vary considerably and may
include one to four broad lines, multiple fine lines,
multiple fine lines bordered by one or two fine lines,
or a single fine line. During the early part of the production of this type, often only one line was used to
separate the bowl rim and the main field of painted
design. Naturalistic motifs also became common
and vary from simple to complex forms, and the
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
63
Figure 4.32. Mimbres Classic Black-on-white, LA 39968.
more elaborate represent painted motifs divided by
geometric motifs. Execution is variable, and ranges
from precise execution with dense black paint to
watery brown motifs with less exact line work.
ANASAZI (SOUTHERN CIBOLA) CERAMIC
TYPES
Pottery assigned to southern Cibola tradition types
were extremely rare in ceramic assemblages from
project sites. Southern Cibola types are easily distinguished from Mogollon brown wares by the presence of light, low-iron clay pastes and sand and/or
sherd temper. The absence of low-iron sedimentary
clays in the Mogollon Highlands indicates that these
types were not locally produced within the Luna
Project area, but originated in areas of the Colorado
Plateau in the Anasazi country.
Cibola Gray Ware Types
Cibola gray wares refer to Anasazi utility ware not
exhibiting slipped or painted surfaces with paste
characteristics of the Cibola region. In contrast to
Mogollon Brown Ware, gray ware is almost always
unpolished. Gray wares exhibit pastes and surface
characteristics distinct from contemporaneous
64
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Cibola white wares. Paste and surfaces are white,
gray, or dark gray. Gray ware sherds from Luna sites
fired to buff color in an oxidation atmosphere indicating the use of low-iron sedimentary clays common in formations occurring in the southern part of
the Colorado Plateau. Cibola Gray Ware is consistently tempered with medium to coarse sand grains
(Table 4.13). Gray ware pastes tend to be much
coarser than in brown ware, and temper often protrudes through the surface. As is the case for
Mogollon brown wares, Anasazi gray wares are distinguished on the basis of temporally sensitive surface treatments and textures. Gray wares were distinguished by texture treatments used to differentiate
Mogollon brown wares. Only gray wares from the
Luna Project are described. The gray pottery identified is from a very small number of types. Almost all
the gray ware sherds identified during the present
study appear to be derived from jars (Table 4.14).
Plain Polished Body (Obelisk Utility)
Polished utility wares appear to be limited to the earliest Anasazi occupation, during which local utility
wares were very similar to early brown ware forms,
but contain paste and temper, indicating they probably originated in the Anasazi country. In the Cibola
and Kayenta regions, similar utility ware forms have
Table 4.13. Temper of Cibola Gray Ware Types
Temper
Cibola Gray
Body
N
Mogollon
lithic and
sand
Cibo la Obelisk
Gray Body
%
N
%
Cibola Gray
Body Pla in
Cibola Lino
Gray Rim
Cibola
Neckcoiled
Cib ola
Indented
Corrugated
N
N
N
N
%
%
%
Total
%
N
%
2
1.6
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
0
.0
2
1 16
94.3
1
33.3
43
70.3
6
70.3
1 00.0
.0
1
100.0
167
Sand and
sherd
5
4.1
2
66.7
10
16.4
0
16.4
.0
100.0
0
.0
18
Sandstone
0
.0
0
.0
4
6.6
0
6.6
.0
.0
0
.0
4
Igne ous
and sand
0
.0
0
.0
4
6.6
0
6.6
.0
.0
0
.0
4
1 23
100.0
3
100.0
61
100.0
6
100.0
1 00.0
100.0
1
100.0
195
Sand
Total
8
10
Table 4.14. Vessel Form of Cibola Gray Ware Types
Vessel
Form
Cibola Gray
body
N
%
Cibola Obelisk
Gray body
N
%
Cibola Gray
body plain
Cibola Lino
Gray rim
Cibola
Neckcoiled
Cibola
Indented
corrug ated
N
N
N
N
%
%
%
%
Total
N
%
Bowl rim
0
.0
1
12.5
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
.5
Bowl b ody
0
.0
0
.0
1
1.6
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
1
.5
Jar body
102
82.3
4
50.0
56
88.9
0
.0
0
.0
4
100
166
100.0
Cooking
jar rim
2
1.6
0
.0
2
3.2
7
1
100
0
.0
12
5.8
Cooking
jar neck
20
16.1
0
.0
4
6.3
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
24
11.6
0
.0
3
37.5
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
0
.0
3
1.4
8
10 0
63
100
7
100
1
100
4
100
207
100.0
Indeterminate
Total
124
100
been classified as Obelisk Utility (Reed et al. 1997).
Plain Gray Body
100
well as the lower portions of neckbanded, neck
coiled, or corrugated forms.
Textured or Corrugated Types
Plain gray body refers to sherds derived from unpolished, completely smoothed vessels. This category
is only assigned to rim sherds, because similar body
sherds could also have been derived from forms
exhibiting coiled or corrugated treatments along the
rim or neck.
Neck coiled gray refers to sherds or vessels exhibiting thin unobliterated coils or clapboarded near the
neck or rim. Indented corrugated refers to the presence of coils with spaced indentations along the coil.
CIBOLA WHITE WARE TYPES
Unpolished Rim (Lino Gray)
This category refers to unpolished gray body sherds
that could have originated from Lino Gray vessels as
Cibola white wares represent the second most common ceramic group at Luna Project sites dating after
A.D. 1000 (Fig. 4.33). Cibola White Ware exhibit-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
65
Figure 4.33. Cibola White Ware jars from west-central New Mexico; (a-b) Reserve Black-on-white, (c-e)
Tularosa Black-on-white, (f) Klageto Black-on-white. (Vessels not from Luna Project sites.)
66
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
67
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
58
Igneous and
sand
Sand/sandstone
and sherd
Basalt and sand
Igneous and
sherd
Sandstone and
sherd
Basalt, sand and
sherd
Leucocratic
igneous
Total
0
Basalt, sand,
and sherd
0
0
Igneous, sand,
and sherd
0
2
Sandstone
Basalt and sherd
0
Crushed
igneous
Basalt
1
12
Sherd
Sand
Sand and sherd
0
39
Mogollon sand
.0
100
.0
.0
.
.0
.0
.0
6.9
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.4
.0
2.07
1.7
67.2
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
6
21
4
0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.1
.0
.0
18.8
65.6
12.5
.0
%
N
.0
%
N
0
Cibola Early
Painted
Cibola Early
Unpainted
Indeterminate
Temper
2
0
2491
1
0
10
1
0
7
0
2
0
2
0
2
2
65
618
24
N
100
.1
.0
1.4
.1
.0
1.0
.0
.3
.0
.3
.0
.3
.3
8.8
84.0
3.3
.3
.0
%
Cibola Late
Unpainted
0
1
2042
0
0
3
0
6
3
3
15
0
5
2
1
0
99
483
11
N
100
.0
.0
.5
.0
.9
.5
.5
2.4
.0
.8
.3
.2
.0
15.7
76.4
1.7
.0
.2
%
Cibola La Plata
Black-on-white
N
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
%
Cibola White
Mound Blackon-white
18
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
2
0
2
0
0
10
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
22.2
.0
.0
.0
11.1
.0
11.1
.0
.0
55.6
.0
.0
%
Cibola Red
Mesa Blackon-white
2
0
44
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
9
26
N
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.9
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.9
22.0
63.4
4.9
%
Cibola Puerco
Black-on-white
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
16
N
100
.0
.0
14.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
85.7
.0
.0
.0
%
Cibola
Reserve
Black-on-white
0
0
919
0
0
3
0
0
9
0
7
1
6
1
0
0
53
704
20
N
100
.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
1.1
.0
.9
.1
.7
.3
.0
.0
6.6
87.6
2.5
.0
.0
%
Cibola
Tularosa
Black-on-white
Table 4.15. Temper of Cibola White Ware Types
4
0
0
1875
0
1
4
1
0
5
0
10
0
50
0
3
0
87
383
N
100
.0
.2
.7
.2
.0
.5
.0
1.8
.0
9.1
.0
.5
.0
15.9
69.9
.7
.0
.0
%
Cibola Reserve/
Tularosa Blackon-white
1
0
0
294
0
0
4
0
0
2
0
0
0
10
0
0
0
12
83
N
.9
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
3.6
.0
.0
1.8
.0
.0
.0
8.9
.0
.0
.0
10.7
74.1
%
Cibola Hachure
0
0
0
226
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
24
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
14.3
85.7
.0
.0
.0
%
Cibola
Indeterminate
Black-on-white
0
0
0
58
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
12
20
N
100
2.9
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.9
.0
35.3
58.8
.0
.0
.0
%
Cibola Gallup
Black-on-white
68
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
0
0
0
5
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
47
Mogollon sand
Sand
Sand and
sherd
Sherd
Crushed
igneous
Sandstone
Igneous, sand,
and sherd
Basalt, sand,
and sherd
Basalt
Basalt and
sherd
Igneous and
sherd
Sand/
sandstone and
sherd
Basalt and
sand
Igneous and
sherd
Sandstone and
sherd
Basalt, sand,
and sherd
Leucocratic
igneous
Total
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
16.7
83.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Cibola
Snowflake
Black-on-white
Indeterminate
Temper
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Cibola
Smudged
Interior
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
48
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Pinedale
Black-on-white
N
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Pinedale
Polychrome
N
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
%
Puerco Early
Unpainted
0
0
0
43
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
26
13
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
66.7
33.3
.0
.0
.0
%
Puerco Late
Unpainted
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
6
0
0
0
14
N
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
25.0
75.0
%
Puerco Late
Painted
N
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
0
0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.3
66.7
.0
.0
.0
%
Puerco Reserve
Black-on-white
Table 4.15 (continued)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
119
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Puerco
Tularosa
Black-on-white
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
9
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
N
100
.0
7.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
28.6
.0
64.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Late
Unpainted
Basalt
1
9
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
13
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
48.1
3.7
33.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
14.8
.0
.0
.0
%
Late Painted
Basalt
N
2
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
50
.0
.0
.0
50
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Tularosa with
Basalt
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
%
Hachure with
Basalt
N
8420
2
2
25
2
7
26
13
59
3
91
3
10
4
378
2374
158
8
1
Total
.3
.0
100
.1
.1
.8
.1
.2
.8
.4
1.9
.1
2.9
.1
.3
.1
11.9
75.0
4.9
%
ing similar pastes, treatments, and designs dominates decorated assemblages occurring over a very
wide area of the southern Colorado Plateau and
northern Mogollon Highlands. Southern Cibola
white wares are recognized based on temporally
sensitive surface and decorative treatments (Dowel
1980; Sullivan and Hantman 1984; Fowler 1994;
Christenson 1995). Cibola White Ware dating prior
to A.D. 1000 is almost always tempered with sand,
while those dating after A.D. 1000 often contain
crushed sherd temper as well. Table 4.15 illustrates
temper identified for Cibola White Ware from Luna
sites. Later Cibola white wares sometimes, but not
always, contain a thin white slip. Cibola types
exhibit a mineral paint which is usually dull and is
less polished than that noted on Mimbres white
wares. The majority of sherds represent bowls,
although jar forms are represented in low but significant frequencies (Table 4.16). A wide range of other
forms are represented in very low frequencies.
A total of 4.7 percent of the sherds analyzed
during the Luna Project represent Cibola white
wares. Cibola White Ware types in the present study
include early unpainted, early painted, late unpainted, late painted, White Mound Black-on-white, Red
Mesa Black-on-white, Puerco/Escavada Black-onwhite, Gallup Black-on-white, Reserve Black-onwhite, Tularosa Black-on-white, Tularosa/Reserve
Black-on-white, Snowflake Black-on-white,
Klagetoh Black-on-white, Pinedale Black-on-white,
and smudged interior white. Tables 4.17 through
4.23 illustrate distributions of various attributes,
including interior surface treatment, exterior surface
treatments, rim thickness, rim shape, rim decoration,
and painted designs recorded for selected Cibola
White Ware during the stylistic analysis.
Similar white ware pottery exhibiting yellowred pastes and sherd temper are assigned to this tradition. This may indicate an origin along the Puerco
Valley. Ceramics belonging this tradition may or
may not be present in Luna Project assemblages.
during earlier (pre-A.D. 900) periods. Late unpainted refers to unpainted ceramics exhibiting later characteristics such as a high polish, slip, or sherd temper. Late painted refers to painted ceramics exhibiting characteristics of later types.
La Plata Black-on-white
La Plata Black-on-white represents the earliest
painted type defined for the southern Anasazi and
dates from about A.D. 550 to 800 (Fig. 4.40). La
Plata Black-on-white is usually tempered with
quartz sand grains. This type is unpolished or slightly polished. It is distinguished from Lino Black-onwhite by the presence of decorations in mineral
rather than organic paint. This paint reflects the use
of iron rich minerals and is red, brown, or black.
Painted decorations cover less of the vessel surface than later Cibola tradition types. Rims are often
solidly painted. Designs are usually arranged in isolated groups of two or three arrangements or pendants from the rim. Painted designs are often executed in narrow lines that are commonly elaborated.
Designs motifs include thin lines, solid or open triangles, ticks, flags, and dot or basket stitched (Z and
I) motif-filled spaces.
White Mound Black-on-white
White Mound Black-on-white refers to white ware
produced in the Cibola area during the Pueblo I period (Gladwin 1945). Surfaces and pastes are similar
to those described for La Plata Black-on-white, and
White Mound Black-on-white is distinguished by
slightly later design elements (Fig. 4.34). Design
elements often include several thin to medium parallel lines or chevrons which may be embellished
with ticked lines or triangles. Designs are more likely to cover the entire vessel than to occur in groups.
Descriptive Cibola White Ware Types
White wares not exhibiting styles indicative of previously defined formal types were assigned to
descriptive types based on the presence of paint,
temper type, and surface characteristics. Early
unpainted refers to unpolished or slightly polished
white ware sherds assumed to be early but exhibiting painted decoration and large sand temper. Early
painted refers to sand-tempered, unpainted, unpolished, or slightly polished forms probably produced
Figure 4.34. White Mound Black-on-white; (a-b) LA
45507, (c) LA 70196.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
69
70
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
26
23
0
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
58
Bowl rim
Bowl body
Jar body
Cooking jar
rim
Cooking jar
neck
Indeterminate
Seed jar rim
Handle
Olla rim
Effigy/fetish
Canteen rim
Olla neck
TOTAL
1.7
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
12.1
.0
39.7
44.8
32
0
0
0
0
0
.
0
0
1
5
21
5
0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
3.1
15.6
65.6
15.6
.0
%
N
1.7
%
N
1
Cibola Early
Painted
Cibola Early
Unpainted
Indeterminate
body polished
Vessel Form
2491
0
0
0
16
2
1
184
126
14
1792
313
33
10
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.6
.1
.0
7.4
5.1
.6
71.9
12.6
1.3
.4
%
Cibola Late
Unpainted
2
2042
0
0
0
6
8
4
49
146
45
1042
590
150
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.3
.4
.2
2.4
7.1
2.2
51.0
28.9
7.3
.1
%
Cibola Late
Painted
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
6
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
14.3
85.7
.0
.0
%
Cibola La
Plata Blackon-white
18
0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
11
5
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
11.1
.0
61.6
27.8
.0
%
Cibola White
Mound Blackon-white
44
0
0
0
0
0
0
00
3
0
14
25
2
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
6.8
.0
31.8
56.8
4.5
.0
%
Cibola Red
Mesa Blackon-white
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
6
6
2
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
12.5
.0
37.5
37.5
12.5
.0
%
Cibola
Puerco
Black-onwhite
919
1
1
1
20
2
0
3
36
6
553
214
81
1
N
100
.1
.1
.1
2.2
.2
.0
.3
3.9
.7
60.2
23.3
8.8
.1
%
Cibola
Reserve
Black-onwhite
Table 4.16. Vessel Forms of Cibola White Ware Types
0
1875
0
0
1
9
0
0
5
74
43
1445
219
79
N
100
.0
.0
.1
.5
.0
.0
.3
3.9
2.3
77.1
11.7
4.2
.0
%
Cibola
Tularosa
Black-on-white
294
4
0
0
3
0
0
0
19
3
194
61
9
1
N
100
1.4
.0
.0
1.0
.0
.0
.0
6.5
1.0
66.0
20.7
3.1
.3
%
Cibola
Reserve/
Tularosa
Black-onwhite
226
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
56
0
53
99
17
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
24.8
.0
23.5
43.8
7.5
.0
%
Cibola
Hachure
58
0
0
0
0
0
0
6
4
0
26
12
9
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
10.3
6.9
1.7
44.8
20.7
15.5
.0
%
Cibola
Indeterminate
Black-onwhite
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
71
0
0
0
0
5
Effigy/fetish
Canteen rim
Olla neck
Total
Indeterminate
Olla rim
0
Cooking jar neck
0
0
Cooking jar rim
0
0
Jar body
Handle
0
Bowl body
Seed jar rim
5
0
Bowl rim
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
47
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
39
13
3
0
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.3
.0
61.7
27.7
6.4
.0
%
N
.0
%
N
0
Cibola
Snowflake
Black-onwhite
Cibola Gallup
Black-onwhite
Indeterminate
body polished
Temper
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
%
Cibola
Smudged
Interior
48
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
1
35
0
3
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
18.8
2.1
72.9
.0
6.3
.0
%
Cibola
Pinedale
Black-onwhite
7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
4
1
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
28.6
57.1
14.3
.0
%
Pinedale
Polychrome
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
.0
%
Puerco
Early
Unpainted
43
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
0
36
4
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.3
4.7
.0
83.7
9.3
.0
.0
%
Puerco Late
Unpainted
Table 4.16 (continued)
14
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
5
5
1
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
21.4
.0
35.7
35.7
7.1
.0
%
Puerco Late
Painted
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
3
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
25.0
.0
.0
75
.0
.0
%
Puerco
Reserve
Black-onwhite
119
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
0
87
18
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
11.8
.0
73.1
15.1
.0
.0
%
Puerco
Tularosa
Black-onwhite
14
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
13
3
0
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
7.1
.0
.0
92.9
.0
.0
.0
%
Late
Unpainted
Basalt
27
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
7
15
2
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
11.1
.0
25.9
55.6
7.4
.0
%
Late Painted
Basalt
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
N
100
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
100
.0
%
Tularosa
with Basalt
Table 4.16. Continued.
Vessel Form
Hachure with Basalt
N
Total
%
N
%
Indeterminate body p olished
0
.0
15
.2
Bo wl rim
1
12.5
411
4.9
Bo wl body
7
87.5
1674
1 9.9
Jar body
0
.0
5368
6 3.8
Cooking ja r rim
0
.0
116
1.4
Cooking ja r neck
0
.0
507
6.0
Indeterminate
0
.0
250
3.0
Se ed jar rim
0
.0
5
.1
Handle
0
.0
12
.1
Ola rim
0
.0
54
.6
Effigy/Fetish
0
.0
2
.0
Canteen rim
0
.0
1
.0
Olla neck
0
.0
5
.1
Total
8
100.0
8420
10 0.0
Table 4.17. Interior Manipulation of Mogollon Painted and Mimbres White Ware Types
Plain Unpolished
Type
N
Mo gollon Red-on-brown
N
%
1
10.0
9
90.0
24
20.7
90
77.6
Slip p ainted, red
3
7.9
35
Slip p igment, black
2
5.4
Th ree Circles Red-on-white
1
Ma ngus Black-on-white
Mimbres indeterminate
Total
Ind eterminate
N
%
N
%
10
100.0
1 16
100.0
92.1
38
100.0
35
94.6
37
100.0
1.1
88
98.9
89
100.0
13
4.2
298
95.8
3 11
100.0
15
12.6
104
87.4
1 19
100.0
Transitional b lack-on-white
1
9.1
10
90.9
11
100.0
Classic black-on -white
2
4.4
43
95.6
45
100.0
Mimbres Polychrome
1
100.0
1
100.0
Slip p aint, brown clay
2
100.0
2
100.0
Slip u npainted
2
1.7
Puerco Gray b ody
1
100.0
1
100.0
Puerco Obe lisk Gray bo dy
1
100.0
1
100.0
Puerco Gray b ody plain
4
100.0
4
100.0
68
8.7
7 85
100.0
Total
72
%
Plain Polished
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
715
91.1
2
.3
Table 4.18. Exterior Manipulation of Mogollon Painted and Mimbres White Ware Types
Plain Unpo lished
Plain Polished
Indeterminate
N
N
Total
Type
N
%
%
Mogollon Red -on-brown
Slip unpainted
Slip painted, red
Slip pigment, black
16
1.1
%
N
%
16
1.1
23
23.7
139
9.9
2
25.0
1 64
10.9
1
1.0
45
3.2
4
50.0
50
3.3
12
12.4
38
2.7
50
3.3
138
9.9
1 38
9.2
7 71
51.3
Three Circles Red-on-white
Mangus Black-on-white
15
15.5
754
54.0
Mimbres indeterminate
36
37.1
193
13.8
2 29
15.2
21
1.5
21
1.4
48
3.4
51
3.4
Mimbres Polychrome
1
.1
1
.1
Slip paint, brown clay
3
.2
3
.2
2
.1
1
.1
5
.3
15 02
100.0
Transitional black-on -white
Classic black-on-white
3
Pue rco Gray body
3.1
2
1
Total
25.0
2.1
Pue rco Obelisk Gray body
Pue rco Gray body plain
2
5
5.2
97
100.0
1397
.1
100.0
8
100.0
Table 4.19. Mimbres Types by Rim Thickness
Thickness
(mm)
Three Circle
Mangus Blackon-white
Late
Indeterminate
Transitional
N
N
N
%
N
%
0
73
76.8
231
79.1
3
1
1.1
4
10
10.5
8
2.7
5
8
8.4
32
11.0
5
11.4
6
3
3.2
20
6.8
3
6.8
1
.3
292
100.0
7
Total
95
100.0
%
36
44
%
81.8
100.0
Classic Blackon-white
N
25
Total
%
N
%
75.8
365
78.5
1
.2
18
3.9
45
9.7
6
18.2
32
6.9
1
1 00.0
2
6.1
4
.9
1
1 00.0
33
100.0
465
100.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
73
Table 4.20. Mimbres Types by Rim Shape
Shap e
Not
applicable
Three Circle
Mangus Blacko n-white
N
N
%
Late
Indeterminate
%
N
%
73
76 .8
2 31
7 9 .1
36
8 1.8
5
5 .3
20
6 .8
3
6.8
12
12 .6
37
1 2 .7
5
1 1.4
Flat
3
3 .2
4
1 .4
A ngled
2
2 .1
95
10 0
Tapered
Rounded
Total
2 92
100
44
Transitional
Classic Blackon-white
N
N
%
25
7 5.8
%
1
1 00
100
1
100
Total
N
%
365
78 .5
28
6 .0
7
2 1.2
62
13 .3
1
3.0
8
1 .7
2
.4
465
10 0
33
1 00
Table 4.21. Mimbres Types by Rim Decoration
Decoration
Three Circle
Mangus Blackon-white
Late
Indeterminate
N
%
N
%
N
73
76.8
231
79.1
8
8.4
7
2.4
Solidly painted
11
11.6
46
15.8
5
11.4
Indeterminate
2
2.1
8
2.7
3
6.8
Dashed,
incomplete, solid
1
1.1
95
100.0
Not applicable
Undecorated
Total
292
%
36
100.0
Transitional
N
Classic Black-onwhite
%
N
81.8
44
1
100.0
100.0
1
100.0
Total
%
N
%
25
75.8
365
78.5
1
3.0
16
3.4
6
18.2
69
14.8
13
2.8
1
3.0
2
.4
33
100.0
465
100.0
Table 4.22. Mimbres Types by Rim Design Orientation
Orientatio n
Three Circle
N
Mangus
Black-onwh ite
%
N
%
Late
Indeterminate
N
%
Transitional
N
%
N
%
N
%
75.8
365
78.5
14
3.0
73
76.8
231
79.1
36
81.8
Indeterminate
4
4.2
7
2.4
3
6.8
15
15.8
43
14.7
1
2.3
3
9.1
62
13.3
1
.3
1
2.3
1
3.0
3
.6
7
2.4
3
6.8
1
3.0
12
2.6
1
.3
1
3.0
2
.4
2
.7
4
.9
Indeterminate single
thin framing line
Indeterminate single
thick framing line
1
1.1
Indeterminate single
thick incorporated line
Indeterminate single
thin incorporated lin e
2
2.1
Indeterminate multi
thin framing lines
25
Total
Not applicable
Indeterminate no
framin g lines
1
100.0
Indeterminate multi
thick framing lines
Total
74
Classic Blackon-wh ite
95
100.0
292
100.0
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
44
100.0
1
100.0
1
3.0
2
.4
1
3.0
1
.2
33
100.0
465
100.0
Table 4.23. Mimbres Types by Motif Number and Motif Type
Mo tif Ty pe
Three Circle
N
Mangus Blackon-white
%
N
%
Late
Indeterminate
N
%
Transitional
N
%
Classic Black-on white
N
Total
%
N
%
23
42.6
1 10
17.6
1
1.9
13
2.1
3
.5
THIN PARAL LEL LINE
Motif number 1
39
26.5
44
11.7
Motif number 2
5
3.4
7
1.9
Motif number 3
2
1.4
1
.3
1
.7
3
6.5
1
100.0
THICK PARAL LEL LINE
Motif number 1
Motif number 2
Motif number 3
3
.8
1
1.9
5
.8
1
.3
1
1.9
2
.3
1
.2
1
.7
Motif number 1
5
3.4
1
.3
1
1.9
7
1.1
Motif number 2
7
4.8
1
.3
4
7.4
12
1.9
1
.3
1
.2
5
1.3
5
.8
Motif number 1
3
.8
3
.5
Motif number 2
1
.3
1
.2
TRIANGL E
Motif number 3
CROSSED LINES
Motif number 1
THICK CURVILINEAR LINES
RIBBON
Motif number 1
19
5.1
1
1.9
20
3.2
Motif number 2
5
1.3
3
5.6
8
1.3
Motif number 3
2
.5
2
.3
1
.3
1
.2
9
2.4
16
2.6
6
1.6
7
1.1
CHECKERBOARD
Motif number 1
SINGLE THICK LINE
Motif number 1
Motif number 2
1
.7
3
6.5
4
7.4
MOTIF CONNECTED BY SINGLE LINE
Motif number 2
3
2.0
2
3.7
5
.8
Motif number 3
1
.7
1
1.9
2
.3
CURVILINEAR RIBBON
Motif number 1
5
1.3
7
1.1
Motif number 2
2
.5
2
4.3
2
.3
Motif number 3
1
.3
1
.2
4
1.1
RECTILINEAR RIBBON
Motif number 1
Motif number 2
1
1.9
4
.6
1
.2
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
75
Table 4.23. Continued
Mo tif Ty pe
Three Circle
N
Mangus Blackon-white
%
N
Motif number 3
%
Late
Indeterminate
N
1
.3
Motif number 1
40
10.6
Motif number 2
3
.8
Motif number 3
1
.3
%
Transitional
N
%
Classic Black-on white
N
%
Total
N
%
1
.2
41
6.6
3
.5
1
.2
CURVILINEAR SCROLL
1
2.2
SINGLE THIN LINE
Motif number 1
6
4.1
6
1.6
15
2.4
Motif number 2
6
4.1
3
.8
2
4.3
1
1.9
9
1.4
Motif number 1
36
9.6
36
5.8
Motif number 2
3
.8
3
.5
26
4.2
SQUIGGL E LINES, SINGLE OR PARALLEL
INTERSECTING LINES, SINGLE
Motif number 1
17
11.6
7
1.9
Motif number 2
4
2.7
1
.3
Motif number 3
1
.7
1
2.2
1
1.9
5
.8
1
.2
CONNECTED TRIANGLES
Motif number 1
9
6.1
13
2.1
Motif number 2
4
2.7
4
1.1
4
.6
Motif number 4
1
.7
1
.2
1
.2
CIRCLE
Motif number 1
1
.3
INDETERMINATE
Motif number 1
15
10.2
59
15.7
30
65.2
1
1.9
1 05
16.8
Motif number 2
8
5.4
26
6.9
1
2.2
5
9.3
40
6.4
Motif number 3
5
3.4
2
.5
2
3.7
9
1.4
Motif number 1
4
1.1
4
.6
Motif number 2
3
.8
3
.5
Motif number 4
1
.3
1
.2
RECTILINEAR SCROLL
SCALLOPED LINE
Motif number 1
2
1.4
29
7.7
Motif number 2
2
1.4
6
1.6
Motif number 3
1
.7
2
.5
1
.7
2
4.3
1
1.9
33
5.3
9
1.4
3
.5
1
.2
CORRECTED TRIANGLE
Motif number 1
76
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Table 4.23. Continued.
Mo tif Ty pe
Three Circle
N
%
Mangus Blackon-white
N
%
Late
Indeterminate
N
%
Transitional
N
Classic Black-on white
%
N
%
Total
N
%
PARTIAL SCROLL (BOLDFACE)
Motif number 1
10
2.7
Motif number 2
3
.8
1
.3
1
2.2
10
1.6
4
.6
1
.2
INDETERMINATE PENDANTS
Motif number 2
ZOOMORPHIC
Motif number 1
Total
147
100.0
2
.5
376
100.0
46
100.0
1
100.0
54
100.0
2
.3
6 24
100.0
Red Mesa Black-on-white
Hatchure Only
Red Mesa Black-on-white refers to Cibola White
Ware exhibiting treatments and decorative styles
indicative of pottery produced over wide areas of the
Cibola region during the early Pueblo II period (Fig.
4.35). Painted surfaces are often polished and
slipped. Temper may be sand, sherd, or sherd and
sand. Red Mesa Black-on-white was very rare at
Luna Project sites but sometimes present in low frequencies at contexts dominated by Mangus Blackon-white and Reserve Black-on-white.
Rims are usually solidly painted. Painted
designs are commonly organized into banded or
quartered patterns. Design motifs include multiple
parallel lines sometimes embellished with triangles
or ticked lines, ribbons with squiggle hatchure, and
different types of motifs often occur together in bold
and complex patterns.
This category refers to Pueblo II sherds exhibiting
hatchure but too small to determine if solid designs
may have also been present. Such sherds may have
been derived from Gallup Black-on-white or
Reserve Black-on-white, but not Tularosa Black-onwhite, given polish and spacing of hatchured lines.
Puerco/Escavada Black-on-white
Definitions of and distinctions between Puerco
Black-on-white and Escavada Black-on-white are
somewhat confusing and vague. As used here, previous definitions were lumped into a single category
which refers to the presence of a surface slip noted
on other Pueblo II types and use of a range of solid
design styles employed during the later part of the
Pueblo II and early Pueblo III periods. Design styles
often include triangles, parallel lines, and chevrons.
It may, however, be easy to confuse solidly painted
portions of Reserve Black-on-white and these types.
Given the nature of white ware assemblages in the
northern Mogollon Highlands, during the present
study there was definitely a bias toward placing such
ceramics into Reserve Black-on-white.
a
b
c
d
Figure 4.35. Red Mesa Black-on-white; (a-c) LA
45507, (d) LA 39968.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
77
Gallup Black-on-white
type.
This refers to Pueblo II hatchured sherds that are
large enough to determine whether the vessel was
solely decorated with hatchure designs.
Tularosa Black-on-white
Reserve Black-on-white
Reserve Black-on-white is the most common distinctive type represented at Luna sites (Figs. 4.364.37). Reserve Black-on-white refers to Cibola
White Ware exhibiting very widespread styles associated with late Pueblo II white wares found through
much of the northern Mogollon and southern
Anasazi country (Martin and Rinaldo 1950a; Doyel
1980; Crown 1981; Fowler 1988, 1994; Varien
1990). In the Luna and Reserve areas, Reserve
Black-on-white replaces Mimbres White Ware and
Mangus Black-on-white as the most common white
ware at about A.D. 1000, while in various areas of
the southern Colorado Plateau, this type follows Red
Mesa Black-on-white (Doyel 1980; McGimsey
1980; Crown 1981; Fowler 1994). Vessel surfaces
tend to be white, and paste also tends to be light,
sometimes with a light gray core. Surfaces are sometimes slipped with a white chalky clay. Vessels are
moderately polished but generally not as much as
Tularosa Black-on-white. Reserve Black-on-white
vessels also tend to be relatively thin compared to
Tularosa Black-on-white. The majority of sherds
assigned to Reserve Black-on-white are from jars.
The thickness of vessel walls near the rim ranges
from 3 to 6 mm and averages 4.2 mm.
Reserve Black-on-white is fairly similar in
appearance and form to Tularosa Black-on-white,
and sherds and vessels are often distinguished by
slight differences in design styles and layouts or surface finishing. Reserve Black-on-white vessels are
commonly decorated with opposed solid and
hatched elements. Hatched elements are often wider
than solid elements. Hatched elements include triangular, rectilinear, and curvilinear shapes. Solid
design elements include scrolls, narrow broad lines,
triangles, and sawteeth. Design elements are relatively large, particularly when compared to Tularosa
Black-on-white. In addition, spacing between
hatched lines is relatively wide. All-over layouts are
most abundant, although banded layouts are also
fairly common. Given the common occurrence of
Reserve Black-on-white at early Pueblo assemblages, there was a tendency to place some sherds
exhibiting only solid or hatched designs into this
78
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Tularosa Black-on-white is similar to Reserve
Black-on-white but exhibits later painted styles and
manipulations (Figs. 4.38-4.39). Surfaces tend to be
well polished and are often slipped. Slipped surfaces
are often pearly white and tend to exhibit a crackled
finish. Vessel walls are relatively thick. The thickness of vessel walls near the rim ranges from 3 to 6
mm and averages 4.7 mm.
As compared to earlier types, Tularosa Blackon-white designs tend to be small and well executed. Designs include interlocking hatchure and
solids, and rectilinear patterns are more common
than curvilinear. Hatched lines tend to be thin and
more closely spaced, and line work appears to be
finer than that in earlier Cibola white wares. Unlike
other Cibola White Ware types, hatched lines commonly exhibit a longitudinal orientation. Hatched
portions tend to be smaller than other Cibola White
Ware and are more equally balanced in proportion to
the solid elements. Painted designs tend to cover
much more of the total vessel surfaces than later
types, often creating striking effects.
Tularosa/Reserve Black-on-white
This category reflects difficulties in distinguishing
Reserve Black-on-white from Tularosa Black-onwhite sherds or vessels. It refers to painted sherds
exhibiting treatments and designs that could belong
to either Reserve Black-on-white or Tularosa Blackon-white. Pottery assigned to this category dates
sometime during the Reserve or Tularosa phases.
Snowflake Black-on-white
Snowflake Black-on-white covers a wide range of
decorations (Fig. 4.40). The most useful definition
of this type refers to the use of bold, solid, and
stepped elements (Crown 1981; Mills 1987; Fowler
1994).These elements are usually attached to the end
of broad rectilinear bands. The little pottery assigned
to this category seemed to be associated with
Tularosa Black-on-white.
Klageto Black-on-white
Klageto Black-on-white exhibits many of the common characteristics found on late forms of Tularosa
Figure 4.36. Reserve Black-on-white; LA 39969.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
79
Figure 4.37. Reserve Black-on-white; (a) LA 3563, (b-c) LA 70185.
Black-on-white such as thick vessel walls and crackled slips (Fig. 4.40). Design elements are similar to
those described for Tularosa Black-on-white but
tend to be larger, with thicker lines and wider spaces
between lines and elements (Mount et al. 1993).
Pinedale Black-on-white
Pinedale Black-on-white represents one of the last
of the Cibola White Wares produced (Wood 1987).
This type is similar to other late Cibola White Wares
but was distinguished by the presence of a very
glassy paint. Surfaces are polished and usually
slipped and crackled, and similar to those in
Tularosa Black-on-white. Tempering material is
usually crushed sherd.
The black mineral paint is usually very thick
and glassy, creating a glazed effect. Painted designs
are characterized by balanced and interlocking solid
and hatched elements of equal width. Designs are
busy and are characterized by parallel hatching or
perpendicular cross hatching with opposed elaborated designs, similar to those seen on Tularosa Blackon-white. Other motifs include Tularosa Black-onwhite as well as interlocking pennant triangles and
stepped triangles.
80
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Smudged Interior
This category refers to smudged pottery with white
ware pastes.
OTHER WHITE WARE TRADITIONS
White ware pottery that could be assigned to types
from traditions other than Cibola White Ware are
limited to a single Mesa Verde Black-on-white sherd
belonging to the northern San Juan tradition. Mesa
Verde Black-on-white often contains crushed
igneous, often with crushed sherd, temper. It is usually well polished, and often slipped with a pearly
white surface. Vessel walls, especially bowls, are
usually very thick. Rims are usually flat, with ticked
painted decorations. Vessels exhibit decorations in
organic paint. Designs are usually complex and well
executed. Painted designs cover much of the vessel
surface, and a negative effect is often created by the
unpainted portion. Design elements are similar to
those observed in earlier types and include hatchure,
triangles, stepped triangles, dots, diamonds, and
ticked lines. Two classes of designs occur on Mesa
Verde Black-on-white: banded and all-over styles.
Banded designs are usually bracketed by framing
lines. Single framing lines are usually thick, and if
Figure 4.38. Tularosa Black-on-white, LA 70185.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
81
Figure 4.38. Continued. Tularosa Black-on-white, LA 70185.
Figure 4.39. Tularosa Black-on-white, LA 3279.
82
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.40. (a) Snowflake Black-on-white, LA 3279; (b) La Plata Black-on-white, LA 45507; (c-d) Klageto
Black-on-white, LA 3279.
more than one framing line is present, they are usually of different thicknesses.
WHITE MOUNTAIN REDWARE
White Mountain red wares appear to represent a
fairly specialized tradition that appeared during the
late Pueblo II period in the White Mountains and
upper Little Colorado drainages. White Mountain
red wares, one of the widest distributed pottery traditions, are found at sites throughout much of the
Southwest (Carlson 1970). Table 4.24 illustrates
temper groups for White Mountain Redware from
Luna sites. They are characterized by a light paste,
sherd temper, and dark red slip. Surfaces are well
polished. Painted decorations are executed in a sharp
black mineral or organic paint and later with glaze
paint, sometimes in combinations with decorations
in white clay. The great majority of the White
Mountain Redware sherds are from bowl forms, and
jar forms are represented in very low frequencies
(Table 4.25).
White Mountain Redware sherds not displaying
distinctive painted designs indicative of previously
defined formal types were classified as indeterminate.
Wingate Black-on-red
Wingate Black-on-red exhibits dark red to bright red
slips. Designs consist primarily of hatchure elements, often with opposed solid elements, similar to
designs described for Reserve Black-on-white.
Ceramics with similar styles and decorations in
white clay paint on the exterior were assigned to
Wingate Polychrome.
Puerco Black-on-red
Puerco Black-on-red contains dark red to bright red
slips. Designs consist almost exclusively of solid
elements, including triangles, broad lines, checkerboards, and parallel hatching.
St. Johns Black-on-red
St. Johns Black-on-red contains bright red to redorange slips. Designs are similar to those described
for Tularosa Black-on white and include interlocking opposed solids and fine hatchure. Bowls with
similar decorations with the addition of wide
designs in white clay paint on the exterior surface
were assigned to St. Johns Polychrome.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
83
84
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
133
2
Cooking jar
neck
Total
12
Jar body
13
94
Bowl body
Indeterminate
12
Bowl rim
9.0
100.0
9.8
1.5
9.0
70.7
%
27
0
0
0
23
4
1
.0
100.0
5.6
94.4
%
N
2
0
2
0
.0
100.0
.0
100.0
%
Cibola Wingate
Polychrome
N
4
0
4
0
.0
100.0
.0
100.0
%
Cibola Puerco
Black-on-red
N
9
1
8
0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
85.2
14.8
%
N
3
0
0
0
1
2
100.0
.0
.0
.0
33.3
66.7
%
Cibola Wingate
Polychrome
N
8
0
0
0
4
4
100.0
.0
.0
.0
50.0
50.0
%
Cibola Puerco
Black-on-Red
9
94
1
0
1
83
N
9.6
100.0
1.1
.0
1.1
88.3
%
Cibola St. Johns
Black-on-Red
.0
100.0
11.1
88.9
%
Cibola St. Johns
Black-on-red
1
28
1
0
0
26
N
3.6
100.0
3.6
.0
.0
92.9
%
2
0
2
0
N
.0
2
99
8
N
6
0
0
0
6
0
.0
100.0
.0
.0
.0
100.0
%
8.1
89.9
2.0
%
299
15
2
13
237
32
N
Total
100.0
Total
89
N
Cibola Springer
Polychrome
100.0
.0
100.0
%
Cibola St.
Johns
Polychrome
Cibola St. Johns
Polychrome
Table 4.25. Vessel Forms of White Mountain Redware Types
18
N
100.0
9.4
0
17
N
64
Total
Vessel Form
6
Sherd
87.5
N
Cibola Wingate
Black-on-Red
56
Sand and sherd
3.1
%
Cibola Wingate
Black-on-red
Cibola
Indeterminate
White Mountain
Red
2
N
Sand
Temper
Cibola Indeterminate
White Mountain Red
Table 4.24. Temper of White Mountain Redware Types
100.0
5.0
.7
4.3
79.3
10.7
%
Springerville Polychrome
Springerville Polychrome refers to pottery exhibiting manipulations and designs as noted in St. Johns
but with both white and black paint on bowl interiors and jar exteriors.
slip, it may represent a type produced by Piro Pueblo
groups to the east (Marshall and Walt 1984), and
may reflect pottery acquired by Apache groups
inhabiting this area during the protohistoric and historic periods.
PROTOHISTORIC POTTERY
A single sherd exhibits a distinct paste with basalt
temper and red slip. It is likely that this is protohistoric. Given the characteristics of the temper and
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
85
86
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
CERAMIC DATING
C. Dean Wilson
Initial examination of ceramic distributions at Luna
Project sites indicated a very long and continuous
occupation by Mogollon groups from A.D. 200 to at
least 1300. Data from this project provide one of the
first opportunities to systematically examine the
long sequence of ceramic change in the northern
Mogollon Highlands in New Mexico since Paul
Martin's pioneering investigations in this region
(Martin 1943, 1979; Martin and Rinaldo 1947,
1950a, 1951; Martin et al. 1949, 1952, 1954, 1956;
Barter 1957a; Bluhm 1957; Martin and Plog 1973).
This chapter presents information relating to the
methods and strategies used to assign dates to Luna
Project sites based on ceramic distributions as well
as discussions of the proposed dating of various sites
and components. Data presented in this chapter form
the basis for the examination of various ceramic
changes and trends discussed in subsequent chapters.
DATING APPROACHES
Two basic approaches have been used to assign dating periods based on ceramic distributions (Goetze
and Mills 1993). One is the judgmental approach,
where the distribution of types in a particular ceramic assemblage is used judgmentally to identify a
phase or period with known temporal spans. The
other approach consists of seriation techniques used
to quantitatively order assemblages based on differences in the frequency of ceramic types or traits.
Most ceramic dating schemes previously used
to date northern Mogollon sites are based on judgmental phase assignments employed during investigations conducted from the 1930s through the 1950s
(Haury 1936a; Nesbitt 1938; Martin 1943; Martin
and Rinaldo 1947, 1950a; Martin et al. 1949, 1952,
1954, 1956; Wendorf 1956; Barter 1957a, 1957b;
Bluhm 1957, 1960; Danson 1957; Peckham 1957,
1963). Studies in this area have documented change
by examining ceramic distributions from stratigraphic profiles, architectural associations, and contexts yielding independent radiocarbon, archaeomagnetic, and tree-ring dates (Haury 1936a;
Bannister et al. 1970; Martin 1979). In addition,
these studies employed cross-dating, using independently dated types from other regions such as the
Cibola Anasazi and Mimbres Mogollon.
One technique commonly employed in northern
Mogollon ceramic studies involved the organization
of information concerning the frequency of types
from relatively dated assemblages into wedge bar
graphs (Haury 1936a; Nesbitt 1938; Martin et al.
1949, 1952, 1957; Nesbitt 1938). These graphs were
used to illustrate gradual changes in the frequency of
various ceramic types during a given occupational
sequence and provided the basis for the recognition
of various ceramic-based phases.
Two basic judgmental schemes are commonly
used to assign dates to northern Mogollon ceramic
assemblages. The most frequently employed scheme
involves the recognition of several temporally sensitive phases. Assemblages associated with different
phases have long been recognized by combinations
of decorated white and textured utility ware (Haury
1936a; Nesbitt 1938; Martin and Plog 1973; Berman
1979, 1989; Martin 1979). Phases defined during
early investigations of the northern Mogollon
Highlands include the Pine Lawn (A.D. 200 to 500),
Georgetown (A.D. 500 to 700), San Francisco (A.D.
700 to 900), Three Circle (A.D. 900 to 1000),
Reserve (A.D. 1000 to 1075), and Tularosa (A.D.
1075 to 1300) phases.
A similar but broader scheme was first
employed by researchers at the Mimbres Foundation
(Anyon et al. 1981; LeBlanc 1982b; Lekson 1986).
This system involved grouping earlier defined phases of the Mimbres region into a series of longer and
more generally defined periods (Anyon et al. 1981;
Lekson 1986). Basic periods recognized during
investigations by the Mimbres Foundation have
been modified for the northern Mogollon region
(Berman 1979). This results in the recognition of
three broadly defined periods including the Early
Pithouse, Late Pithouse, and Pueblo periods.
Parallel use of the two dating schemes provides
temporal classifications of varying resolutions
appropriate for different situations. The phase system is most appropriate for larger assemblages, containing specific types used to recognize different
phases. It is often not possible, however, to distinguish phases for smaller assemblages, where fairly
rare types used to recognize different phases are
often not present. In contrast, each of the three peri-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
87
Table 4.26. Mogollon Dating Periods and Phases
Period
Early Pithouse
Phase
Span
Pine Lawn
A.D. 200 to 500
Georgetown
A.D. 500 to 700
San Francisco
A.D. 700 to 900
Three Circle
A.D. 900 to 1000
Reserve
A.D. 1000 to 1100
Reserve/ Tularosa Transition (Apache Creek)
A.D. 1100 to 1150
Tularosa
A.D. 1150 to 1300
Late Pithouse
Pueblo
.
ods defined for the northern Mogollon are characterized by dramatic and easily recognized differences in ceramic distributions, even for very small
ceramic assemblages. For example, Early Pithouse
period components are defined by the lack of painted or textured types. Late Pithouse occupations are
characterized by the additional occurrence of low
frequencies of early Mogollon painted or Mimbres
White Ware and necked textured types. Pueblo period sites are distinguished by the additional presence
of later Anasazi style white ware and corrugated
brown wares. Table 4.26 illustrates the relationship
between the various phases and periods for sites in
the northern Mogollon Highlands.
Unfortunately, most of the phases and periods
defined for the northern Mogollon region are quite
long. Thus, it is sometimes necessary to also employ
techniques allowing for finer temporal resolution.
One simple quantitative technique used to order and
date ceramic assemblages based on type distributions is ceramic mean dating. This technique was
first developed to date historical ceramic assemblages (South 1977) and has the potential to produce
more precise and replicable dating results than judgmental samples. The first step in assigning ceramic
mean dates to an assemblage is to determine the
median date of the production of each ceramic type
present. Next, mean dates for all types are added and
divided by the number of sherds (South 1977). This
yields a dating point estimate for a particular collection. A potential advantage of the mean dating formula is that, rather than relying solely on information concerning the presence and absence of ceramic types, information concerning the relative frequency of various types is incorporated into dating
estimates.
Modified versions of this technique have
recently been used to date assemblages from
Anasazi and Mogollon sites (Mills 1987; Goetze and
88
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Mills 1993; Reed 1994; Christenson 1995). While
problems have been noted in the use of this technique in various Southwest regions, Goetze and
Mills (1993) feel that with an increased refinement
of production spans of southwestern ceramic types,
this technique provides a relatively efficient way of
dating ceramic assemblages.
My initial attempts to use this technique to date
assemblages from the Luna Project sites, however,
resulted in dating assignments that did not match
well with previous calibrations. Calendar dates
arrived at through this technique from early
Mogollon sites (Pithouse periods) were significantly
later than those indicated by other evidence. In contrast, in later (Pueblo period) assemblages, this technique yielded dates that were too early. These problems result from the long persistence of certain
ceramic types such as Alma Plain, which dominated
Mogollon assemblages for over a millennium. This
reflects the very conservative and accumulative
nature of ceramic change in the northern Mogollon.
For example, while in most of the Anasazi region
relatively short and dramatic sequences of replacement are represented by the shift from plain to corrugated dominated utility ware assemblages,
Northern Mogollon assemblages dating to almost all
phases are dominated by Alma Plain. Later components are characterized by the additional presence of
later textured and painted types but usually occur
along with a much higher frequency of pottery
exhibiting textured and painted styles also common
in earlier occupations. Thus, ceramic change in the
Mogollon Highlands is best considered as cumulative rather than sequential, as in the Anasazi region,
and strongly affects the nature of median dates of
types commonly occurring in the northern Mogollon
Highlands.
Some studies have attempted to control for the
influence of long-lived types by weighting mean
Table 4.27. Basis for Assignment of Ceramic Types to Scores
Dating Score Assigned to Sherd
Types Included in Score
1: Types appearing during the
Pine Lawn Phase
All un polished and polished plain brown ware typ es; all
early slipped red ware types
2: Types appearing during the
late Georgetown or e arly San
Francisco phases
Alma neckba nded
Early plain textured types
Alma Plain
Plain smudged brown ware
Anasazi plain gray typ es
Early Anasazi black-on-white
Early plain gray wa res
Early Anasazi black-on-white
White Mo und Black-on-wh ite
Mo gollon Red-on-brown
Th ree Circle Red-on-white
Mimbres slipped
3: Types appearing sometime
during the late San Francisco
phase or Three Circle phase
Th ree Circle neckbanded
Incised corrugated
Ma ngus Black-on-white
Red Mesa Black-on-white
4: Types appearing during the
Reserve ph ase
Reserve Black-on-white and most othe r Late Anasazi
white ware
Most plain and in dented corrugated
Indeterminate White Mountain Red
Puerco Black-on-red; Wingate Black-on-red
5: Types usually appearing during
the Tularosa phase
Tu larosa Black-on-white
Patterned and a lternating corrugated
St. Johns Black-on-red and Polychrome
Th ree Circle Red-on-white
dating scores or only using shorter-lived decorated
types (Reed 1994). This, however, results in the
exclusion of information concerning the presence of
long-lived pottery. Such exclusions may eliminate
information relating to the most common pottery at
these sites, and, in my opinion, does not really contribute any more dating insights than that provided
by judgmental inferences.
In response to these problems, in the present
study, assemblages from various sites were quantitatively ordered through the use of a simple scoring
technique based on logic, similar to that used in
ceramic mean dating. This technique allows for the
documentation of the kind of gradual ceramic
change represented at sites in the northern Mogollon
Highlands. Given the nature of northern Mogollon
ceramic change, relative scores should not only
reflect the influence of the numerous long-lived
types, but should also give more weight to later
types. Rather than assigning a particular type to a
specific date, types were assigned to gradational
scores that reflected the cumulative nature of ceramic changes in the northern Mogollon. Each type was
assigned a particular score based on the sequential
order of the phase during which it appeared, rather
than a median date. Early plain brown wares appearing during the earliest (Pine Lawn) ceramic phase
were assigned to 1, the lowest score. Early textured
types appearing during the next phase received a
score of 2, and so on, ending with the assignment of
sherds appearing in the late Tularosa phase to a
score of 5. Table 4.27 illustrates the scores for the
various types identified during the Luna Project.
These scores were assigned to each sherd from an
assemblage, added, and then divided by the number
of total sherds. While the scores derived from these
assignments do not provide a chronological date,
they do provide a score helpful in the determination
of the relative time associated with a particular
assemblage. One advantage of this technique over
other seriation techniques is that it is simple and can
easily be applied to other assemblages presented in
various reports.
These scores also may allow for the identification of mixing or contamination from different components that may not be evident through judgmental
inferences alone. For example, significant differences in scores of assemblages containing similar
diagnostic types used in judgment inferences may
indicate the presence of mixed assemblages. In addition, an examination of the relative influence of
scores associated with a particular phase provides a
way to evaluate mixing from different components.
These scores may also provide a tool for examining
the relative continuity of occupation represented by
a group of assemblages. For example, a sudden
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
89
jump in the total score could indicate temporal gaps
or hiatuses that may otherwise be very difficult to
identify.
A combination of the previously discussed
approaches was used to assign dates to Luna sites
and components. Distributions of types were first
used to assign ceramic assemblages from a particular context to one of three basic periods. Next, when
possible, assemblages were assigned to a particular
phase, based on the occurrence of specific and relatively rare types. In addition, contexts were further
dated by assigning previously described ceramic
scores to these assemblages. Data relating to the distribution of ceramic types at Luna Project sites are
presented in Table 4.28. Information relating to the
dating of each site is presented in Table 4.29.
Information concerning the dating of Luna sites is
discussed in order of the earliest to latest components.
ASSIGNMENT AND DATING OF EARLY
PITHOUSE PERIOD COMPONENTS
By definition, the Early Pithouse phase of the
Mogollon is differentiated from the earlier San
Pedro phase of the Cochise Archaic by the addition
of undecorated brown ware (Martin 1979; Stuart and
Gauthier 1981). In some schemes, the Early
Pithouse period is divided into the Pine Lawn and
Georgetown phases (Wheat 1955; Berman 1979;
Martin 1979; Anyon et al. 1981; Stuart and Gauthier
1981). Both of these phases are characterized by the
absence of painted types and most textured utility
wares. Thus, almost all the sherds from assemblages
dating to both phases are Alma Plain, Alma Rough,
or similar pottery exhibiting red slips and classified
as San Francisco Red (Martin 1943; Martin et al.
1949; Fitting 1973).
Unfortunately, criteria previously used to
ceramically differentiate Pine Lawn and
Georgetown phase components are vague and
inconsistent (Berman 1989; Bullard 1962). Martin
appears to have in part distinguished Georgetown
and Pine Lawn phase components based on an
assumed decline of Alma Rough and the occurrence
of very low frequencies of textured brown ware and
Mogollon Red-on-brown (Martin 1943; Martin et al.
1949). Other possible criteria that could be used to
subdivide the Late Pithouse period ceramically may
include changes in the overall dominance of ceramics and possible increases in red slipped pottery.
Based on pottery and architectural similarities at
sites previously assigned to these two phases, how-
90
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
ever, Berman (1989) questions the existence of the
Georgetown phase in the northern Mogollon. She
places occupations previously assigned to the
Georgetown phase into the Pine Lawn Phase
(Berman 1989). The ceramic reality and time span
of these phases will ultimately depend on further
examination of changes noted in distributions of
Alma Plain, Alma Rough, early textured ware, and
Mogollon Red-on-brown.
Ceramic distributions indicate that at least four
sites on the Luna Project contain components dating
during the Early Pithouse period. These include LA
70188 (Raven's Roost), LA 39975 (Lazy Meadows),
LA 45508 (Humming Wire), and Component B of
LA 39972 (SU Tanks).
LA 70188 (Raven's Roost)
A total of 57 sherds were recovered from LA 70188
(Table 4.30). Most of these sherds were recovered
from the general fill, and only two were from Pit
Structure 1. The majority (61.4 percent) of the
sherds from this site are plain brown wares. Alma
Plain polished sherds slightly outnumber Alma
Rough sherds. Red slipped brown wares are relatively common, but this may be a reflection of the
small overall sample size. Despite the small sample
size, the presence of plain brown ware and red ware
sherds belonging to many vessels, and the lack of
later textured types and Mimbres white wares, indicate that the majority of these ceramics are associated with a Late Pithouse Period occupation. Late
Anasazi white wares include late unpainted,
Tularosa Black-on-white, and hatchure black-onwhite. Proportions of Alma Plain, Alma Rough, and
San Francisco Red are very similar to distributions
noted at other Early Pithouse period sites. The
occurrence of five late Anasazi white wares at various proveniences also indicates some contamination
from a Pueblo period component.
While several dates were recovered from this
site, most of them indicate Archaic or Apache occupations and are too early or late to be associated with
the ceramics. Six dates from B.C. 70 to A.D. 330
may indicate an occupation from the Late Archaic to
the early part of the Early Pithouse period. Most of
the sherds from this site may be associated with the
later part of this span and could possibly indicate a
temporal transition between the Late Archaic and
Early Pithouse period. In many areas of the
Southwest, sites dating to the very earliest ceramic
occupations tend to yield very small ceramic assemblages (Blinman and Wilson 1993; Wilson et al.
4
1
LA
39969
LA
39972
.0
12294
LA
45507
3
58
LA
43786
.0
127
LA
43766
1360
1969
.0
LA
39975
6
10459
23
LA
39968
3056
9
LA
37919
1
1
LA
37917
.1
1
91
LA
9721
5751
1566
LA
45510
.1
23789
N
239
2
LA
3563
.1
%
71.7
94.5
70.9
77.3
84.7
84.8
66.8
52.3
53.8
100.0
100.0
100.0
61.6
26.1
%
Plain Brown
Ware
LA
45508
123
N
LA
3279
Site
Indeterminate
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
14
1000
4
1
31
4
21
65
13
136
N
.2
5.8
5.3
.7
1.3
.2
.4
.3
.5
.1
%
Early
Textured
Brown
568
2480
3
4
8
310
1277
3397
286
2 6114
N
7.1
14.3
4.0
2.7
.3
15.2
21.9
17.5
11.2
28.7
%
Plain Smudge d
Brown
1209
1
284
2
7
248
1001
3902
428
31938
N
15.1
.4
1.6
2.7
4.7
12.2
17.1
20.1
16.8
35.1
%
Corrugated
Bro wn
160
11
42
4
1
314
70
40
157
42
2785
N
2.0
4.3
.2
5.3
.7
13.5
3.4
.7
.8
1.7
3.1
%
Mo gollon
Slipp ed Red
29
95 2
4
2
2
30
63
83
13 0
N
.4
5.5
5.3
1.3
.1
.5
.3
3.3
.1
%
Mogollon
Painted
and
Mimbres
White
Table 4.28. Ceramic Groups by Site
280
2
114
8
42
410
1316
117
5460
N
3.5
.8
.7
5.3
2.1
7.0
6.8
4.6
6.0
%
Cibola White
5
3
43
7
187
N
.1
.1
.2
.3
.2
%
White
Mountain
Red and
Nonlocal
Red
313
N
Other
.3
%
1
1
8
1
176
N
Gray
Wares
.0
1
.0
.0
.0
%
8020
253
17348
75
150
2322
2037
5843
19426
9
1
1
2544
90983
N
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
%
92
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
6
LA
75792
Total
204
.1
73798
255
2
LA
89847
.5
397
4
LA
89846
.6
5
LA
78439
1874
884
2
LA
70201
.2
864
LA
70196
.2
3
LA
70191
.2
317
1
8376
N
LA
70189
.2
%
35
27
N
43.4
57.4
62.3
83.3
73.6
75.8
70.6
42.9
69.2
61.4
58.2
%
Plain Brown Ware
LA
70188
LA
70185
Site
Indetermina
te
1401
11
17
50
8
26
N
.8
.4
1.5
4.1
1.7
.2
%
Early
Textured
Brown
37341
103
52
44
1
104
1
39
2546
N
22.0
23.2
8.2
1.7
.1
8.5
14.3
8.5
17.7
%
Plain Smudged
Brown
42656
57
151
1
454
24
1
2
62
2867
N
25.1
12.8
23.7
16.7
17.8
2.1
.1
28.6
13.5
19.9
%
Corrugated Brown
3972
14
38
172
21
2
17
78
N
2.3
3.2
1.5
14.8
1.7
.4
29.8
.5
%
Mogollon
Slipped Red
3
1502
1
58
142
N
.9
.2
5.0
11.6
.0
%
Mogollon
Painted and
Mimbres White
Table 4.28. Continued.
8420
12
33
115
8
41
24
5
427
N
5.0
2.7
5.2
4.5
.7
3.3
5.2
8.8
3.0
%
Cibola White
276
5
1
5
20
N
.1
.2
.2
14.3
1.1
%
White
Mountain Red
and Nonlocal
Red
1
315
N
Other
.2
.0
%
206
1
18
N
Gray
Wares
.1
.1
.1
%
170091
444
637
6
2547
1166
1224
7
458
57
14389
N
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
%
Table 4.29. Dating Phases and Scores Assigned to Luna Project Sites
Phase or Period
Site
Temper
Score
Standa rd
Deviation
Total
Number
Early Pithouse period, some Pueblo period mixing
LA 70188
1.28
.92
57
Early Pithouse period
LA 39975
1.01
.13
2322
Early Pithouse period
LA 45508
1.04
.33
253
Early Pithouse period
LA 39972 north area
1.04
.235
834
San Francisco phase
LA 70196
1.33
.62
1224
Three Circle phase
LA 45507
1.45
.80
17346
Probably Three Circle phase
LA 43786
1.33
.81
75
San Francisco and Three Circle phase and possible Early
Pithouse
LA 70201
1.17
.58
1166
Late Pithouse early Reserve transitional
LA 45510
1.64
1.17
8020
Reserve phase
LA 75792
1.68
1.23
2547
Reserve phase
LA 39969
1.99
1.24
5843
Reserve phase
LA 39972 south area
1.86
1.2
1203
Reserve, some Three Circle phase mixture
LA 3563
1.82
1.22
2544
Reserve phase
LA 70189
1.71
1.18
458
Late Reserve (AC) phase
LA 70185
1.90
1.24
14389
Tularosa phase
LA 89846
1.99
1.39
637
Early Tularosa phase
LA 39968
2.01
1.29
19426
Late Tularosa phase
LA 3279
2.73
1.41
90986
Indeterminate Pueblo period, some Pithouse period mixture
LA 89847
1.76
1.13
144
Reserve phase and early mixed
LA 43766
1.35
.01
150
Late Pithouse / Pueblo periods mixed
LA 75791
1.58
1.18
144
Indeterminate Mogollon
LA 78439
1.50
1.22
6
Indeterminate Mogollon
LA 37917
1.0
0
1
Indeterminate Mogollon
LA 37919
1.0
0
9
Indeterminate Mogollon
LA 70191
2.43
1.51
7
Indeterminate Mogollon
LA 9721
1.0
1
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
93
Table 4.30. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 70188
General Fill
Pit Structure
Total
Type
N
%
N
N
%
Alma Plain body
19
34.5
19
33.3
Alma Rough rim
2
3.6
2
3.5
Alma Rough body
14
25.5
14
24.6
San Francisco Red
10
18.2
11
19.3
Othe r red slipp ed
6
10.9
6
10.5
Cib ola late unpa inted
2
3.6
2
3.5
1
1.8
Cib ola late painted
1
1
50.0
50.0
Cib ola Tularosa
Black-on-White
1
1.8
1
1.8
Cib ola hatchu re
1
1.8
1
1.8
55
100.0
57
100.0
Total
1996), so the small sample size at this site may
reflect the transitional nature of this component
rather than an intrusion. It is quite possible, then,
that the ceramic component of LA 70188 represents
the earliest ceramic occupation excavated during the
Luna Project, as well as one of the earliest thus far
identified for the northern Mogollon. Given the shallow context of recovery of some of these sherds, it is
also possible that they were deposited long after LA
70188 was abandoned, although still during the
Early Pithouse period.
LA 39975 (Lazy Meadows)
A total of 2,322 sherds were recovered from LA
39975 (Table 4.31). This site is a half mile south of
the SU Site, the largest and best known Early
Pithouse phase site in this region (Martin 1943;
Martin and Rinaldo 1947; Martin et al. 1949). This
site was originally referred to as Luna Junction, and
a single pithouse was excavated in 1956 as part of a
highway project (Peckham 1963). During the analysis of 1,131 sherds from the original excavation of
LA 39975, all sherds were assigned to one of three
types—Alma Plain, Alma Rough, and San Francisco
Red—resulting in the placement of this site into the
Pine Lawn phase.
94
%
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
2
100.0
Additional features excavated during the Luna
Project and yielding ceramics include Pit Structures
1 through 3, Pit 1, and Roasting Pit 1. Similar
ceramic distributions were noted for all contexts at
this site, indicating that all contexts investigated at
this site date to the Early Pithouse period.
The great majority (84.8 percent) of the sherds
recovered from LA 39975 during the Luna Project
were assigned to plain brown wares. Polished Alma
plain rim sherds slightly outnumber unpolished
Alma Rough sherds. Several cases were noted where
sherds from different proveniences, assigned to
plain and unpolished forms, could be matched to the
same vessel. Thus, differences in the frequency of
Alma Plain versus Alma Rough may, to a large part,
reflect factors relating to the erosion of the soft surfaces of early polished plain ware forms. Given this
observation, the differentiation of phases of the
Early Pithouse period based on surface frequency of
polished to unpolished sherds must be viewed with
at least some skepticism.
A very low proportion (.3 percent) of the early
brown wares exhibit a layer of soot over a heavily
polished surface and were classified as early
smudged. Early textured brown wares were limited
to Alma scored. Types exhibiting a red slip over the
surface, including sherds classified as San Francisco
Table 4.31. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 39975
General Fill
Pit Structure 1
Pit Structure 2
Pit Structure 3
Total
Ceramic Type
N
Alma Plain rim
%
N
%
N
%
15
1.6
13
1.4
Alma Plain body
318
34.6
461
48.0
78
Alma Rough rim
17
1.9
21
2.2
3
430
46.8
330
34.3
23
27
2.9
3
.3
Early smudged
3
.3
San Francisco Red
1
.1
8
.8
107
11.7
124
12.9
1
.1
961
100.0
Alma Rough body
Alma scored
Other red slipped
Corrugated red slipped
Total
918
100.0
Red or red slipped brown ware, represent similar if
not identical groups and occur in low but significant
frequencies. A single sherd exhibiting a corrugated
surface with a red slip probably represents a contaminant from a nearby site.
With the exception of a single corrugated sherd,
ceramic distributions indicate an occupation limited
to the Early Pithouse period. Ceramic distributions
from different proveniences and earlier highwayrelated investigations (Peckham 1963) are very similar and indicate that various features at this site
could have been occupied contemporaneously. The
consistent dominance of polished over unpolished
brown ware forms, the presence of low frequencies
of sherds exhibiting treatments, and lack of later textured and painted types may indicate an occupation
sometime during the Late Pine Lawn or Early
Georgetown periods.
Radiocarbon analyses from LA 39975 resulted
in a wide range of dates (Zamora, this report) but
support inferences from the ceramics that all the
structures at this site were occupied sometime during the Early Pithouse period. A roasting pit yielded
dates from A.D. 370 and 550; Pit Structure 1 yielded dates of A.D. 610 and 700, and Pit Structures 2
and 3 appear to date between A.D. 330 and 370.
While these could indicate a long occupation lasting
from A.D. 220 to A.D. 700, covering the entire
Early Pithouse period, it is possible that the earlier
dates reflect the use of old wood (Zamora, this
29
133
N
%
N
%
3
1.0
31
1.3
58.6
112
38.2
975
42.0
2.3
6
2.0
48
2.1
17.3
124
42.3
915
39.4
1
.3
31
1.3
5
1.7
8
.3
9
.4
304
13.1
1
.0
2322
100.0
21.8
100.0
42
293
14.3
100.0
report). It is likely that the later dates reflect the time
of occupation of this site, dating to the Late
Pinelawn and Early Georgetown phases.
LA 45508 (Humming Wire)
A total of 253 sherds were recovered from LA
45508 (Table 4.32). Features from which sherds
were recovered include Pit Structure 1 and Pit
Structure 2. The great majority (94.5 percent) of
sherds from this site represent plain brown wares.
Alma Plain rim polished outnumbers Alma Rough
almost two to one. Red slipped brown ware sherds
are present but relatively rare. The remaining three
sherds represent indeterminate corrugated (.4 percent) and Reserve/Tularosa Black-on-white. The
majority of these sherds probably derived from a
component dating to the Early Pithouse period,
although the presence of a single corrugated sherd
and two late Anasazi style white ware sherds indicate some very slight contamination from a Pueblo
period site upslope from LA 45508.
Most of the radiocarbon dates recovered from
this site are very late, including a date of A.D. 1670
at Pit Structure 1, which probably reflects contamination (Oakes, this report). The other radiocarbon
dates from this site include a date of A.D. 600 at Pit
Structure 2 and appear to support an occupation
sometime during the later part of the Early Pithouse
period.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
95
Table 4.32. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 45508
General Fill
Pit Structure 1
Pit Structure 2
N
N
Total
Type
N
%
Alma Plain rim
%
N
%
2
1.1
1
9.1
3
1.2
8
7 2.7
150
59.3
6
2.4
Alma Plain body
43
63.2
99
56.9
Alma Rough rim
1
1.5
5
2.9
19
27.9
60
34.5
Alma Rough body
%
Indeterminate corrugated
9.1
80
31.6
1
9.1
1
.4
10
4.0
San Francisco Red
2
2.9
Other red slipped
1
1.5
1
.4
2
2.9
2
.8
68
100.0
253
100.0
Cibola Reserve/Tularosa
Black-o n-white
Total
8
1
4.6
174
100.0
11
10 0.0
Table 4.33. Ceramic Type by Provenience, LA 39972
Early Pithouse
N
Alma Plain rim
Alma Plain body
Alma Rough rim
Ea rly Pueblo
%
N
%
N
%
10
1.4
65
4.9
75
3.7
387
54.5
586
44.2
973
47.8
4
.6
9
.7
13
.6
217
30.6
82
6.2
299
14.7
Alma scored
2
.2
2
.1
Alma incised
1
.1
1
.0
Three Circle neckba nded
1
.1
1
.0
255
19.2
277
13.6
19
1.4
19
.9
1
.1
1
.0
Reserve corru gated indented
29
2.2
29
1.4
Tula rosa corrugated pattern
2
.2
2
.1
Tula rosa corrugated smudged pattern
1
.1
1
.0
47
3.5
47
2.3
Incised corrugated smud ged
6
.5
6
.3
Altern ating corrugated
1
.1
1
.0
108
8.1
110
5.4
9
.7
9
.4
Alma Rough body
Reserve smudged body
22
3.1
Reserve Plain corrugated
Reserve Plain corrugated smudged
Incised corrugated
Overlap corrugated
2
Overlap corrugated smudged
96
Total
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
.3
Table 4.33. Continued.
Early Pithouse
N
Ea rly Pueblo
Total
N
%
N
%
Plain smudged rim
33
2.5
33
1.6
Indeterminate corrugated
14
1.1
14
.7
Indeterminate
1
.1
1
.0
Punctuated corrugated
9
.7
9
.4
Slip un painted
1
.1
1
.0
Man gus Black-on-white
1
.1
1
.0
2
.2
69
3.4
1
.0
San Francisco Red
Othe r red slipp ed
%
67
9.4
1
.1
Cib ola late unpa inted
5
.4
5
.2
Cib ola late painted
1
.1
1
.0
Cib ola Reserve Black-on-white
32
2.4
32
1.6
Cib ola Tularosa Black-on-white
2
.2
2
.1
Cib ola Reserve/Tu larosa Black-on-white
1
.1
1
.0
Puerco Reserve Black-on -white
1
.1
1
.0
1327
100.0
2037
100.0
Total
7 10
100.0
Component B of LA 39972 (SU Tanks)
Ceramic evidence of an Early Pithouse occupation
at LA 39972 was limited to 710 sherds from Area B
(Table 4.33). Assemblages from this area are dominated by plain brown wares (87.0 percent). Most of
these represent Alma Plain, although Alma Rough
sherds are also fairly common. The next most common group at this component are represented by
Mogollon slipped red wares (9.6 percent). Smudged
brown ware sherds classified as Reserve smudged
are also represented ((3.1 percent) and could represent a smudged variation of early plain brown wares.
Two overlapping corrugated sherds represent the
only pottery that is clearly not associated with the
Pithouse occupation. Thus, the ceramic assemblage
from this area of the site clearly indicates a Pithouse
period component, with surprisingly little contamination, given the presence of fairly large numbers of
Pueblo period sherds in other areas of this site.
Relationship between Early Pithouse
Components
Ceramic distributions at the four sites or components assigned to the Early Pithouse period are quite
similar. The most common type at all three sites is
Alma polished, followed by Alma Rough.
Differences in the relative frequency of these types
may reflect factors influencing erosion of surfaces
and sampling error resulting from the small number
of sherds in two of the assemblages assigned to the
Early Pithouse period. All four sites contain smaller
but significant frequencies of red slipped brown
wares. While slipped brown ware was assigned to
two different types, in retrospect, it appears that a
single brown ware type similar to previous definitions of San Francisco Red is represented. Textured
and decorated types, potentially indicative of an
occupation during the later part of the Georgetown
phase, are relatively rare and may indicate that none
of these sites date after A.D. 650. While LA 39975
did contain low frequencies of two types (early
smudged and Alma scored), and LA 39972 may
have contained smudged pottery associated with the
early component, the additional presence of these
types may simply have resulted from the much larger number of ceramics from this site. These differences did not affect the assignment of ceramic
scores previously described, based on the date of
introduction of ceramic types. Another pattern that
could reflect differences in the dating of Early
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
97
Pithouse phase sites is the relative abundance of
ceramics, because there is some evidence to suggest
an overall increase in ceramics during the early part
of the Pithouse period. Given the similar numbers of
structures at these three sites, differences in the relative dating of the three sites could explain the drastic differences in the amount of pottery at LA 39975
and LA 70188.
Dating scores for three of the four sites assigned
to the Early Pithouse period were extremely low
(ranging from 1.01 to 1.04) and reflect the dating of
the site. The higher score (1.28) at LA 70188 simply
reflects the influence of five intrusive Cibola White
Ware sherds on a small sample. If these five sherds
are removed from the assemblage, the dating score
at this site is extremely similar to that noted at other
Early Pithouse sites.
ASSIGNMENT AND DATING OF LATE
PITHOUSE PERIOD COMPONENTS
The beginning of the Late Pithouse period is defined
ceramically by the addition of early Mogollon or
Mimbres painted types, early textured or neckbanded types, and relatively high frequencies of smudged
types. In the northern Mogollon country, the end of
this phase is defined ceramically by the appearance
of corrugated brown ware and white ware assemblages dominated by Cibola Anasazi types such as
Reserve Black-on-white.
Two distinct phases have been defined within
the Late Pithouse period: the San Francisco (A.D.
700 to 900) and Three Circle (A.D. 900 to 1000)
phases. In some schemes, Mogollon Red-on-brown
is thought to represent the earliest Mogollon painted
type, followed by increasing amounts of Three
Circle Red-on-white, and finally by white ware
types dominated by Mangus (Mimbres Boldface)
Black-on-white. Scored and incised are thought to
represent the earliest form of textured utility ware
types, followed by Alma punched, and Three Circle
neck coiled.
In contrast to later phases, the great majority of
decorated ceramics from Late Pithouse period components in the northern Mogollon country represent
decorated Mogollon painted or Mimbres white
wares. Pastes, surface manipulations, and designs of
decorated pottery dominating northern Mogollon
assemblages are extremely similar to those dominating assemblages at contemporaneous sites in the
Mimbres region to the south. Early decorated
Mogollon or Mimbres white wares exhibit similar
pastes and temper combinations noted for Mogollon
98
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
brown wares, but are distinguished from these by the
addition of painted decorations and/or slipped treatments. Early Mogollon decorated types are normally distinguished from each other by differences in
paint color, slipped treatments, and decorative styles
(Haury 1936a). The similarity and gradation
between the early decorated types has been long
noted, and it is often assumed that these types reflect
a slow and gradual adoption and replacement of
color schemes and design elements. The traditional
scheme of development begins with the introduction
of Mogollon Red-on-brown as the first painted type
appearing sometime during the early or middle
eighth century (Lekson 1990; Powell 1990), following its replacement by Three Circle Red-on-white
sometime during the early ninth century. Three
Circle Red-on-white is often assumed to have developed into Mangus Black-on-white during the ninth
to tenth century (Haury 1936a). Syntheses of pottery
from this region often assumed a slow progression
of short-lived decorated Mogollon types that only
slightly overlap each other's periods of production
(Haury 1936a).
Other studies have questioned assumptions of a
simple and orderly progression of decorated
Mogollon types (Withers 1985). Based on a review
of stratigraphic data from Mogollon sites, Withers
(1985), notes that Mogollon Red-on-brown and
Three Circle Red-on-white often occur together in
the same contexts, and states there is very little evidence that Mogollon Red-on-brown preceded Three
Circle red-on-white. He also stresses the general
absence of sites in which Three Circle Red-on-white
outnumbers other decorated pottery types, and considers Three Circle a variant of Mogollon Red-onbrown. In this scheme, both types are assumed to
have been produced at about the same time and by
the same people. Withers (1985) also feels that
Three Circle Red-on-white was shorter-lived than
Mogollon Red-on-brown. Examinations of ceramic
distribution data presented from some Late Pithouse
sites also result in questions concerning assumptions
that Mangus Black-on-white necessarily has a later
beginning date than Mogollon Red-on-brown and
Three Circle Red-on-white, as Black-on-white types
often appear in early contexts along with these types
(Withers 1985).
Some of the problems concerning the documentation of sequences of changes in white wares result
from inconsistencies and difficulties in determining
criteria utilized in the definition and recognition of
early painted types. For example, some studies
appear to have distinguished Early Mogollon painted types solely based on paint and surface color. It is
often, however, not possible to determine if other
criteria were utilized to distinguish these types. For
example, it is possible that some of the differences
in paint and paste color utilized by some archaeologists to differentiate Mogollon types may simply
reflect variation of firing technologies utilized during a particular time, while regional changes in decorative styles may be more temporally sensitive and
more indicative of a type. Thus, during the examination of early Mogollon painted types from Luna
sites, attempts were made to monitor a variety of
technological and stylistic attributes in order to adequately document temporally sensitive changes
within Mogollon painted or Mimbres white wares.
Examination of distributions and associations
of painted and textured types associated with Late
Pithouse occupations provide an opportunity to
evaluate the nature of continuity of occupation during the Late Pithouse period. Ceramic distributions
from four sites including LA 70196 (Fence Corner
Site), LA 45507 (Luna Village), LA 43786
(Downslope Site), and LA 70201 (Turkey Toes)
indicate occupations during the Late Pithouse
Period. In addition, three sites exhibited evidence of
occupations dating both to the Late Pithouse and
Pueblo periods, and include LA 3563 (South
Leggett Pueblo), LA 89847 (Red Ear Site), and LA
75791 (Lady Bug Junction).
LA 70196 (Fence Corner Site)
A total of 1,224 sherds were recovered from LA
70196 (Table 4.34). The great majority of sherds
recovered from this site were from Pit Structure 1
and general fill.
The majority (70.6 percent) of the sherds from
this site represent plain brown wares. Alma Plain
polished sherds greatly outnumber Alma Rough
sherds. Early red slipped brown wares are present in
very low frequencies. Ceramic assemblages from
this site are distinguished from Early Pithouse
assemblages by the presence of low frequencies of
early textured and painted types. A total of 4.1 percent of all sherds were assigned to early textured
types including Alma scored, Alma incised, Alma
punched, and Three Circle punched. This represents
the earliest Luna Project occupation where plain
smudged brown wares are common. A single sherd
was classified as plain overlapping corrugated.
Early Mogollon decorated types include 8.9 percent
of all sherds from this site and include Three Circle
Red-on-white, the overwhelmingly dominant type
represented, as well as much lower frequencies of
Mangus Black-on-white. Other painted Mogollon
types not exhibiting distinct painted styles were
classified as indeterminate Mimbres white wares,
slipped unpainted, slipped painted red, and slipped
painted black. Very low frequencies of Anasazi
types were identified at this site and include Obelisk
Gray body, early unpainted, early painted, White
Mound, and early unpainted. Late Anasazi white
wares include late unpainted and late painted.
Similarities of distribution of ceramic types
from various proveniences indicate that the various
contexts at LA 70196 were probably contemporaneous. The general lack of corrugated ware, the presence of low frequencies of early textured ware, and
the occurrence of Three Circle Red-on-white as the
dominant white ware indicate an occupation dating
to the San Francisco phase, sometime during the
eighth or ninth century. The presence of gray ware
types and White Mound Black-on-white sherds from
the Anasazi region may also support an occupation
dating sometime during this span.
Data from LA 70196 may also provide insights
concerning the dating of Three Circle Red-on-white
and its use as an indicator for late San Francisco
phase occupations. Observations concerning the
associated characteristics and dating of this type are
important because very few assemblages dominated
by Three Circle Red-on-white have been previously
reported (Withers 1985). Technological and stylistic
attributes of the pottery from this site seem to be
very similar and may provide a basis for the definition and verification of Three Circle Red-on-white
as a temporally distinct type. Examination of the
white slipped painted brown ware from LA 70196
indicates a very narrow range of attributes, probably
indicative of a fairly short occupation. While most
of the Mimbres White Ware sherds from this site
exhibit decorations in red paint, a few exhibit black
designs and would have been classified as Mangus
(Mimbres Boldface) Black-on-white. Most of the
sherds from LA 70196 exhibiting decorations in
black paint, however, exhibit the same designs and
manipulations as in those with red paint and are different from the ranges of design noted on Mangus
Black-on-white sherds from later sites, such as Luna
Village. Thus, most of the sherds from this site
exhibiting black painted decoration may represent a
variation of a basic firing technology in which pottery was fired in a lower oxidizing atmosphere, a
variation that may have been sporadically achieved
during this time. Pastes tend to be more reddish than
later Mimbres white wares and are covered by a
white to buff slip. The slip of Three Circle Red-onwhite sherds from this site consistently contain
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
99
Table 4.34. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 70196
General Fill
Pit Structure
Total
Type
Alma Plain rim
Alma Plain body
N
%
N
%
N
%
2
1.2
13
1.2
15
1.2
104
60.8
65 8
62.6
7 63
62.3
4
.4
4
.3
Alma Rough rim
Alma Rough b ody
23
13.5
59
5.6
82
6.7
1
.6
40
3.8
41
3.3
Alma incised
5
.5
5
.4
Fillet Alma neckbanded
1
.1
1
.1
Three Circle neckbanded
3
.3
3
.2
83
7.9
86
7.0
1
.1
1
.1
Alma score d
Reserve smudged body
3
1.8
Overlap corru gated
Plain smudged rim
1
.6
17
1.6
18
1.5
Slip unpainted
5
2.9
11
1.0
16
1.3
Slip painted, red
2
1.2
4
.4
6
.5
4
.4
4
.3
10 3
9.8
1 14
9.3
1
.1
1
.1
Slip pigment, black
Three Circle Red-on-white
11
6.4
Mangus Black-on-white
San Francisco Red
1
.6
11
1.0
12
1.0
Other red slipped
3
1.8
6
.6
9
.7
1
.1
1
.1
7
.7
20
1.6
3
.3
3
.2
Cibola Obelisk Gray body
Cibola early unpainted
12
7.0
Cibola early painted
Cibola late unpainted
2
1.2
7
.7
9
.7
Cibola late painted
1
.6
1
.1
2
.2
Cibola White Mou nd
Black-on-white
6
.6
6
.5
Puerco Obelisk Gray body
1
.1
1
.1
Puerco early unpainted
1
.1
1
.1
1051
100.0
1224
100.0
Total
100
171
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
100.0
small but visible mica particles that protrude
through the slip. Similar particles are found in most
of the local weathered tuff sources of suitable quality to have been used as a slip source (Wilson 1994).
These mica inclusions are absent in the slip of later
Mimbres White wares associated with later contexts
in this area. Thus, the presence of such mica inclusions may be a diagnostic characterization of ThreeCircle Red-on-white that, along with design styles,
is more temporally sensitive than paint color.
Almost all the sherds from LA 70196 displayed similar designs consisting of boldly executed parallel
lines and triangles covering much of the vessel surface. If Three Circle Red-on-white is defined by the
presence of slip with mica inclusions and similar
design styles, then almost all ceramics from LA
70196 can be assigned to Three Circle Red-white,
including most of the sherds exhibiting decorations
in black paint. When this criteria is utilized, Three
Red-on-white appears to represent a very distinctive
and short-lived type.
While ceramics from LA 70196 indicate a San
Francisco phase occupation usually dated to the
eighth or ninth century, the radiocarbon dates from
this site cluster in the late seventh century (Oakes,
this report). The dates are too early for the ceramics
and probably indicate a problem with old wood.
Archaeomagnetic samples from the same proveniences from which the radiocarbon dates were
recovered are more reasonable and date A.D. 810910 for the lower hearth and A.D. 735 to 800 for the
wall plaster from Pit Structure 1.
LA 45507 (Luna Village)
A total of 17,346 sherds were recovered at LA
45507 for the Luna Project (Table 4.35). Luna
Village may contain as many as 50 to 100 pit structures and may be among the largest pithouse villages
in the northern Mogollon. Early investigations by
Hough (1919) resulted in the excavation of a number of pit structures including a very large structure
that was originally referred to as a dance plaza. Brief
descriptions and illustrations of sherds and vessels
recovered during the original excavation of Luna
Village indicate the presence of plain polished,
neckbanded, incised, smudged, and incised utility
ware forms and painted styles in black paint later
attributed to Mimbres Bold Face or Mangus Blackon-white.
A number of additional structures and features
were excavated on the Luna Project. Proveniences
from which ceramics were recovered include Pit
Structures 1, 3, 9, 12, 13, and general fill. The
majority of (70.9 percent) of the sherds from this site
represent plain brown wares. Alma Plain polished
outnumbers Alma Rough sherds about five to one.
Red slipped brown wares occur in very low frequencies. Early textured brown wares make up 5.8
percent of the total sherds and include Alma scored,
Alma incised, Alma punched, and Three Circle
punched. Plain smudged brown wares make up 14.3
percent of all sherds. Corrugated brown types (1.6
percent of all sherds) include a variety of manipulations. Early Mogollon decorated types consist of 3.8
percent of all sherds and include extremely low frequencies of Mogollon Red-on Brown and Three
Circle Red-on-white. By far the dominant Mogollon
painted type is Mangus Black-on-white. Anasazi
types include gray body rim, early Anasazi painted,
early Anasazi unpainted, White Mound Black-onwhite, Red Mesa Black-on-white, and late Anasazi
painted.
Similar combinations of ceramics were associated with various contexts and indicate that the various structures and features were occupied at least
during the same phase. This combination of types
indicates an occupation during the Three Circle
phase, probably sometime during the late ninth or
tenth century. This assignment is primarily based on
the presence of Three Circle punched as the dominant textured type along with Alma punched, significant frequencies of plain smudged sherds, and
Mangus Black-on-white as the painted type. The
presence of Red Mesa Black-on-white as the dominant intrusive Anasazi white ware and lower frequencies of White Mound Black-on-white also support an occupation sometime during the tenth century.
Mogollon white wares recovered from LA
45507 exhibit a narrow range of characteristics,
probably indicative of ceramics produced during a
fairly short time. While the majority of the decorated sherds from this site exhibited decorations in
black paint, a fairly significant frequency exhibited
decoration in brown or red paint. Manipulation and
design styles of the sherds exhibiting red paint, however, were much more similar to the black painted
Mangus Black-on-white sherds from this site rather
than Three Circle Red-on-white sherds from LA
70196. Distributions of paint color reflect a range of
firing atmospheres utilized in the firing of white
ware vessels during this span of time, so that some
sherds exhibiting red paint were classified as
Mangus Black-on-white based on surface and stylistic characteristics. Pastes tend to be gray to brown
and less red than noted in earlier Three Circle Red-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
101
102
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Slip pigment, b lack
16
.3
.1
.2
2
.2
8
6
Slip painted, red
2
82
26
14
.7
.4
1.4
46
.1
4
Slip unpa inted
Mogollo n Red-on-brown
.8
.7
2
4
Indeterminate corrug ated
24
Indeterminate
52
40
Plain smudged rim
.5
14
2
32
.4
92
700
Overlap corrugated
4
6.7
10.3
2
.0
.3
66
102
60
2
18
Reserve Pla in corrugated
5.8
3.0
.4
Incised corrugated
354
Reserve smudged b ody
4
14
106
16
2450
44
N
2
186
Three Circle neckband ed
.5
1.8
9.3
.2
60.5
2.6
%
Reserve corrugated smudged
indented
28
Fillet Alma neckbanded
.3
18
92
2
598
26
N
.4
.1
.2
.7
2.1
.6
.1
.1
.1
.1
17.9
2.3
1.5
.4
2.7
.4
62.5
1.1
%
Pit Structure 3
2
16
Alma incised
1.2
25.3
.9
51.4
1.3
%
Pit Structure 1
Reserve corrugated indented
74
Alma scored
1552
54
Alma Rou gh rim
Alma Rou gh body
3154
80
N
Gene ral Fill
Alma Plain bo dy
Alma Plain rim
Type
2
2
8
22
20
4
248
6
N
.6
.6
2.5
6.8
6.2
1.2
76.5
1.9
%
Pit Structure 9
12
4
78
17 4
12
2
81 2
27 0
36
8
40
76
12
305 0
10 6
N
.2
.1
1.5
3.5
.2
.0
16.1
5.4
.7
.2
.8
1.5
.2
60.6
2.1
%
Pit Structure 12
Table 4.35. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 45507
2
8
10
4
2
118
40
4
14
4
12
446
12
N
.3
1.1
1.4
.5
.3
16.2
5.5
.5
1.9
.5
1.6
61.1
1.6
%
Pit Structure
13
Total
18
10
76
6
10
1 66
3 38
74
6
2
6
30
21 42
6 78
1 34
38
1 50
19 00
94
100 22
2 76
N
.1
.1
.4
.0
.1
1.0
1.9
.4
.0
.0
.0
.2
12.3
3.9
.8
.2
.9
11.0
.5
57.8
1.6
%
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
103
8
.8
Total
Puerco Gray body pla in
Puerco Gray body
6140
2
100.0
.0
.1
988
100.0
.2
3918
2
1 00.0
.1
324
100.0
503 4
16
100.0
.3
730
8
100.0
1.1
4
2
2
2
4
30
12
Cibola indeterminate black-on-white
.1
.2
4
.3
22
36
6
52
1 18
2
40
2
1 00
Cibola Red Mesa Black-on -white
2
.5
4
Total
7 28
N
6
.1
.1
4
.3
5.2
%
6
4
.2
.1
.4
1.4
2
38
N
Cibola White Mound Black-on-white
.1
10
4
22
68
.2
.3
3.9
%
8
.4
.2
.6
3.1
10
14
19 4
N
2
4
8
2
10
%
Pit Structure
13
Cibola late painted
.1
.3
.3
.2
.1
.1
.7
N
Pit Structure 12
2
8
20
.1
5.3
%
Pit Structure 9
Cibola late unpainted
Cibola early painted
Cibola early unpainted
Cibola Lino Gray rim
10
12
Cibola Gray body plain
.2
6
.6
4
26
206
34
.4
.2
3.8
Cibola Gray body
26
San Francisco Red
.0
2
38
2
2
2
Slip paint, brown clay
.9
4.1
.0
N
Pit Structure 3
Other red slipped
54
250
2
%
N
N
%
Pit Structure 1
Gene ral Fill
Mimbres indetermin ate
Mangus Black-on-white
Three Circle Red-on-white
Typ e
Table 4.35. Continued.
100.0
0
.0
.0
.2
.1
.0
.0
.1
.2
.0
.3
.7
.0
.2
.0
.6
4.2
.0
%
on-white sherds. Slips are usually chalky and very
white and do not contain mica. Design styles of
these white wares were boldly executed, cover much
of the vessel surface, and exhibit ranges of design
styles similar to examples of this type from tenth
century sites in the Mimbres region.
Dates obtained from LA 45507 include 25
radiocarbon dates, 4 tree-ring dates, and 4 archaeomagnetic samples (Oakes and Zamora, this report).
The archaeomagnetic samples clustered between
A.D. 795 and A.D. 805. Five radiocarbon samples
and one tree-ring sample also align with these dates.
Pit Structures 9 and 12 each yielded a single radiocarbon date that is a hundred years later (ca. A.D.
900). Pit Structure 1 was dated between A.D. 960 to
970. Dating evidence may indicate an initial occupation at LA 45507 during the late ninth century
with a continued occupation until the late tenth century. While the Three Circle phase usually has been
dated between A.D. 900 to 1000 (Haury 1936a;
Wheat 1955), these radiocarbon dates could indicate
a somewhat earlier beginning date (LeBlanc and
Whalen 1980). More information is needed before
these earlier dates for the Three Circle phase can be
fully evaluated.
Alma punched. Plain smudged brown represented
4.0 percent of all sherds. Corrugated brown types
(2.7 percent) were exclusively represented by
Tularosa Plain very fine corrugated. Indeterminate
Mimbres white wares were exclusively represented
by Mimbres slipped black pigment.
No independent dates were recovered from LA
43786, so the dating of this site is entirely based on
ceramic distributions. This combination of types,
particularly the association of Alma punched with
black painted Mimbres ceramics, indicate an occupation sometime during the Late Pithouse period,
possible during the Three Circle phase. While very
fine corrugated is usually associated with Pueblo
period occupations, a low frequency of this type representing a variety of vessels normally classified as
neckcoiled may occur at pithouse sites. Sherds from
LA 43786 also indicate an occupation sometime
during the Late Pithouse period, although the small
sample size makes it difficult to determine the particular phase represented. The presence of Mimbres
White Ware sherds exhibiting black paint (but not
from red ware forms) and the presence of Alma
punched indicates this site most likely dates to the
Three Circle phase.
LA 43786 (Downslope Site)
LA 70201 (Turkey Toes)
A total of 75 sherds were examined from LA 43876
(Table 4.36). All sherds were from the general fill.
The majority (77.3 percent) of the sherds represent
plain brown wares. Alma Rough sherds were slightly more common than Alma Plain polished. A total
of 5.3 percent of all sherds represented red slipped
brown ware. Early textured brown wares included
A total of 1,166 sherds were recovered from LA
70201 (Table 4.37). Ceramics were limited to surface and shallow fill. Pottery from LA 70201
appears to represent material washed downslope
from Turkey Foot Ridge, originally excavated by
Martin and Rinaldo (1950b). Investigations at
Turkey Foot Ridge in 1948 resulted in the excavation of 16 pit structures interpreted as evidence of a
small occupation in the Georgetown phase, a major
occupation during the San Francisco phase, and a
small but significant occupation in the Three Circle
phase (Martin and Rinaldo 1950b). Data recovered
during Martin's excavations of Turkey Foot Ridge
form much of the basis for the characterization of
phases of the Late Pithouse period in the Pine Lawn
Valley. Turkey Foot Ridge, then, appears to reflect a
long and continuous occupation of groups which
began sometime during the Early Pithouse period
and continued into the end of the Late Pithouse period. This occupation may be analogous to the occupational span recently documented for Mogollon
Village near Alma to the south of the Luna Project
(Mauldin et al. 1996). Mogollon Village appears to
reflect a long continuous pithouse occupation spanning most of the Early Pithouse and Late Pithouse
Table 4.36. Ceramic Types by Provenience,
LA 43786
General Fill
N
%
Alma Plain body
27
36.0
Alma Rough body
31
41.3
Fillet Alma neckbanded
4
5.3
Reserve smud ged body
1
1.3
Reserve Plain corrugated
2
2.7
Pla in smudge d rim
2
2.7
Slip pigment, black
4
5.3
Sa n Francisco Red
1
1.3
Other red slipped
3
4.0
75
100.0
Total
104
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Table 4.37. Ceramic Types by Provenience,
LA 70201
General Fill
N
Alma Plain rim
%
26
2.2
Alma Plain body
62 7
53.8
Alma Rough rim
4
Alma Rough body
22 7
.3
19.5
Alma scored
4
.3
Alma incised
1
.1
Alma punche d
1
.1
Fillet Alma neckbanded
4
.3
Three Circle neckbanded
7
.6
Reserve smud ged body
1
.1
Reserve Plain corrugated
5
.4
Incised corrugation
1
.1
Overla p corrugation
8
.7
Indeterminate corrugated
10
.9
Mogollon Red-on-brown
5
.4
Indeterminate
2
.2
Slip unpainted
17
1.5
Slip painted, red
5
.4
Slip pigment, black
2
.2
Three Circle Red-o n-white
9
.8
Mangus Black-on-white
19
1.6
Slip paint-brown clay
1
.1
Sa n Francisco Red
17 1
1
.1
Cibola early painted
2
.2
Cibola late painted
6
.5
1166
Pithouse at LA 3563 (South Leggett Pueblo)
14.7
Other red slipped
Total
are plain brown wares. Alma Plain polished outnumbers Alma Rough almost two to one. Red
slipped brown wares were also relatively common.
Early textured types consist of 1.5 percent of the
sherds from this site and include Alma scored, Alma
incised, Alma punched, Alma neckbanded, and
Three Circle neckbanded. Corrugated brown ware
types include Tularosa Plain very fine corrugated,
incised corrugated, plain overlapping corrugated,
indeterminate corrugated, and indeterminate. While
Mangus Black-on-white was the dominant
Mogollon painted type, Mogollon Red-on-brown
and Three Circle Red-on-white sherds were also
present. Anasazi types include early painted and late
painted.
These ceramic distributions indicate an occupation from the end of the Early Pithouse period to the
Late Pithouse period. The wide variety of Mogollon
painted types, including significant frequencies of
Mogollon Red-on-brown, Three Circle Red-onwhite, and Mangus Black-on-white, supports a
mixed occupation during the Georgetown, San
Francisco, and Three Circle phases. The presence of
Mogollon Red-on-brown sherds, a type absent at
other pithouse phase sites, indicates the presence of
pottery from an Early San Francisco phase component. Thus, ceramic distributions support previous
interpretations that artifacts from LA 70201 are ultimately derived from Turkey Foot Ridge. If this is
the case, then Turkey Foot Ridge does span a longer
period within the Late Pithouse period (particularly
the period transitional between the Georgetown and
San Francisco phases) than the other Late Pithouse
phase sites investigated.
100.0
period that lasted almost a thousand years. An examination of potential factors that may have resulted in
the long and continuous occupation during this span,
and the absence of similar spans of occupations at
other sites in the Luna project area, may be particularly informative.
No features were found during excavations of
LA 70201 (Zamora, this report). All sherds were
associated with surface or shallow general fill. The
majority (75.9 percent) of the sherds from this site
The ceramic dating of LA 3563 presents a dilemma.
This site represents a pueblo dating to the Reserve
phase and a pithouse dating to the Three Circle
phase, excavated in 1949 by Martin and Rinaldo
(1950a). Recent investigations by OAS resulted in
the reexcavation of the pithouse from this site
(Zamora, this report). Martin and Rinaldo (1950a)
assigned this pithouse to the Three Circle phase
based on ceramics found on the floor of the pit structure, but they note that it was also used during the
Reserve phase as a refuse dump by occupants of the
pueblo at this site. Unfortunately, the Three Circle
phase ceramics from the floor and other proveniences at this site had been removed by Martin, so
that the great majority of the pottery is from surrounding areas of the site dating to the Reserve
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
105
phase. Ceramic distributions at this site are most
similar to those noted at Reserve phase sites and are
described later in this chapter along with other
Reserve phase assemblages. Evidence of a Three
Circle phase occupation includes the presence of
some early textured types and the relatively high frequency (4.6 percent of all sherds) of Mimbres white
wares. These include fairly equal frequencies of
Three Circle Red-on-white and Mangus Black-onwhite.
The Relationship between Late Pithouse
Components
Distributions of ceramic types at Late Pithouse period sites indicate occupations dating to both the San
Francisco and Three Circle phases. One of the few
gaps in the Mogollon sequence that may be represented by the Luna Project data is the absence of
sites containing components dominated by
Mogollon Red-on-brown that can be attributed to
the early part of the San Francisco phase. This type
is represented in the mixed deposits at LA 70201,
which may include material from components dating to this span. Ceramic scores assigned to Late
Pithouse sites were clearly intermediate between
those noted at sites assigned to the Early Pithouse
and Pueblo periods. A jump in scores between single component Early Pithouse and Late Pithouse
period sites may, however, reflect the absence of
well-dated sites occupied during the first half of the
San Francisco phase.
Ceramic data from two Luna Project sites yielded large amounts of pottery indicative of occupation
entirely within two distinct phases of the Early
Pithouse period. These include LA 70196 (Fence
Corner), which was occupied during the San
Francisco phase, and LA 45507 (Luna Village),
occupied during the Three Circle phase. A comparison of these sites indicates that while ceramic
assemblages are similar, the frequency and treatment of early textures and painted types differs significantly, and it is unlikely that there was any overlap in the occupation of these two sites. Earlier dates
for LA 70196 are also supported by a ceramic score
of 1.33, compared to a score of 1.45 for LA 45507.
Comparisons of painted sherds found at these
sites indicate the production of distinct Mimbres
white wares in different phases of the Late Pithouse
period. These are reflected by differences in paint
color, as well as in the ranges of paint color.
Differences in slip characteristics and design styles
are better indicators of associations with a particular
106
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
phase of the Late Pithouse period than paint colors
alone. Therefore, types such as Three Circle Redon-white and Mangus Black-on-white are diagnostic
indicators of relatively short temporal periods if
defined by a variety of attributes. A general reliance
on paint color alone to distinguish these two types
has sometimes resulted in incorrect characterizations of extremely long spans for these types.
Ceramic distributions from the two other sites
dating to the Late Pithouse period reflect mixtures of
ceramics dating to different phases or small sample
size. The wide range of types and score (1.33) from
LA 70201 indicates a mixture of ceramics associated with the entire span of the Late Pithouse period,
although no component associated with a particular
phase could be identified. This reflects the downslope movement of pottery from the various components of Turkey Foot Ridge, which contains components spanning the entire Late Pithouse period occupation.
Characterizations of ceramics and the relatively
low score (1.17) from LA 43786 may reflect an
occupation sometime during the Late Pithouse period, but the absence of diagnostic white ware makes
it impossible to determine the specific phase represented. Assemblages from other sites, dominated by
pottery dating to the Pueblo period but with low frequencies of pottery derived from Late Pithouse period components, are discussed later in this chapter.
ASSIGNMENT AND DATING OF PUEBLO
PERIOD COMPONENTS
The majority of sites on the Luna Project contain
components dating to the Pueblo period. Major
changes in both architecture and ceramics occurred
in the northern Mogollon region at about A.D. 1000
and mark the beginning of the Pueblo period. For the
Reserve area, such changes include a shift from pit
structure to surface structure (pueblo) architecture.
Ceramic changes include a shift from Mogollon or
Mimbres painted types such as Mangus Black-onwhite to Cibola white wares such as Reserve Blackon-white and the introduction of corrugated pottery.
These changes have sometimes been interpreted as
reflecting a northern expansion or intrusion of the
Anasazi culture that replaced the Mogollon culture
(Haury 1936a; Martin and Rinaldo 1947; Martin et
al. 1952; Martin and Plog 1973). The Pueblo period
of the northern Mogollon, as identified by these
traits, spans from A.D. 1000 to 1300. This span was
originally divided into two distinct phases, including
the Reserve and Tularosa phases of the Mogollon
(Martin and Rinaldo 1950a; Danson 1957; Bluhm
1960).
The Reserve phase is recognized by changes in
architecture and pottery that occurred around A.D.
1000. Surface architecture was introduced during
this phase and often consisted of crude and
unworked river cobbles set in mud mortar. Most
white ware sherds are derived from Reserve Blackon-white and sometimes occur along with lower frequencies of Red Mesa Black-on-white, Tularosa
Black-on-white, Mangus Black-on-white, and
Mimbres Classic Black-on-white. Brown utility
wares in Reserve phase contexts include a wide
range of corrugated brown wares, including plain
corrugated, indented corrugated, and incised corrugated forms (Martin and Rinaldo 1950a). Plain
brown utility wares, however, still dominate assemblages dating to the Reserve phase. Corrugated and
plain brown wares are often smudged. White
Mountain red wares appear during this time and may
include low frequencies of Wingate Black-on-red
and Puerco Black-on-red.
Some recent studies have proposed that Reserve
Black-on-white does not appear until after A.D.
1000 (Tuggle and Reid 1982; Mills 1987; Reid et al.
1995). If this interpretation is correct, it would
exclude the existence of a Reserve phase dating to
the A.D. 1000s. Present evidence, however, does
appear to support the existence of a Reserve phase
dating to the eleventh century (Wilson 1996).
During this time period, white ware is dominated by
Reserve Black-on-white and Tularosa Black-onwhite is not yet present. It should be noted, however, that evidence concerning the time of introduction
of Reserve Black-on-white needs to be continually
evaluated.
An Apache Creek phase intermediate between
the Reserve and Tularosa phases, dating between
A.D. 1075 and 1150, was also later proposed
(Peckham et al. 1956; Kayser 1975; Berman 1989).
The initial recognition of this phase was based on
the presence of late pithouses dating to the eleventh
and twelfth centuries. Features associated with these
structures include deep, gable-roofed, masonrylined pueblos that contained ventilators. A problem
with definitions based purely on the presence of distinct pit structures is that pithouses fitting the
Apache Creek phase definition temporally overlap
pueblos similar to those described for Reserve and
Tularosa phase occupations (Berman 1989). While
the recognition of this phase was almost totally
based on architecture, ceramics associated with
Apache Creek phase contexts are similar to those
associated with the Tularosa phase, although some
of the later types are absent (Peckham et al. 1956).
During the present study, however, sites falling
within the temporal span attributed by some to the
Apache Creek phase are assigned to the Late
Reserve or Early Tularosa phase.
The Tularosa phase is often viewed as a time of
elaboration of traits introduced during the Reserve
phase (Berman 1989). The architecture of the
Tularosa phase consists of surface masonry structures similar to those built during the Reserve phase
but tends to be better constructed than earlier structures. Ceramic types present at Tularosa phase occupations include Tularosa Black-on-white, Tularosa
White-on-red, St. Johns Polychrome, Tularosa fillet
rim, and Tularosa patterned corrugated (Rinaldo and
Bluhm 1956; Martin et al. 1957). While textured
types found at Tularosa phase sites are similar to
those found in the earlier Reserve phase, there may
be a slight increase in the frequency of Reserve
indented corrugated and Tularosa patterned corrugated during this phase (Martin et al. 1957). The frequency of Alma Plain decreases during the Tularosa
phase, and by the late part of this phase, corrugated
types dominate (Martin et al. 1956; Martin et al.
1957). There may also be an increase in the total frequency of smudged sherds during this phase (Martin
et al. 1957).
Luna Project sites that date to the Pueblo period
include LA 45510 (SAK); LA 75792 (Thunder
Ridge); LA 39969 (Haury's site); LA 39972, Area A
(SU Tanks); LA 3563 (South Legget Pueblo); LA
70189 (Lightning Strike); LA 70185 (DZ); LA
89846 (Haca Negra); LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw);
and LA 3279 (Hough). Ceramic distributions indicate that most of these Pueblo period sites can be
assigned to previously defined phases.
LA 45510 (SAK Site)
A total of 8,020 sherds were recovered from LA
45510 (Table 4.38). Sherds were from the surface
and general fill of this site. A majority (71.7 percent)
of the sherds represent plain brown wares. Alma
Rough body sherds slightly outnumber Alma Plain
polished sherds. Red slipped brown wares are present but very rare, making up 2 percent of all pottery.
A variety of textured brown wares were identified,
but they represent only .2 percent of all pottery.
Plain smudged brown wares represent 7.1 percent of
the pottery. A total of 15.1 percent of the sherds
from this site represent corrugated brown types. The
majority of these represent plain fine corrugated,
although a wide variety of corrugated types were
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
107
Table 4.38. Ceramic Types by Provenience,
LA 45510
Table 4.38. Continued.
General Fill
General Fill
Type
Type
N
Alma Plain rim
%
N
143
1.8
Alma Plain body
2635
Alma Rough rim
%
Cibola Gray body
1
.0
32.9
Cibola early painted
1
.0
88
1.1
Cibola late unpainted
2885
36.0
Alma scored
1
Alma incised
190
2.4
Cibola late painted
56
.7
.0
Cibola Reserve Black-on-white
17
.2
4
.0
Cibola Reserve/Tularosa Black-on-white
1
.0
Alma punche d
1
.0
Cibola Hachure
3
.0
Fillet Alma neckbanded
5
.1
Cibola indeterminate Black-on-white
1
.0
Three Circle neckbanded
2
.0
Cibola smudged interio r
1
.0
Reserve smud ged body
502
6.3
Cibola indeterminate White Mountain Red
5
.1
Reserve Plain corrugated
804
10.0
Pu erco late unpainted
5
.1
8
.1
Pu erco late painted
4
.0
Reserve corrugated ind ented
38
.5
Pu erco Reserve Black-on-white
1
.0
Tularosa corrugated patterned
7
.1
Total
8020
100.0
78
1.0
9
.1
118
1.5
3
.0
66
.8
142
1.8
Indeterminate
3
.0
Pu nctuated corrugated
2
.0
Pinched
1
.0
Slip unpainted
5
.1
Slip painted, red
1
.0
Slip pigment, black
8
.1
Three Circle Red-o n-white
1
.0
Mangus Black-on-white
4
.0
Mimbres indeterminate
7
.1
Classic Black-on-White
3
.0
148
1.8
11
.1
1
.0
Alma Rough body
Reserve Plain corrugated smudged
Incised corrugated
Alternating corrugated
Overla p corrugated
Overla p corrugated smud ged
Pla in smudge d rim
Indeterminate corrugated
Sa n Francisco Red
Other red slipped
Red ware, smudged
108
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
identified, including plain fine corrugated smudged,
Reserve indented corrugated, Tularosa patterned
corrugated, incised corrugated, alternating corrugated, plain overlapping corrugated, plain overlapping
corrugated smudged, indeterminate corrugated,
indeterminate, and punctuated corrugated. Early
Mogollon decorated types make up .4 percent of all
pottery and include Three Circle Red-on-white and
Mangus Black-on-white, while indeterminate
Mimbres white wares were also present. Cibola gray
wares are represented in trace amounts by gray body
sherds. Anasazi white wares (3.5 percent) include
early painted, late unpainted, late painted, Reserve
Black-on-white, Reserve/Tularosa Black-on-white,
hatchure black-on-white, and indeterminate blackon-white. Indeterminate White Mountain red wares
were present in trace frequencies.
While Reserve Black-on-white represents the
sole formal white ware type, it is relatively rare
compared to pottery that could not be assigned to
types. This is a result of the ceramics having been
recovered from surface and mixed deposits resulting
in a smaller than average sherd mass at 2.8 g, compared to 5.5 g for all sites combined. These smaller
sherds are less likely to exhibit sufficiently decorat-
ed surface area allowing their assignment to a distinct type.
Assemblages from LA 45510 exhibit a combination of ceramic types associated with the Late
Pithouse and Pueblo periods. A mixture of ceramic
types associated with the Late Pithouse period and
Reserve phase have been noted at the Switchback
site (Peckham 1957) and the Sawmill site (Bluhm
1957), although a much higher frequency of white
wares associated with the Late Pithouse period were
recovered from the Switchback site. This mixture of
pottery can be interpreted in terms of an occupation
during the transition between the Three Circle and
Reserve phases or the presence of sherds derived
from two temporally distinct components.
Architectural evidence favors the earlier interpretation, because this site is associated with a pithouse
depression upslope without evidence of a Pueblo
component. It is possible that the apparent contradictory presence of a pithouse depression and later
Cibola White Ware and corrugated brown wares
with earlier types may indicate an occupation
between the end of the Three Circle phase of the
Late Pithouse period and the beginning of the
Reserve Phase of the Pueblo period. While decorated wares are dominated by Cibola white wares with
Reserve Black-on-white, the frequency of Cibola
white wares is much lower than at other Reserve
phase sites. Corrugated types primarily consist of
plain and incised corrugated types, with very few
indented corrugated. These ceramic distributions
may indicate a date overlapping both the Three
Circle and Reserve phases (or sometime between
A.D. 950 to 1050).
LA 75792 (Thunder Ridge)
A total of 2,547 sherds were recovered from LA
75792 (Table 4.39). Proveniences include surface
and general fill of artifact scatters. The majority
(73.9 percent) of the sherds are plain brown wares.
Frequencies of Alma Plain polished and Alma
Rough are about the same. Red slipped brown wares
include 1.5 percent of all sherds. Early textured
brown wares consist of .4 percent of all sherds and
include Alma scored, Alma incised, and Three
Circles punched. Plain smudged brown wares consist of 1.7 percent of the total ceramics. Corrugated
brown types make up 17.8 percent of all sherds and
include Tularosa very fine corrugated, Reserve
indented corrugated, Reserve indented corrugated
smudged, Tularosa corrugated patterned, incised
corrugated, alternating corrugated, overlapping cor-
rugated, and indeterminate corrugated. Cibola white
wares make up 4.5 percent of all sherds and include
early unpainted, early painted, late unpainted, late
painted, Reserve Black-on-white, and hatchured
black-on-white. The relative frequency of white
ware sherds that can be assigned to distinct types
such as Reserve Black-on-white is low and reflects
a small sherd mass (3.6 grams), resulting from
effects of the surface and redeposited contexts. The
presence of Reserve Black-on-white and the absence
of Tularosa Black-on-white indicates a Reserve
phase component. This is further supported by the
presence of corrugated wares dominated by plain
corrugated types. Incised corrugated types are represented in low but significant frequencies, and
indented corrugated types are relatively low. The
distribution of types at this site appear to reflect an
occupation during the early part of the Reserve
phase or in the eleventh century. White Mountain
red wares are present in very low frequencies and
include indeterminate White Mountain Redware and
Wingate Black-on-red.
LA 39969 (Haury's Site)
A total of 5,843 sherds were recovered from LA
39969 (Table 4.40). Contexts from which pottery
was recovered include general fill and Rooms 1, 2,
and 3. The majority (52.3 percent) of the sherds are
plain brown wares. Alma Plain significantly outnumbers Alma Rough sherds. Very low frequencies
of red slipped brown ware (.6 percent), early textured brown (.4 percent), and Mimbres White Ware
(.5 percent) are present. A relatively high frequency
(17.1 percent) were represented, including Reserve
Plain corrugated, Reserve Plain corrugated
smudged, Reserve corrugated indented, Reserve
corrugated smudged indented, Tularosa corrugated
patterned, incised corrugated, incised corrugated
smudged, alternating corrugated, overlapping corrugated, overlapping corrugated smudged, indeterminate corrugated, and punctated corrugated (.2 percent). Plain smudged types represented 21.0 percent
of all pottery and included Reserve smudged body,
filleted smudged rim , filleted smudged rim, and
smudged painted (trace). Cibola white wares consist
of 7 percent of the pottery and include early painted
white, late unpainted white, late painted white, La
Plata Black-on-white (trace), Red Mesa Black-onwhite (trace), Puerco Black-on-white, Reserve
Black-on-white, Tularosa Black-on-white, Reserve/
Tularosa Black on white, hatchured black-on-white
(trace), indeterminate black-on-white, Gallup Black-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
109
Table 4.39. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 75792
Type
Indeterminate red ware
General Fill
N
Pit Structure
%
5
N
N
.2
%
5
.2
Alma Pla in rim
64
2.8
7
3.1
71
2.8
Alma Plain body
764
33.1
89
39.9
853
33.7
Alma Rough rim
38
1.6
4
1.8
42
1.7
847
36.7
55
24.7
902
35.6
Alma scored
1
.0
1
.4
2
.1
Alma incised
7
.3
7
.3
Th ree Circle neckbanded
2
.1
2
.1
Alma Rough bo dy
Reserve smudged body
Reserve Plain corrugated
Reserve corrugated indented
Reserve corrugated smudged indented
Tu larosa corrugated pattern
Incised corrugated
28
1.2
10
4.5
38
1.5
156
6.8
7
3.1
163
6.4
26
1.1
4
1.8
30
1.2
1
.0
1
.0
3
.1
3
1.3
6
.2
49
2.1
8
3.6
57
2.2
1
.4
1
.0
5.6
Alternating corrugated
Overlap corrug ated
137
5.9
6
2.7
143
Plain smudged rim
4
.2
2
.9
6
.2
42
1.8
5
2.2
47
1.9
1
.0
1
.0
Indeterminate corrugated
Indeterminate
San Francisco Red
6
.3
4
1.8
10
.4
22
1.0
6
2.7
28
1.1
Cibola early un painted
1
.0
1
.0
Cibola early pa inted
1
.0
1
.0
Cibola late unp ainted
22
1.0
27
1.1
Cibola late painted
62
2.7
62
2.4
Cibola Reserve Black-on -White
5
.2
5
2.2
10
.4
Cibola Reserve/Tularosa Black-on -White
1
.0
1
.4
2
.1
Cibola hatchure
6
.3
6
.2
Cibola indeterminate White Mountain Red
2
.1
2
.1
Cibola Wingate Black-on-red
3
.1
3
.1
Puerco late un painted
2
.1
2
.1
Puerco late pa inted
1
.0
1
.0
Late painted basalt
2
.1
2
.1
2311
100.0
2534
100.0
Other red slip ped
Total
110
Total
%
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
5
223
2.2
100.0
Table 4.40. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 39969
General Fill
Type
N
Alma Plain rim
Alma Plain body
Alma Rough rim
Alma Rough b ody
Room 1
%
N
Room 2
%
N
Room 3
%
N
7
2.8
22
4.3
26
2.5
185
3.2
1683
41.9
101
40.7
228
44.1
459
44.8
2486
42.5
31
.8
1
.4
8
1.5
8
.8
48
.8
259
6.5
9
3.6
29
5.6
35
3.4
337
5.8
4
.4
11
.2
1
.4
7
.2
4
.1
Alma punched
2
.0
747
18.6
4
.1
Reserve Plain corrugated
68
1.7
6
Reserve Plain corrugated smudged
13
.3
1
152
3.8
9
16
.4
4
.1
118
2.9
Reserve corrugated smudged indented
Tularosa corrugated pattern
Incised corrugated
Incised corrugated smudged
Alternating corrugated
Overlap corru gated
Overlap corru gated smudged
Plain smudged rim
Indeterminate corrugated
49
3
.1
1
1
.1
1
.0
99
19.1
195
19.0
1094
18.7
1
.2
5
.1
2.4
11
2.1
13
1.3
98
1.7
.4
1
.2
6
.6
21
.4
3.6
13
2.5
24
2.3
198
3.4
1
.2
1
.1
18
.3
1.2
6
1.2
28
2.7
4
.1
159
2.7
6
.1
1
.4
3
.6
3
.3
13
.2
22
.5
9
3.6
2
.4
3
.3
36
.6
229
5.7
16
6.5
26
5.0
63
6.1
335
5.7
34
.8
1
.4
6
1.2
6
.6
47
.8
121
3.0
9
3.6
15
2.9
29
2.8
176
3.0
5
2.0
3
.6
10
1.0
59
1.0
4
.1
41
1.0
Indeterminate
4
.1
Punctated corrugated
5
.1
Smudged pa inted
2
.0
Slip unpainted
7
.2
3
1
.6
8
5
.5
.4
Mangus Black-on-white
Mimbres ind eterminate
.1
4
.2
19.8
.1
5
1
Three Circle neckbanded
Reserve corrugated indented
%
3.2
Alma incised
Filleted rim smudged
N
129
Alma score d
Reserve smudged body
Total
%
.2
13
.2
2
.0
8
.1
1
.1
1
.0
4
.4
12
.2
Transitional Black-on-white
1
.0
1
.1
2
.0
Classic Black-on -White
5
.1
2
.2
7
.1
13
1.3
29
.5
3
.1
San Francisco Red
Other red slipped
15
.4
1
.2
2
.0
1
.2
Red ware, smudged
8
.8
8
.1
Cibola Gray b ody plain
1
.1
1
.0
1
.1
2
.0
Cibola early p ainted
1
.0
Cibola late un painted
47
1.2
4
1.6
6
1.2
16
1.6
74
1.3
Cibola late pa inted
36
.9
2
.8
8
1.5
10
1.0
58
1.0
Cibola La Plata Black-on -White
1
.0
1
.0
Cibola Red Mesa Black-on-White
2
.0
2
.0
Cibola Puerco Black-on-White
3
.1
3
.1
Cibola Reserve Black-o n-White
170
4.2
Cibola Tularosa Black-on-White
2
Cibola Reserve/Tularosa Black-o n-white
4
12
4.8
20
3.9
45
4.4
250
4.3
.0
1
.2
3
.3
6
.1
.1
1
.2
5
.1
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
111
Table 4.40. Continued.
General Fill
Type
N
Room 1
%
N
Cibola Reserve/Tularosa
Black-o n-white
4
.1
Cibola hatchure
1
Cibola ind eterminate black-on -white
Room 2
%
N
Room 3
%
1
N
Total
%
N
%
5
.1
.0
1
.0
1
.0
1
.0
Cibola Ga llup Black-on-White
5
.1
5
.1
Cibola Sno wflake Black-on -White
1
.0
1
.0
Cibola Wingate Black-on-Red
2
.0
3
.1
1
.0
5843
100.0
1
Puerco Reserve Black-on-White
Total
4015
100.0
1
.4
248
100.0
on-white, and Snowflake Black-on-white.
While Tularosa Black-on-white is present, it
occurs in extremely low frequencies and is overwhelmingly dominated by Reserve Black-on-white.
This indicates an occupation sometime during the
Reserve phase. Corrugated pottery includes relatively high frequencies of plain and indented corrugated
types. The occurrence of low frequencies of intrusive types such as Mimbres Classic Black-on-white
and Wingate Polychrome also supports an occupation during the eleventh century.
A Reserve phase assignment is supported by
radiocarbon dates which indicate use during the
early eleventh century. A few outside areas produced a pooled date at about A.D. 1195, and may
indicate a very brief reuse of this site that is associated with very few ceramics.
LA 39972 (SU Tanks), Area A
A total of 1,327 sherds were associated with the later
component in the south area of LA 39972 (see Table
4.33). The majority (55.9 percent) of the sherds are
plain brown wares. Alma Rough body sherds greatly outnumber Alma Plain polished sherds. Plain red
slipped brown wares (.2 percent), Mogollon slipped
red (.2 percent), and Mimbres white wares (.2 percent) are present but very rare. Corrugated brown
wares represent 12.2 percent of all pottery and
include Reserve Plain corrugated, Reserve Plain
corrugated smudged, Reserve corrugated indented,
Tularosa patterned corrugated, Tularosa patterned
corrugated smudged, incised corrugated, incised
corrugated smudged, alternating corrugated, overlapping corrugat ed, overlapping corrugated
smudged, and indeterminate corrugated. The major-
112
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
517
.2
.2
100.0
10 25
100.0
ity of the corrugated sherds represent plain corrugated types. Plain smudged brown types represent 21.7
percent of the ceramics from this site. Cibola white
wares represent 2.1 percent of all sherds and include
late unpainted, late painted, Reserve Black-onwhite,
Tularosa
Black-on-white,
and
Reserve/Tularosa Black-on-white. The presence of
Reserve Black-on-white as the dominant white ware
and very low frequencies of Tularosa Black-onwhite indicate that this component may date to the
late Reserve phase.
LA 3563 (South Leggett Pueblo, Late
Component)
As previous investigations by Martin and Rinaldo
(1950a) indicate, the pit structure excavated by OAS
at LA 3563 was occupied during the Three Circle
phase. Distribution of ceramics indicate that the
majority of these sherds were derived from the
Reserve phase component at this site (Table 4.41).
While distributions of the small frequency of pottery
indicative of the Three Circle occupation associated
with this pithouse were previously discussed, most
of the remaining discussion of the 2,544 sherds at
LA 3563 focuses on distributions, primarily indicating a Reserve phase occupation associated with the
five rooms excavated by Martin and Rinaldo
(1950a).
While low frequencies of early textured brown
and Mimbres white wares reflect the Three Circle
phase occupation of this site, the frequencies of
smudged brown (11.2 percent), corrugated brown
(16.8 percent), and Cibola white wares (4.6 percent)
are very similar to those at other Reserve phase sites.
In addition, the dominance of Reserve Black-on-
Table 4.41. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 3563
Ge neral Fill
Pit Structure
Total
Type
N
%
N
Indeterminate white ware
Alma Plain rim
%
N
%
1
.0
1
.0
7
3.5
75
3.2
82
3.2
106
53.3
1 265
53.9
1371
53.9
10
.4
10
.4
85
3.6
103
4.0
4
.2
4
.2
3
.1
4
.2
Fillet Alma n eckbanded
1
.0
1
.0
Three Circle neckba nded
4
.2
4
.2
Alma Plain body
Alma Rough rim
Alma Rough body
18
9.0
Alma scored
Alma incised
1
.5
Reserve smudged body
17
8.5
231
9.9
248
9.7
Reserve Plain corrugated
10
5.0
99
4.2
109
4.3
18
.8
18
.7
45
1.9
48
1.9
Reserve corru gated smudged indented
7
.3
7
.3
Tula rosa corrugated pattern
9
.4
9
.4
Tula rosa corrugated smudged pattern
3
.1
3
.1
57
2.4
60
2.4
Incised corrugated smud ged
3
.1
3
.1
Altern ating corrugated
2
.1
2
.1
Reserve Plain corrugated smudged
Reserve corru gated indented
Incised corrugated
3
3
1.5
1.5
Overlap corrugated
5
2.5
108
4.6
113
4.4
Overlap corrugated smudged
1
.5
11
.5
12
.5
Plain smudged rim
2
1.0
36
1.5
38
1.5
Indeterminate corrugated
1
.5
43
1.8
44
1.7
1
.0
1
.0
Indeterminate
Slip un painted
3
1.5
14
.6
17
.7
Slip pa inted, red
11
5.5
16
.7
27
1.1
Slip pigment, black
1
.5
13
.6
14
.6
Three Circles Red-o n-white
10
.4
10
.4
Man gus Black-on-white
11
.5
11
.4
Classic Black-on-White
4
.2
4
.2
San Francisco Red
1
.5
13
.6
14
.6
Othe r red slipp ed
3
1.5
25
1.1
28
1.1
1
.0
1
.0
7
.3
8
.3
Cib ola early unp ainted
Cib ola late unpa inted
1
.5
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
113
Table 4.41. Continued.
Ge neral Fill
Pit Structure
Total
Type
N
Cib ola late painted
%
3
N
1.5
N
%
25
1.1
28
1.1
1
.0
1
.0
68
2.9
70
2.8
Cib ola Reserve/Tu larosa Black-on-Wh ite
1
.0
1
.0
Cib ola hatchu re
2
.1
2
.1
Cib ola indeterminate White Mountain Red
5
.2
5
.2
Cib ola Wingate Black-on-red
2
.1
2
.1
Puerco late unp ainted
4
.2
4
.2
Puerco late painted
2
.1
2
.1
2 345
100.0
2544
100.0
Cib ola Red Mesa Black-on-White
Cib ola Reserve Black-on-Wh ite
Total
2
1.0
199
white and absence of Tularosa Black-on-white indicate a Reserve phase occupation. This is further
supported by very low frequencies of Wingate
Black-on-red sherds of the White Mountain
Redware tradition and Mimbres Classic Black-onwhite. Corrugated types are dominated by plain corrugated forms. Thus, ceramic distributions indicate
that the great majority of sherds recovered from this
pithouse date to the Reserve phase during the
eleventh century and are probably derived from
proveniences associated with the surface rooms at
this site.
LA 70189 (Lightning Strike Pueblo)
A total of 458 sherds were recovered from LA
70189. Ceramics were recovered from the surface
and general fill of the shallow pit structure (Table
4.42). The majority (69.2 percent) of the sherds represent plain brown wares. Alma Plain polished outnumbers Alma Rough about three to one. Types
present in low frequency include early textured
brown (1.7 percent) and Mogollon slipped red (.4
percent). Plain smudged brown wares are relatively
common, consisting of 8.5 percent of all sherds.
Corrugated brown types make up 13.6 percent and
include fine plain corrugated, Reserve indented corrugated, incised corrugated, plain overlapping corrugated, indented corrugated, and indeterminate corrugated. In contrast to many of the other Pueblo period sites examined, no form of corrugated textured
wares appears to dominate this assemblage. Late
Anasazi white wares include (5.3 percent) late
114
%
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
100.0
unpainted, late painted, Reserve Black-on-white,
Tularosa Black-on-white, hatchure black-on-white,
and indeterminate black-on-white. White Mountain
Red wares (1.1 percent of all sherds) include indeterminate White Mountain Redware and Wingate
Black-on-red.
This site mainly dates to the Pueblo period,
although the high frequency of plain brown wares
and the presence of a few early textured types and
Red Mesa Black-on-white could indicate the presence of an earlier component dating to the Late
Pithouse period. The dominance of Reserve Blackon-white over Tularosa Black-on-white probably
indicates an occupation during the Reserve phase.
This date may be supported by the presence of
Wingate Black-on red. The presence of two Tularosa
Black-on-white sherds could indicate some mixture
from a later component or an occupation late in the
Reserve phase.
Two radiocarbon dates from material washed
into a later, shallow pit structure from the nearby
pueblo indicate a mean date of A.D. 1010-1020.
This date supports ceramic data indicating a Reserve
phase occupation.
LA 70185 (DZ Site)
A total of 14,389 sherds were analyzed from LA
70185 (DZ), a surface structure dating to the Pueblo
period (Table 4.43). Proveniences include Rooms 14 and Features 1, 2, and 4, artifact scatters, and the
midden. The majority (57.3 percent) of sherds from
LA 70185 are plain brown wares. Alma Plain pol-
Table 4.42. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 70189
General Fill
Pit Structure
Total
Type
N
Alma Plain rim
Alma Plain body
Alma Rough rim
%
N
%
N
%
13
3.5
5
5.7
18
3.9
179
48.2
38
43.7
217
47.4
6
1.6
2
2.3
8
1.7
64
17.3
10
11.5
74
16.2
Alma punched
1
.3
1
.2
Fillet Alma neckbanded
2
.5
2
.4
Three Circle neckbanded
5
1.3
5
1.1
19
5.1
11
12.6
30
6.6
8
2.2
1
1.1
9
2.0
Reserve corrugated indented
11
3.0
1
1.1
12
2.6
Incised corrugated
15
4.0
2
2.3
17
3.7
Overlap corrugated
14
3.8
3
3.4
17
3.7
Plain smudged rim
4
1.1
5
5.7
9
2.0
Ind eterminate corrugated
7
1.9
7
1.5
1
.2
1
.2
Alma Rough body
Reserve smudged body
Reserve Plain corrugated
Ind eterminate
1
San Francisco Red
1
1.1
.3
Other red slipped
1
1.1
1
.2
Cibola late u npainted
4
1.1
1
1.1
5
1.1
Cibola late p ainted
4
1.1
2
2.3
6
1.3
Cibola Red Mesa Black-on-white
1
.3
1
.2
Cibola Reserve Black-on-white
6
1.6
7
1.5
Cibola Tularosa Black-on-white
1
.3
1
.2
1
.2
Cibola ind eterminate Black-on-white
1
1
1.1
1.1
Cibola ind eterminate White Mo untain Red
1
.3
1
.2
Cibola Wingate Black-on-red
4
1.1
4
.9
2
.4
1
.2
458
100.0
Puerco late unpainted
2
Puerco Tularosa Black-on-white
Total
1
.3
371
1 00.0
87
2.3
100.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
115
Table 4.43. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 70185
General Fill
Room 1
Room 2
Room 3
Room 4
Total
Type
N
Alma Plain rim
%
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
13
2.4
369
2.6
209
37.9
4714
32.8
5
.9
204
1.4
117
21.2
3089
21.5
2.7
16
1.7
41
2.4
34.6
224
23.9
423
24.5
163
1.5
13
1.4
23
1.3
2516
22.6
116
12.4
337
19.5
Alma scored
8
.1
1
.1
9
.1
Alma incised
6
.1
2
.1
8
.1
Alma punched
3
.0
1
.1
4
.0
Three Circle neckbanded
1
.0
1
.0
1385
12.4
2133
14.8
3
.0
4
.0
1082
9.7
56
1372
9.5
Reserve Plain corrugated smudged
129
1.2
154
1.1
Reserve corrugated indented
169
Alma Plain body
Alma Rough rim
Alma Rough body
Reserve smudged body
299
N
3853
1
.1
6.0
185
10.7
3
7.7
5
.5
19
1.1
1
2.6
1.5
17
1.8
37
2.1
3
7.7
2
.4
228
1.6
40
.4
2
.2
9
.5
3
7.7
1
.2
55
.4
Tularosa corrugated patterned
8
.1
1
.1
1
.1
10
.1
Tularosa corrugated smudged pattern
5
.0
1
.1
6
.0
381
3.4
29
3.1
65
3.8
2
.0
1
.1
5
.3
86
.8
11
1.2
17
1.0
149
1.3
7
.7
18
1.0
37
.3
3
.3
3
.2
Plain smudged rim
228
2.0
59
6.3
99
5.7
1
2.6
14
Indeterminate corrugated
140
1.3
10
1.1
17
1.0
2
5.1
5
22
.2
5
Punctuated corrugated
9
.1
4
.4
2
Smudged painted
5
.0
3
.3
Pinched
4
.0
31
.3
Reserve corrugated smudged indented
Incised corrugated
Incised corrugated smudged
Alternating corrugated
Overlap corrugated
Overlap corrugated smudged
Indeterminate
San Francisco Red
116
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
3
.3
1
13
7.7
18.8
Reserve Plain corrugated
34.3
3
12.8
325
Fillet rim smudged
321
5
46
16.1
8.3
3.8
498
3.5
1
.2
9
.1
11
2.0
126
.9
3
.5
177
1.2
43
.3
2.5
401
2.8
.9
174
1.2
.3
27
.2
.1
15
.1
8
.1
4
.0
40
.3
1
5.1
89
21
.1
2
33.3
2.6
5
.9
Table 4.43. Continued.
General Fill
Room 1
Room 2
Room 3
Room 4
Total
Type
N
Other red slipped
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
23
.2
4
.4
Corrugated red slipped
7
.1
1
.1
Red ware, smudged
1
.0
Cibola Gray body
3
.0
Cibola Obelisk Gray body
3
.0
Cibola Gray body plain
7
.1
3
.3
108
1.0
10
1.1
18
1.0
1
2.6
2
Cibola late painted
79
.7
9
1.0
17
1.0
1
2.6
Cibola Reserve Black-on-White
91
.8
3
.3
33
1.9
Cibola Tularosa Black-on-white
17
.2
4
.4
7
.4
Cibola Reserve/ Tularosa
Black-on-white
5
.0
1
.1
Cibola hatchure
2
.0
Cibola late unpainted
1
2
Cibola indeterminate Black-on-white
1
.1
%
27
.2
10
.1
1
.0
5
.0
3
.0
10
.1
.4
139
1.0
4
.7
110
.8
1
.2
128
.9
28
.2
6
.0
2
.0
2
.0
2
.0
19
.1
1
.0
3
.0
1
.2
.1
.1
N
1
.2
Cibola Snowflake Black-on-white
2
.0
Cibola indeterminate White Mountain
Red
9
.1
Cibola Wingate Black-on-red
1
.0
Puerco Gray body plain
2
.0
Puerco late unpainted
1
.0
1
.0
Puerco late painted
5
.0
5
.0
Puerco Reserve Black-on-White
1
.0
1
.0
Puerco Showlow Black-on-Red
1
.0
1
.0
Late painted basalt
1
.0
1
.0
2
.0
14389
100
9
1
Tularosa with basalt
Total
11133
100
936
100
.5
1
.2
.1
2
.1
1729
100
39
100
552
100
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
117
ished sherds slightly outnumber Alma Rough
sherds. Ceramic groups represented in low frequencies include early textured brown (.2 percent),
slipped red (.5 percent), Mimbres White Ware
(trace), Cibola Gray Ware (.1 percent), and White
Mountain Redware (.1 percent). A total of 17.7 percent of sherds from this site are plain smudged
brown types. Corrugated brown wares consist of
19.97 percent sherds from this site. Corrugated
sherds include Reserve Plain corrugated, Reserve
Plain corrugated smudged, Reserve indented corrugated, Reserve indented corrugated smudged,
Tularosa patterned corrugated, Tularosa patterned
corrugated smudged, incised corrugated, incised
corrugated smudged, alternating corrugated, plain
overlapping corrugated, plain overlapping corrugated smudged, indeterminate corrugated, indeterminate, and punctated corrugated.
Similar distributions of types were noted at all
contexts from LA 70185. While both Reserve
Black-on-white and Tularosa Black-on-white occur
at this site, Reserve Black-on-white outnumbers
Tularosa Black-on-white almost four to one. Plain
fine corrugated is the dominant corrugated type, and
incised corrugated outnumbers indented corrugation
forms. Ceramic distributions appear to indicate an
occupation during the later part of the Reserve phase
in the late eleventh or early twelfth century.
Two radiocarbon dates from Room 2 resulted in
dates between A.D. 1020 and 1060 (Zamora, this
report). Two dates from the ventilator shaft, A.D.
1160 and 1170, were dismissed as too late during the
interpretation of this site. While ceramic distributions appear to most closely correspond to the earlier date, the presence of some Tularosa Black-onwhite could indicate an occupation extending into
the twelfth century.
LA 89846 (Haca Negra)
While a total of 637 sherds were recovered from LA
8946 (Table 4.44), most of the excavated contexts at
this site dated to the Archaic or protohistoric Apache
period, and pottery appears to have been deposited
from a pueblo just upslope from this site. Most (62.3
percent) of the sherds represented plain brown
wares, and a slight majority are Alma Rough. Types
belonging to the plain smudged brown (7.4 percent),
corrugated brown (24.5 percent), and Cibola White
Ware (5.2 percent) groups were represented.
Corrugated pottery was represented by roughly
equal frequencies of sherds exhibiting plain corrugated and indented corrugated textures. Some sherds
118
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Table 4.44. Ceramic Types by Provenience,
LA 89846
General Fill
N
Alma Plain rim
Row %
7
100.0
Alma Plain body
155
100.0
Alma Rough rim
13
100.0
222
100.0
41
100.0
1
100.0
Reserve Plain corrugated
57
100.0
Reserve corrugated indented
57
100.0
Reserve corrugated smudged
indented
4
100.0
Tularosa corrugated patterne d
4
100.0
Incised corrugated
9
100.0
Smudged fillet rim
5
100.0
Alternating corrugated
1
100.0
Plain smudged rim
5
100.0
19
100.0
4
100.0
Cibola late un painted
13
100.0
Cibola late pa inted
13
100.0
Cibola Red Mesa Black-on-white
2
100.0
Cibola Tularosa Black-on-white
5
100.0
637
100.0
Alma Rough b ody
Reserve smudged body
Filleted rim smudged
Indeterminate corrugated
Indeterminate
Total
also exhibited patterned corrugated and incised corrugated texture. While Tularosa Black-on-white is
the most common formal white ware type, Red
Mesa Black-on-white sherds are also present. Thus,
ceramic distributions indicate that the great majority
of the pottery from LA 89846 was ultimately
derived from a Tularosa phase context dating to the
late twelfth or the thirteenth century.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw)
A total of 19,370 sherds were recovered during
investigations of LA 39968 (Table 4.45). The majority (53.8 percent) of the sherds represent plain
brown wares. Mogollon slipped red (.8 percent),
early textured brown (.3 percent), Mimbres White
(.3 percent), White Mountain Red (.2 percent), and
Table 4.45. Ceramic Type by Provenience, LA 39968
General Fill
Pit Structure
N
N
Room Block 1
Jacal Structure
Room Block 2
Total
Type
Indeterminate white ware
%
3
Late indeterminate white ware
Indeterminate red ware
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
.0
1
.0
2
.1
N
%
3
.0
3
.0
2
.0
1
.0
1
.0
229
2.3
198
3.0
10
2.6
39
2.5
10
1.4
486
2.5
Alma Plain body
3779
37.5
2931
44.2
119
31.2
661
41.9
335
46.9
7845
40.4
Alma Rough rim
77
.8
30
.5
4
1.0
17
1.1
9
1.3
138
.7
1309
13.0
316
4.8
50
13.1
232
14.7
80
11.2
1990
10.2
1
.0
1
.0
4
.0
6
.0
3
.0
25
.1
3012
15.5
6
.0
929
4.8
Alma Plain rim
Alma Rough body
Alma scored
Alma incised
3
.0
1
.0
Alma punched
1
.0
4
.1
3
.0
Fillet Alma neckbanded
Three Circle neckbanded
Reserve smudged body
Filleted rim smudged
Reserve Plain corrugated
Reserve Plain corrugated smudged
1
.1
14
.1
6
.1
4
1.0
1
.1
1571
15.6
1144
17.3
66
17.3
144
9.1
1
.0
5
.1
531
5.3
255
3.8
24
6.3
86
5.5
86
24
12.0
3.4
65
.6
44
.7
3
.8
23
1.5
5
.7
141
.7
215
2.1
96
1.4
5
1.3
32
2.0
20
2.8
369
1.9
Reserve corrugated smudged
indented
31
.3
47
.7
4
1.0
9
.6
1
.1
92
.5
Tularosa corrugated pattern
9
.1
2
.0
1
.1
12
.1
1
.0
1
.1
2
.0
92
5.8
23
3.2
854
4.4
5
.3
8
1.1
76
.4
Reserve corrugated
Tularosa corrugated smudged
pattern
Incised corrugated
500
5.0
223
3.4
Incised corrugated smudged
41
.4
22
.3
Alternating corrugated
26
.3
14
.2
3
.8
5
.3
1
.1
49
.3
460
4.6
337
5.1
18
4.7
81
5.1
22
3.1
920
4.7
57
.6
56
.8
1
.3
2
.1
2
.3
118
.6
Plain smudged rim
154
1.5
173
2.6
6
1.6
25
1.6
14
2.0
372
1.9
Indeterminate corrugated
149
1.5
133
2.0
4
1.0
23
1.5
7
1.0
320
1.6
9
.1
5
.1
1
.3
15
.1
19
.2
1
.0
20
.1
Overlap corrugated
Overlap corrugated smudged
Indeterminate
Punctuated corrugated
15
3.9
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
119
Table 4.45. Continued.
General Fill
Pit Structure
Room Block 1
Jacal Structure
Room Block 2
Total
Type
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Smudged painted
2
.0
5
.1
Pinched
7
.1
5
.1
7
Punched incised
1
.0
2
.0
1
2
.0
Alma applique
Single fillet rim
1
.0
Slip unpainted
7
.1
Slip painted, red
Mimbres/ Reserve indeterminate
8
.1
Transitional Black-on-white
1
.0
14
.1
Classic Black-on-white
Mimbres/Reserve Polychrome
6
.1
1
.0
6
.1
13
.2
1
.0
San Francisco Red
81
.8
22
.3
Other red slipped
15
.1
8
.1
1
.0
Corrugated red slipped
2
1
1
7
1.8
N
%
N
%
7
.0
.4
19
.1
.1
4
.0
2
.0
1
.0
17
.1
1
.0
15
.1
1
.0
28
.1
1
.0
.1
2
.3
.1
.1
13
.8
7
1.0
130
.7
2
.1
1
.1
26
.1
1
.0
Cibola Neckcoiled
1
.0
1
.0
Cibola early painted
1
.0
1
.0
Cibola late unpainted
163
1.6
121
1.8
9
2.4
12
.8
24
3.4
329
1.7
Cibola late painted
139
1.4
86
1.3
5
1.3
13
.8
17
2.4
260
1.3
Cibola Red Mesa Black-on-White
1
.0
3
.0
4
.0
Cibola Puerco Black-on-White
1
.0
3
.0
Cibola Reserve Black-on-White
139
1.4
104
1.6
3
Cibola Tularosa Black-on-white
141
1.4
146
2.2
19
47
.5
20
.3
Cibola hatchure
3
.0
1
.0
Cibola indeterminate
Black-on-white
2
.0
21
.2
Cibola Reserve/ Tularosa
Black-on-white
Cibola indeterminate White
Mountain Red
120
5
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
.1
1
2
.1
.8
16
1.0
7
1.0
269
1.4
5.0
14
.9
7
1.0
327
1.7
2
.1
69
.4
4
.0
2
.0
34
.2
.3
5
.3
2
.3
Table 4.45. Continued.
General Fill
Pit Structure
Room Block 1
Jacal Structure
Room Block 2
Total
Type
N
Cibola Wingate Polychrome
%
2
N
%
N
%
N
%
3
.0
Puerco late painted
2
.0
Late unpainted basalt
8
.1
4
.1
2
.1
15
.1
6
.1
2
.1
8
.1
6629
100
Hatchure with basalt
Total
10081
%
.0
Cibola Puerco Black-on-Red
Late painted basalt
N
100
Cibola Gray (trace) are present in very low frequencies. A total of 17.5 percent of all sherds represent
plain smudged brown wares. Corrugated brown
wares consist of 20.1 percent of all pottery and
include Reserve Plain corrugated, Reserve Plain
corrugated smudged, Reserve corrugated indented,
Reserve corrugated smudged indented, Tularosa patterned corrugated, Tularosa patterned corrugated
smudged, incised corrugated, incised corrugated
smudged, alternating corrugated, overlapping corrugated, overlapping corrugated smudged, and indeterminate corrugated. Corrugated pottery is dominated by plain corrugated forms, and incised forms
outnumber indented ones. Cibola white wares make
up 6.8 percent of all pottery and include early painted white, late painted white, Red Mesa Black-onwhite, Puerco Black-on-white, Reserve Black-onwhite, Tularosa Black-on-white, Reserve/Tularosa
hatchure black-on-white, and indeterminate white
(trace). Most of the decorated white wares from this
site exhibited styles transitional between Reserve
Black-on-white and Tularosa Black-on-white as
noted at other sites, and their assignment to these
types often proved to be a very difficult and not
completely satisfying task.
While slightly over half of the white wares were
classified as Tularosa Black-on-white, a reexamination of many of these sherds indicates characteristics
transitional between Reserve Black-on-white and
Tularosa Black-on-white. This resulted in the recognition of high numbers of both types, although
slightly more Tularosa Black-on-white sherds were
noted than Reserve Black-on-white. Most of these
sherds do not exhibit the combinations of small
motifs, very fine hatching, and high polish common
in Tularosa Black-on-white from thirteenth century
381
100
1577
100
1
715
.1
100
N
%
2
.0
3
.0
2
.0
14
.1
24
.1
8
.0
19426
100
sites. In retrospect, many of the sherds classified as
Tularosa Black-on-white could have been classified
as Reserve Black-on-white as well.
Ceramic distributions probably indicate a
Reserve Tularosa/transitional (Apache Creek phase)
or early Tularosa period assignment (possibly during the late part of the twelfth century, although
given problems associated with white ware typology
at this site, this assignment must still be considered
speculative. This dating is partly supported by
archaeomagnetic dates indicating a span during the
late twelfth and early thirteenth century and is somewhat supported by the latest radiocarbon dates at
this site (Zamora, this report). Earlier radiocarbon
dates in the eleventh century were also noted,
although given architectural evidence and similarities in ceramic distributions from various proveniences, it is unlikely that occupation in more than
one phase is represented. Thus, these earlier dates
may reflect the use of old wood.
LA 3279 (Hough Site)
LA 3279 is the largest site excavated during the
Luna Project. A number of rooms and a great kiva
were excavated (Oakes and Zamora, this report).
Ceramic distributions at the Hough site differ in several aspects from other sites at the Luna Project and
reflect the late dating of this site (Table 4.46). This
is the only site in which plain brown wares do not
make up the majority of the pottery. They represent
26.1 percent of all sherds. Plain brown wares were
outnumbered by smudged brown wares (28.7 percent) and corrugated brown wares (35.1 percent).
Much of the smudged pottery from this site appears
to be derived from Tularosa fillet rim bowls. A wide
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
121
122
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
6
6
5
Alma incised
Alma punched
Fillet Alma
neckbanded
370
58
356
51
419
100
34
5
48
11
172
Reserve smudged
body
Filleted rim smudged
Reserve Plain
corrugated
Reserve Plain
corrugated smudged
Reserve corrugated
indented
Reserve corrugated
smudged indented
Tularosa corrugated
pattern
Tularosa corrugated
smudged pattern
Incised corrugated
Incised corrugated
smudged
Smudged fillet
rimmed
Three Circle
neckbanded
5
169
Alma Rough body
Alma scored
1.1
37
Alma Rough rim
5.2
.3
1.5
.2
1.0
3.1
12.8
1.6
10.9
1.8
11.3
.2
.2
.2
.2
5.2
16.5
542
Alma Plain body
4.1
%
135
N
General Fill
Alma Plain rim
Type
79
21
3
24
59
251
26
158
34
134
1
3
1
48
16
206
45
N
5.4
1.4
.2
1.6
4.0
17.1
1.8
10.7
2.3
9.1
.1
.2
.1
3.3
1.1
14.0
3.1
%
Room 1
59
18
1
15
32
116
24
74
11
92
1
1
24
1
119
42
N
7.2
2.2
.1
1.8
3.9
14.1
2.9
9.0
1.3
11.2
.1
.1
2.9
.1
14.4
5.1
%
Room 2
18
6
1
6
14
51
10
43
5
46
6
1
8
6
63
21
N
4.7
1.6
.3
1.6
3.6
13.2
2.6
11.2
1.3
11.9
1.6
.3
2.1
1.6
16.4
5.5
%
Room 5
7
2
2
1
2
7
4
12
3
10
1
1
22
N
2.0
2.0
1.0
2.0
7.1
4.1
12.2
3.1
10.2
1.0
1.0
22.4
7.1
%
Room 6
41
2
12
5
3
15
43
12
63
6
23
1
9
8
38
28
N
9.3
.5
2.7
1.1
.7
3.4
9.8
2.7
14.3
1.4
5.2
.2
2.0
1.8
8.6
6.3
%
Room 7
12
10
2
2
7
16
6
24
5
17
1
1
2
6
3
42
21
N
3.8
3.1
.6
.6
2.2
5.0
1.9
7.5
1.6
5.3
.3
.3
.6
1.9
.9
13.2
6.6
%
Room 8
24
4
1
5
5
43
6
12
7
24
8
5
52
30
N
7.4
1.2
.3
1.5
1.5
13.3
1.9
3.7
2.2
7.4
2.5
1.5
16.1
9.3
%
Room 9
15
12
7
6
29
7
39
3
25
1
10
2
56
17
N
4.2
3.4
2.0
1.7
8.1
2.0
11.0
.8
7.0
.3
2.8
.6
15.7
4.8
%
Room 10
Table 4.46. Ceramic Type by Provenience, LA 3279
39
12
7
14
46
5
34
8
28
2
3
1
12
7
52
37
N
8.6
2.6
1.5
3.1
10.1
1.1
7.5
1.8
6.2
.4
.7
.2
2.6
1.5
11.5
8.1
%
Room 11
6
6
1
8
1
14
5
7
1
13
8
N
5.6
5.6
.9
7.5
.9
13.1
4.7
6.5
.9
12.1
7.5
%
Room 12
25
2
14
8
7
38
6
55
4
12
2
2
1
17
7
46
34
N
5.8
.5
3.2
1.9
1.6
8.8
1.4
12.8
.9
2.8
.5
.5
.2
3.9
1.6
10.7
7.9
%
Room 13
N
435
1
36
15
57
47
228
25
177
21
55
6
9
6
38
55
129
200
Kiva
18.9
.0
1.6
.7
2.5
2.0
9.9
1.1
7.7
.9
2.4
.3
.4
.3
1.6
2.4
5.6
8.7
%
944
17
206
34
174
318
1326
185
1081
166
853
9
11
19
21
15
360
151
1400
629
N
Total
%
8.6
.2
1.9
.3
1.6
2.9
12.1
1.7
9.8
1.5
7.8
.1
.1
.2
.2
.1
3.3
1.4
12.7
5.7
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
123
Other red slipped
2.5
4
44
.3
3.0
1
18
.1
2.2
1.5
9
82
12
San Francisco Red
.5
3
7
1
1
7
13
N
13
.1
.4
.1
.2
.2
1.3
2.9
%
Tularosa
White-on-red
1
3
1
2
2
11
24
N
2.3
.8
.3
.3
.3
1.8
3.4
%
Room 5
1
.4
.3
.1
.1
.1
.3
.1
1.6
3.1
%
Room 2
Classic
Black-on-white
Transitional
black-on-white
.2
.1
1
4
6
2
Slip unpainted
.1
Mimbres Reserve
indeterminate
3
Local fired clay
.1
1
2
Incised, punched, and
corrugated
2
5
1
24
46
N
Room 1
Mangus
Black-on-white
4
Single fillet rim
.1
.0
1
Punched incised
Alma applique
.1
.1
.4
3
14
Punctuated
corrugated
.8
Pinched
25
Indeterminate
.0
2
1
Mogollon
Red-on-brown
1.9
3.7
%
Smudged painted
61
122
N
General Fill
Indeterminate
corrugated
Plain smudged rim
Type
N
6
1
2
6
1
6.1
1.0
2.0
6.1
1.0
%
Room 6
15
4
2
3
5
1
1
35
N
3.4
.9
.5
.7
1.1
.2
.2
7.9
%
Room 7
8
1
3
5
3
3
5
23
N
2.5
.3
.9
1.6
.9
.9
1.6
7.2
%
Room 8
6
2
1
6
2
1
15
15
1.9
.6
.3
1.9
.6
.3
4.6
4.6
%
Room 9
N
Table 4.46. Continued.
2
15
2
2
1
1
2
3
3
16
12
N
.6
4.2
.6
.6
.3
.3
.6
.8
.8
4.5
3.4
%
Room 10
1
18
1
4
2
1
2
2
1
3
17
26
N
.2
4.0
.2
.9
.4
.2
.4
.4
.2
.7
3.7
5.7
%
Room 11
7
1
2
1
6
N
6.5
.9
1.9
.9
5.6
%
Room 12
15
1
2
2
3
6
6
12
35
N
3.5
.2
.5
.5
.7
1.4
1.4
2.8
8.1
%
Room 13
N
3
68
24
1
5
22
3
2
2
9
1
8
19
6
31
140
Kiva
.1
2.9
1.0
.0
.2
1.0
.1
.1
.1
.4
.0
.3
.8
.3
1.3
6.1
%
11
317
74
5
7
49
4
5
9
6
5
9
3
4
34
62
53
1
211
502
N
Total
%
.1
2.9
.7
.0
.1
.4
.0
.0
.1
.1
.0
.1
.0
.0
.3
.6
.5
.0
1.9
4.6
124
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1.9
1.0
%
3
25
N
3.0
.4
%
1
11
N
2.9
.3
%
N
2
2.0
%
Room 6
16
N
3.6
%
Room 7
15
N
4.7
%
Room 8
10
2
3.1
.6
%
Room 9
N
Table 4.46. Continued.
115
Cibola late painted
1
14
2
11
Cibola Snowflake
Black-on-white
Cibola Mesa Verde
Black-on-white
Pinedale Black-onwhite
Cibola indeterminate
White Mountain Red
Cibola St. Johns
Black-on-red
Cibola Puerco
Black-on-red
8
1
1
Cibola indeterminate
Black-on-white
Cibola Wingate
Black-on-red
4
Cibola hatchure
.2
.0
.3
.1
.4
.0
.0
.1
.5
2
7
5
15
1
1
1
9
.1
.5
.3
1.0
.1
.1
.1
.6
2.4
2
1
1
1
7
1
8
2
8
20
.2
.1
.1
.1
.8
.1
1.0
.2
1.0
2.4
3
1
2
1
9
15
36
Cibola
Reserve/Tularosa
Black-on-white
1.6
51
.7
Cibola Tularosa
Black-on-white
6
10
2
.3
.4
2.3
19
3
19
Cibola Reserve
Black-on-white
5
4.1
1
.6
60
Cibola Puerco
Black-on-white
Cibola Red Mesa
Black-on-white
Cibola La Plata
Black-on-white
2.3
74
Cibola late unpainted
3.5
.1
2
.8
.3
.5
.3
2.3
.5
.3
2.6
2
1
3
2.0
1.0
3.1
2
1
2
2
5
6
4
11
.5
.2
.5
.5
1.1
1.4
.9
2.5
3
1
7
25
6
28
.9
.3
2.2
7.9
1.9
8.8
1
1
2
1
5
1
8
14
.3
.3
.6
.3
1.5
.3
2.5
4.3
1
2
1
1
15
23
8
2
3
N
.3
.6
.3
.3
4.2
6.5
2.2
.6
.8
%
Room 10
1
2
4
1
3
3
1
1
12
1
21
15
N
.9
.2
.7
.7
.2
.2
2.6
.2
4.6
3.3
.2
.4
%
Room 11
8
N
7.5
%
Room 12
1
12
N
2.8
.2
%
Room 13
1
12
N
1
1
1
9
.9
.9
.9
8.4
2
1
1
1
7
9
2
1
25
.5
.2
.2
.2
1.6
2.1
.5
.2
5.8
9
2
1
11
7
16
5
4
17
4
66
5
5
2
104
62
1
28
14
N
Room 5
Cibola indented
corrugated
.5
%
Room 2
1
15
N
Room 1
Cibola Lino Gray rim
Cibola Obelisk Gray
body
Red ware, smudged
Type
General Fill
Kiva
.4
.1
.0
.5
.3
.7
.2
.2
.7
.2
2.9
.2
.2
.1
4.5
2.7
.0
.0
.0
.5
%
35
5
6
36
19
67
12
16
31
62
278
54
7
4
2
447
288
3
1
4
55
N
Total
.3
.0
.1
.3
.2
.6
.1
.1
.3
.6
2.5
.5
.1
.0
.0
4.1
2.6
.0
.0
.0
.5
%
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
125
Total
Puerco
Tularosa
Black-on-white
Puerco late
unpainted
3277
6
100
.2
.1
1472
100
.1
1
2
N
.1
.2
%
385
3
N
100
.8
%
98
2
N
100
2.0
%
Room 6
824
3
100
.4
441
5
2
2
N
100
1.1
.5
.5
%
Room 7
318
N
100
%
Room 8
323
N
100
%
Room 9
356
1
1
N
100
.3
.3
%
Room 10
454
4
N
100
.9
%
Room 11
107
N
100
%
Room 12
431
1
2
N
100
.2
.5
%
Room 13
7
9
N
Kiva
2306
3
2
2
%
Room 5
Pinedale
Polychrome
.0
N
Room 2
2
1
Cibola St.
Johns
Polychrome
.2
%
Room 1
Cibola
Springer
Polychrome
8
N
General Fill
Cibola St.
Johns
Black-on-red
Type
Table 4.46. Continued.
100
.1
.1
.3
.4
%
11004
11
3
6
2
14
35
N
Total
100
.1
.0
.1
.0
.1
.3
%
variety of corrugated types are represented, including Reserve Plain corrugated, Reserve Plain corrugated smudged, Reserve indented corrugated,
Reserve indented corrugated smudged, Tularosa patterned corrugated, Tularosa patterned corrugated
smudged, Reserve incised corrugated, Reserve
incised corrugated smudged, alternating corrugated,
clapboarded corrugated, and indeterminate corrugated. This is also the only Luna Project site in which
the majority of the corrugated sherds exhibited
indented corrugated manipulation. Pottery represented in low frequencies include Mogollon slipped
red (3.1 percent), Mimbres White (.1 percent),
White Mountain Redware (.2 percent), and Cibola
Gray Ware (trace).
Cibola white wares represent 6.0 percent of the
pottery from this site. The types of Cibola white
wares and other decorated ceramics at LA 3279 differ from those recorded for the other sites and reflect
the late dating of this site. Tularosa Black-on-white
is by far the most common formal white ware, followed by Klageto Black-on-white, Reserve Blackon-white, and Pinedale Black-on-white. The combination of these types indicates an occupation dating
to the Late Tularosa phase. In contrast to other Luna
sites, most of the Tularosa Black-on-white sherds
were very distinct from Reserve Black-on-white
pottery in terms of polish, thickness, hatchured treatments, and size of motifs. The most difficult problem in classifying white ware types from LA 3279
involved the separation of Tularosa Black-on-white
and Klageto Black-on-white. Other unique characteristics noted in the decorated ceramics include the
presence of St. Johns Polychrome as the most common White Mountain Redware and the presence of
very low frequencies of Springerville Polychrome
and glaze painted red ware from the Little Colorado
or Zuni areas.
This combination of types indicates an occupation during the very late Tularosa period, during the
end of the thirteenth century and possibly just into
the fourteenth century. This represents the latest
occupation in the Reserve and Luna areas, although
later occupations in areas to the west, such as the
Springerville area, may reflect the continuation of
the ceramic developments noted at LA 3279.
Other sites with small pottery assemblages
exhibit combinations of types commonly associated
with pithouse and pueblo components. Examples of
such assemblages were noted at LA 8947, LA
43766, and LA 7591.
126
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
LA 89847 (Red Ear Site)
A total of 444 sherds were recovered from LA
89847 (Table 4.47). These sherds appear to have
derived from a site upslope (Moiola, this report).
Most (57.4 percent) of these sherds represent plain
brown wares. Alma Plain outnumbers Alma Rough
about four to one. Other ceramics groups at this site
include plain smudged brown (22.7 percent), corrugated brown (13.3 percent), Mogollon slipped red
(3.2 percent), Mimbres White (.2 percent), and
Cibola White (2.7 percent). These ceramic distributions indicate that much of the pottery was derived
from components dating to the Pueblo period,
although the lack of diagnostic white wares makes it
impossible to determine the associated phase. These
frequencies may also indicate the initial presence of
pottery derived from the Late Pithouse or Early
Pithouse phase.
Table 4.47. Ceramic Types by Provenience,
LA 89847
Type
Gene ral Fill
N
Alma Plain rim
%
Total
N
%
6
1.4
6
1.4
Alma Plain body
1 92
45.2
192
45.2
Alma Rough rim
3
.7
3
.7
Alma Rough b ody
41
9.6
41
9.6
Reserve smudged body
80
18.8
80
18.8
Reserve Plain corrugated
34
8.0
34
8.0
Reserve corrugated
indented
2
.5
2
.5
Incised corrugated
14
3.3
14
3.3
Smudged fillet rim
2
.5
2
.5
Plain smudged rim
16
3.8
16
3.8
Indeterminate corrugated
5
1.2
5
1.2
Indeterminate
2
.5
2
.5
Punctuated corrugated
1
.2
1
.2
Classic Black-on -white
1
.2
1
.2
14
3.3
14
3.3
1
.2
1
.2
11
2.6
11
2.6
4 25
100
425
100
San Francisco Red
Cibola late un painted
Cibola late pa inted
Total
LA 43766 (Old Peralta)
Only 150 sherds were recovered from the general
fill of LA 43766 (Table 4.48). The low number of
sherds at this site indicates that LA 43766 dates
mainly to the Archaic period (Oakes, this report).
Sherds in the upper fill of this site were apparently
washed down from a small fieldhouse upstream. The
majority (84.7 percent) of the sherds represent plain
brown wares. Alma Plain sherds greatly outnumber
Alma Rough. The remaining groups are represented
by low frequency of types and include early textured
brown (.7 percent), plain smudged brown (2.7 percent), corrugated brown (4.7 percent), Mogollon
slipped red (.7 percent), Mimbres White (1.3 percent), and Cibola White (5.3 percent).
Table 4.48. Ceramic Types by Provenience,
LA 43766
General Fill
Type
N
Alma Plain rim
%
3
2.0
Alma Plain body
113
75.3
Alma Rough rim
2
1.3
Alma Rough b ody
9
6.0
Alma score d
1
.7
Reserve smud ged body
4
2.7
Overlap corru gated
5
3.3
Punctuated corrugated
2
1.3
Slip unpainted
2
1.3
San Francisco Red
1
.7
Cibola late un painted
6
4.0
Cibola Reserve/Tularosa
Black-on -White
2
1.3
150
100.0
Total
The presence of Reserve/Tularosa Black-onwhite and overlapping corrugated sherds indicates
that some of these sherds were derived from a
Pueblo period component, although it is not possible
to identify a specific phase. These sherds are probably from a small Reserve phase fieldhouse upstream
from this site.
The relatively low frequency of sherds belonging to late types from LA 43766 and unusually high
frequency of plain brown wares, however, may indicate a mixture of sherds derived from Early or Late
Pithouse period contexts and Pueblo period contexts. Contamination from Pithouse period sites may
also be indicated by a high frequency of rim sherds
belonging to seed jars, a form that is common during the earliest Mogollon occupations but very rare
during the Pueblo period.
LA 75791 (Ladybug Junction)
A total of 144 sherds were recovered from LA
75791 (Table 4.49). Structures from this site appear
to represent occupations by Apache groups during
the protohistoric period. All but one of the sherds
appear to represent material associated with early
Mogollon occupations. The single late sherd is red
slipped and tempered with basalt and may reflect a
trade ware from Piro groups along the southern Rio
Grande. Other ceramic groups include plain brown
ware (75.7 percent), smudged brown ware (2.8 percent), corrugated brown ware (11.8 percent), slipped
red ware (2.2 percent), Mimbres White Ware (2.1
percent), and Cibola White Ware (4.2 percent).
These distributions probably reflect pottery derived
from sites dating to several phases of the Mogollon.
The high frequency of plain brown wares indicates
ceramics from sites dating sometime during the
Pithouse periods, while the presence of corrugated
types and Reserve Black-on-white indicate material
from Pueblo period sites. It is likely, then, the pottery at this site derived from several upstream sites
dating to various periods.
Radiocarbon samples from this site dated to the
seventh, ninth, and seventeenth century and probably indicate occupations dating before and after
many of the ceramics from this site were deposited.
The high frequency of plain brown wares may indicate that some of the plain ware sherds could have
been associated with the Early Pithouse period. A
single protohistoric slipped sherd, possible of
Puebloan origin, is probably associated with a protohistoric Apache occupation of this site.
Pueblo Dating Summary
Similarities between the Pueblo period sites in the
Luna Project indicate that most of the sites date to
the Reserve phase, while some date to the Tularosa
phase. Various combinations in the relative frequencies of Reserve Black-on-white and Tularosa Blackon-white and variation in ceramic scores indicate
that the sites date to different spans within both periods.
Reserve Black-on-white without Tularosa
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
127
Table 4.49. Ceramic Types by Provenience, LA 75791
General Fill
Pit Structure 1
Pit Structure 2
Pit Structure 3
N
N
Total
Type
N
Alma Plain rim
Alma Plain bo dy
%
N
%
2
2.2
4
20.0
1
4.3
51
57.3
11
55.0
13
56.5
1
2
Alma Rou gh rim
Alma Rou gh body
%
14
15.7
Reserve smudged b ody
3
3.4
Reserve Pla in
corrugated
2
2.2
Reserve corrugated
indented
2
10.0
%
1
%
7
4.9
83
57.6
4.3
1
.7
8.7
18
12.5
4
2.8
3
2.1
1
.7
3
2.1
8
1
1
N
66.7
8.3
4.3
5.0
Reserve corrugated
smudged indented
3
25.0
Tularosa corrugated
pattern
2
2.2
2
1.4
Incised corrugated
1
1.1
1
.7
Overlap corrugated
3
3.4
3
2.1
Indeterminate
corrugated
3
3.4
4
2.8
Mangus Black-on-white
2
2.2
2
1.4
1
5.0
Transitional
black-on-white
Other red slipped
3
3.4
Cibola late painted
Cibola Reserve
Black-on-White
1
1
4.3
1
.7
1
4.3
4
2.8
3
13.0
3
2.1
1
.7
5.0
Cibola hatchure
1
1.1
1
.7
Puerco late unpainted
1
1.1
1
.7
Red slipped
Athabascan
1
1.1
1
.7
89
10 0
1 44
100
Total
128
20
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
100
23
100
12
100
Black-on-white was found at several sites (LA
45510, LA 75792, LA 39972, and LA 3563), which
appear to date to the early part of the Reserve phase.
For the most part, ceramic scores assigned to these
sites are lower than those noted at other Pueblo period sites. In addition, other sites (LA 39969, LA
70189, and LA 70185), while definitely dominated
by Reserve Black-on-white, contain low frequencies
of early forms of Tularosa Black-on-white and
appear to date to the late part of the Reserve phase.
With one exception, ceramic scores from these sites
are slightly higher than at those dominated by
Reserve Black-on-white. A single site (LA 89846),
containing a small number of Tularosa Black-onwhite sherds without Reserve Black-on-white
sherds, dates to the Tularosa period. LA 39968 has
slightly more Tularosa Black-on-white than Reserve
Black-on-white and appears to date to the Early
Tularosa phase. Ceramic scores at this site are as
high as or slightly higher than at sites assigned to the
Reserve period. LA 3279 is dominated by a late
form of Tularosa Black-on-white along with lower
frequencies of Reserve Black-on-white and Klageto
Black-on-white and dates to the Late Tularosa
phase. The ceramic score assigned to this site is significantly higher than that noted at other Pueblo
period sites. Ceramic distributions at LA 89847, LA
43766 and LA 75791 indicate an occupation during
the Pueblo period along with a mixture from an earlier pithouse occupation. Thus, ceramic distributions
associated with various Luna Project sites appear to
support a continual occupation during the Pueblo
period from A.D. 1000 to 1300.
SMALL UNDATED ASSEMBLAGES
The nature of some of the very small assemblages
from several sites precluded assigning them to a
specific component.
LA 78439 (Leaping Deer Ridge)
A total of six sherds, five plain brown ware and one
corrugated brown, were recovered from LA 78439,
which dates to the Archaic or Late Pueblo periods.
These sherds probably represent contaminants from
nearby Mogollon sites. Types include Alma Plain
body, Alma Rough body, and plain overlapping corrugated. While most of these types could have been
produced anytime during the Mogollon occupation,
the presence of plain overlapping corrugated may
indicate an occupation during the Pueblo period.
LA 37917 (Rocky Hill)
A single sherd classified as an Alma Rough body
sherd was recovered from the artifact scatter during
the surface stripping of the site. LA 37917 is a protohistoric Apache site (Oakes, this report), and the
single sherd is probably a contaminant from a nearby Mogollon site, which could date to any phase.
LA 37919 (Apache Woods)
A total of nine plain brown ware sherds were examined from LA 37919. While this site is presumed to
have been primarily occupied during the protohistoric period (Oakes, this report), all the sherds represent Mogollon types, including Alma Plain body
and Alma Rough body, and they could be associated
with any period of the Mogollon occupation. They
are probably contaminants from LA 70189, diagonally across the highway.
LA 70191 (The Black Hole)
Only seven sherds were recovered from LA 70191
(Table 4.50), a redeposited site within a small
streambed. Sherds identified from this site include
one Alma Plain body, two Alma Rough body, one
Reserve smudged body, two Reserve Plain corrugated, and one indeterminate White Mountain Redware
sherd. If these sherds are derived from a single component, it probably dates sometime during the
Pueblo period.
Table 4.50. Ceramic Types by Provenience,
LA 70191
Ceramic Typ e
Genera l Fill
N
%
Alma Plain body
1
14.3
Alma Rough b ody
2
28.6
Reserve small b ody
1
14.3
Reserve Plain corrugated
2
28.6
Indeterminate White Mou ntain Redware
1
14.3
Total
7
100.0
LA 9721 (Twin Pines)
A single Alma Rough body sherd was recovered
from LA 9721, which appears to be associated with
a possible fieldhouse outside of the right-of-way.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
129
CONCLUSION
Ceramic data from sites excavated during the Luna
Project indicate a long and mostly continuous occupation by ceramic-producing groups beginning as
early as A.D. 200 and ending at about A.D. 1300
with the abandonment of the northern Mogollon
Highlands. The initial ceramic occupation of the
northern Mogollon Highlands is represented by
components from four sites assigned to the Early
Pithouse period. While these components were not
further grouped into phases, there is some evidence
that all these assemblages are not necessarily contemporaneous. The next ceramic occupation is represented by components from four sites assigned to
the Late Pithouse period and low frequencies of pottery derived from Late Pithouse period components
in later assemblages at several sites. Ceramic distributions indicate the presence of distinct components
from one site dating to the San Francisco phase, two
130
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
sites dating to the Three Circle phase, and one site
dating to both the San Francisco and Three Circle
phase. One possible hiatus in the sequence of occupation in Luna Project assemblages may be reflected in the general absence of Mogollon Red-onbrown, which may indicate the absence of a component clearly dating to the Early San Francisco period phase. A total of 13 sites exhibit assemblages
indicating components dating to the Pueblo period.
Of these components, seven date to the Reserve
period and three to the Tularosa phase; three represent small Pueblo assemblages with some mixing
from earlier components. Variation in types dated to
various Pueblo period phases also indicates occupations spanning these phases. For example, assemblages dating to both the earlier and later part of the
Reserve and Tularosa phase were identified.
Extremely small ceramic assemblages that could not
be dated were recovered from five other sites.
CLAY DISTRIBUTION, USE, AND POTTERY PRODUCTION IN
THE NORTHERN MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS
C. Dean Wilson and Patrick Severts
This chapter presents information relating to the collection and characterization of ceramic clays utilized
by prehistoric potters in the northern Mogollon
Highlands and adjacent areas in west-central New
Mexico. These data were accumulated over a period
of several years as part of the Luna Project. This
chapter focuses on data resulting from the examination and comparisons of clays from local geologic
sources and archaeological contexts. Data relating to
the comparison of these clays to clay pastes found in
pottery from Luna Project sites are also discussed.
These data provide for the subsequent examination
of patterns of local production, determining the
influence of ceramic resource distributions and characteristics on Mogollon ceramic technology, and the
recognition of locally produced pottery.
CLAY PASTES AND CERAMIC TRADITIONS
This study stemmed from the need to better evaluate
models used to explain ceramic distributions and
trends at sites in the Mogollon Highlands.
Observations relating to the distributions of ceramic
paste characteristics have long contributed to the
recognition of pottery types thought to be associated
with various regional ceramic traditions. Mogollon
and Anasazi pottery types were produced with similar construction and decoration methods but differ in
surface color and manipulation (Haury 1936a;
Colton 1939). In general, Mogollon brown wares are
distinguished from Anasazi gray and white wares by
brown, dark gray, or red paste or surface colors,
rather than gray or white colors. Brown and reddish
colors are often attributed to oxidizing firing atmospheres postulated for Mogollon Brown Ware vessels
(Colton 1939; Hall 1950). Such methods are often
contrasted to the reduction or neutral atmospheres
thought to have been used to fire Anasazi gray and
white ware vessels (Haury 1936a; Hall 1950). Other
distinct traits noted in the Mogollon include the
presence of fine sand or igneous temper, the common occurrence of polishing on utility ware surfaces, and smudged interior surfaces. Most
Mogollon painted types exhibit pastes identical to
those found in Mogollon brown wares but are covered with white slips and painted decorations on at
least one surface, allowing for the differentiation of
Mimbres tradition white ware and Cibola "Anasazi"
white wares.
As previously indicated, investigations in westcentral New Mexico often assumed that ceramic traditions practiced by people associated with different
southwestern cultures were the major factor influencing the characteristics of pottery found in different areas. The distribution of ceramics assigned to
different traditions and ware groups based on paste
and temper characteristics has thus played an important role in the recognition and differentiation of various prehistoric culture areas and regions of the
Southwest (Gladwin and Gladwin 1934; Colton
1939; Wheat 1955; Danson 1957; Gladwin 1957;
Martin and Plog 1973; Haury 1985a). Paste characteristics resulting in the assignment of the majority
of ceramics from sites in different areas of west-central New Mexico to one ceramic tradition or the
other are often interpreted as reflecting cultural
boundaries of distinct peoples (Hall 1950; Danson
1957). For example, the dominance of Mogollon
brown wares over Anasazi gray and white wares at
sites in the northern Mogollon is often used to define
the distribution and boundaries of the Anasazi and
Mogollon cultures (Danson 1957; Martin and Plog
1973). In addition, shifts from brown ware to gray
and white ware dominated assemblages occurring in
some areas are often used as evidence of movements
of various groups and shifts in cultural identity, as
well as the mixing or mingling of distinct cultural
traditions (Mera 1934; Wendorf 1953; Danson 1957;
Dittert 1959; Ruppé 1966). For example, Mimbres
white wares were the dominant painted ware in the
northern Mogollon Highlands until A.D. 1000, after
which the majority of painted white ware sherds represent Cibola Anasazi types. This change is often
assumed to reflect increased Anasazi influence on
local potters resulting from an Anasazi intrusion into
the Mogollon Highlands (Danson 1957; Martin
1979).
It appears, however, that the use of paste and
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131
surface characteristics of pottery from sites in different locations commonly used to define major culture
areas has detracted from the investigation of the
actual causes of such variation (Tainter and Gillio
1980; Tainter 1982; Speth 1988; Wilcox 1988;
Tainter and Plog 1994; Wilson et al. 1996).
Geologically related distributions of different types
of clays may also have contributed to regional patterns of variation noted in pottery produced in the
upland Southwest. For example, it has long been
noted that ceramic distributions, often equated with
cultural boundaries, are also closely correlated with
the distribution of geological and geographic features. Such distributions may have influenced clay
availability and characteristics (Martin and Rinaldo
1951; Colton 1953; Martin 1979), but very few studies have examined the influence of material distributions on the ceramics found in this region.
LUNA PROJECT CLAY SOURCE SURVEY
This study examines distributions and characteristics of clay sources that were available to and utilized by potters in the northern Mogollon Highlands
and adjacent areas. The strategy employed is similar
to those employed in recent studies involving the
documentation and comparisons of patterns of clay
resource distribution and use conducted in various
regions of the Southwest (Habicht-Mauche 1993;
Zedeño and Mills 1993; Zedeño 1994; Hegmon et
al. 1995).
The examination of patterns and influences of
clay resource availability and use in the northern
Mogollon Highlands involves several steps. First,
data regarding the distribution and characteristics of
locally available clays were amassed through the
survey, collection, and characterization of samples.
Next, data relating to the characteristics of clays
from various local sources were compared to clays
and ceramic pastes recovered from archaeological
contexts at Luna Project sites. This allows us to distinguish pottery that could have been produced from
local clay sources from that which could not.
Clay surveys conducted during this study
involved the location and characterization of broad
and representative ranges of sources that would have
been available to prehistoric potters at Luna sites.
Examination of ethnographic literature from around
the world indicates that the distance traditional potters go to obtain clays without the aid of modern
transportation is seldom more than 5 km and seldom
more than 3 km for temper (Arnold 1976, 1981,
1985). In contrast, potters may go much greater distances to acquire slip clays and paint materials
132
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
(Arnold 1985). Exchange of vessels between prehistoric groups in the upland Southwest commonly
involved distances well beyond the clay and temper
catchment (Shepard 1942; Franklin 1980; Toll 1985;
Plog 1986; Habicht-Mauche 1993; Zedeño and
Mills 1993). Thus, pottery that can be demonstrated
to contain clay or temper resources not available
within the maximum catchment distance noted for
these resources can usually be assumed not to have
been produced locally. Thus, the presence of pottery
exhibiting such pastes can be interpreted as reflecting exchange with groups in areas where these
resources were locally available. The identification
and collection of local pottery clays may also provide important information concerning the influence
of clays from local sources with particular characteristics and working qualities on the development
of various manufacturing, decorative, and firing
conventions employed in pottery produced in the
northern Mogollon Highlands.
An attempt was made to locate and characterize
clay sources within and just outside the clay catchment area of sites on the Luna Project. In order to
locate a broad and representative range of available
clays, information concerning potential clay-bearing
deposits were first examined through a review of
geological reports, field guides, and maps. Sources
within the catchment area of various sites on the
Luna Project were documented and collected.
Geological profiles associated with various outcrops
and roadcuts were also examined and collected. A
total of 32 clay samples were located and described
during surveys of the Luna Project. Appendix 4.1
presents information on clay sources examined during this study.
Samples from clay sources were described in
the field, collected, and characterized in the lab.
Samples from all clays were fired and compared to
pastes in pottery from assemblages on the Luna
Project in order to determine what sources may have
been used by potters residing at various sites. In
addition to the small sample of clay collected for all
sources, larger amounts of clay were collected from
some of the best-quality pottery clay sources. This
clay was used to make pottery vessels during replication studies conducted by staff at the Office of
Archaeological Studies. Experiments were also conducted on vessels produced during replication studies in order to evaluate the suitability and performance characteristics of these sources. All clay samples recovered during excavations of Luna sites
were also characterized and described like samples
from local sources. Samples from archaeological
contexts are illustrated in Appendix 4.2.
CHARACTERIZATION OF CLAY SAMPLES
Methods relating to the collection and analysis of
clay samples from geological sources and archaeological contexts vary depending on basic research
and analytical goals (Wilson et al. 1988; Hegmon
and Neff 1993; Hill 1993). The present study
involved fairly simple observations and descriptions, allowing for a basic characterization and comparison of ceramic clays. Each clay source collected
was initially described, formed into tiles, and fired
in a controlled oxidizing atmosphere, after which the
refired color was recorded. During this process, various attributes relating to the characteristics and
quality of these clays were recorded, including form,
plasticity, natural color, refired color, and associated
inclusions.
Clay form refers to the basic type of deposit
and degree of weathering. The recording of clay
form provides information concerning the associated formation processes and the amount of processing that would have been required to convert material from a given source into a usable clay. For
example, some shale and certain igneous-derived
sources can be converted into high-quality clays but
may require considerable processing. In contrast,
many of the more weathered deposits require little to
no processing. Such differences would have obviously influenced decisions by prehistoric potters to
use one source over another.
After clay from each source was ground and
processed, attempts were made to judge associated
plasticity and workability. This was done by wetting
and manipulating each sample. Wetted clay was
judged subjectively by forming clay coils between
the fingers. Based on the ease by which a sample
could be formed into a coil, samples were assigned
to categories reflecting plasticity (excellent, good,
moderate, fair, or poor). These judgments reflect the
suitability of a clay for the manufacture of pottery
and allow for the recognition of ceramic-quality clay
sources. Other information recorded was limited to
determining suitable plasticity for ceramic manufacture.
Natural color was recorded for all samples
using a Munsell soil chart. Color was recorded after
a particular sample had been formed into a tile and
dried but before it was refired in standardized oxidation conditions. Samples were also assigned to
color categories: green, gray, gray-brown, redbrown, or brown.
Refiring analysis provides for a comparison of
colors based on mineral impurities in clay and
ceramic pastes. This technique involved firing sam-
ples in oxidizing conditions to temperatures of 950
degrees C. Such firings standardize the oxidation of
iron compounds in clays and burn out organic material. This allows for the common comparison of
sample color and reflects types and amounts of mineral impurities (particularly iron). The color of samples was recorded with Munsell color categories.
During the present study, sherds exhibiting hues of
10R to 2.5YR were described as red, hues of 5YR as
yellow-red, hues of 7.5YR as pink, and hues of
10YR, 2.5YR, and 5YR as buff.
While refiring analysis does not provide information about specific clay composition, a comparison of colors recorded for raw clays and ceramic
pastes may allow for the identification of clay
sources that could have been exploited.
Interpretations of data from refiring studies rely on
the assumption that clays from the same source area
should contain similar mineral impurities, and thus
they should fire to the same color ranges. A number
of factors limit interpretations using this technique.
One problem is that a number of sources exhibiting
different characteristics may occur within the catchment area of a potter at a given site. Also, clays from
distinctive sources may sometimes fire to similar
colors, or specific deposits firing to a particular
color may occur over a wide area. Despite problems,
differences in clay availability and selection may be
observed. These include strong correlations between
paste color and temper or other attributes of pottery
produced at a particular site, indicating that potters
in specific areas often did consistently select distinct
clay and temper resources. Some problems may be
controlled by accumulating a wide range of data
relating to the range of variation present in sources
actually available to potters, raw clay recovered
from a particular source, and paste clay dominating
the local ceramic assemblages.
The presence and characteristics of nonplastic
inclusions found in clays from various sources were
also recorded. Associated inclusions were described
so that they could be compared with temper categories recorded during ceramic analysis. Samples of
self-tempered clays were also submitted to petrographic analysis and compared to inclusions associated with ceramics from the same sites (Hill, this
report).
DESCRIPTION OF CLAY SOURCES FROM THE
MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS
Comparisons of clay and ceramic samples indicate
an extremely good match between clay from local
sources, clays recovered from archaeological con-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
133
texts, and pastes associated with various Mogollon
brown wares from Luna Project sites.
Characterization of clays from local sources and
archaeological contexts from the Luna Project area
indicate that clays of suitable plasticity to form
ceramic vessels appear to have been limited to alluvial or pedogenic clays that were abundant throughout the Mogollon Highlands. Such deposits are quite
common in the upper geological deposits and result
from weathering and associated soil formation of
rock ultimately derived from volcanic outcrops
dominating the geology of the Mogollon Highlands.
Surrounding outcrops consist of a complex series of
interbedded rhyolitic tuffs and basalts resulting from
extensive Tertiary volcanic activity (Rhodes and
Smith 1976; Ratté and Finnell 1978). These include
material deposited from central volcanoes that are
some of the largest cauldrons or volcanic depressions on earth (Elston 1989). The average thickness
of the associated volcanic layers is over 1 km. The
Mogollon-Datil volcanic field represents one of several mid-Tertiary fields that overlap the relatively
stable Colorado Plateau. Volcaniclastic sandstones
and breccias, formed through the filling of the valleys with material eroded from surrounding mountains are also present, often interbedded with the
igneous rocks. In the Luna area such formations are
represented by the Gila Sandstone formation
(Rhodes and Smith 1976; Ratté and Finnell 1978).
The thick and extensive volcanic deposits in the
Mogollon Highlands obscure clay-bearing sedimentary formations common in other areas of the upland
Southwest, particularly the Colorado Plateau.
This geological setting results in the occurrence
of clay sources in the Mogollon Highlands that are
surprisingly different in characteristics and workability from shale-derived clays of sedimentary origin
commonly occurring in a number of different formations in the Colorado Plateau (Wilson 1994).
Characterization of clay sources in the vicinity of
the Luna Project area as well as from broad areas of
the Mogollon Highlands indicates that clays derived
from igneous sources throughout this region are
quite similar. This contrasts with the variability
noted in the sedimentary clays from localities in the
Colorado Plateau. Clay sources collected throughout
the Mogollon Highlands display remarkable consistency in color, inclusions, and working characteristics. The closest quality shale clays exhibiting distinctive characteristics clearly outside the range of
the volcanic clays described here were derived from
shale outcrops north of the towns of Datil and
Quemado.
While in many of the steeper areas of the
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Mogollon Highlands, only basalt, rhyolite, or tuff
were exposed as bedrock, most of the flatter areas
had deep soil deposits reflecting the weathering,
redeposition, and soil formation processes at work
on the surrounding volcanic rocks. These processes
resulted in the formation of relatively thick lenses of
high-quality clays fairly close to the surface. In the
Mogollon Highlands, high-quality clays commonly
occurred in thick B soil horizons, often covered by
very thin organic A horizons. Similar high-quality
clays are commonly visible in alluvial fans and the
upper exposures of road profiles, test pits, and
stream cuts.
Soil deposits in this area generally reflect the
weathering of a wide variety of volcanic and volcanic-clastic parent rocks. Soil surfaces of this area
are described as gray loam, stony loam, or gravely
loam (Maker et al. 1972). Subsurfaces of these
deposits often consist of a brown gravelly clay loam
or clay. Content of gravels and stones associated
with soils is highly variable. Clays and other
deposits collected from such sources are similar in
appearance, but the size of clay, sand, or rock inclusions may vary dramatically between adjacent lenses. This content is represented by layers of varves of
fine clay, loam, and sand textures, as well as layers
consisting of large igneous cobbles.
A characteristic of most upper soil or alluvial
exposures is the presence of lenses or varves of
high-quality clays ranging from less than an inch to
more than a foot in thickness. Clays from these lenses tend to be very hard when dry and very sticky
when wet. When dry, this clay breaks off in very
large chunks, aiding the identification, collection,
and separation of lenses of high-quality clay from
those in other varves.
Deposits of similar igneous-derived clays are
present in most areas in the northern Mogollon
Highlands, and almost all sites in the Luna Project
area are directly over clay-bearing soil deposits.
Activities such as digging pithouses and pits would
have exposed considerable quantities of high-quality pottery clays. Thus, there would have been little
need to search for pottery clay sources.
Clays from these sources are dark gray, browngray, and brown. Regardless of natural color, the
amount of iron impurities results in red or yellowred colors of samples exposed to standardized oxidation conditions, although occasional slip sources
may fire to a deep red. Pastes from most pedogenic
or alluvial clay sources collected during this study as
well as Mogollon Brown Ware ceramic pastes consistently burned to similar colors when fired to standardized temperatures and oxidizing conditions.
Local clays and pastes as well as Mogollon brown
wares also exhibit similar textures and soft surfaces.
Visual examination with a binocular microscope and petrographic analysis of processed clay
local sources and archaeological samples (Hill, this
report) indicate that the inclusions in clay samples
from sources in the Luna Project area are extremely
similar to those noted in Mogollon brown wares
dominating sites dating to all occupational periods.
Using a binocular microscope, aplastic inclusions
were recorded for a significant number of sherds
from Luna sites as well as for refired tiles of clays
derived from local sources and archaeological contexts. Analysis of inclusions in Mogollon brown
wares consisted of the identification and recording
of three distinctive groups apparently reflecting
slight variation of inclusions associated with local
clay sources. As indicated earlier, several temper or
inclusion classes were differentiated based on shape
and sheen of associated fragments. Sands found
along local streams also exhibit similar characteristics because they also result from the weathering of
material from local volcanic outcrops and volcanic
clastic formations. Comparisons of the characteristics of inclusions found in local clay deposits and
clays and sherds from archaeological contexts indicate that these inclusions are very similar and indicate the use of local self-tempered clays.
Petrographic analysis of local clays and sherds
also indicates the use of local self-tempered clays
containing rock fragments of various sizes derived
from weathered volcanic or volcanic-clastic formations. Petrographic characterization of ceramic
pastes and fired tiles made from local clays indicate
the presence of very similar ranges and types of
rocks. This indicates the use of self-tempered clays
from local alluvial or pedogenic deposits.
The finest of these local igneous clays tends to
shrink considerably and crack during drying.
Because they are derived from nearby volcanic outcrops, most contain sufficient rock particles. Thus,
the addition of separate aplastic tempering was usually not necessary. These inclusions occur as siltand sand-sized particles of rounded sand and angular igneous rock. The average and maximum size of
associated aplastic particles grades significantly
within various varves or lenses occurring in alluvial
or soil profiles. While sources tend to be hard and
chunky and contain numerous rock fragments of
varying sizes, they are easily processed by simply
grinding dried clay along with these aplastic inclusions. Grinding these chunks into a fine powder
results in the occurrence of rock inclusions similar
in size, shape, and color to those noted in the major-
ity of Mogollon brown wares from Luna Project
sites. In the few cases where it may have been necessary to add additional aplastic material as temper,
lenses of sand-sized material from other soil or alluvial lenses or nearby streambeds could have been
used. Such materials are identical in appearance and
composition to rock fragments naturally occurring
in the clay, so their addition to a clay body can usually not be determined.
While the basic composition and form of inclusions noted in pottery from separate sites in the Luna
area and other localities of the Mogollon Highlands
are similar, some differences might occur in the
range of variation of inclusions in similar pottery
types from sites in different locations. Further, compositional analysis of ceramics from different volcanic sources in the Mogollon Highlands is needed
to determine the nature of this variation.
While the composition of inclusions noted in
different brown wares from a given site is very similar, particle size in smudged brown wares appears
to be generally smaller than that in utilitarian types.
Unpolished brown wares tend to exhibit the largest
aplastic particles. This indicates differences in the
degree of processing and grinding of clay used in the
manufacture of vessels belonging to different ware
groups and forms associated with varying degrees of
surface polish and smudging.
Experimental firings indicate that vessels made
from these volcanic clays become durable at relatively low firing temperatures, which are well within the range of normal wood firings. To determine
the role of firing atmospheres employed in the production of brown wares, replicated vessels using
alluvial igneous clays from sources in the northern
Mogollon Highlands and shale clays from sources in
the southern Colorado Plateau were placed together
during several experimental firings. When exposed
to a low-oxidation or neutral atmosphere, vessels
produced from igneous-derived clays collected from
the Mogollon Highlands consistently fired to graybrown or brown, while those constructed with shale
clays from the Colorado Plateau fired to the white or
gray commonly noted in Anasazi gray and white
wares. Another observation was that vessels made
from Mogollon Highland volcanic clays tend to be
weak and often crack when fired in true oxidation
atmospheres. Thus, Mogollon clays were not suited
for oxidation firings. In contrast to the oxidation
atmosphere generally thought to have been utilized
in the firing of Mogollon tradition brown ware, it
appears that similar neutral or low oxidation atmospheres were employed on both Mogollon and
Anasazi vessels.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
135
Replication studies also indicate that the characteristics of pedogenic or alluvial clays derived
from volcanic rock employed in the Mogollon
Highlands are so distinct that construction of vessels
using these clays would have required construction
techniques and conventions distinct from those used
during the manufacture of sedimentary clays utilized
in the Colorado Plateau. Volcanic rock-derived clays
from the Mogollon Highlands often exhibit extremely high plasticity and stickiness. This combination
of characteristics contributes to the very high working quality of these clays, which appear to be among
the most workable pottery clays occurring anywhere
in the Southwest. This high plasticity allowed for the
construction of long thin coils, and the stickiness
allowed for the easy joining of these coils. This clay
is also very malleable and provides for considerable
control during vessel construction. Therefore, these
clays were very well suited for the construction of a
wide range of surface textures and vessel forms.
Corrugation and coil patterns noted in late Mogollon
brown wares, such as Tularosa corrugated, indicate
a level of construction control and aesthetic expression not equaled in utility ware forms produced in
almost any other areas of the Southwest and made
possible through the use of high-quality volcanicderived clays found in the Mogollon Highlands.
Despite their plasticity and incredible working
qualities, the shrinkage of such clays creates problems and difficulties during vessel construction.
Each coil must be joined to the rest of the vessel
very quickly. If significant time elapses between the
joining of coils, the associated coil junctures become
very weak, resulting in subsequent vessel cracking
or breakage. Thus, vessels constructed with clay
sources from the Mogollon Highlands had to be
made very quickly, while the clay was still wet.
Usually it would not have been possible to stop and
then resume construction. In contrast, construction
with many of the shale clay sources from the
Colorado Plateau is not only possible, but often easier, if one routinely stops during the coiling process.
Vessels made from these clays tend to be stronger if
portions of the vessels are allowed to dry and
strengthen before construction is resumed. In
Mogollon Highland clays, small cracks tend to form
along the base of coil junctures if vessels dry too
quickly. Thus, during the drying process, the covering and storage of brown ware vessels was very
important.
The tendency for Mogollon Highland clays to
fire to dark gray, brown, or yellow-red when fired in
any atmosphere also limited the application of painted decoration. Several solutions to this constraint
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
used by Mogollon potters may contribute to the
uniqueness of Mogollon brown wares. These
include the utilization of intricate surface texture
and smudged surfaces to achieve striking decorative
effects as well as the application of red and white
slips over brown ware paste clays.
Clay sources that could have been used to create the red surfaces on San Francisco Red and other
red slipped Mogollon types are rare but were identified in the general area. One source in the Apache
Creek National Forest, north of the Luna Project
area, contained clays with an unusually high amount
of iron and would have been an excellent source of
red slip. This and other high-iron slips appear to
have resulted from the weathering of rhyolite and
other volcanic exposures with high iron content.
Most of these high-iron clay sources were very
localized and are so high in iron that touching them
results in deep red staining. Experiments also indicate that the amount of such clay required to slip a
single vessel surface was very small, so it would
have been easy to transport sufficient quantities of
these clays for use as red slips from the sources identified.
White slips used in decorated Mimbres White
Ware appear to have been derived from weathered
volcanic tuff that was suitable as a slip clay but not
plastic enough to be used for paste clays. Layers of
volcanic ash exhibiting a wide range of forms and
weathering appear to be fairly common throughout
the Mogollon Highlands. Most of the material collected during the present study required considerable processing before they were of suitable quality
for use as a slip, although some that can be readily
used as slips were located. Potential slip clays from
local sources near Pueblo Creek Ranch and slips
occurring in Three Circle Red-on-white contain
numerous mica inclusions, indicating they were the
sources of the early red-on-white pottery. Later
Mimbres white wares do not contain these inclusions and also display a slightly different surface
appearance. It is possible that most of the Mimbres
Black-on-white vessels found at Luna Project sites
were produced in other areas, possibly in the
Mimbres region to the south, although more detailed
characterization of clay paste is require before this
issue can be resolved.
Smudging over polished surfaces was also a
common decorative treatment that required highiron clays for the best effect. Intentionally sooted or
smudged surfaces are very lustrous and are covered
with an organic layer deposited during the final
stages of the firing process. Vessels may be smudged
by smothering the fire during the final stages, pro-
ducing blackened deposits on one or both vessel surfaces, although in the prehistoric Southwest this
treatment is most common in interior surfaces.
Interior-smudged surfaces may be produced by simply placing organic material such as bark in an
upside-down vessel. Experimental firings indicate
that vessels made with clays from the northern
Mogollon Highlands retained these smudged
deposits very well. Smudged interior surfaces on
Mogollon pottery are usually highly lustrous and
black and contrast dramatically with unsmudged
exterior surfaces. The application of interior smudging and exterior surface textures provided a means
to effectively decorate vessels made from high-iron
clays. Smudged surfaces, however, may have been
produced for functional as well as aesthetic reasons.
Smudged treatments may also provided solutions to
other potential shortfalls of vessels produced from
clays employed in the Mogollon Highlands.
Smudging apparently helped produce hard durable
surfaces and reduced permeability to liquids.
IMPLICATIONS OF CLAY-BASED
DISTRIBUTIONS
Examination of clay sources available to and utilized by potters in the northern Mogollon Highlands
resulted in explanations for the spatial variability of
pottery in west-central New Mexico that are very
different from those previously proposed. These
examinations indicate that characteristics of local
Mogollon ceramics attributed to cultural or ethnic
influences actually reflect differences in raw materials available within different geological provinces.
This is supported by observations indicating that
surface textures and designs not constrained or
influenced by differences in clay resources are very
similar over wide areas of the upland Southwest.
Differences in the prehistoric pottery found in the
northern Mogollon and southern Anasazi country
appear to have been strongly influenced by characteristics of material sources available in different
geographic and geological settings of the upland
Southwest. Mogollon brown wares reflect the characteristics of the distinctive self-tempered, highiron, homogenous colluvial clays long utilized by
potters in the Mogollon Highlands. Despite the
obvious differences in surface color between ceramics of the Mogollon and Anasazi regions, firing technologies between the areas were not as different as
often assumed, because strong oxidation was avoided during the production of both Mogollon and
Anasazi pottery.
Thus, information concerning the distinctive
nature of the clays available and used by prehistoric
potters in the northern Mogollon Highlands contributes to our understanding of regional ceramic
patterns. First, these data provide insights concerning the influence of the distinct and homogeneous
clay resources occurring in the Mogollon Highlands
on the development and characteristics of pottery
traditions produced in this area. Given the similarities of early pottery produced in the northern
Mogollon Highlands and Colorado Plateau, later
differences may be explained in terms of conventions that developed in response to different regional clay sources (Wilson et al. 1996). A comparison
of ceramic developments within these areas provides the opportunity to examine influences of cultural and historic factors as well as resource distributions on associated ceramic traditions and technology. It appears that certain decorative conventions (neckbanding and corrugations) were introduced into various areas of the upland Southwest at
about the same time and may reflect widespread
interaction and the flow of information concerning
appropriate means to decorate pottery between separated areas. The differences between Anasazi and
Mogollon pottery appears to reflect characteristics
of and manufacturing conventions suitable for the
clays found in the two regions. It should not be surprising, then, that boundaries defined for these cultures almost directly correspond to geological distributions that would have strongly influenced characteristics of the pottery clay available.
In addition, data from clay surveys and related
studies provide critical information concerning the
recognition of pottery within the northern Mogollon
Highlands, as opposed to that produced in other geological provinces. In particular, these data provide
new perspectives relating to changes that occurred
in white ware distributions in the northern Mogollon
country after A.D. 1000. Prior to this time, the great
majority of decorated ceramics from Luna sites represent slipped brown wares such as Three Circle
Red-on-white and Mangus Black-on-white. While
brown ware continued to dominate utility ware
forms at sites dating after A.D. 1000, at later
Mogollon sites they are associated with Anasazistyle Cibola white wares such as Reserve Black-onwhite and Tularosa Black-on white, which represent
the dominant decorated type during three centuries
of occupation (A.D. 1000 to 1300) during the
Pueblo period. It has often been assumed that brown
ware and white wares found at northern Mogollon
Highland sites were locally produced, reflected by
the fact that white wares such as Reserve Black-on-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
137
white and Tularosa Black-on-white are named after
locations in the Mogollon Highlands. The joint association of Mogollon Brown Ware and Cibola white
wares in the Mogollon Highlands has often been
explained as reflecting an Anasazi intrusion into the
northern Mogollon Highlands after A.D. 1000
(Danson 1957; Martin 1979). In this scenario, the
Mogollon culture is sometimes characterized as having disappeared as the result of an Anasazi
"takeover," explained in terms of the Anasazi sociocultural system and its expansion into the Mogollon
Highlands at the expense of the Mogollon system
(Danson 1957; Martin 1979). As a result, some
archaeologists placed the end of the Mogollon period as a distinct Southwest culture area at A.D. 1000
(Wheat 1955; Haury 1988). The intermingling of
groups with distinct ceramic traditions resulting
from this intrusion is further assumed to have resulted in the joint production of Mogollon Brown Ware
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
and Cibola White Ware at sites in the northern
Mogollon Highlands (Danson 1957; Martin 1950a).
Data resulting from the collection of raw
sources indicate, however, that pottery-quality clay
sources firing to light colors and exhibiting characteristics noted in late Anasazi types such as Reserve
Black-on-white and Tularosa Black-on-white were
not available within a reasonable clay catchment
distance at Luna Project sites. These data indicate
that white wares such as Reserve Black-on-white
and Tularosa Black-on-white could not have been
locally produced at Pueblo period sites in the northern Mogollon Highlands, even though they represent the dominant white ware type at these sites.
Thus, the replacement of Mimbres White Ware by
Cibola White Ware reflects changes in white ware
exchange rather than a shift in culturally influenced
pottery-making practices.
CERAMIC TRENDS AT LUNA PROJECT SITES
C. Dean Wilson
Ceramic data from Luna Project investigations provide information concerning various changes and
trends occurring in the northern Mogollon country
from A.D. 200 to 1300. This chapter examines pottery changes and developments documented during
the Luna Project that may provide information relating to the interaction and relationship between adjacent groups as well as responses to local conditions
such as the influence of local ceramic resources,
environmental and subsistence change, and population pressures on the ceramic technology.
CERAMIC DISTRIBUTIONS IN REGIONAL
PERSPECTIVE
A comparison of ceramic distributions at Luna sites
from various periods with those of contemporaneous
sites in surrounding areas of the Mogollon
Highlands and Colorado Plateau may provide
important insights concerning the nature of interaction and relationships with surrounding groups at a
given time. Clues concerning this interaction may be
indicated by the geographic distribution of pottery
traits occurring at contemporaneous sites, ultimately
reflecting the flow of information regarding the
appropriate way to make and decorate pots as well
as evidence of the actual exchange of pottery vessels
through the recognition of nonlocal pottery.
As discussed in previous chapters, data concerning the distribution of ceramic types in the
Southwest have long been used to document and
define the boundaries of ceramic regions or traditions. Archaeologists have most commonly interpreted pottery distributions in various regions as
reflecting different Southwest cultures or peoples
who practiced different ceramic traditions (Kidder
1924; Gladwin and Gladwin 1934; Colton 1939).
For example, sites in west-central New Mexico
dominated by Mogollon brown wares were assumed
to reflect occupations by the Mogollon people, while
those dominated by Anasazi white and gray wares
were thought to reflect Anasazi occupations. High
frequencies of ceramics assigned to several traditions were assumed to represent the mixing or min-
gling of peoples and cultural traditions, and changes
in frequencies of pottery associated with various traditions is sometimes interpreted as reflecting the
expansions of various cultural groups (Martin and
Rinaldo 1950a; Danson 1957; Martin 1979).
The validity of the concept of the Mogollon
culture tradition has been recently challenged (Speth
1988; Wilcox 1988; Tainter and Plog 1994). While
ceramic typologies and characterizations long used
by southwestern archaeologists provide a useful first
step for the documentation of ceramic distributions
on the Luna Project and their comparison to ceramic patterns at sites in surrounding areas, problems
result when patterns documented through such distributions serve as ends in themselves. For example,
explaining the unique distributions noted at Luna
Project sites and contemporaneous sites in surrounding areas simply in terms of the boundaries of the
Cibola branch of the Mogollon and later changes in
terms of cultural intrusions (Martin 1979) does not
adequately explain the causes of the changes noted.
Instead, it is necessary to account for pressures and
influences actually responsible for distributions of
pottery belonging to various types and traditions
through time and across space. For example, as
noted in the previous chapter, while the choice to use
a particular combination of ceramic resources and
manufacturing and decorative technique is partly a
reflection of the techniques and styles of a particular
cultural tradition, these choices are also influenced
by the quality of local ceramic resources.
Characteristics of the pottery produced will also be
influenced by changes in the social roles of pottery
as well as the use of pottery in various activities
within a changing subsistence economy. Thus, it is
important to characterize this pottery in a manner
that allows for the monitoring of a variety of factors,
including resource use, methods of pottery manufacture, exchange, and uses associated with various
behaviors and activities.
While the boundaries of culture areas are sometimes characterized as having been relatively stable,
the nature of broad geographic distributions in
ceramic assemblages from the Luna Project area and
surrounding regions appears to have changed dra-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
139
matically through time. In fact, the relationship
between ceramic distributions in sites of the Cibola
branch of the Mogollon and other regions of the
west changed dramatically at least three times.
These changes appear to correspond with the three
basic periods defined for the northern Mogollon.
Early Pithouse Pottery in Regional Perspective
Distributions of the pottery from all four sites with
Early Pithouse period occupations are very similar.
All assemblages dating to the Early Pithouse period
are dominated by polished and unpolished forms of
plain brown wares classified as Alma Plain and
Alma Rough, with low frequencies of similar forms
with red slips classified as San Francisco Red.
Textured and painted pottery was largely absent.
The pottery from Pithouse phase components in
the Luna Project area is remarkably similar to the
earliest assemblages from other areas of the
Mogollon Highlands (Haury 1936b; Haury and
Sayles 1947; Wheat 1955; Fitting 1973; Lightfoot
1984; Crown and Wills 1996), as well as the Anasazi
(Blinman and Wilson 1995; Reed et al. 1997) and
Hohokam (Whittlesey et al. 1994; Stark 1995)
regions. The earliest pottery from scattered sites in
all southwestern regions is represented by similar
unpainted plain brown wares that are often assigned
to various regional types. Similar brown ware from
a number of Southwest regions have been assigned
to a number of types, including Alma Plain,
Adamana Brown, Woodruff Brown, Obelisk Gray,
and Sambrito Utility, depending on their area of
recovery. It is very difficult, and almost impossible,
to distinguish pottery produced from widely separated regions without compositional or mineralogical
characterization of the temper and clay.
Some archaeologists have suggested that the
early brown ware found throughout the Southwest
was first produced in the Mogollon Highlands and
later spread into other regions (Wendorf 1953;
Lucius 1981; Haury 1988). Such scenarios, however, may be more a reflection of the history of southwestern archaeological research than actual evidence. These initial models may have resulted from
the fact that the first ceramic occupations that clearly dated prior to A.D. 400 were in the northern
Mogollon Highlands (Haury 1988). These included
sites excavated by Martin that are very near some of
the Luna Project sites (Martin 1943; Martin and
Rinaldo 1947) and sites in the Forestdale region
(Haury and Sayles 1947). These early dates, as well
as observations concerning the long history of pro-
140
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
duction of similar brown wares in the Mogollon
Highlands as compared to other southwestern
regions with distinct pottery traditions, seemed to
point to an early date of origin in the Mogollon
Highlands and subsequent spread of the Mogollon
culture (Haury 1988). Later, when early brown ware
was noted in other regions, it was interpreted as indicating the early spread and very wide distribution of
early Mogollon groups (Wendorf 1953; Dittert et al.
1963; Lucius 1981; LeBlanc 1982a).
More recent investigations have cast doubt on
interpreting the widespread distributions of early
brown ware as simply a reflection of the spread of
Mogollon groups (Blinman and Wilson 1995;
Wilson et al. 1996; Reed et al. 1997). Recent studies
indicate that pottery appeared in the Anasazi region
at least as early as in the Mogollon region and even
earlier in the Hohokam region (Whittlesey et al.
1994; Stark 1995; Reed et al. 1997). Thus, the distribution of early brown ware is probably best
described in terms of a pan-Southwest distribution
of a similar ceramic technology, rather than reflecting a particular regional culture or tradition.
Similarities in the early brown wares occurring over
extensive areas represent an early expedient ceramic technology dependent on the use of widespread
alluvial or pedogenic clays (Wilson et al. 1996). By
A.D. 500 in the Hohokam and Anasazi regions, alluvial clay-based brown ware was being replaced by
wares more suitable to the abundant resources of
these regions (Wilson, this volume). After this time,
the early brown ware technology was limited to the
Mogollon Highlands, where ceramic-quality sources
were limited to self-tempered and high-iron clays
suitable for the production of brown ware forms.
Thus, for the upland Southwest, the production of
brown ware ceramics cannot be viewed as a distinctive Mogollon trait until after A.D. 500. The distinctions that developed between the Anasazi and
Mogollon ceramic technology appear to reflect the
development of technological and manufacturing
conventions suited to distinct regional clay sources
more than factors related to cultural affiliation or
ethnicity.
Late Pithouse Pottery in Regional Perspective
The appearance of distinct regional traditions in the
Southwest after A.D. 500 resulted from the development of distinct technologies more suitable for
ceramic resources in various regions and the use of
textured and painted decorations that provided the
potential for greater variation in the pottery. Even
after the appearance of distinct Anasazi gray and
white and Hohokam Buff Ware ceramic traditions,
similar plain brown wares continued to be produced
throughout the Mogollon Highlands. As compared
to developments in other regions, changes in pottery
produced in the Mogollon Highlands after this time
were relatively minor and included the gradual
development of textured and smudged brown ware
and painted Mogollon or Mimbres White Ware
forms. Similar brown wares appear to have been
produced throughout the Mogollon Highlands in
New Mexico and Arizona throughout the Late
Pithouse period.
The presence of early Mogollon painted or
Mimbres white wares as the major painted group
during the Early Pithouse period is more geographically restricted. The apparent continuum from
Mogollon Red-on-brown to Three Circle Red-onbrown and then Mangus Black-on-white appears to
be mainly limited to areas in the Mimbres and
Cibola branches of the Mogollon. In areas of the
Mogollon Highlands just north of the Luna Project
area, such as the Gallo Mountains, utility ware
assemblages are dominated by brown wares identical to those in the Luna Project area, while the dominant decorated pottery is represented by Cibola
white wares such as Red Mesa Black-on-white. In
areas of the Colorado Plateau, such as Mariana
Mesa, similar white wares are associated with early
plain and neckbanded Cibola gray wares. In
Arizona, to the west and southwest, decorated types
are often dominated by local variants of Mogollon
types, along with intrusive types from the east such
as Three Circle Red-on-white and Mangus Blackon-white (Sayles 1945; Wheat 1954, 1955;
Breternitz 1959; Haury 1985b, 1985c).
Thus, the Luna Project and other areas along
the Upper San Francisco drainage appear to be in the
very northernmost part of the range, where decorated types often described for the Mimbres areas dominate Late Pithouse period assemblages.
Architecture and ceramic patterns found in the Luna
Project area are similar to those in San Francisco
and Three Circle phase components in areas to the
south. Mogollon Village is located along the San
Francisco drainage south of the Luna Project and
exhibits substantial evidence of occupation during
the Late Pithouse period (Haury 1936b; Mauldin et
al. 1996). A number of Late Pithouse sites exhibiting these decorated types are in the Mimbres region
along portions of the Gila and Mimbres drainages
(Bradfield 1931; Haury 1936b; Anyon and LeBlanc
1980; Anyon 1984), and major Late Pithouse sites
are known as far south as the Burro Mountains
(Woosley and McIntyre 1996) and as far east as the
Rio Grande drainage near Truth or Consequences
(Schutt et al. 1994). Sites exhibiting similar architectural and ceramic patterns are found over a relatively wide area covering much of the southwest
quarter of New Mexico and just barely extending
into southeast Arizona. Most of the major Late
Pithouse villages, however, appear to be clustered
within fairly small areas along the San Francisco,
Gila, Mimbres, and Rio Grande drainages and associated tributaries.
Similarities in pottery and architecture in the
northern Mogollon Highlands and the Mimbres
region is sometimes interpreted as indicating the
northern range of the Mimbres cultural tradition during the San Francisco or Three Circle phase.
Similarities in ceramics, however, may also reflect
distributions of clay resources available to potters in
different areas of the Mogollon Highlands. Thus, the
combination of brown pastes and white slips utilized
in the production of Mimbres White Ware reflects
attempts to produce white ware pottery. The volcanic-derived clay resources occur over very wide
areas of the Mogollon Highlands. Similarities in
styles between pottery found in this area of the
northern Mogollon and sites in the Mimbres region,
however, also indicate the flow of information
between potters in these regions.
Pueblo Period Pottery in Regional Perspective
Similarities between the pottery distributions in
areas of the northern Mogollon in the Luna and
Reserve area and those within the Mimbres branch
ended at about A.D. 1000. While there are some
slight differences in the range of styles in the brown
corrugated pottery between these areas at this time,
the major geographic change that occurred is reflected by the appearance of Cibola White Wares such as
Reserve Black-on-white as the major white ware
group. In contrast, Mimbres white wares such as
Mimbres Classic Black-on-white continued to dominate assemblages dating to the eleventh and twelfth
century at sites throughout the Mimbres region.
Similar developments reflected by the occurrence of Cibola White Wares such as Reserve Blackon-white and Tularosa Black-on-white, along with
brown utility wares including corrugated and
smudged types, took place over a wide area of the
Mogollon Highlands just south of the Colorado
Plateau. Thus, similar combinations of pottery occur
at Pueblo period sites covering a long band running
east-west along the edges of the Mogollon
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
141
Highlands. In west-central New Mexico, similar
white ware distributions probably begin just west of
the town of Magdalena, although some traits
between these white wares are shared with sites containing Chupadero Black-on-white found as far east
as the Pecos River (Lekson 1996). Similar distributions continue into the Mogollon Highlands of
Arizona, including the Upper Little Colorado
drainage and the Tonto Basin (Martin and Rinaldo
1960a; Martin et al. 1961, 1962, 1964; Doyel 1980;
Heidke and Stark 1995). In some regions of
Arizona, Cibola white wares replaced various
regional Mogollon decorated types, and in other
regions they replaced Hohokam buff wares. Thus,
from A.D. 1000 to 1300, similar combinations of
Mogollon Brown and Cibola types occur along the
northern part of the Mogollon Highlands and
beyond eastern New Mexico to as far west as central
Arizona.
Along most of this zone, frequencies of
Mogollon brown and Cibola white wares are gradational. In areas of the northern Mogollon Highlands,
frequencies of Cibola white and gray wares at
Pueblo period sites tend to increase at sites closer to
the Colorado Plateau and decrease moving south
into the Mogollon Highlands. This results in a series
of zones containing different mixes of sherds
belonging to different traditions. Zones containing
various combinations of ceramic types belonging to
both the Mogollon and Anasazi traditions have
sometimes been characterized as reflecting distinct
cultures in their own right that are neither Anasazi
nor Mogollon (Dittert 1959; Ruppé 1966).
The shift in pottery and architecture represented in the Luna Project area as well as other areas of
the northern Mogollon region has sometimes been
interpreted in terms of an Anasazi intrusion into the
northern Mogollon Highlands resulting in the mingling of different peoples and ceramic traditions
(Martin and Rinaldo 1950a; Danson 1957; Martin
1979). In these scenarios, this combination of
ceramics was assumed to be the result of the local
production of both Mogollon tradition brown ware
and Anasazi white wares in the northern Mogollon
country. Factors relating to the occurrence of the
spread of pottery appear, however, to reflect more
than the simple emergence or mingling of different
regional traditions.
EXAMINATION OF PATTERNS OF PRODUCTION
AND EXCHANGE
Many of the spatial and temporal patterns of ceramic distributions reflect factors influencing the pro142
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
duction and exchange of ceramic vessels. Aspects of
pottery production, exchange, and function ultimately represent interrelated components of larger economic systems and must be considered together
(Blinman 1988; Pool 1992). For example, factors
preventing or encouraging the production of certain
pottery forms may influence the exchange of pottery
between different areas. The increasing number of
studies examining the production and exchange of
pottery vessels in various regions of the Southwest
indicates the importance in examining the nature
and role of pottery exchange in the prehistoric
Southwest (Toll 1981; Blinman 1988; Mills 1995;
Blinman and Wilson 1993; Habicht-Mauche 1993,
1995; Zedeño 1994; Zedeño and Mills 1993; Crown
1995; Hegmon et al. 1995; Heidke and Stark 1995;
Wilson and Blinman 1995). These studies indicate
that, while over the entire span of prehistoric occupations in the Southwest pottery was almost always
produced at the household level, potters in various
regions throughout the Southwest often produced
certain pottery forms distinct to that region. Such
pottery is often represented by elaborate decorated
types which appear to have been exchanged over
wide areas. Other pottery classes, such as utility
ware, appear to have been consistently produced for
local use and do not appear to have been widely
exchanged.
Examination of Relative Rates or Volume of
Pottery Production (with David Hayden)
One factor seldom examined in Southwestern studies, but an important consideration in an area such as
Luna, where pottery was utilized over such a long
period, concerns the relative rate of production and
discard of pottery vessels. Previous studies of
ceramic accumulation rates in the Southwest have
generally relied on information relating to concise
demographic and temporal trends. Rates are defined
by the number of items necessary to fill their role per
population unit and the rate at which they are discarded (Varien et al. 1993). Estimates of ceramic
accumulation rates are derived from equations considering the total number of ceramics represented at
a site through systematic sampling. The quantities of
ceramics represented is then evaluated in terms of
evidence relating to population size, length of occupation, and the influence of types of activities in
which ceramics were used in order to estimate rates
of pottery breakage rates and accumulation. Because
of the constraints associated with CRM projects,
however, most of the Luna-Reserve excavations represent slices rather than systematic samples of the
full range of activities that would have occurred at a
given site. Without an opportunity to define concise
occupational time frames, and without sufficient
knowledge to determine site population size, the
development of accurate, quantitative accumulation
rates is difficult.
Because of these constraints, Luna Project
investigations employed another approach to examine relative rates of pottery accumulation. This
involved establishing a baseline from which the
changes in the relative quantities of different classes
of artifacts deposited from a particular site can be
determined. Measurements of relative rates of pottery accumulation may be accomplished by comparing quantities of pottery with other artifacts found in
the same contexts. Lithic flakes appear to represent
the most appropriate material class for such a comparison because of their common occurrence at
Luna sites and because examination of the lithic
debitage from Luna sites indicates remarkable consistency through time in terms of morphology, platform type, utilization, and material type from all
ceramic-bearing sites. These similarities were interpreted as long-term consistency in lithic technology.
If this is correct, it should be possible to assume that
quantities of discarded lithic flakes were constant
through time and to use the relationship between the
two classes to examine relative rates of ceramic deposition or discard.
In order to obtain relative measurements of
ceramic discard, lithics and ceramics from various
sites were weighed in grams and used to determine
mass accumulated for each artifact class for a given
context or site. Weights were used instead of counts
because the latter would reflect too much of the
effects of breakage resulting from postdepositional
processes. Cores and formal tools were excluded
because of potential biases resulting from the comparably large size and weight of individual items.
For each site, a relative frequency ratio of weight
between the two artifact classes was derived by
dividing the total weight of the ceramics by the total
weight of the lithics. Increases in this ratio are
assumed to reflect higher rates of breakage and discard of pottery vessel associated with increased use.
Comparisons of the ceramic to flake ratios from
various Luna sites (Table 4.51) indicate definite
temporal trends in the relative rate of breakage and
discard of ceramic vessels. Sites dating to the pithouse periods display about a one to one ratio of
ceramic to lithic flake weight. During the Reserve
phase period, however, there is an increase in the
ratio of pottery by three to four times, culminating in
a tenfold increase by the late Tularosa phase. If
assumptions about the conservatism of the lithic
technology at Luna Project sites and accumulation
rates are correct, this trend reflects increased breakage of ceramic vessels associated with their
increased importance through time. If this is not the
case, then it nevertheless shows a change in the relative discard of the two material classes and an
increased emphasis on activities related to ceramic
breakage compared to those involving the discard of
flaked stone debris.
Evidence of Ceramic Production
Other examinations relating to patterns of ceramic
production are highly dependent on studies of clay
resources described in the previous chapter. These
studies provide the basis for identifying locally produced pottery and an evaluation of the influences of
local resources on the local pottery technology in
this area of the northern Mogollon Highlands. The
Table 4.51. Ceramic/Lithic Ratios for Selected Luna Project Sites
Site
Period
Ceramic (g)
Lithic (g)
Ratio (C/L)
LA 39975
Early Pithouse
12 286
14 523
0.9
LA 45507
Late Pithouse
66 937
69 354
1.0
LA 70196
Late Pithouse
6 535
7 935
0.9
LA 70201
Late Pithouse
3 875
6 351
0.6
LA 70185
Early Pueblo
80 834
21 147
3.8
LA 75792
Early Pueblo
9 262
2 964
3.1
LA 45510
Early Pueblo
22 676
3 437
6.6
LA 3279 (Rooms 7-9 only)
Late Pueblo
73 844
7 403
10.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
143
occurrence of production waste (pottery clay) and
tools (scrapers with distinctive wear) in a particular
context may indicate that pottery production took
place (Wilson and Blinman 1995). Given the nature
of ceramic production, such evidence tends to be
very rare, and large collections are required to reliably determine whether ceramic production took
place in a given context.
Evidence of ceramic production in the form of
pottery clay is present at Luna Project sites in
extremely low frequencies, indicating that pottery
production took place at most sites, including those
dating to all phases. Occurrences of ceramic-quality
clays were rare at Luna sites and in all cases represented material utilized in the production of brown
ware vessels.
By far, the strongest evidence of pottery production came from a single site (the Hough site), the
largest site investigated during the Luna Project.
Large numbers of pottery manufacturing tools and
some clays from this site appear to indicate a greater
emphasis on pottery production than at other sites.
Evidence of concentrations of tools and waste
indicative of ceramic production was recovered
from several rooms at the Hough site by OAS staff
as well as during earlier investigations (Wendorf et
al. 1963). Even considering the relative high quantity of material recovered from the Hough site compared to other Luna Project sites, the intensity of
pottery production appears to have been greater at
this site, although it still appears to have been well
within the range of household production. All the
clays recovered from archaeological contexts are
very similar in color, texture, and associated inclusions to those represented in the overwhelming
majority of brown ware recovered from this site.
Clays located in soil lenses directly within the sterile deposits below the Hough site are extremely similar to those in clays from other archaeological contexts and brown ware pastes (Hill, this volume). In
contrast, the buff to white firing clays utilized in the
production of painted Tularosa Black-on-white and
other Cibola white wares at this site were not recovered during excavations of the Hough site or represented at local sources. A high number of sherds
from this site represent well-made and elaborately
textured types such as Tularosa fillet rim and
Tularosa pattern corrugated, known to occur over
wide areas well outside their probable area of manufacture. It is quite possible that much of the finely
textured and smudged pottery produced at the
Hough site was exchanged to other areas, including
the Colorado Plateau, where Mogollon trade wares
occur at late Pueblo III sites. In turn, Tularosa
144
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Black-on-white produced in Pueblo III sites in the
Colorado Plateau appears to have been widely traded to groups in the northern Mogollon Highlands.
Trends in Ceramic Manufacturing
Conventions
Studies described in the previous chapter indicate an
extremely long-lived pottery technology involving
the production of similar brown utility ware vessels.
This technology was strongly influenced by the
long-term use of high-quality and homogenous volcanic-derived alluvial and pedogenic clays common
in the northern Mogollon Highlands. Clay studies
indicate that pottery associated with all basic forms
and manipulations could have been locally produced
using clay sources near all Luna Project sites.
Distributions of data related to surface texture and
finish allow for the examination of changes in manufacture and decorative conventions. Table 4.52
illustrates the overall frequency of various groups of
unpainted Mogollon Brown Ware sherds from various dated sites.
These examinations indicate that similar Alma
Plain pottery dominates all but the latest (Late
Tularosa phase) Luna Project ceramic assemblages.
While the distribution of vessel forms did change
through time, no difference in the paste, firing techniques, or surface manipulations of plain brown
wares (Alma Plain) from assemblages dating to different periods was noted. During later periods, a
wide variety of other forms were produced along
with Alma Plain, including red slipped, early textured, plain smudged, and corrugated types. In most
occupations these forms appear along with higher
frequencies of plain brown pottery, and once a basic
brown utility ware form appeared, it appears to have
always been produced alongside plain brown wares
and other forms. Thus, changes through time in local
brown ware production are best described in terms
of the gradual addition of new brown ware forms
around a plain brown technological core that basically remained unaltered for over a millennium.
Assemblages dating to the early span of the
Early Pithouse period are dominated by plain brown
ware along with lower frequencies of red slipped
pottery exhibiting similar pastes and manipulations
(San Francisco Red). During the late part of the
Early Pithouse period, small but significant quantities of a variety of textured pottery began to be produced. Early textured types reflect the range of surface decorations employed during the Late Pithouse
period, including striated, incised, punctated, neck-
Table 4.52. Distributions of Textured and Surface Treatments of Unpainted Brown Ware Types
Phase, Site %, and N
Plain
N
Red Slipped
%
N
Early
Textured
%
N
Plain Smudg ed
%
N
%
Corru gated
N
%
LA 70188, Early Pithouse, some
Pueblo period mixing (52)
35
67.9
17
32.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
LA 39975, Early Pithouse (2322)
1969
84.8
314
13.5
31
1.3
8
.3
0
0
LA 45508, Early Pithouse (251)
239
95.2
11
4.4
0
0
0
0
1
.4
LA 39972, north are a, Early
Pithouse period (710)
618
87.0
68
9.6
0
0
22
3.6
2
.3
LA 70196, San Francisco (1040)
864
83.1
21
2.0
50
4.8
104
10
1
.1
12292
76.4
42
.3
100 0
6.2
2480
15.4
284
1.7
LA 43786, probab ly Three Circle
Phase (71)
58
81.7
4
5.6
4
5.6
3
4.2
2
2.8
LA 70201, mostly Late Pithouse
(110 0)
884
80.4
172
15.6
17
1.5
1
.1
24
2.2
LA 45510, Late Pithouse early
Reserve transition (7 702)
5751
74.6
160
2.1
14
.2
568
7.4
1209
15.7
LA 75792, Reserve phase (242 1)
1874
77.4
38
1.6
11
1.8
44
1.8
454
18.7
LA 39969, Reserve Phase (5395 )
3056
56.6
40
.7
21
.4
1277
23.7
1001
18.5
LA 39972, south area Reserve
Phase (1282)
742
57.9
2
.2
4
.3
288
22.5
246
19.25
LA 3563, Reserve, some Three
Circle phase mixture (2335)
1566
67.1
42
1.8
13
.5
286
12.2
428
18.3
LA 70189, Reserve phase (428 )
317
74.1
2
.5
8
2.5
39
9.1
62
14.5
8376
60.3
78
.6
26
.2
2546
18.3
2867
20.6
LA 89846, Tularosa phase (600)
397
66.2
0
0
0
0
47
7.8
156
26
LA 39968, early Tularosa phase
(179 80)
10459
58.2
157
.9
65
.4
3387
18.8
3902
21.7
LA 3279, late Tularosa phase
(847 62)
23789
28.1
2785
3.3
13 6
.2
26114
30.8
31938
37.7
LA 89847 indeterminate Pueblo
and Pitho use mixed (4 29)
255
59.4
14
3.2
0
0
101
23.5
59
13.8
LA 43766, Reserve phase and
early mixed (140)
127
90.7
1
.7
1
.7
4
2.9
7
5
LA 75791. Late Pithouse and
Pueblo mixed (134)
109
81.3
4
3.0
4
3.0
0
0
17
12.7
LA 45507, Three Circle phase
(160 98)
LA 70185, late Reserve phase
(138 93)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
145
banded, and neck coiled forms. While pottery
exhibiting sooted interiors is present in the earliest
ceramic assemblages in the Mogollon Highlands, a
distinct smudged technology reflecting the intentional application of a layer of carbon soot over a
highly polished surface appears as a common
manipulation during the Late Pithouse period. The
final technological addition is represented by the
appearance of corrugated and painted smudged
forms during the early A.D. 1000s. A very wide
range of corrugated textures is represented in assemblages dating to the Pueblo period, including plain
corrugated, indented corrugated, incised corrugated,
patterned corrugated, and zone corrugated forms.
Coils on corrugated surfaces tend to be fine, and patterns are often intricately executed and partly reflect
the very plastic nature of local clays. While the areal
distribution of a wide range of corrugated forms has
been interpreted as indicating differential production
and intraregional exchange (Brunson 1985), examination of pastes and spatial distributions of forms at
Luna sites indicates that a wide variety of textured
forms were produced at various Luna sites. During
the late Tularosa phase, corrugated pottery became
the dominant brown ware. A very low frequency of
the brown ware produced during later periods also
exhibited smudged interiors and painted decorations
in the interior, as in Starkweather smudged painted,
or white clay exterior decorations as in Tularosa
White-on-red.
Thus, changes in the manufacture and surface
form of brown ware vessels are best described as
accumulative, and an increasingly wide range of
forms were represented. While similar brown ware
(Alma Plain) dominates assemblages for a millennium, the number of basic ceramic groups and types in
pottery assemblages steadily gets larger through
time. These trends contrast with developments in the
Anasazi area, where plain gray wares dominating
early utility wares are almost totally replaced by corrugated gray wares during later occupations.
Changes in Anasazi assemblages are better considered sequential than cumulative.
The long duration of plain polished brown
wares in the Mogollon Highlands may reflect the
success of the early plain brown ware technology in
the production of vessels that were apparently suitable for a wide range of uses. Plain polished brown
utility wares, then, appear to represent a highly successful vessel manufacturing and firing technology
well adapted to local clays.
146
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
EVIDENCE OF CERAMIC EXCHANGE
Attempts were also made to examine the nature of
the exchange of pottery produced by groups in widely separated areas through the documentation of frequencies of pottery from other regions. Pottery on
the Luna study, clearly derived from other regions,
includes White Mountain Redware and Cibola gray
wares. Studies of clay use and distribution from the
Luna Project also provide important information
relating to ceramic exchange. These studies indicate
that Cibola White Ware, sometimes characterized as
having been produced in this area, could not have
been locally produced but probably originated in
areas in the Colorado Plateau where low-iron geological clays suitable for the production of Cibola
white wares occur. There is also some evidence that,
at least during some periods, Mimbres white wares
at Luna sites may not have been locally produced
(Hill, this report). Relative frequencies of types
broadly indicative of area of origin are illustrated for
various sites in Table 4.53.
Early Pithouse Period Exchange
Early Pithouse period assemblages are overwhelmingly dominated by Mogollon Brown Ware exhibiting similar temper and paint. The lack of pottery
clearly assigned to nonlocal types may be, in part, a
problem in identification, because similar brown
wares were produced throughout the Southwest. For
example, it is often impossible to distinguish brown
wares made throughout most of the Mogollon
Highlands from those made in the Luna Project area.
Still, types such as Adamana Brown and Obelisk
Utility, which contain distinctive temper, were not
identified from Early Pithouse sites on the Luna
Project. While the latest part of the Early Pithouse
period does overlap with the time of production of
the earliest Cibola white and gray types, these are
not associated with any of the Late Pithouse components represented. It also seems unlikely that plain
undecorated brown ware vessels would have been
exchanged over wide distances. Examination of
tempers and refiring analysis indicate an extremely
good match between local pastes and tempers.
Petrographic analysis of very small samples also
indicates a strong match between inclusions in pottery from Early Pithouse sites and local clay sources
(Hill, this volume). Therefore, it seems likely that
the great majority of pottery on Luna Project sites
dating to the Early Pithouse period could have been
locally produced, although not beyond a responsible
Table 4.53. Distribution of Spatially Distinct Ceramic Tradition and Ware Groups
Phase, Site %, and N
Mogollon Brown
N
%
Mimbres White
N
%
Cibola White
N
Cibo la Gray
%
N
White
Mountain Red
%
N
%
LA 70188, Early Pitho use, some
Pueblo period mixing (57)
52
91.2
0
0
5
8.8
0
0
0
0
LA 39975, Early Pitho use (2322)
2322
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
LA 45508, Early Pitho use (253)
251
99.2
0
0
2
.8
0
0
0
0
LA 39972, north area, Early
Pithouse period (710)
710
100
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1040
8585.0
142
11.6
41
3.3
1
.1
0
0
1 6098
92.8
952
5.5
114
.7
1 76
1.0
0
0
LA 43786, probably Three Circle
phase (7 5)
71
94.7
4
5.3
0
0
0
0
0
0
LA 70201, mostly L ate Pithouse
(1166)
1100
94.3
58
5.0
8
.7
0
0
0
0
LA 45510, Late Pithouse early
Reserve transition, (8020)
7702
96.0
29
.4
280
3.5
0
0
5
.1
LA 75792, Reserve phase,
(2547)
2421
95.1
0
0
115
4.5
0
0
0
0
LA 39969, Reserve phase (5843)
5395
92.3
30
.5
410
7.0
1
0
3
.1
LA 39972, south area, Reserve
phase (1 327)
1282
96.5
2
.2
42
3.2
0
0
0
0
LA 3563, Reserve, some Thre e
Circle phase mixture (2 544)
2335
91.8
83
3.3
117
4.6
0
0
7
.3
LA 70189, Reserve phase (458)
428
93.4
0
0
24
5.2
0
0
0
0
1 3893
96.5
3
trace
427
3.0
1
trace
20
1.1
LA 89846, Tula rosa phase (637 )
600
94.2
0
0
33
5.2
0
0
0
0
LA 39968, early Tularosa phase
(19426)
1 7980
92.6
63
.3
1316
6.8
1
trace
43
.2
LA 3279, late Tula rosa phase
(90986)
8 4762
93.2
130
.1
5460
6.0
trace
.2
313
.3
LA 89847, indeterminate Pue blo
and Pithouse mixed (444)
429
96.6
1
1.2
12
2.7
0
0
0
0
LA 43766, Reserve phase and
early mixed (150)
140
93
2
1.3
8
5.3
0
0
07
0
LA 75791, Late Pithouse and
Pueblo mixed (1 43)
134
93.7
3
2.1
6
4.2
0
0
0
0
LA 70196, San Francisco (1224)
LA 45507, Three Circle phase
(17346)
LA 70185, late Reserve phase
(14389)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
147
doubt.
Late Pithouse Period Exchange
While pottery assemblages dating to the Late
Pithouse period are still overwhelmingly dominated
by brown wares probably of local origin, types of
definite nonlocal origin are consistently present in
relatively low frequencies. These include both
Cibola gray and white wares produced on the
Colorado Plateau. Anasazi pottery in Late Pithouse
assemblages includes plain gray body, plain gray
rim (Lino Gray), White Mound Black-on-white, and
Red Mesa Black-on-white. Of the three Late
Pithouse period sites yielding relatively large numbers of sherds, one contains a higher frequency of
gray than white ware, and the other two contain a
higher frequency of white than gray ware. In part,
the appearance of Cibola gray and white wares at
these sites reflects the production of Anasazi pottery
on the Colorado Plateau, although there appears to
have been some delay in the initial production of
Anasazi pottery and its occurrence in Luna Project
assemblages. For example, Basketmaker III types
are absent in all of the Early Pithouse assemblages
even though there is some overlap between the Early
Pithouse and Basketmaker III phases. Thus, pottery
from the Cibola region is probably represented in
components dating to the late eighth or early ninth
centuries and is represented by a mix of gray and
white wares.
Brown ware from Late Pueblo sites exhibits
pastes and inclusions similar to those in Early
Pithouse assemblages. Thus, visual and petrographic analysis indicate that almost all of the brown utility ware sherds from Early Pithouse contexts could
have been derived from vessels produced in the
Luna Project area, although it is possible they originated in other areas, such as the Mimbres region,
where similar temper was used to produced brown
utility ware vessels.
The great majority of the decorated pottery
from Late Pithouse phase components is Mimbres
White Ware. It is difficult to determine whether
Mimbres White Ware from various phases was
locally produced, although information relating to
the paste and slip characteristics provides some
important clues. Collection of potential sources of
white slip clay from weathered tuff deposits indicate
that local sources contained mica inclusions and
fired to yellowish to pinkish white. Slips from Three
Circle Red-on-white sherds closely match local
slips. Those occurring in Mangus Black-on-white
148
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
and Mimbres Classic Black-on-white are clearly different in color, texture, and inclusions from those
represented in local sources. Given these differences
and strong similarities in Mimbres White Ware from
the Mimbres region, it is quite likely that while
Three-Circle Red-on-white may have been locally
produced, later Mimbres white wares probably were
not. While visual examination of inclusions of
Mimbres White Ware sherds from Luna sites indicate similar volcanic-derived inclusions as in brown
wares, sherds containing distinctive amounts of larger tuff particles are more common in the Mimbres
White Ware sherds and match inclusions commonly
noted in similar whites ware from the Mimbres
region. Further evidence of nonlocal production of
Mimbres White Ware is indicated by petrographic
analysis, indicating that the inclusions occurring in
Mangus Black-on-white and Classic Mimbres
Black-on-white from the Luna Project area are distinct from those noted in brown ware pastes recovered from the same site (Hill, this volume).
Inclusions in Mimbres White Ware sherds also
appear to be very similar to those noted in samples
from the Mimbres region.
Thus, the occurrence of later Mimbres Blackon-white may reflect the increasing importance of
exchange with areas in the Mimbres region during
the Late Pithouse period. Evidence of this shift from
local to nonlocal production of Mimbres White
Ware may be indicated by the drop in total frequency of Mimbres White Ware from the San Francisco
phase (where it is 11.6 percent of the total sherds) to
the Three Circle phase (5.5 percent). These trends
contrast dramatically with those for most surrounding areas, where there was an increase in the total
proportion of white ware sherds through time. The
distinct nature of trends in the frequencies of white
ware from the Luna Project may indicate that they
were only produced in the northern Mogollon country for a very short time and were probably limited
to Three Circle Red-on-white. The occurrence of
Mimbres Black-on-white in diminishing frequencies
through time probably reflects declining exchange
with the Mimbres region.
Pueblo Period Exchange
The great majority of the pottery from Pueblo period sites on the Luna Project is brown utility ware
with temper and pastes similar to those in brown
ware from earlier components. This pottery indicates, then, a continuity of local production using
similar resources. Some variability was noted in the
size of the aplastic inclusions occurring in different
brown ware groups. For example, smudged brown
ware tended to exhibit very fine inclusions, while
polished brown ware tended to exhibit larger inclusions, and that for unpolished brown wares was
often even larger. These differences appear to reflect
different degrees of processing associated with different brown ware forms rather than the utilization
of different sources.
Other ware groups represented in varying
amounts at Luna sites represent pottery produced in
a number of surrounding regions. The great majority of nonlocal pottery during the Pithouse period are
Cibola white wares. For Pueblo period sites, the
total frequency of Cibola White Ware sherds ranges
from about 3 to 7 percent. While the appearance of
significant frequencies of Cibola White Ware in the
northern Mogollon was earlier interpreted as resulting from the migration of Anasazi groups who subsequently produced white ware vessels alongside
brown ware vessels, examinations of clay resources
discussed in the previous chapter indicate that these
white wares could not have been locally produced.
Instead, this pottery was most likely produced in the
Colorado Plateau, where clays suitable for the production of white and gray ware are readily available.
Most of the Cibola White Ware sherds from
Pueblo period sites are tempered with sand and
sherd temper, although similar ranges of variation
are represented by examples exhibiting sherd or
sand temper only. Such sherds usually exhibit similar white to gray pastes that consistently fire to buff
colors. Pastes and manipulations of these sherds are
very similar to those in Cibola White Ware, found,
and apparently produced, over a very wide area of
the Colorado Plateau. Petrographic analysis indicates a great deal of variability in the composition of
paste in Cibola White Ware (Hill, this report) and
may indicate that all samples were produced at different sources. In addition, some Cibola White Ware
sherds contain darker pastes with higher iron content
that may reflect additional sources, possibly to the
west. Low frequencies of Cibola White Ware sherds
associated with Pueblo period occupations were
tempered with basalt and occasionally other igneous
rock. Small isolated grains of basalt were also noted
in two samples examined during petrographic analysis (Hill, this report). These indicate additional
sources for Cibola White Ware, possibly in eastern
Arizona, although analysis of material from this area
is needed to verify such speculation. It appears, then,
that Cibola White Ware occurring in Pueblo period
contexts may have been produced from numerous
sources, indicating Cibola pottery was maintained
through ties with groups in a number of areas in the
Colorado Plateau.
The overall frequency of Cibola White Ware is
similar for assemblages dating to different phases of
the Pueblo period. For Reserve phase sites, the total
frequency of pottery assigned to Cibola White
ranges from 3 to 7 percent and for Tularosa phase
types from 5.2 to 6.8 percent. This may indicate the
long duration of similar ties or networks allowing
for the movement of Cibola White Ware into the
Mogollon Highlands.
Gray wares are either absent at Pueblo period
sites on the Luna Project or occur in very low frequencies (.2 percent or lower). The few gray wares
recovered from Pueblo sites on the Luna Project
exhibit buff pastes and sand temper identical to the
gray ware dominating sites in the southern Colorado
Plateau. Unlike the white wares produced in the
southern Colorado Plateau, gray wares do not appear
to have been widely exchanged into the northern
Mogollon Highlands. This may have been because
locally made brown utility ware was already used
for cooking and storage, which gray utility ware
vessels would have replaced.
Mimbres white wares tend to be very rare at
Pueblo period sites and usually make up less than .5
percent of the pottery. Both visual examination and
petrographic analysis of Classic Mimbres Black-onwhite from Pueblo period sites indicate it was not
produced locally in the Luna Project area but probably derived from areas in the Mimbres region.
Mimbres Classic sherds are present in sites dating to
the Pueblo period, possibly indicating a longer period of production than sometimes thought, extending
into the thirteenth century.
Other nonlocal pottery is represented by White
Mountain Redwares. These are represented in very
low frequencies and indicate very limited exchange
of vessels from areas along the Little Colorado
drainage to the northwest. White Mountain
Redwares are extremely rare at components dating
to all phases but tend to be slightly more common in
the later phases.
Thus, evidence from Pueblo period sites indicates that while nonlocal pottery types are rare, they
are represented by pottery from a variety of regions
and directions. The great majority of nonlocal pottery that can be identified is comprised of Cibola
white wares that were apparently produced over a
wide area in the Colorado Plateau. The presence of
low frequencies of Mimbres White Ware and White
Mountain red wares also indicates the movement of
low amounts of pottery from other areas.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
149
CAUSES OF EXCHANGE PATTERN SHIFTS
Thus, ceramic trends noted in the northern Mogollon
country, previously interpreted as reflecting cultural
boundaries or intrusions, may be better explained in
terms of processes affecting the production of certain forms as well as exchange networks and ties.
There is extremely little, if any, nonlocal pottery at
assemblages dating to the Early Pithouse period.
The first change in the movement of ceramics that
can be recognized occurred sometime between the
Early Pithouse and Late Pithouse periods and is
reflected in the appearance of, and increase in, the
pottery that clearly was produced in the other
regions. The presence of Cibola White and Gray
Wares indicate some exchange with groups to the
north. However, if the premise that Mimbres Blackon-white types found on assemblages dating from
A.D. 900 to 1000 were not locally produced is correct, then during the Late Pithouse period in the
northern Mogollon area, the majority of nonlocal
pottery originated in the Mimbres region. A major
shift took place sometime between the Three Circle
and Reserve phases resulting in the movement of
significant amounts of Cibola White Ware vessels
into the northern Mogollon country. This continued
during all phases of the Pueblo period during which
the great majority of painted ceramics at Luna
Project sites represent intrusive Cibola White Wares.
Much smaller amounts of pottery moving from other
regions is reflected by extremely low frequencies of
Mimbres White Ware from the south and White
Mountain Redware from the northwest.
Thus, various trends noted for northern
Mogollon ceramic assemblages may be more a
reflection of factors influencing social and economic interaction between separated groups than the
boundaries of distinct peoples associated with a particular cultural tradition. Tainter and Plog (1994)
attribute similar patterns of mixed and changing
assemblages along the southern San Juan Basin to
weak patterns associated with small undifferentiated
sparsely settled groups. They contrast these patterns
with the strong patterns associated with the Chaco
redistribution network to the north (Tainter and Plog
1994). In the former, economic ties were simple and
informal, and exchange was probably based on
informal, reciprocal, or kinship-based relations.
The widespread local production of similar pottery during the Early Pithouse period is not surprising given the nature of early ceramic production and
settlement patterns. Very similar "brown ware" pottery was produced by groups in almost all regions of
150
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
the Southwest between 300 B.C. and A.D. 400,
although the A.D. 200s date represented in the
northern Mogollon appears to reflect the beginning
of ceramic production in much of the Southwest.
The widespread appearance of pottery at this time
probably reflects the increasing reliance on technologies associated with extracting more and more
nutritional yields from cultigens through boiling as
populations grew and groups became increasingly
more dependent on horticulture (Crown and Wills
1996). The expansion of such a technology may
have resulted in the widespread introduction of similar undecorated brown ware vessel technologies
using alluvial clays found throughout the Southwest.
Given the simple nature of this technology, the range
of vessel forms required could easily be produced by
potters at a given household. In addition, the low
population densities during this time and the probable availability of unused land with agriculture
potential may have made interaction and exchange
between separated groups less critical than in later
periods.
The nature of the economic and interaction systems in which groups in the northern Mogollon
Highlands participated may have been influenced by
population growth and warming trends noted for
much of the Southwest from A.D. 700 to the 900s.
In the northern part of the Anasazi region, for example, mass movements and agglomeration of groups
into areas higher in elevation occurred during the
late A.D. 700s and 800s, resulting in the formation
of the first "pueblo" villages in this area (Eddy 1972;
Kane 1986; Wilshusen 1992). In lower elevations in
the Colorado Plateau, there appears to have been a
hiatus in occupation during much of the A.D. 800s.
While little is known concerning the actual prehistoric environmental trends in the Mogollon
Highlands during this time, there appears to have
also been a similar agglomeration of groups into
large pithouse villages as pithouse dwellers in the
Mogollon Highlands apparently became increasingly sedentary and dependent on agriculture after A.D.
500 (Diehl 1997). For example, if estimates of 50 to
100 pithouses associated with the Three Circle
phase are correct for Luna Village (Oakes and
Zamora, this report), it may represent one of the
largest villages at this time anywhere in the
Southwest. Similar villages have been noted in the
Mimbres region and often underlie Mimbres phase
pueblos (Bradfield 1931; Anyon 1980, 1984;
Woosley and McIntyre 1996). In contrast, contemporaneous sites in the southern Colorado Plateau are
rare and small.
Distinct developments in the Mogollon
Highlands at this time may reflect the efficient and
unique exploitation of the Mogollon Highlands by
relatively small but growing populations. Thus, during the Late Pithouse period, interaction between
separated communities mainly involved groups in
similar environmental settings tied together by comparable economic systems and material culture.
Still, differences in elevations of different areas in
the Mogollon Highlands would have produced some
environmental variation that may have been exploited through exchange and interaction between separated groups. Thus, distributions of such boundaries
may reflect a combination of population size, environmental conditions, and economy of this area of
the Mogollon Highlands. Thus, movement of information and goods was mainly between groups in
similar settings within the Mogollon Highlands,
resulting in unique ceramic distributions roughly
corresponding to geographic boundaries within
areas of the Mogollon Highlands. The specialized
production of well-made early Mimbres Black-onwhite may have facilitated exchange between separated groups residing in pithouse villages. Such a
network is difficult to identify archaeologically
because the majority of pottery produced in the
Mimbres region cannot be distinguished from pottery produced locally at Luna Project sites.
A potential weakness of a system centered
within the Mogollon Highlands is that in times of
stress, groups in the same basic environments may
have experienced shortages at the same time, limiting the benefits of distribution of food surpluses
between separated groups. Thus, dealing with
increased population and environmental uncertainty
during the early A.D. 1000s may have required new
strategies of interaction on the part of groups residing in both the Mogollon Highlands and Colorado
Plateau. In the San Juan Basin to the north, a
response to such conditions may be represented by
the development of the complex Chacoan network,
associated with a series of outliers established in
surrounding regions, which may have included a
pan-regional redistribution network (Judge 1979b;
Judge et al. 1981; W. Toll 1985; Mathien 1993).
A simpler option available to the smaller and
more dispersed groups along the boundaries of
major geographic provinces such as that represented
in west-central New Mexico was the establishment
of reciprocal ties allowing for the movement of
information and goods with groups in distinct environmental settings (Tainter and Gillio 1980). In
areas of northwestern New Mexico, ties between
groups in adjacent areas of the Mogollon Highlands
and Colorado Plateau may have been particularly
suitable for this strategy. North-south ties between
adjacent groups in the Mogollon Highlands and
Colorado Plateau would have tied together groups in
different environmental zones that would have experienced food shortages and surpluses at different
times (Tainter 1984; Tainter and Gillio 1980). For
example, warming trends could have facilitated
agricultural production in the Mogollon Highlands
and limited production in lower areas of the
Colorado Plateau, while cooling trends may have
resulted in the opposite relationship.
While ties between environmentally diverse
areas would have been beneficial during times of
shortages, such interactions would not have been
necessary during optimal periods, when shortages
were not experienced. It was only during the rare
intervals when groups faced shortages that such ties
would have been critical. Thus, mechanisms allowing for the maintenance of exchange ties between
small, undifferentiated, and separated groups during
good years would have also been critical. A possible
solution was the movement of certain desired goods
between separated areas. While such exchange ties
could have ultimately resulted in the movement of
foodstuffs critical to the survival of groups in a particular setting, during other years, exchange ties
between groups may have been made simply to
acquire a desired item whose acquisition could have
been driven by the relative status of certain nonlocal
pottery forms. Thus, some of the pottery desired by
groups in certain areas could have only been produced in geological provinces where suitable
resources were available. The production of increasingly elaborate and specialized white ware in the
southern Colorado Plateau and elaborately decorated and smudged brown ware in the northern
Mogollon Highlands from about A.D. 1000 to 1300
may have further facilitated the desire to obtain pottery produced in adjacent regions among groups
residing in these areas. The painted white ware produced in the Colorado Plateau, for example, may
have been desirable to potters in the Mogollon
Highlands lacking clay resources that could be used
in the production of white ware vessels. Likewise,
the elaborately textured and highly smudged utility
ware forms that gradually evolved in the northern
Mogollon region may have also been sought after by
groups in the Colorado Plateau. Thus, selective factors that may have influenced the production of
functionally superior or elaborately made pottery
technologies in various clay resource zones may
have also influenced the long-distance exchange
between groups and ultimately reinforced potentially beneficial ties between separated groups.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
151
Similar specialized regional technologies
developed during this time resulted in the production of specialized forms in other regions of the
Southwest, including Mimbres White Ware, White
Mountain Redware, Tsegi Orange Ware, and organic painted San Juan White Ware types (Carlson
1970; Smith 1971; Wilson and Blinman 1995).
Along the Mogollon-Anasazi periphery the
demand for specialized pottery produced in adjacent
regions is apparently reflected by the increased
southern movement of Cibola White Wares such as
Reserve Black-on-white and Tularosa Black-onwhite into the northern Mogollon Highlands and the
northern movement of elaborately textured and
smudged brown wares into the southern Colorado
Plateau between A.D. 1000 and 1300. While pottery
produced in various regions continued to be produced at the household level, potters in certain locations produced additional qualities of pottery for
export. For example, evidence at the Hough site
indicates the production of unusually high quantities
of well-made brown wares such as Tularosa filleted
rim and Tularosa patterned corrugated. These pottery types are found well outside their range of production, and some of them could have been produced at the Hough site.
The gradual changes in the overall frequency of
Cibola White Ware and Mogollon Brown Ware
across space at contemporaneous components along
the Mogollon-Anasazi periphery indicate a simple
system of distribution, probably reflecting a series of
short exchange ties between related groups. Thus,
the Mogollon-Anasazi transition zone, as previously
described, rather than representing a distinct or
intermediate culture influenced by repeated migrations and intermingling of Mogollon or Anasazi
people (Ruppé 1953; Danson 1957; Dittert 1959;
Bullard 1962; Marshall 1991), reflects the informal
exchange and gradual northern movement of
Mogollon Brown Ware and the southern movement
of Cibola White Ware through this network. Thus,
changes in ceramic distributions in west-central
New Mexico, often described in terms of cultural
intrusion or intermingling, may in fact indicate economic shifts in the movement of resources and
goods (including ceramic vessels) between distinct
environments. While the presence of very low frequencies of Mimbres White Ware and White
Mountain Redware at Pueblo period sites indicates
some interaction with groups to the south and northwest, the very low frequencies do not seem to indicate the degree or consistency of exchange represented by Cibola White Ware vessels.
While factors resulting in the exchange of pot-
152
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
tery between small groups in the Mogollon
Highlands may have ultimately arisen because of
aesthetic choices and social interaction rather than
the movement of food during times of shortages,
their survival or expansion may have been facilitated by such factors. In most societies there is much
more to exchange than economic advantage, and
associated ties and actions involve the common
transfer of items that have symbolic and categorical
associations (Hodder 1982). The exchange of appropriate forms of social obligations, status, and power
ultimately legitimized various exchanges and networks (Hodder 1982). Thus, while the cause of specialized production and exchange of pottery in separate environments may reflect historic factors related to the development of specialized technologies
and personal and social needs by groups in various
regions, in times of shortages these relationships
may have been critical to the survival of a particular
group. Thus, whatever the ultimate cause of conventions and preferences associated with the production
and exchange of various nonlocal forms, during
times of shortages, ties with exchange partners in
different environments, facilitated by the long-term
exchange of distinct vessel forms, would have presented a selective advantage, resulting in the persistence and expansion of such networks.
These factors may have contributed to the gradual expansion of trade of pottery between groups in
the northern Mogollon Highlands. For example,
while the great majority of the white ware sherds at
sites in the Luna Project area dating to the tenth century represent Mimbres white wares, the majority of
the white ware sherds at contemporaneous sites in
the Gallo Mountains to the north represent Cibola
white wares such as Red Mesa Black-on-white,
which occur along with Mogollon brown wares
(Kayser 1972b, 1975; Smith 1973). Similar Red
Mesa Black-on-white pottery was probably produced at an increasing number of sites along the
southern fringes of the Colorado Plateau such as
along Mariana Mesa (McGimsey 1980). The
appearance of Reserve Black-on-white as the dominant white ware type in sites in the Luna and
Reserve area may simply represent the southern
expansion of north-south ties.
At the same time, in areas along the southern
Colorado Plateau, where Cibola white wares occur
alongside local gray ware produced with the same
clays, there appears to have been a gradual increase
in the frequency of Mogollon Brown Ware from
about A.D. 1000 to 1100 (Danson 1957; Dittert
1959; Kayser and Carroll 1988; Marshall 1991).
Thus, increased movement of pottery from and into
the Mogollon Highlands is represented during this
time. Similar factors appear to have resulted in similar situations in other areas along the MogollonAnasazi transition zone, including the Acoma area,
Little Colorado drainage, and Tonto Basin (Martin
and Rinaldo 1960a; Martin et al. 1961, 1962, 1964;
Heidke and Stark 1995). Similar patterns noted in
these widely separated areas involving the associating of similar locally produced Mogollon brown
wares and intrusive Cibola white wares may ultimately indicate the value of pottery-reinforced ties
between groups in the northern Mogollon Highlands
and southern Colorado Plateau.
VESSEL FUNCTION AND USE
Another source of information provided by ceramic
distributions from the Luna Project concerns the
types of functions and activities for which pottery
was used. The production of ceramic vessels is ultimately a reflection of the activities and functions for
which a specific pottery container was required. A
variety of attributes reflect the uses and function of
pottery—vessel shape, size, wear patterns, soot
deposits, surface manipulation, technological attributes, and paste characteristics—which even out spatial and temporal heterogeneity in subsistence
resources. This resource heterogeneity was dealt
with by earlier mobile groups through mobility, and
thus pottery provides technological alternatives to
full-scale mobility (Mills 1989). During later ceramic period occupations, containers were used to cope
with resource heterogeneity.
One model for understanding functionally
related changes in ceramic production and manufacture involves the distinction between maintainable
and reliable systems (Bleed 1986; Mills 1989).
Maintainable systems sacrifice durability for other
factors, such as modularity and portability, while
reliable systems are designed for increased durability. The expected characteristics of containers resulting in maintainable systems include ease of manufacture and repair, involvement of little time for
manufacture and use, lack of backup systems, portability, utilization for a limited number of tasks, and
simple and easily movable construction and firing
techniques. Containers resulting from reliable productions systems tend to be abundant and sturdy,
involve more specialized forms, are resistant to failure during a specific task, and may require more
specialized manufacturing and firing techniques that
may be relatively time consuming. Mills (1989)
notes definite trends from reliable to maintainable
production systems in the Anasazi from the
Basketmaker III to Pueblo II period.
As previously indicated, the basic ceramic technology associated with Mogollon brown wares was
more conservative and consistent through time than
that associated with the Anasazi tradition to the
north. It was noted that this partially reflects a technology suited to clay sources occurring in the
Mogollon Highlands. It is also important to determine if differences also reflect differences in use and
associated activities of potters in the Mogollon
Highlands that have been associated with the more
mobile patterns of small dispersed groups.
The nature and resolution of interpretations
based on the distribution of sherds differs from that
derived from whole or partially complete vessels.
Advantages of sherd-based data are that they are
usually represented by large samples distributed
through a variety of contexts. Sherds, however, represent limited and incomplete samples of the vessels
from which they were derived and are often not
recovered from their actual context of use. Because
bowl and jar body sherds of vessels produced in the
Mogollon Highlands often exhibit polishing on both
sides, it is often difficult to determine the vessel
form from which a given body sherd derived. Thus,
some discussions on vessel forms are limited to the
sample of rim sherds recovered (Table 4.54). The
whole vessels from Luna provide more complete
information concerning the use of specific containers in particular contexts. The recovery of whole
vessels, however, is rare, and they are often absent in
many contexts. Therefore, data concerning the distribution of all sherds (including those belonging to
reconstructible vessels) and complete and partial
vessels are presented separately.
Sherd-Based Functional Trends
For pottery from many regions of the Southwest,
useful functional information is provided by distributions of ware and vessel form categories. For
example, in many southwestern ceramic traditions,
sherds derived from jar body sherds can be identified by the presence of decorations on the exterior
surface only, while bowls are recognized by decoration or polishing on the interior. Particularly useful
in some regional assemblages is the dichotomy
between utility and decorated wares. Unfortunately,
such distinctions are not as useful in the northern
Mogollon Highlands, because Mogollon brown
wares appear to have been employed in a wide range
of activities. An examination of sherds from brown
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
153
Table 4.54. Distribution of Selected Rim Forms by Site
Phase, Site #, and N
Bowl Rim
N
LA 70188 Early Pithouse, some Pueblo period mixing (4)
Cooking/Storage
%
N
%
Seed Jar Rim
N
%
1
25
3
75
0
0
38
35.5
16
15.0
53
49.5
4
44.4
3
33.3
2
22.2
LA 39972, no rth area, general (139)
81
58.3
51
36.7
7
5.3
LA 70196, San Francisco, (87)
45
51.7
41
47.1
1
1.1
654
54.2
54 4
45.1
8
.6
3
75
0
0
1
25
30
57.7
18
34.6
4
7.7
LA 39975, Early Pithouse (10 7)
LA 45508, Early Pithouse (9)
LA 45507, Three Circle phase (1206)
LA 43786, probably Thre e Circle phase (4)
LA 70201, mostly Late Pithouse (52)
LA 45510, Late Pithouse ea rly Reserve transition (366)
181
49.5
18 2
49.7
3
.8
LA 75792, Reserve phase (157)
62
39.5
91
58
4
2.5
LA 39969, Reserve phase (492)
276
56.1
21 4
43.5
2
.4
LA 3563, Reserve, some Three Circle p hase mixture (177)
112
63.3
65
36.7
0
0
28
62.2
15
33.3
2
4.4
659
54.5
54 3
44.9
7
.6
22
56.4
17
43.5
0
0
663
54.2
55 3
45.2
7
.5
5158
67.3
239 9
31.3
7
.1
22
71
7
22.6
2
6.5
LA 70189, Reserve phase (45)
LA 70185, late Reserve phase (1209)
LA 89846 Tu larosa phase (39 )
LA 39968, ea rly Tularosa phase (1223)
LA 3279, late Tularosa ph ase (7664)
LA 89847, ind eterminate Pueblo and Pithouse mixed (31)
ware vessels indicates that there was often no association between vessel shape and the presence or
location of polishing. Therefore, some of the sherds
polished on both sides were simply assigned to a
polished unknown category. Thus, functional interpretations based on ware and vessel distributions
must be more conservative than those for many
areas of the Southwest. Ultimately, many of the
interpretations of ceramic use in Mogollon occupations must be limited to rim forms, where it is possible to determine the shape of the vessels.
Still, very basic distributions between unpainted utility (Mogollon Brown and Red and Anasazi
gray ware) and painted (Mimbres White, Cibola
White, and White Mountain Red) indicate very little
change through time (Table 4.55). The most distinctive change is the appearance of decorated pottery
during the transition between the Early Pithouse and
Late Pithouse periods. Assemblages continue to be
overwhelmingly dominated by Mogollon Brown
Ware during the entire Mogollon occupation of this
area. Interestingly, the highest frequency of decorated white ware is during the San Francisco phase,
154
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
because the ceramic assemblage from LA 70196 is
the only one from any Luna Project site where more
than 10 percent of the pottery represents decorated
white ware. This may indicate that white wares were
produced only in the Luna Project area during the
San Francisco phase. For later assemblages, decorated types make up about 5 percent of all pottery.
This strongly contrasts with trends from other areas
of the Southwest. For example, in much of the
Anasazi region, a gradual increase in the total frequency of decorated white wares occurred through
time beginning in the Basketmaker III period, in
which decorated types make up less than 5 percent
of all pottery, into the Pueblo III period, in which
decorated types may represent half of all ceramics
(Wilson and Blinman 1995).
The differences in trends associated with frequencies of white ware pottery in the two regions of
the upland Southwest may be partly a lack of the
production of local white wares. In addition, during
later Anasazi occupations, the unpainted gray utility
ware forms were increasingly limited to wide mouth
cooking/storage jars. By A.D. 1000, most of the
Table 4.55. Vessel Form by Ware
Vessel Form
White Wares
Brown Wares
Total
N
%
N
%
N
%
Indeterminate body polished
23
0.2
4 098
2.6
4121
2.4
Bowl rim
669
6.7
7 328
4.6
7997
4.7
Bowl body
2803
28.3
48531
30.5
51334
30.4
Jar body
5453
55.0
65808
41.4
71261
42.2
Cooking jar rim
125
1.3
4 631
2.9
4756
2.8
Cooking jar neck
516
5.2
22598
14.2
23114
13.7
1 010
0.6
1010
0.6
358
0.2
358
0.2
Jar body corrugated and polished
Corrugated exterior bowl
Indeterminate
253
2.5
4 214
2.6
4467
2.6
Seed jar rim
6
0.1
107
0.1
113
0.1
Hand le only
12
0.1
35
0.0
47
0.0
5
0.0
5
0.0
26
0.0
80
0.0
8
0.0
8
0.0
Pipe
Olla rim
54
0.5
Ladle
Effigy/fetish
2
0.0
29
0.0
31
0.0
Canteen rim
1
0.0
3
0.0
4
0.0
Jar min iature
63
0.0
63
0.0
Isolated sin gle coil
15
0.0
15
0.0
16
0.0
21
0.0
246
0.2
246
0.1
Plate rim
2
0.0
2
0.0
Whole jar
4
0.0
4
0.0
15 9168
100.0
169090
10 0.0
Olla neck
5
0.1
Indeterminate bowl/jar corrugated exterior
Total
9922
other forms such as bowls and narrow jars are solely represented by polished white ware exhibiting
pastes and surface treatments very distinct from
those noted in gray utility ware. In Mogollon assemblages, a variety of similar forms are represented by
both white ware and brown ware (Table 4.55), and
bowls are only slightly more common in white
wares than brown wares. Rim radius measurements
indicate that the diameters of white and brown ware
bowls were similar, indicating similar use (Table
4.56). Thus, there does not appear to be as much distinction and specialization between forms associated
with unpainted brown and decorated white wares in
Mogollon assemblages as represented in Anasazi
forms. For example, late (Pueblo II and Pueblo III)
Anasazi gray utility ware appears to consistently
100.0
represent specialized wide mouth cooking jars.
Exteriors tend to be unpolished and corrugated. In
contrast, during all Mogollon occupations, brown
wares with similar pastes are represented by vessels
exhibiting a very wide range of forms, surface
manipulations, and decorations. While pottery produced in both regions served a wide range of functions, variability in Anasazi assemblages was
between gray ware forms functioning for cooking
and storage and white ware forms functioning for
serving and water storage. In contrast, Mogollon
brown wares were commonly used in the full range
of activities represented by both Anasazi gray and
white ware vessels, and the low frequencies of white
ware appear to have simply further complemented
activities also served by brown ware vessels. The
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
155
Table 4.56. Rim Radius of White and Brown Ware Vessels
Ware
White
Vessel Form
Me an
Bowl rim
Cooking jar rim
Brown
Minimum
SD
N
10
3
20
3
229
6
2
20
3
59
Olla rim
4
2
7
1
23
Bowl rim
11
1
30
4
2074
Cooking jar rim
10
1
60
5
1488
4
2
7
1
18
Olla rim
gradual increase in the range of surface manipulations on Mogollon Brown Ware vessels may reflect
a series of gradual developments resulting in the
production of brown ware vessels suited for more
uses and activities. For example, the application of
smudging over a well-polished surface would have
provided for less porous vessels used to store or
transport liquids. The wide range of shapes and
forms represented by brown wares at Pueblo period
occupations indicates they were used in a large and
varied number of activities.
Vessel form distributions and radiuses as well
as selected rim forms (Table 4.57 and Fig. 4.41)
indicate that a wide range of forms and sizes were
used during all occupations, with slight changes
through time. During all but the earliest occupations,
rim sherds are dominated by bowl or cooking/storage necked jars. The exception is the Early Pithouse
period, where sherds from seed jars may dominate
the assemblages. The majority of nonrim sherds
from these assemblages were classified as jar body
sherds and cannot be distinguished from those
derived from necked jars. Bowl rims are the next
most dominant form at Early Pithouse sites, and
cooking/storage jars are present but rare.
Similar trends, including the dominance of seed
jar forms, have been noted at other Early Pithouse
sites, as well as contemporaneous assemblages
throughout the Anasazi region. In many regions the
overall frequency of seed jars drops during the seventh and eighth centuries. It has been postulated that
early seed jars were a multipurpose vessel serving a
variety of functions, including cooking, storage, and
food processing (Skibo and Blinman 1996). The
globular vessel shape and curved surfaces of seed
jars may have resulted in a durable vessel form that
could withstand a variety of uses. Thus, the brown
ware seed jar may have been a suitable form for a
generalized container.
While jar body sherds are the most common at
Late Pithouse period sites, the majority of rim sherds
156
Maximum
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
at all sites dating to this period belong to bowls.
Cooking/storage jars represent the second most
common forms, and seed jars are usually present but
represented in very low frequencies. Bowls make up
the majority of forms in Late Pithouse assemblages.
Smudged pottery also becomes a common type during the Late Pueblo period. The appearance of white
ware and smudged bowl forms reflects the increased
importance of activities for which nonporous bowls
were used.
Similar trends were noted at sites dating to the
Pueblo period where, and with one exception, the
majority of rim sherds were from bowls. While a
similar range of forms is represented, the majority of
white ware at Pueblo sites is from jars. White jars
tend to exhibit thinner diameters than brown ware
forms. For example, white ware vessels classified as
cooking/storage average 6 cm, while brown ware
vessels average 10 cm. This indicates that white
ware jar forms were probably used for different
functions from brown ware necked jar forms, possibly the storage and transport of water. Vessels representing some of these forms sometimes exhibit handles and may be pitchers or forms associated with
the storage or transport of water.
Another functional trend is reflected by the
increase in brown ware sherds exhibiting smudged
exteriors. Smudged interior surfaces are often highly lustrous and black, contrasting dramatically with
unsmudged exterior surfaces. Smudging is a way to
decorate vessels high in iron that would otherwise
be difficult to decorate other than with surface texture. Smudged surfaces, however, may have been
produced for functional as well as aesthetic reasons.
Smudging apparently helped produce a hard durable
surface and reduced permeability to liquids. Data
from Luna Project sites indicate a gradual increase
in pottery exhibiting smudged interiors through time
(Table 4.58). Smudged surfaces are rare to absent in
assemblages dating to the Early Pithouse period.
Evidence of interior smudging appears on the interi-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
157
10
118
1088
2
0
223
81
18
854
8
837
15
288
384
0
0
1
0
0
0
LA 45507
LA 43766
LA 70201
LA 45510
LA 75792
LA 39969
LA 3563
LA 70189
LA 70185
LA 89846
LA 39968
LA 3279
LA 89847
LA 43766
LA 75791
LA 78439
LA 37917
LA 37919
31
LA 45508
LA 70196
155
LA 39975
LA 39972
4
.0
.0
.0
.7
.0
.0
.5
1.5
2.5
6.0
1.9
36.9
.3
3.3
2.8
.0
2.8
6.5
11.3
.9
12.4
8.7
7.7
0
0
0
6
0
21
4881
584
21
906
28
87
225
54
167
23
3
484
22
75
4
38
1
.0
.0
.0
4.5
.0
4.9
5.9
3.2
3.5
4.4
6.1
3.7
4.2
2.2
2.2
2.1
4.2
3.0
2.1
3.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
%
N
N
%
Bowl Rim
Indeterminate
Body Polished
LA 70188
Site
1
2
0
1
48
57
94
26240
6386
52
4093
136
419
2428
258
1545
344
8
5366
178
682
21
170
N
22.2
.0
16.7
35.8
40.7
21.9
31.0
35.5
8.7
29.5
31.8
17.9
45.0
10.7
20.1
31.2
12.7
33.3
16.9
34.1
8.4
7.3
1.8
%
Bowl Body
7
1
4
57
65
215
36700
5980
200
4762
165
425
1442
1447
4094
554
47
6570
507
804
147
1575
36
N
66.7
42.5
46.4
50.1
43.3
33.3
33.3
34.3
38.6
18.0
26.7
58.8
53.2
50.5
86.2
40.8
48.8
40.4
58.8
67.8
69.2
%
77.8
100.0
Jar Body
%
37
51
3
16
0
0
0
9
2
7
2302
543
17
535
12
65
214
90
175
18
0
.0
.0
.0
6.7
1.4
1.8
2.7
3.0
2.8
3.9
2.8
2.8
4.0
3.7
2.3
1.8
.0
3.3
3.6
2.6
1.2
.7
5.8
Brown Ware
3
532
N
Cooking Jar Rim
7
0
0
1
13
13
41
10473
4043
61
2208
78
362
1021
468
1001
151
8
1920
177
264
20
266
N
.0
.0
16.7
9.7
9.3
9.6
12.4
22.5
10.2
15.9
18.2
15.5
18.9
19.3
13.0
13.8
12.7
11.9
17.0
13.3
8.0
11.5
13.5
%
Cooking Jar
Neck
0
0
0
0
0
0
947
0
0
0
0
54
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
%
Jar Body
Corrugated
and
Polished
Table 4.57. Distribution of Vessel Forms by Site
0
0
0
0
0
0
332
0
0
0
0
26
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
1.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Corrugated
Exterior
Bowl
0
0
0
0
0
0
51
2079
146
234
836
1
44
42
18
492
5
0
108
3
94
23
38
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
11.9
2.5
.8
39.0
6.0
.2
1.9
.8
.7
6.4
.5
.0
.7
.3
4.7
9.2
1.8
.0
%
Indeterminate
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
5
7
0
6
2
0
2
4
3
4
1
8
0
7
2
53
N
.0
0
.0
.0
2.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.0
.0
.2
.0
.4
1.4
.0
.0
.4
.8
2.3
.0
%
Seed Jar Rim
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
11
6
0
3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
12
N
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
%
Handle Only
158
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
4098
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
2
0
1
6
0
2
0
6
2
0
0
0
Total
LA 70188
LA 45508
LA 39972
LA 70196
LA 45507
LA 43766
LA 70201
LA 45510
LA 75792
LA 39969
LA 3563
LA 70189
LA 70185
LA 89846
LA 39968
LA 3279
LA 89847
LA 43766
LA 5791
23
0
LA 9721
Total
0
N
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
.0
.9
.0
3.9
.2
.0
.8
.0
.0
.0
2.2
.0
.0
.0
2.8
.0
.0
%
Indeterminate
Body Polished
LA 70191
Site
0
0
669
2
0
1
241
71
1
50
2
24
50
9
13
7
0
170
23
6
0
0
7624
N
8.7
22.2
.0
7.7
4.3
5.1
3.0
11.9
8.3
12.6
1.4
7.8
4.2
10.8
.0
15.9
12.8
13.9
.0
.0
4.8
.0
.0
%
Bowl Rim
0
2
2803
3
8
1
840
314
3
115
9
188
187
33
87
56
4
816
113
23
0
2
48531
N
28.3
33.3
90.0
7.7
15.8
22.8
9.1
26.7
37.5
54.5
38.0
28.7
28.2
83.3
100.0
76.5
61.7
52.3
.0
40.0
30.5
.0
33.3
%
Bowl Body
1
3
5453
4
1
9
3764
861
24
207
10
51
194
57
131
4
0
70
30
13
2
1
65808
N
50.0
%
55.0
44.2
10.0
89.2
67.3
63.9
72.7
48.1
41.7
25.5
44.1
49.5
42.4
6.1
.0
6.6
16.4
29.5
100.0
20.0
41.4
100.0
Jar Body
0
0
125
0
0
0
93
7
0
7
3
0
0
1
8
0
0
4
4
0
0
0
4631
N
1.3
.0
.0
.0
1.7
.5
.0
1.8
12.5
.0
.0
.8
1.9
.0
.0
.4
2.2
.0
.0
.0
White Ware
2.9
.0
.0
Brown Ware
%
Cooking Jar Rim
0
1
516
0
0
0
330
77
1
31
0
3
18
13
28
0
0
6
8
1
0
0
22596
N
5.2
.0
.0
.0
5.9
5.8
3.0
7.2
.0
1.5
4.1
11.3
9.1
.0
.0
.6
4.4
2.3
.0
.0
14.2
.0
16.7
%
Cooking Jar
Neck
Table 4.57. Continued.
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1010
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.6
.0
.0
%
Jar Body
Corrugated
and
Polished
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
358
0
0
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
%
Corrugated
Exterior
Bowl
0
0
253
0
0
0
102
7
4
6
0
7
3
3
39
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
4214
N
2.5
.0
.0
.0
3.3
.5
12.1
1.4
.0
3.5
.7
2.6
12.6
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
40.0
2.6
.0
.0
%
Indeterminate
0
0
6
0
0
2
2
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
107
N
.1
.0
.0
15.4
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.5
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
%
Seed Jar Rim
0
0
12
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
35
N
.1
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Handle Only
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
159
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
LA 70196
LA 45507
LA 43766
LA 70201
LA 45510
LA 75792
LA 39969
LA 3563
LA 70189
LA 70185
LA 89846
LA 39968
LA 3279
LA 89847
LA 43766
LA 75791
LA 78439
LA 37917
LA 7919
0
LA 45508
0
0
LA 39972
0
LA 39975
N
Pipe
LA 70188
Site
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
4
0
2
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
12
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Olla Rim
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
4
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
Ladle
%
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
22
1
0
3
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
%
Effigy/Fetish
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
57
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
1
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
%
Jar Miniature
Brown Ware
%
Canteen Rim
Table 4.57. Continued.
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
14
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
%
Isolated Single
Coil
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
N
%
Olla Neck
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
248
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.3
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Indeterminate
Bowl/jar
Corrugated
Exterior
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Plate Rim
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Whole Jar
160
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
LA 70201
LA 45510
LA 75792
LA 39969
LA 3563
LA 70189
LA 70185
LA 89846
LA 39968
0
0
LA 43766
Total
0
0
LA 45507
LA 75791
0
LA 70196
0
0
LA 39972
LA 43766
0
LA 45508
0
0
LA 70188
0
5
Total
LA 89847
0
LA 9721
LA 3279
0
N
Pipe
LA 70191
Site
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
0
0
54
0
0
0
21
16
0
11
0
0
3
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
26
N
.5
.0
.0
.0
.4
1.2
.0
2.6
.0
.0
.7
.0
1.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Olla Rim
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
Ladle
%
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
N
2
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
28
0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
2.3
%
Effigy/Fetish
N
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
White Ware
.0
.0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
83
0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.7
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Jar Miniature
Brown Ware
%
Canteen Rim
Table 4.57. Continued.
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
15
0
0
%
Isolated Single
Coil
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
N
5
0
0
0
5
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
18
0
0
Olla Neck
%
.1
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
246
N
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.0
%
Indeterminate
Bowl/jar
Corrugated
Exterior
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
0
0
.0
.0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Plate Rim
N
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
%
Whole Jar
Figure 4.41. Rim radius by site and vessel form.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
161
Figure 4.41. Continued. Rim radius by site and vessel form.
162
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.41. Continued. Rim radius by site and vessel form.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
163
Figure 4.41. Continued. Rim radius by site and vessel form.
164
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Table 4.58. Interior Smudging of Brown Ware Types
Site
Smudged
N
Other
%
LA 70188
LA 39975
8
0.3
LA 45508
Total
N
%
N
%
52
1 00.0
52
100.0
2314
99.7
2 322
100.0
2 51
1 00.0
251
100.0
LA 39972
32 8
16.5
1664
83.5
1 992
100.0
LA 70196
10 3
9.9
9 37
90.1
1 040
100.0
LA 45507
2476
15.4
13 624
84.6
16100
100.0
LA 43786
3
4.2
68
95.8
71
100.0
LA 70201
1
0.1
1097
99.9
1 098
100.0
LA 45510
58 3
7.6
7119
92.4
7 702
100.0
LA 75792
46
1.9
2375
98.1
2 421
100.0
LA 39969
1398
25.9
3997
74.1
5 395
100.0
LA 3563
34 2
14.6
1993
85.4
2 335
100.0
LA 70189
39
9.1
3 89
90.9
428
100.0
LA 70185
2853
20.5
11 040
79.5
13893
100.0
LA 89846
57
9.7
5 29
90.3
600
100.0
LA 39968
3859
21.5
14 121
78.5
17980
100.0
LA 3279
294 83
34.8
55 190
65.2
84762
100.0
LA 89847
10 3
25.2
3 05
74.8
429
100.0
LA 43766
4
2.9
1 36
97.1
140
100.0
LA 75791
7
5.2
1 27
94.8
134
100.0
LA 78439
6
1 00.0
6
100.0
LA 37917
1
1 00.0
1
100.0
LA 37919
9
1 00.0
9
100.0
5
83.3
6
100.0
1
1 00.0
1
100.0
117350
73.8
15 9168
100.0
LA 70191
1
16.7
LA 9721
Total
416 94
26.2
or surface of about 10 percent of the brown ware
sherds from San Francisco phase assemblages,
about 15 percent from Three Circle phase assemblages, 15 percent to 25 percent from Reserve phase
assemblages, and 20 to 35 percent from Tularosa
phase assemblages. This probably reflects the
increased importance of bowls with hard surfaces in
areas where the white ware bowl form was never
that common.
It appears then, that functional trends in the
northern Mogollon appear to have been remarkably
conservative, as reflected by similar distributions of
forms and the long-lived domination of brown
wares. This may be a fairly stable and long-lived
subsistence strategy. The more dramatic shift from
maintainable to reliable technologies noted in the
Anasazi region did not fully occur in the northern
Mogollon Highlands. Thus, during all Mogollon
phases, a wide range of forms continued to be made
with the same basic brown ware technology. Plain
polished vessels continued to be the dominant form
during all occupations. Some functional change is
represented by certain developments, including the
introduction of intentionally smudged interiors and
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
165
exterior surface structure. These changes may
reflect a wider range of activities associated with
pottery vessels during later occupations, although
vessels often represented fairly generalized brown
ware forms. As previously indicated, these changes
were gradual and cumulative, because all but the latest assemblages were dominated by similar polished
plain brown ware forms. In part, the conservative
nature of Mogollon ceramics may reflect the basic
suitability of the plain brown vessel as a container
for a wide range of activities. It may also reflect
more generalized requirements of vessel patterns
that may be associated with more conservative
social, settlement, and economic patterns in the
Mogollon Highlands.
Complete Vessels
Additional information on vessel form and function
is provided by data recorded for the whole or partial
vessels from various sites. Attributes recorded for
each of the complete or partially complete vessels
include type, completeness, form, wear patterns,
sooting patterns, rim diameter, and height. The profile of each vessel was sketched.
A total of 67 vessels were examined from Luna
Project sites. Tables 4.59-4.62 present data relating
to characteristics of each vessel analyzed from sites
dating to various phases. These include information
on 2 vessels from Early Pithouse sites, 18 from Late
Pithouse sites, 25 from Reserve phase sites, and 22
from Tularosa phase sites. Components dating to all
phases are dominated by brown wares (Table 4.63).
The range of types represented by complete vessels
increases through time.
The great majority of vessels are represented by
a few basic forms (Table 4.64). Most of these represent brown ware jars consisting of globular bodies
and curving necks (Fig. 4.42). Many of these display
wide diameters relative to the vessel size. This
appears to be a common shape in both Mogollon
Brown Ware and Anasazi gray ware vessels and is
interpreted here as reflecting a basic cooking/storage
category. The use of this form in cooking activities
is indicated by the occurrence of sooting on the exterior, which is rare on other forms, such as bowls
(Table 4.65). The wide range of sizes and surfaces
noted for brown wares belonging to this form may
indicate that they were used for a range of activities.
Other vessels display similar shapes but would have
been too small to have served the same cooking and
storage purposes and were assigned to a small jar or
miniature jar category. The next most common category represented is bowl forms, which includes
plain and smudged. Other vessel forms represented
by the whole or partial vessels from Luna Project
sites include ollas, beaker-shaped jars, pipes, smallnecked jars, miniature jars, and effigies.
Both of the vessels from Early Pithouse sites
are represented by Alma polished forms from LA
39975. These include one small bowl dipper and one
beaker-shaped jar. Other vessel forms commonly
occurring in Pithouse period sites were not represented by whole vessels and may reflect postdepositional factors.
Vessels from Late Pithouse components include
2 examples from LA 70196 and 16 from LA 45507.
All of these vessels represent brown wares and
include Alma Rough, Alma polished, Alma scored,
Alma punched, Three Circle neck coiled, and
Reserve smudged. The great majority of vessels
recovered from Late Pithouse sites are cooking/storage jars. Rim diameter of these cooking storage jars
ranges from 9 to 19 cm with an average of 14.8 cm.
Other vessels include bowls, effigies, and pipes.
Vessels from Reserve phase components
include 9 examples from LA 39969, 10 from LA
70185, and 1 from LA 39972. All but one of these
vessels are brown ware forms. Types represented
include Alma Rough, Alma Plain, Reserve
smudged, Reserve Plain corrugated, Reserve incised
corrugated, and Reserve Black-on-white. The
majority of the forms are represented by equal numbers of bowls and jars. The diameter of cooking
storage jars ranges from 8 to 29 cm and averages 13
cm. The diameter of bowls range from 8 to 29 cm
Table 4.59. Vessels from Early Pit house Phase Sit es
Site
Vessel Number/
Type
LA 399 75
LA 399 75
166
Vessel Form/
Completeness
Surface, Paint, and
Slip
1/ Alma scored
Beaker shaped jar
60
Unpo lished
horizontal striations
Sooted exterior
8
14
2/ Alma polished
Small bowl dip per
100
Plain unp olished
Fire clouding of
bowl exterior. Rim
abrasion on bowl
rim.
4
2.5
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Wear and Sooting
Diameter
(cm)
Height
(cm)
Figure 4.42. Vessel forms from the Luna Project; (a-d) bowls, (e) dipper bowl, (f-g) cooking/storage jars,
(h) seed jar, (i) pitcher, (j) unusual jar form, (k) olla.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
167
Table 4.60. Vessels from Late Pithouse Sites
Site
168
Vessel Number/
Type
Vessel Form/
Completeness
Surface, Paint,
and Slip
Wear and Sootin g
Rim
Diameter
(cm)
Height
(cm)
16
?
15.5
5.5
LA 701 96
FS
1/ Alma scored
Cookin g/storage jar
30
Scored neck,
polished interior
So oted, slight rim
a brasion, firing
clouding.
LA 701 96
2/ Reserve
smudged
Bowl
50
Both sides
polished, Sooted
interior
Slig ht basal abrasion
LA 455 07
1/ Alma scored
Cookin g/storage jar
5
Scored neck
polished body
So oted inside and
o ut,
slight rim chipping
?
?
LA 455 07
2/ Alma scored
Cookin g/storage jar
10
Scored neck,
polished body
Both sides sooted,
some interior
a brasion
?
?
LA 455 07
3/ Alma polished
Cookin g/storage jar
Polished both
sides
Interio r sooting,
exterior fire clouding
?
?
LA 455 07
4/ Alma
neckbande d
Cookin g/storage jar
10
Neckbanded with
polished body
None observe d
?
?
LA 455 07
5/ Alma polished
Cookin g/storage jar
10
Polished exterior
Fire cloudin g and
spalling on exterior
?
?
LA 455 07
6/ Alma
neckbande d
Cookin g/storage jar
2
Banded neck,
polished body
Fire cloudin g on both
sides
?
?
LA 455 07
7/ Alma
neckbande d
Cookin g/storage jar
with handle
(pitcher)
85
Sooted all over
with slight rim
chipping
So oting all over,
slight rim chipping
9
14
LA 455 07
8/ Alma polished
Cookin g/storage jar
15
Polished both
sides
So oted interior, fire
clouding on exterior
?
22
LA 455 07
9/ Alma polished
Cookin g/storage jar
2
Polished both
sides
Entire vessel is
sooted, spa lling on
interior
?
?
LA 455 07
10/ Alma polished
Cookin g/storage jar
40
Polished both
sides
So oted both sid es,
interior erosion
?
?
LA 455 07
11/ Alma
neckbande d
Cookin g/storage jar
80
Polished exterior,
smudg ed interior
Neck abraded
15
?
LA 455 07
12/ Alma polished
Large
cookin g/storage jar
40
Polished both
sides
Interio r abrasion with
b oth sides sooted
?
?
LA 455 07
13/ Alma
neckbande d
Large
cookin g/storage jar
80
Neck banded with
polished body
Fire cloudin g both
sides
19
28
LA 455 07
14/ Three Circle
neckcoiled
Cookin g/storage jar
40
Neck coiled with
polished body
Interio r and exterior
sooting
LA 455 07
15/ Alma Rough
Effigy
95
Unpolished
Slig ht sooting
LA 455 07
16/ Alma polished
Pipe
100
Polished
Fire clouds
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
2.5
2.5
8
Table 4.61. Vessels from Reserve Phase Sites
Site
Vessel Numbe r/
Type
Vessel Form/
Completeness
Paint a nd Slip
LA 399 69
1/ Thre e Circle
neck corru gated
Cooking/storage
jar/ 10 0
Corru gated neck
polishe d body
LA 399 69
2/ Reserve
smudged
Small bo wl/ 100
LA 399 69
3/ Alma Rough
LA 399 69
Wear and Sooting
Rim
Diameter
(cm)
Height
(cm)
Slight basal abrasion,
rim chip ping and full
sooting
7
12
Polished both sides,
smudged interior
Fire clo uding on
exterior
10
5
Bowl/ 100
Unpolished
Small fire cloud
12
4
4/ Reserve
smudged
Bowl/ 100
Polished both sides,
smudged on interior
Fire clo uding on
exterior, some rim
chipp ing
16
6
LA 399 69
5/ Alma Rough
Cooking/storage
jar/ 98
Not polished or
slipped
Slight basal abrasion
8
9
LA 399 69
6/ Alma polished
Cooking/storage
jar/ 95
Polished exterior
Fire clo uding on
exterior
?
10
LA 399 69
7/ Reserve
smudged
Bowl/ 25
Polished both sides,
smudged interior
Extensive basal
abrasion with chipped
and ab raded rim
20
9
LA 399 69
FS
8/ Alma Rough
Miniature jar/ 75
Not polished
None
LA 399 69
FS
9/ Alma polished
Small bo wl/ 100
Not polished
Spalled b ottom, fire
cloud ing both sided
8
4.5
70185
1/ Reserve Plain
corrugated
Cooking/storage
jar/ 25
Plain corrugations
Bottom third of vessel
eroded, interior
spallin g found
LA 701 85
2/ Incised
corrugated
Cooking/storage
jar/ 10
Incised corrugated
neck, polished bo dy
None
LA 701 85
3/ Reserve Plain
corrugated
Medium jar/ 10
Corru gated neck
polishe d body
Fire clo ud on exterior,
slight interior abrasion
?
?
LA 701 85
4/ Reserve
smudged
Medium bowl/ 60
Polished both sides,
smudged interior
Interior abrasion, fire
cloud ing on exterior
15
14
LA 701 85
FS 768
5/ Reserve
smudged
Large bowl/ 85
Polished both sides,
smudged interior
Basal abrasion,
interior fire clouding
29
15
LA 701 85
FS
6/ Alma Rough
Effigy/ 50
Not polished
Slight sooting
3.5
LA 701 85
7/ Alma polished
Effigy/ 40
Polished
Heavily sooted
2
LA 701 85
FS 768
8/ Alma Rough
Cooking/storage
jar/ 10 0
Not polished
Moderate basal
abrasion, abraded rim,
exterior fire cloud ing
29
15
LA 701 85
9/ Alma Rough
Small dip per/ 100
Not polished
Abraded rim
2.5
1.5
LA 701 85
10/ Alma
polished
Effigy/
Polished
Legs and underside
abraded
LA 399 72
1/ Reserve
Black-on-white
Effigy handle/ 5
Black mineral paint
on polished white
slip
None observed
3.5
?
3?
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
169
Table 4.62. Vessels from Tularosa Phase Sites
Site
Vessel Number/
Type
Vessel Form/
Completeness
Paint and Slip
Wear and Sooting
Rim
Diameter
(cm)
Height
(cm)
8
9.5
LA 399 68
1/ Reserve Plain
overlapping corru gated
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 100
Corrugated neck
polished bo dy
Rim chippin g
LA 399 68
2/ Alma polished
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 100
Unpolishe d
Slight basal ab rasion
10
10
LA 399 68
3/ Alma polished
Small jar/ 100
Polished body
Slight basal ab rasion
4
6.5
LA 399 68
4/ Alma neckband ed
Small jar/ 100
Banded neck
polished bo dy
Moderate basal
abrasion and fire
clouding
6
8
LA 399 68
5/ Reserve smudged
Small jar/ 100
Banded neck,
polished bo dy
Moderate basal
abrasion an sooting
6
8
LA 399 68
6/ Reserve
incised corrugated
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 90
Incised corrugated
neck
Sporadic fire cloud ing
8
10
LA 399 68
7/ Alma Rough
Small jar/ 100
Unpolishe d
Sporadic fire cloud ing
2.5
3.5
LA 399 68
8/ Reserve Plain
corrugated
Bowl/ 33
Polished interior,
plain corru gated
exterior
Sooted interior
smudged exterior
?
?
LA 399 68
9/ Reserve Plain
corrugated
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 35
Neckbanded
polished bo dy
Entire surface sooted,
slight rim chip ping
17
?
LA 399 68
10/ Reserve smudged
Bowl/ 75
Polished exterio r,
smudged interior
Sooted exterior
20
12
LA 399 68
11/ Alma polished
Effigy/ 70
Unpolishe d
None
?
?
LA 399 68
12/ Reserve Black-onwhite
Jar bo dy/ 6
Min eral paint over
polished white
surface
Eire cloudin g on
exterior
?
?
LA 399 68
13/ Reserve Plain
corrugated
Cooking/
storag e jar/
Plain corrug ated,
polished from
shoulder d own
Some fire clouding
LA 327 9
1/ Tularosa filleted rim
Bowl/ 98
Smudged interior
exterior corrugated
band near rim
Interior use we ar,
exterior fire clouding
23.5
9.5
LA 327 9
2/ Tularosa filleted rim
Bowl/ 99
Smudged interior
exterior corrugated
band near rim
Interior use we ar,
exterior fire clouding,
rim chipped
17.5
8.5
LA 327 9
3/ Reserve indented
corrugated
Olla/ 100
Corrugated exterior
Exterior wear, fire
clouding
7
12
LA 327 9
4/ Tularosa Black-onwhite
Olla/ 80
Min eral paint over
white slip
Exterior fire clouds
8.5
21
LA 327 9
5/ Tularosa Black-onwhite
Cooking/
storag e Jar/ 60
Corrugated exterior
polished neck
Some basal a brasion
spalling, mino r sooting,
rim chipping
?
19
LA 327 9
6/ Tularosa corrugated
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 25
Corrugated exterior,
polished neck
Light sooting
28.5
30
LA 327 9
7/ Reserve indented
corrugated
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 100
Corrugated exterior
Slight basal ab rasion,
neck sooting
14
15
LA 327 9
8/ Reserve indented
corrugated
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 80
Corrugated exterior
Rim resha ped through
chipping, exterior
sooting
LA 327 9
9/ Reserve corrug ated
indented
Cooking/
storag e jar/ 40
Corrugated exterior
Exterior fire clouding
170
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
27
24.5
28
Table 4.63. Whole Vessel Types From Luna Project Sites
Type
Early Pithouse Pe riod
Late Pithouse Period
Reserve Phase
Tularosa Phase
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
Alma Rough
0
0
1
5.6
6
30
1
4.5
Alma polished
2
1 00
6
33.3
4
20
3
13.6
Alma scored
0
0
4
22.2
0
0
0
0
Alma neckband ed
0
0
5
27.8
0
0
1
4.5
Thre e Circle neckcoiled
0
0
1
5.6
1
5
0
0
Reserve smudged
0
0
1
5.6
5
10
2
9.1
Tularosa filleted smudged
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
9.1
Reserve indented corrugated
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
18.2
Reserve Plain corrugated
0
0
0
0
2
10
5
22.7
Reserve incised corrugated
0
0
0
0
1
5
1
4.5
Reserve Black-on-white
0
0
0
0
1
5
1
4.5
Tularosa Black-on-white
0
0
0
0
0
0
2
9.1
Total
2
18
20
22
Table 4.64. Vessel Forms Represented by Whole Vessels from Luna Project Sites
Type
Early Pithouse
Period
Late Pithouse
Period
N
N
%
Reserve Phase
%
N
%
Tularosa Phase
N
%
Brown ware bo wl
0
0
1
5.6
7
35
4
18.2
Brown ware cooking/storage
jar
0
0
14
77.7
7
35
9
40.9
Brown ware cooking/storage
jar with handle (pitcher)
0
0
1
5.6
0
0
0
0
Brown ware olla
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4.5
Brown ware small necked jar
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
18.2
Brown ware be aker-shaped jar
1
50
0
0
0
0
0
0
Brown ware effigy
0
0
1
5.6
3
15
1
4.5
Brown ware pip e
0
0
1
5.6
0
0
0
0
Brown ware dip per bowl
1
50
0
0
1
5
0
0
Brown ware miniature jar
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
White ware effigy
0
0
0
0
1
5
0
0
White ware jar
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4.5
White ware olla
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4.5
White ware cookin g/storage
jar
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
4.5
Total
2
0
18
20
22
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
171
Table 4.65. Sooted Deposits on Whole Vessel Forms from Luna Project Sites
Type
None or Indeterminate
N
%
N
Fire Cloud
%
N
%
Brown ware bowl
2
16.7
2
16.7
8
66.7
Brown ware cooking/storage jar
6
20
17
56.7
7
23.3
Brown ware cooking/storage jar
with han dle (pitche r)
1
100
0
0
0
0
Brown ware olla
0
0
0
0
1
100
Brown ware small necked jar
1
25
1
25
2
50
Brown ware beaker-shaped jar
0
0
1
100
0
0
Brown ware effigy
2
40
3
60
0
0
Brown ware pipe
0
0
0
0
1
100
Brown ware dipp er bowl
0
0
0
0
2
100
Brown ware miniature jar
1
100
0
0
0
0
White ware effigy
1
100
0
0
0
0
White ware jar
0
0
0
0
1
100
White ware olla
0
0
0
0
1
100
White ware cooking/storage jar
0
0
1
100
0
0
and averages 15.3 cm. Other forms include bowl
dipper, miniature jar, brown ware effigy, and white
ware effigy.
Vessels from Tularosa phase components
include 13 items from LA 39968 and 9 from LA
3279. Vessel forms include Alma Rough, Alma polished, Alma neckbanded, Reserve smudged,
Tularosa filleted smudged, Reserve indented corrugated, Reserve Plain corrugated, Reserve incised
corrugated, Reserve Black-on-white, and Tularosa
Black-on-white. A total of 19 of these vessels represent brown ware forms, while 3 are white ware
types. Most of the brown ware vessels are necked jar
forms. The contrast in size of these jar forms resulted in the assignment of some to a cooking/storage
jar category and others to a small jar category. The
rim diameter of items classified as cooking storage
jars ranges from 8 to 28.5 cm and averages 15.5 cm.
Those classified as small jars display diameters from
2.5 to 6 cm and average 4.6 cm. The next most common category are bowls. Rim diameters for bowls
range from 17.5 to 23.5 cm and average 20.4 cm.
Other vessel forms at Tularosa phase components
include effigies and white ware jar bodies.
SHERD MASS AND POST-DEPOSITIONAL
INFLUENCES
Post-depositional factors may also influence ceramic distributions. One of the most obvious effects of
172
Sooted
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
postdepositional influences is on mean sherd mass.
Contexts where artifacts are continually affected by
surface weathering and breakage are more likely to
exhibit small mean mass, while those from more
quickly buried contexts should exhibit larger mean
sherd size. Mean sherd mass distributions indicate a
high degree of variation in mean sherd mass in large
assemblages (over 1,000 sherds) ranging from 2.83
to 6.56 g and averaging 5.52 g. Time of occupation
appears not to be a factor in sherd mass because two
of the largest mean sherd sizes for large assemblages
are from assemblages dating to the Early Pithouse
period (LA 39975) and the Late Tularosa phase (LA
3279). Assemblages with larger sherd mass tend to
be those in which a large amount of pottery was
recovered from floors and the immediate fill, while
those with smaller sizes included those in which a
large proportion of the sherds were associated with
surface contexts and redeposited fill. Mean sherd
mass may also influence the typological categories
assigned to sherds from a given site. For example, a
large proportion of white sherds from those yielding
large sherd mean size may be assigned to a specific
white ware type such as Reserve Black-on-white or
Tularosa Black-on-white, based on surface decoration.
PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF SELECTED CERAMIC AND
CLAY SAMPLES
David V. Hill
Petrographic analysis was conducted on 42 sherds
from a series of sites between Reserve and Luna,
New Mexico; 4 from Mogollon Village, above the
San Francisco River, ten miles north of Glenwood; 4
from geological sources; 2 from archaeological contexts; and on 1 sandstone sample.
REGIONAL GEOLOGY
The project sites are within the drainage pattern of
the San Francisco River. The surrounding region is
comprised of a complex series of interbedded rhyolitic tuffs and basalts, the result of extensive
Tertiary volcanic activity. Volcaniclastic sandstones
and breccias are also present, often interbedded with
the igneous rocks (Ratté and Finnell 1978; Rhodes
and Smith 1976). Overlaying the volcanic rocks
within the valley is an extensive conglomeritic formation known as the Gila Conglomerate, formed
from the filling of the valleys with the erosional
material produced from the surrounding mountains.
METHODOLOGY
The samples for petrographic analysis were selected
to reflect the range of variation in the types of
ceramics recovered from the Luna Project.
Additional ceramic samples from Mogollon Village
along with samples of clay and sandstone from the
Luna Project area were also analyzed (Table 4.66).
The ceramic and clay samples were analyzed
using a Nikon Optiphot-2 petrographic microscope.
The sizes of the natural inclusions and tempering
agents were described in terms of the Wentworth
Scale, a standard method for characterizing particle
sizes in sedimentology. These sizes were derived
from measuring a series of grains using a graduated
reticle built into one of the microscope's optics. The
percentages of inclusions in the ceramic and clay
samples were estimated, using comparative charts
(Matthew et al. 1991; Terry and Chilingar 1955).
Analysis of the petrographic samples was conducted in three stages. The first stage consisted of
the initial determination of rock and mineral types
present in each sample, and the identification of
rough groupings of sherds sharing similar pastes and
tempers. The second phase of the analysis involved
point-counting each sample for 300 points. Because
of the small size of Sample 11, this sherd was only
counted for 256 points. When an inclusion was
encountered during point-counting, X and Y measurements were made to the nearest millimeter.
Grains under .01 mm were not measured since it was
assumed they represented natural inclusions in the
ceramic clays. Results of these analyses are presented in Tables 4.67-4.68. A final phase of analysis
consisted of comparing the rough composition
groups with the point-count and measurement data.
RESULTS OF ANALYSIS
Pre-A.D. 1050 Sherds
With few exceptions, virtually all of the pre-A.D.
1050 sherds had very similar pastes. These ranged
from a light, yellowish brown to a dark brown and
contained abundant microinclusions. The lightercolored pastes were confined to three sherds of
Mangus Black-on-white. These microinclusions
consist primarily of feldspars and rock fragments
that are often altered to opacity. The larger inclusions consisted of igneous rock fragments and isolated mineral grains. Trachytic basalts, rhyolite porphyries, and rhyolitic tuffs are present in all of the
samples in varying proportions. The trachytic
basalts contained variable amounts of magnetite that
are often altered to hematite. The amount of magnetite within the basalt fragments is highly variable,
even within rock fragments observed in the same
sherd. Chalcedony, also infrequently present, was
probably derived from secondary alteration of the
tuffs. A single aggregate mass of a calcium-cemented volcaniclastic sandstone was observed in Sample
14.
The mineral grains present in the pastes of the
sherds were derived from the rock fragments or as
isolated detrital grains. Sanidine, plagioclase, and
microcline were the most common minerals. Quartz,
VOLUME 4. CERAMICS, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
173
Table 4.66. Petrographic Sample
Sample
1
LA Number
FS Numbe r
NA
NA
Ceramic Typ e
sherd made from self-tempered clay
Sherds from sites near Reserve Turnoff
2
70196
213
Three Circle Red-on-white
3
70196
254
Alma Plain
4
75792
201
Tularosa Corrugated
5
75792
37
Smudged Brown
6
70201
7
70201
231
San Fra ncisco Red
8
39975
31
Alma Plain
9
70195
31
Three Circle Red-on-white
10
70121
257
Mangus Black-on-white
Mangus Black-on-white
Sherds from LA 45507 ne ar Luna
11
45507
255
Mangus Black-on-white
12
45507
255
Alma Plain
13
45507
223
Three Circle neck corrugated
14
45507
229
Mangus Black-on-white
15
45507
257
Alma Plain
Source Samples
16
45507
NA
clay exposed in trench
17
70189
NA
clay from archa eological context
18
NA
NA
Gila conglomerate collected near
Sample 1. Clay source.
Ceramic Samples from Mogollon Village
19
11568
1137
Alma Plain
20
11568
1186
Mogollon Red-o n-brown
21
11568
1137
Alma Plain
22
11568
1137
Alma Plain
orthoclase, brown biotite, and augite were also present but uncommon in the samples.
Two sherds had slightly different compositions
from the other samples. Sample 4 has a brown paste
similar to the other samples, with abundant microinclusions. The major type of inclusion observed is an
andesite porphyry. The groundmass is cryptocrystalline and is highly altered to sericite and clay minerals. Also contained in the groundmass is magnetite
that is often altered to hematite. The amount of magnetite and the degree of alteration is variable
between rock fragments within the sherd. Sparse
biotite is present in some of the rock fragments and
is altered to hematite along the margins. The plagio-
174
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
clase contained prophyritics within the groundmass
and is classifiable as bytownite. These plagioclase
grains are also frequently altered to sericite and clay
minerals.
Sample 12 has a homogeneous brown paste
containing abundant microinclusions. The predominant inclusion within the paste is a trachytic basalt.
The groundmass of these rock fragments is often
highly altered to sericite and clay minerals.
Magnetite, often altered to hematite, is occasionally
present in these rock fragments. The porphyritic
feldspars with the groundmass are classifiable as
bytownite. A few fragments of rhyolitic tuff are also
present in the paste. Occasional grains of sanidine,
VOLUME 4. CERAMICS, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
175
284
277
250
272
276
279
268
284
285
279
267
273
272
9
10
11*
12
13
14
15
16
17
19
20
21
22
Void
3
3
2
0
4
7
3
6
2
0
0
6
0
2
0
1
0
2
1
2
3
1
0
10
8
3
10
0
3
9
3
3
0
0
7
0
3
0
1
11
0
13
Basalt
* short count on a small sample
283
8
284
5
298
267
4
7
284
3
276
271
2
6
256
Paste
1
Sample
Tuff
10
10
22
5
5
0
13
6
10
2
1
9
9
18
0
19
4
0
1
9
18
0
0
chalcedony: 1
chalcedony: 1
0
0
0
0
0
Trachytic basalt: 21
0
0
0
0
0
chalcedony: 2
0
Andesite porphyry: 30
0
chalcedony: 1
chalcedony: 1
Rock Other
Table 4.67. Point Count Data
0
1
0
2
0
0
4
2
3
0
2
0
2
0
0
1
0
1
0
3
4
Plagioclase
5
5
6
3
6
6
3
4
6
5
3
1
4
4
2
0
0
0
2
11
17
Sanidine
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Microcline: 1
0
0
0
Orthoclase: 1
0
0
Quartz: 1
Quartz: 1
Mineral Other
Table 4.68. Petrographic Analysis Measurement Data (sq mm)
Sample
1
Basalt
A
SD
*
*
Other
A SD
Plagioclase
A SD
Sanidine
A SD
Other
A SD
1.07 / 1.32
(.47 X.39)
.03 / .07
.09 / .08
(.47X.57)
(1.22 X .7)
.02 / .03
.09 / .15
*
*
.02 / .53
*
*
*
*
A
Tuff
SD
2
(1.25 X 1.1)
.2 / .19
3
.28 / .24
(.32 X .68)
*
*
.35 / .29
*
*
*
*
4
*
*
5
.28 / .19
.11 / .19
6
1.0 / 1.2
.25 / .21
7
8
9
10
11
*
*
.04 / .11
*
*
.25 / .21
*
*
*
*
.03 / .09
*
(.12 X .17)
*
*
(.45 X .32)
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
(.73 X .47)
*
*
*
*
.02
.01
*
*
.33 / .3
*
*
*
*
.06
.11
*
*
.48 / .53
*
*
.31 / .29
*
*
(.4 X .38)
*
*
.02 / .04
*
*
.28 / .31
(.57 X .37)
*
*
(24.2 X 10.9)
*
*
.03 / .07
*
*
5.5 / .02
*
*
13
.2 / .37
.22 / .16
*
*
.04 / .07
.08 / .19
*
*
14
.12 / .16
.45 / .19
*
*
.12 / .28
.05 / .07
*
*
15
.23 / .22
.27 / .16
*
*
.04 / .08
.01 / .04
*
*
16
.09 / .17
*
*
*
*
.09 / .06
*
*
.42 / .44
*
*
*
*
.13 / .1
*
*
*
*
.18 / .2
*
*
.06 / .11
*
*
.04 / .05
*
*
.07 / .1
*
*
*
*
*
19
.61 / .48
.45 / .3
20
.03 / .11
.4 / .25
(.55 x .6)
21
.25 / .29
.26 / .19
(.45 x .37)
22
.31 / .27
.34 / .3
*
brown biotite, augite, and quartz are present as isolated mineral grains in the paste.
In addition to the ceramic samples, three samples of clays and one of sandstone were analyzed.
Sample 1 is a clay derived from the Luna area. The
clay contains sparse microinclusions consisting
mostly of altered feldspars. Larger isolated grains of
volcanic quartz, sanidine, tuff fragments, and a fragment of chalcedony were also observed. The tuff
fragments displayed axiolitic texture.
Sample 16 is derived from a clay outcrop just
below where Sample 18, a sandstone, was collected.
The clay has a strong reddish color. It contained
abundant microinclusions consisting mostly of
altered feldspars and tuff fragments. Larger grains of
trachytic basalt and rhyolite porphyry were also
present. One of the basalt fragments is more than 3
mm in diameter, the largest single grain observed
during the analysis. These larger mineral grains are
subrounded to angular. The grains are somewhat
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
*
*
(.28 X .31)
.3 / .24
*
*
.02 / .03
12
17
176
*
.1 / .13
*
*
(.44 x .25)
*
*
more angular than those observed in the sherd sample. Isolated grains of sanidine along with sparse
quartz and plagioclase were also present.
Sample 17 is a clay sample derived from LA
70189. The clay has abundant microinclusions also
consisting of altered feldspars. The larger rock fragments consist of trachytic basalt and rhyolite.
Isolated grains of sanidine, plagioclase, and sparse
quartz were also present. These mineral grains tend
to be rounded to subangular.
Sample 18 was derived from an outcrop above
the location from where Sample 1 was collected.
This sample is a medium to coarse-grained volcaniclastic sandstone. Subrounded to angular fragments
of trachytic basalt, rhyolite, and chalcedony, along
with isolated mineral grains of quartz, sanidine, plagioclase, and microcline, were present. The
feldspars are frequently altered to sericite and clay
minerals, often to the point of opacity. The grains are
held by calcium cement.
The sandstone sample was derived from Gila
Conglomerate (D. Wilson, personal communication). However, other sandstones whose constituents
were derived from volcanic sources are known from
the region (Rhodes and Smith 1976).
Post-A.D. 1050 Sherds and Clay Samples
Sample 23, Reserve Plain Corrugated
Smudged. The paste of this sherd is an opaque black.
Contained within the paste are abundant arkosic
sands. The sands are moderately well sorted and
range in size from very fine to medium-sized. The
inclusions make up about 25 percent of the ceramic
matrix. The untwinned feldspars are usually altered
to sericite and clay minerals, sometimes to the point
of opacity of the grains. The quartz grains display
undolose extinction. Rock fragments are present in
the sands and account for about 3 percent of the total
inclusions. The most common rock type observed is
an intergranular basalt. The plagioclase (andesine) is
often slightly clouded. Ferro-manganese is present
between the feldspar laths along with black opaque
material that may be highly altered glass. One fragment contains highly altered olivine. A few chert
grains are also present in the sands.
Sample 24, Reserve Plain Corrugated
Smudged. The paste of this sherd is a dark opaque
black. The paste was tempered using crushed latite
porphyry. The rock fragments range in size from
medium to very coarse and make up about 20 percent of the groundmass. The feldspars are slightly
weathered. Ferromanganese cubes are disseminated
throughout the groundmass. Some of these cubes are
altered to hematite around their margins. A few
sparse grains of volcanic quartz were also present.
Also present were sparse laths of hornblende and
augite.
Sample 25, Reserve Black-on-white. The paste
of this sherd is light gray and contains about 10 percent silt-sized to very fine, rounded quartz grains.
Also present in the paste were sparse medium-sized,
silty, rounded black inclusions. The paste was tempered using crushed potsherds. The sherd temper
accounted for about 1 percent of the paste. The sherd
temper appears to have the same type of fabric as the
matrix of the sherd. A few of the sherd fragments
ranged from white to grayish.
Sample 26, Reserve Black-on-white. The paste
of this sherd is quite similar to that observed in
Sample 25. This sherd was also tempered using
crushed potsherds.
Sample 27, Reserve Black-on-white. The paste
of this sherd is light gray. The paste contains about
20 percent silt-sized to fine, rounded quartz grains.
The paste contains dark brown to black opaque
inclusions. The origin of these inclusions is unclear.
They surround some small voids suggestive of
reduction taking place with the combustion of
organic materials within the clay body. Other dark
inclusions appear as stains and have indistinct
boundaries. The inclusions may also represent some
sort of decomposition product. These opaque inclusions are fine to medium-sized. They make up about
3 percent of the paste.
Sample 28, Mimbres Classic Black-on-white.
The paste of this sherd is light gray mottled with
brown. Isolated mineral grains and rock fragments
form a continuous size distribution from silt-sized to
coarse. These inclusions make up approximately 15
percent of the paste and appear to represent natural
inclusions rather than added materials. Sanidine is
present as isolated mineral grains. The sanidine
grains range from subangular to rounded. The sanidine is usually weathered to clay minerals. Slightly
less common are laths of andesine plagioclase. The
plagioclase also presents a weathered appearance.
Very sparse brown biotite, brown hornblende, and
opaque inclusions make up the rest of the isolated
grains.
Volcanic rock fragments are also present in the
paste of this sherd. Two types of fragments were
observed. The most common are fragments of
basalt. The basalt is highly variable in texture. One
type of basalt is an intersertal variety having a
brown glassy groundmass containing abundant
ferro-manganese cubes. The plagioclase in these
fragments is classifiable as an andesine. The other
basalt has an intergranular texture and contains
brown glass and ferro-manganese cubes in the interstices between the plagioclase (andesine) lathes. The
intergranular basalt was much less common than the
intersertal texture. Also present in the paste were
fragments of a reddish glass containing sparse, highly weathered plagioclase. These glassy fragments
were even less common than the basalt grains.
Sample 29, Reserve Indented Corrugated. The
paste of this sherd is a strong brown and slightly
birefringent. The paste was tempered using crushed
latite, possibly quartz latite. Slightly more pyroxene
is present in this sherd than in Sample 24. The rock
fragments appear similar to those observed in
Sample 24, however. The latite constitutes about 15
percent of the paste. The rock fragments range from
medium-sized to a few that were very coarse.
Sample 30, Reserve Plain Corrugated. The
paste of this sherd is golden brown and birefringent.
VOLUME 4. CERAMICS, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
177
The paste contains about 15 percent rounded, sandy
inclusions. These inclusions range in size from
medium to coarse. The major mineral type observed
in these sands is a highly weathered sanidine. Also
present are rock fragments that have a cryptocrystalline groundmass and contain sparse ferro-manganese cubes and brown biotite. The groundmass of
these rock fragments is clouded through weathering
to clay minerals. One coarse-sized fragment of reddish gray welded tuff was also observed in the paste.
Two inclusions of intergranular basalt were also
present. This basalt contained brown glass and ferromanganese grains between the andesine plagioclase
laths.
Sample 31, Reserve/Tularosa-Black-on-white.
The paste of this sherd is light gray. Contained within the paste are about 10 percent silt to mediumsized, rounded quartz grains. These inclusions are
likely naturally present in the source of the clay.
Also present in the paste was a single, medium-sized
grain of intergranular basalt. The ferro-manganese
grains found in the interstices between the plagioclase laths displayed halos of hematite. A single,
medium-sized fragment of fine-grained sandstone
was also present. Sparse rounded to subangular silty
inclusions were also present.
Sample 32, Red Mesa Black-on-white. The
paste of this sherd is light gray. This paste contains
silt to medium-sized, rounded quartz sand grains
that most likely represent natural inclusions in the
ceramic clay. These sand grains make up about 5
percent of the paste. The clay also contains rounded
inclusions. These rounded inclusions range from
coarse to very coarse in size and range in color from
dark gray to a light gray that is almost indistinguishable from the ceramic paste. These inclusions most
likely represent fragments of clay that were not well
mixed into the clay body.
Sample 33, Reserve Black-on-white. The paste
of this sherd is light gray. Contained within this
matrix are about 20 percent silt-sized to very fine
quartz sands. Two fragments of fine-grained sandstone were also present, along with a few mediumsized isolated quartz grains.
Sample 34, Mimbres Classic Black-on-white.
The paste of this sherd is brownish gray. Contained
within the paste are silt-sized to fine, isolated grains
of quartz, sanidine, and sparse plagioclase. Also
present, possibly as an added tempering agent, are
fragments of glassy tuff. A few tuff fragments have
a rhyolitic composition. The tuff fragments display
variable weathering with some inclusions having a
grayish brown color, while the majority appear to be
only slightly kaolinized. The matrix of the tuff is
178
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
glassy with occasional inclusions of sanidine, andesine plagioclase, or biotite. Two pieces of tuff have
a cryptocrystalline groundmass. A few pieces of secondary chalcedony were also observed. The tuff
fragments make up about 20 percent of the ceramic
fabric and range between medium to very coarse in
size.
Sample 35, Reserve Plain Corrugated. The
paste of this sherd is golden brown. The paste and
inclusions in this sherd are quite similar to those
observed in Sample 30 and reflect the use of a common source of raw materials. The inclusions make
up about 15 percent of the sherd's matrix and range
in size from fine to very coarse. Sparse fragments of
intergranular and intersertal basalts were observed,
like those in Sample 30.
Sample 36, Reserve Indented Corrugated. The
paste of this sherd is golden brown. The paste contains crushed latite temper like that observed in the
paste of Samples 24 and 29. The slightly birefringent brown paste of the present sherd is very similar
to Sample 29. The latite has a microcrystalline
groundmass and contains andesine plagioclase porphyritically. The latite particles constitute 15 percent
of the paste and range in size from medium to a few
very coarse examples.
Sample 37, Reserve Indented Corrugated. The
paste of this sherd is brown and has a very gritty texture. Abundant grains of multilithic sands are present in the paste. These grains range in size from siltsized to a few very coarse rock fragments. The sands
appear to represent a natural constituent of the
ceramic paste and account for about 30 percent of
the volume. Rounded to subangular grains of quartz,
slightly kaolinized feldspars, and rock fragments are
present. The rock types observed include intergranular basalt, fine-grained rhyolite, welded tuff with
axiolitic texture, and one very coarse fragment of
chalcedony. These rock fragments probably make up
less than 3 percent of the total inclusions.
Sample 38, Starkweather Smudged Decorated.
The paste of this sherd is dark brown and has a very
gritty texture. The paste contains sands that constitute 15 percent of the paste. These sands range in
size from silt-sized to medium. The sands are rounded and consist predominantly of quartz, although
there are also grains of untwinned feldspar, plagioclase, and sparse hornblende. Black opaque spots
were common in the paste. These spots likely represent biotite altered to hematite and clay minerals.
Two very coarse-sized fragments of rhyolitic welded tuff were observed. Axiolitic texture was
observed in both tuff fragments. These two tuff fragments contained porphyritic sanidine.
Sample 39, Reserve Plain Corrugated
Smudged. The paste of this sherd is opaque black.
Contained within the paste are fragments of an
andesite porphyry. The groundmass is cryptocrystalline and contains abundant, very fine ferro-manganese inclusions giving a dark appearance to the
rock fragments. Some of the ferro-manganese grains
display alteration to hematite around their margins.
Contained porphyritically are laths of andesine or
bytownite, plagioclase, and occasionally blue-green
pyroxene, probably augite. Plagioclase and augite
are also present as isolated mineral grains in the
paste. A few rock fragments have a distinctly glassy
matrix and trachyitic texture that suggest a basaltic
andesite. Some sparse quartz is present as chalcedony. These rock fragments and mineral grains
range in size from medium to very coarse and make
up about 35 percent of the clay body.
Sample 40, Reserve Black-on-white. The paste
of this sherd is a light brownish gray color. It contains about 5 percent silt-sized to fine, quartz and
feldspar grains. A few medium-sized isolated mineral grains are also present. These inclusions represent
natural inclusions in the clay body. A few mediumsized fragments of intergranular basalt were present
in the sherd. The ferro-manganese grains in the
matrix of these rock fragments had altered to
hematite, and the feldspars had weathered to clay
minerals, giving the laths a clouded appearance.
Sample 41, Reserve Plain Corrugated
Smudged. The paste of this sherd is opaque black.
The paste and andesite porphyry temper observed in
this sherd are quite similar to that of Sample 39. The
present sherd contains about 30 percent rock fragments and isolated mineral grains that appear to
have come from the rock fragments. One difference
between the two samples is that Sample 41 contains
a few coarse to very coarse fragments of intergranular basalt. Ferro-manganese cubes, often displaying
hematitic staining, augite, and spare weathered
olivines are contained between the andesine plagioclase lathes.
Sample 42, Tularosa Patterned Corrugated
Smudged. The paste of this sherd is golden brown
and birefringent. The paste and the inclusions in this
sherd resemble Samples 30 and 35. This sherd contains glassy tuff and highly altered sanidine that
range in size from medium to very coarse. This
material constitutes about 15 percent of the matrix
of the sherd.
Sample 43, Tularosa Fillet Rim Smudged. The
paste of this sherd is an opaque black and was tempered using andesite porphyry like that observed in
Samples 39 and 41. The andesite porphyry frag-
ments and isolated grains constitute 30 percent of
the paste and range in size from medium to very
coarse.
Sample 44, Tularosa White-on-red Smudged.
The paste of this sherd is an opaque brown color and
has a very gritty texture. The gritty paste resembles
that of Samples 37 and 38 in that it contains rounded quartz, untwinned feldspars, and plagioclase
along with trace amounts of hornblende, microcline,
and biotite. Two very coarse-sized fragments of
intergranular basalt were also present. The inclusions make up about 30 percent of the sherd's matrix
and range from silt-sized to coarse in size.
Sample 45, Reserve Plain Corrugated
Smudged. The paste of this sherd is golden brown
and slightly birefringent. The paste and inclusions in
this sherd resemble Samples 30, 35, and 42.
Fragments of weathered sanidine, glassy tuff, and
intergranular and intersertal basalt range from fine
to coarse in size and make up about 10 percent of the
paste.
Sample 46, Tularosa Black-on-white. The paste
of this sherd is light gray. Sample 27 has a similar
paste to this sherd. Dark brown, opaque, fine to
medium-sized inclusions are present in the paste of
this sherd. The quartz sands and inclusions make up
about 20 percent of the paste and range in size from
silt to medium-sized. A single very coarse quartz
grain was also present in the paste.
Sample 47, Tularosa Black-on-white. The paste
of this sherd has an uneven, gray mottled appearance. The paste contains sparse subrounded to
rounded quartz sands and three fragments of finegrained intergranular basalt. The paste of the parent
vessel was tempered using crushed potsherds. The
sherd particles range in size from medium to coarse
and do not contrast strongly with the paste. The
sherd temper constitutes about 10 percent of the
paste.
Sample 48, Klagetoh or Snowflake Black-onwhite. The paste of this sherd is a yellowish gray
color. The paste is tempered with crushed potsherds.
Also present in the paste are grains of subrounded
quartz, untwinned feldspars, plagioclase, and sparse
microcline and augite. A few fragments of an
andesite porphyry were also present. The andesite
has a cryptocrystalline groundmass with finely disseminated ferro-manganese grains. Andesine plagioclase is the porphyritic mineral. A few rock fragments appear to be derived from a trachytic intergranular basalt. All of the mineral and rock fragments are found in both the clay body and the sherd
temper. The sherd temper ranges from dark grayish
brown and opaque to light gray, indicating the use of
VOLUME 4. CERAMICS, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
179
sherds from different sources for use as temper. The
inclusions range from medium to very coarse in size
and make up 20 percent of the paste.
Sample 49, Reserve Indented Corrugated. The
paste of this sherd is dark brown and has a gritty
appearance. The inclusions in this sherd are similar
to those observed in Samples 37, 38, and 44.
However, slightly fewer silt-sized inclusions were
observed in the paste of this sherd than in the previous samples. Like the previous samples, the paste
contains subangular to subrounded quartz,
untwinned feldspar, and plagioclase grains. Sparse
hornblende, microcline, and brown biotite were also
present. Rock fragments observed included intergranular and intersertal basalt and rhyolitic welded
tuff. The mineral grains and rock fragments make up
15 percent of the paste and range in size from medium to very coarse.
Sample 50, Reserve Patterned Corrugated
Smudged. The paste of this sherd has a distinctively
gritty texture and is dark brown. The paste of the
sherd strongly resembles that of Samples 37, 38, and
44. However, the most common rock type observed
in the paste was a latite, like that observed in Sample
36. In some latite fragments, andesine plagioclase
was contained porphyritically. Less commonly,
brownish fragments of intersertal basalt were also
present. The inclusions make up about 30 percent of
the ceramic matrix and range from silt-sized to very
coarse.
Sample 51, Clay from Soil Profile. The clay is
a reddish-brown color. Contained within the clay
body are a mixture of subrounded quartz, untwinned
feldspar, and plagioclase grains. Also present are
fragments of volcanic rock. The most common rock
type is a fine-grained intergranular basalt. A few
fragments of intersertal basalt were also present. The
inclusions constitute about 20 percent of the clay
body and range in size from fine to very coarse. The
rock fragments are larger than the mineral grains,
ranging from medium-sized to very coarse.
Sample 52, Clay from Soil Profile. The clay is
reddish-brown. In terms of inclusions, this sample is
virtually identical to Sample 51. A chalcedony fragment was present in this clay as well. The rock fragments and isolated mineral grains make up about 15
percent of the clay body and range in size from fine
to very coarse.
Sample 53. The clay is light reddish-brown.
Within the clay are abundant inclusions of isolated
mineral grains and rock fragments. The most common rock type observed in this sherd was an intersertal basalt. The groundmass is a reddish-brown
glass and contains plagioclase porphyritically. A few
180
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
fragments of a fine-grained intergranular trachytic
basalt were also present. These inclusions range
from silt-sized to medium and constitute about 15
percent of the clay matrix.
CONCLUSIONS
Sherds in the pre-A.D. 1050 analysis do not appear
to have been tempered, but rather contained natural
inclusions derived from volcaniclastic sediments,
possibly Gila Conglomerate, that were later redeposited in the clays used for making ceramics. This
conclusion is based on the presence of the same
types of rocks and minerals in the clay samples
derived from outcrop sources as in most of the
sherds. Samples 4 and 12 have slightly different
rock fragments from the other sherds. These two
samples could represent items of exchange or simply reflect the variability of the local clay sources.
Previous petrographic analysis has been conducted on sixteen sherds from the SU site (Connolly
1943)—Alma Plain, Alma Rough, and San
Francisco Red. All but one of the sherds were found
to have similar pastes and tempers. The sherds contained predominantly rounded to subangular rock
fragments rich in plagioclase that formed a constituent of andesitic or trachytic rock fragments.
Quartz was also present as coarse or fine-grained
fragments. Some magnetite was present in the rock
fragments, often altered to hematite. The size of the
temper ranged between .16 and .64 mm. A single
sherd of Alma Rough was tempered using volcanic
tuff containing sparse plagioclase and magnetite.
These tuff fragments ranged between .16 and .8 mm.
Superficially, these materials resemble those
found during the present study. There are, however,
a number of critical differences that separate the two
petrographic samples. First, the Luna Project samples often contained a wide range of rock types.
Sanidine rather than plagioclase was the predominant feldspar. The rounded nature of many of the
grains in the paste of the SU sherds indicates that
either the temper was derived from crushed Gila
Conglomerate, or like the Luna samples, clay beds
adjacent to the Gila Conglomerate were exploited,
and additional tempering material did not need to be
added. If naturally tempered clays were used, the
differences between the samples from the SU site
and those from the current project are due to compositional variation in the source clays.
Samples 9 and 17 contained, almost exclusively, tuff fragments and are apparently similar to the
volcanic ash-tempered specimen from the SU site.
The rounded and often highly altered nature of the
tuffs indicated that, rather than having been obtained
from outcrop sources, tuffs would probably have
been derived from the Gila Conglomerate or as natural constituents of the clay.
Analysis of the post-A.D. 1050 ceramics has
allowed for the identification of several fabric
groups. Other ceramic samples could not be
assigned to particular groups but, based on the minerals and rock fragments present, could be assigned
to at least a general geological source.
Samples 30, 35, 37, 42, and 45 share a common
brown birefringent paste. Contained with the clay
body are a mixture of subrounded sands and volcanic rock fragments. The volcanic rock fragments
are highly variable in terms of texture and composition. These sand and rock fragments usually make
up about 15 percent of the clay body, except in the
case of Sample 37, where the inclusions make up 30
percent of the body.
Petrographic examination of the inclusions in
two of the three clay samples found a mix of sands
and volcanic rock fragments similar to those
observed in the above samples. Both of the samples
from soil profiles contained 15 percent mineral
grains and rock fragments. The inclusions in the five
sherds ranged between fine to very coarse. The one
clay sample from an excavated context had a mineral suite and amount of inclusions similar to the other
two clay samples. However, the particle size of the
inclusions extended from silt-sized to mediumsized.
Sands containing volcanic rock fragments were
also observed within Samples 23, 38, 44, 49 and 50.
The amount of the sands and variation in the rock
fragments observed in these sherds indicates that
they were derived from geological deposits similar
to the samples that contained sands and volcanic
rock.
Previous analysis of brown ware ceramics from
earlier components excavated during the Luna
Project revealed the use of clays containing rock
fragments and mineral grains derived from the Gila
Conglomerate. Evidence from the current analysis
of ceramics and clays indicates that brown-firing
clay containing detrital rock fragments from the Gila
Conglomerate continued to be used for over 1,000
years.
Samples 24, 29, and 36 contain crushed latite
temper and have similar enough pastes to have come
from the same source. Several latite sources are
available in the Tularosa Mountains, east of the project area.
The andesite or basaltic andesite observed in
Samples 39, 41, and 43 are likely to have been
derived from the same source. All three of these
sherds have a dark opaque paste. Andesites are present in the lower part of Tularosa Canyon and in the
northern portion of the Tularosa Mountains (Rhodes
and Smith 1976).
The two sherds of Mimbres Classic Black-onwhite were derived from different productive
sources. Neither of the sherds contained temper in
the traditional sense but were made using clays that
contained detrital rock fragments. Sample 28 contained basalt grains and glass fragments. Clay
deposits are often associated with these formations
(Hernon et al. 1965). Tuffs are also found redeposited in alluvial deposits in valley fill and certainly
within the Gila Conglomerate, which outcrops along
the Gila River and its major tributaries. It is from
this type of source that the two sherds were derived.
The other white ware sherds appear to come
from a number of different sources, none local.
Samples 27 and 46 appear to have been derived
from the same source. This assumption is based on
the presence of fine to medium-sized opaque dark
spots that appear to represent some sort of decomposition product.
Small isolated grains of basalt were present, but
uncommon, in Samples 31 and 40, Reserve/Tularosa
Black-on-white and Reserve Black-on-white. Both
of these sherds also had a slightly brownish-gray
paste. Basalt was also observed within the paste and
sherd temper of Sample 48, Klagetoh or Snowflake
Black-on-white. The sparse representation of intergranular basalt in these three sherds indicates that it
was a natural inclusion in the ceramic clay and not
an added material. The source of the basalts in these
three sherds is unknown, given the lack of comparative material from contemporary assemblages in
western New Mexico and eastern Arizona.
Fine quartz sands were present as natural inclusions in the rest of the Cibola white ware ceramics
examined (Samples 25, 26, 32, 33, and 47). Due to
the variability of the paste of these five sherds, they
were likely to have been derived from five different
sources. The fine white paste and sands suggest that
the parent vessels may have been produced to the
north on the Colorado Plateau.
It appears that only brown ware ceramics were
produced at the Luna Project sites. The majority of
the brown wares contained sediments derived from
the Gila Conglomerate. Clays from the terraces
where the sites are located would have served as a
convenient source of raw materials for ceramic production. Several brown ware sherds contained
basaltic andesite and latite. These materials would
VOLUME 4. CERAMICS, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
181
have been available in the mountains to the east and
in Tularosa Canyon. Sherds that contained these
extrusive rock fragments represent local exchange
or limited use of other materials than the Gila
Conglomerate.
Decorated white wares appear not to have been
produced in the area. The Mimbres white wares
examined during this project are more likely to have
been produced somewhere to the south and east. The
182
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Cibola white wares, for the most part, appear to have
been produced on the Colorado Plateau, where potters had access to illitic clays that contained little
iron. The presence of volcanic rock fragments in a
few of the white ware sherds points to additional
sources of white ware, possibly in eastern Arizona.
Analysis of white ware ceramics from sites in eastern Arizona would be necessary to illuminate the
sources of these ceramics.
MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACT ANALYSIS
Sonya O. Urban
This project produced a wide variety of objects that
were classified as miscellaneous: ornaments, effigies, manuports, pipes, crystals, adobe casts, and
minerals. The sites represent several consecutive
time periods in the Mogollon area: the
Archaic/Pinelawn phase through the Tularosa phase.
Since the sites cover a wide time period in the
Mogollon area, the analysis provided some insight
into the changing needs and certain economic
aspects of the communities studied. This is a diverse
group of artifacts and potentially important to our
knowledge of prehistoric trade routes, trade goods,
personal adornment, and ceremonial items.
Each artifact will be discussed first according to
morphology, then in more detail in the context of the
site in which it was found. The sites and the significance of the artifacts found from the different time
periods will be discussed at the end of this section.
These collections of artifacts indicate certain trends
of trade and cultural exchange.
cations were used to closely examine drill holes,
manufacturing stages, and wear patterns.
Material sources were identified by gross category unless specific sources were recognized.
Figure 4.43 identifies terms used in reference to
shell morphology in the manufacturing process.
Wear pertains to the identification of characteristics
present based on the use of the item, as opposed to
its manufacture. Condition refers to whether the
whole artifact is represented, or only a portion of the
original piece.
All artifacts were recorded as whole or fragmentary. The material types, morphology, and
sources were monitored to assist in the determination of possible trade routes, in addition to the use of
local versus imported materials. Drill hole forms and
measurements, manufacturing stages, and surface
treatments were recorded to determine if the ornaments were locally produced or imported as finished
goods. The shape of the artifact is used as a general
indicator of the forms most often used.
METHODS
The analysis of the miscellaneous artifacts was completed using methodology developed specifically for
the project. The criteria developed for previous OAS
projects were also considered. Artifacts were analyzed primarily by assemblage and then in subgroups by provenience due to the relatively small
size of the assemblage. The variables monitored
include material type, morphology, shape, condition,
drill hole type, drill hole measurements, manufacturing stage, surface treatment, wear polish, count,
weight, length (and portion), width (and portion),
thickness (and portion), and source of materials
used.
All miscellaneous items were recorded and
measured. Notable artifacts were photographed or
drawn. All measurements were made in millimeters
with a sliding caliper, and artifact weights were
recorded in grams. Each artifact was examined with
a binocular microscope to assist in the identification
of material types and morphologies. The magnification varied from 15x to 80x, and the higher magnifi-
ARTIFACT SUMMARY
A total of 541 miscellaneous items were collected
from 17 of the 25 excavated sites in the project area.
The artifacts are represented by whole and fragmentary objects, a broad variety of materials, locally
available and imported goods, and a number of
proveniences.
Minerals
Over the course of testing and excavation, 150 mineral samples were recovered from 12 of the 25 sites
in the project area. Several different material types
are represented, all of which exist in the region.
Some of the mineral samples were soft enough to be
used as pigments, and several show evidence of
grinding (Table 4.69). Unfortunately, a few of the
soft mineral samples were washed, so it is difficult
to determine if the sample was actually ground.
A few chrysocolla samples showed evidence of
grinding, which may indicate use as a pigment.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
183
Figure 4.43. Shell morphology terms, adapted from Morris (1975).
Several pieces of the mineral were ground further
into partially formed ornaments. This chrysocolla
may have been used as a turquoise substitute (Sense
1967; Jernigan 1978) if the exotic commodity was
difficult to find locally.
LA 3279 (Hough Site). A total of 65 mineral
samples were collected from this site (Table 4.70).
These samples consisted of chrysocolla (51), azurite
(5), malachite (5), limonite (2), and one sample each
of mica and azurite/malachite in matrix. The azuritemeasures an average of 6 by 5 by 4 mm, and the
mica measures 5 by 4 by 2 mm. The chrysocolla
fragments measure an average of 12 by 8 by 6 mm
and were primarily found in room fill; several were
ground on one or more faces. The modified chrysocolla samples were found respectively in Rooms 6,
7, 8, and 15.
Room 2 contained three pieces of chrysocolla.
All were found in the general room fill.
Eleven chrysocolla samples were recovered
from Room 6; one of the larger pieces was ground
flat on one side.
In Room 7, five fragments of malachite were
found (originally as one or two pieces) in the fill
approximately 15 cm above the floor. The largest
piece measures 20 by 15 by 9 mm. Of the seven
Table 4.69. Number of Unmodified and (Modified) Minerals through Time
Azurite/
Malachite
Chrysocolla
Azurite
Malachite
Mica
Pipestone
Gypsum
Pinelawn
Georgetown
4
2 (1)
1 (1)
Reserve
14 (5)
1
Reserve/
Tularosa
5 (2)
1 (1)
1
Total
1 (1)
3
4 (1)
1 (1)
5 (3)
6 (4)
6
3
13 (3)
3 (1)
2
21 (6)
6
2
Tularosa
1
62 (8)
19
6
1
Total
1
87 (16)
21 (1)
6
1
184
Limonite
2
San Francisco
Three Circle
Hematite
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
7 (2)
1
1 (1)
2
93 (9)
2 (1)
16 (4)
15 (3)
150
(25)
Table 4.70. Modified and Unmodified Minerals from LA 3279
Provenience
Material
Modified
Unmodified
Total
Room 2; genera l fill
chrysocolla
3
3
Room 5; genera l fill
chrysocolla
1
1
Room 5; genera l fill
azurite
2
2
Room 6; genera l fill
chrysocolla
10
11
Room 7; 15 cm above flo or
malachite
5
5
Room 7; genera l fill
chrysocolla
5
7
Room 7; Feature 2
chrysocolla
1
1
Room 8; genera l fill
chrysocolla
1
4
Room 8; genera l fill
azurite/malachite
1
1
Room 10; general fill
chrysocolla
13
13
Room 10; Feature 3
chrysocolla
1
1
Room 10; betwee n floors
limon ite
2
2
Room 11; general fill
chrysocolla
4
4
Room 11; general fill
azurite
1
1
Room 12; floor fill
chrysocolla
1
1
Room 13; general fill
azurite
1
1
Kiva; genera l fill
chrysocolla
1
3
Kiva; genera l fill
mica
1
1
Gen eral site fill
chrysocolla
1
1
Gen eral site fill
chrysocolla
1
1
Gen eral site fill
azurite
1
1
57
65
Total
1
2
3
2
8
chrysocolla fragments found in the general fill, two
are modified. One is ground on a single side, and the
second, ground and abraded on several sides, may
be an ornament blank (Fig. 4.44c). An unmodified
piece was in the fill of Feature 2, a pit in the northwest corner of the room, along with a Reserve corrugated olla.
Of the four fragments of chrysocolla found in
Room 8, two are ground on three sides, and a third
is ground and partially shaped. In addition, a piece
of azurite/malachite in matrix measuring 9 by 8 by 5
mm was found in the general fill.
Room 10 contained a fragment of unmodified
chrysocolla in Feature 3, a pit adjacent to and partially underneath the west wall. In addition, two
fragments of limonite measuring an average of 10
by 8 by 5 mm were found between floors in the
remodeled southern area of the room.
b
a
c
Figure 4.44. Possible ornament blanks from LA
3279.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
185
Table 4.71. Modified and Unmodified Minerals from LA 39968
Provenience
Material
Unmod ified
Total
Pit structure; general fill
gypsum
1
1
Pit structure; general fill
malachite
1
1
Pit structure; general fill
azurite
4
4
Pit structure; general fill
chrysocolla
7
7
Pit structure; general fill
hematite
Pit structure; entryway
azurite
4
4
Pit structure; below roof fall
azurite
1
1
Feature 10
chrysocolla
1
1
Roomblock 2
chrysocolla
1
1
Gene ral site fill
chrysocolla
2
2
Gene ral site fill
azurite
5
5
27
28
Total
The great kiva (Room 15) contained three
pieces of chrysocolla. Two of the fragments have
one end ground and shaped, one of these possibly as
the start of an ornament (Fig. 4.44b).
LA 3563 (South Leggett Pueblo). Two pieces of
soft hematite (red ochre) measuring 47 by 22 by 12
mm were found in the upper fill of the pit structure.
Any evidence of cultural modification was lost
when they were washed. Since the pit structure fill
was redeposited, the artifact's context is suspect.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). A total of 28 mineral samples were recovered (Table 4.71). These
samples consist of azurite (14), chrysocolla (11), and
a single sample each of hematite, gypsum, and malachite. The azurite fragments measure an average of
10 by 8 by 4 mm, and the average measurement of
the chrysocolla is 10 by 8 by 5 mm.
The pit structure contained the majority of minerals on the site. A fragment of gypsum measuring
27 by 22 by 17 mm, a single piece of malachite
measuring 9 by 8 by 6 mm, and several fragments of
azurite and chrysocolla were recovered. A piece of
heavily modified hematite measuring 45 by 12 by 10
mm was also found in the pit structure. This artifact
is ground and shaped into a form easily held
between the fingers (Fig. 4.45a). It may have been
used as a paint stick. No mineral samples were
found in the floor fill or on the floor of the structure.
LA 39969 (Haury's Site). This site contained 20
mineral samples (Table 4.72), including chrysocolla
(14), hematite (3), a single sample each of limonite,
azurite, and pipestone. The average measurement of
186
Modified
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
1
1
the chrysocolla is 8 by 6 by 4 mm. The hematite
samples are small, measuring an average of 14 by 13
by 7 mm.
A modified piece of chrysocolla was recovered
from the floor fill of Room 1. This mineral sample
was shaped into a pyramid with three ground surfaces.
A fragment of limonite measuring 32 by 22 by
6 mm was recovered from the fill of Room 2. The
sample was washed, so any cultural modification is
not apparent. A chrysocolla sample was recovered
from the floor fill of this room. To the south of
Room 2 was a flagstoned area, below which three
a
b
c
d
Figure 4.45. A selection of minerals; (a-b) hematite,
LA 39968, (c) azurite, LA 39969, (d) hematite, LA
39972.
Table 4.72. Modified and Unmodified Minerals from LA 39969
Provenience
Material
Mo dified
Unmodified
Total
Room 1; floor fill
chrysocolla
Room 2; general fill
limon ite
1
1
Room 2; floor fill
chrysocolla
1
1
South of Room 2
chrysocolla
2
3
Room 3; lower fill
azurite
1
1
Room 3; lower fill
hematite
1
Room 3; lower fill
chrysocolla
1
4
5
Room 3; floor fill
chrysocolla
1
1
2
Feature 9
chrysocolla
1
Feature 2
chrysocolla
1
1
Outsid e roomblock
pipestone
1
1
Outsid e roomblock
hematite
2
2
14
20
Total
1
1
6
chrysocolla fragments were found. One piece is
ground and shaped and may have been formed to
imitate the turquoise domed bead found on this site.
In Room 3 of the structure, several mineral
samples were found. From the lower fill, a piece of
azurite measuring 19 by 14 by 10 mm, a ground
hematite sample, and five chrysocolla fragments
(one of which is ground) were recovered (Fig. 4.45).
Two additional chrysocolla pieces were recovered
from the floor of the structure. One of these is
ground and appears to be ornamental debris.
Near Feature 9 (an ash pit) a fragment of ground
chrysocolla was recovered. A second piece of
chrysocolla was found in the lower fill of Feature 2,
a shallow pit to the west of Room 2. Two pieces of
hematite were recovered outside of the rooms. A
large sample of pipestone measuring 140 by 108 by
94 mm was also recovered outside the rooms, possibly cached for later use.
LA 39972 (SU Tanks). A single piece of
hematite was found in the Pinelawn component of
the site. This sample is shaped into a small pyramid
(Fig. 4.45d) and was probably used as a pigment.
The artifact shows evidence of grinding and abrasions on all four sides. It measures 10 by 9 by 6 mm.
LA 39975 (Lazy Meadows). Three pieces of
limonite were found near the surface of the site. One
fragment was washed, so any modification is lost.
The samples may have been kept for eventual use as
pigment, but their context leaves some doubt as to
1
1
1
their use. The mean measurements of these samples
are 34 by 27 by 18 mm.
LA 45507 (Luna Village). Eleven mineral samples were found in Luna Village (Table 4.73). The
materials were identified as: hematite (4), limonite
(3), chrysocolla (2), and one sample each of azurite
and gypsum. Three of the mineral samples are
ground. The average dimensions of the limonite are
14 by 11 by 7 mm, and of the chrysocolla, 11 by 8
by 6 mm.
In Pit Structure 3, a single piece of ground gypsum was found on the floor (Fig. 4.46c). It measures
17 by 13 by 4 mm and is ground thin and flat.
Outside Pit Structure 9, a blocky chunk of
hematite measuring 57 by 48 by 44 mm was found.
Recovered from the fill of Pithouse 12 was a
piece of chrysocolla ground on one side. On the
floor of this structure was a piece of ground azurite
measuring 12 by 9 by 5 mm (Fig. 4.46e) that may
have been used as pigment.
In the fill of Pithouse 13, an unmodified fragment of chrysocolla and a piece of hematite were
found.
LA 45508 (Humming Wire). One mineral sample was recovered from this site. A piece of unmodified hematite measuring 23 by 18 by 16 mm was
found in the upper fill of Pit Structure 1.
LA 45510 (SAK site). Five unmodified mineral
samples were found in the upper 30 cm of fill on this
site. Four are small fragments of chrysocolla, the
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
187
Table 4.73. Modified and Unmodified Minerals from LA 45507
Provenience
Material
Unmodified
Total
Pithouse 3; floor
gypsum
Pithouse 3; general fill
limonite
1
1
Outside Pithouse 9
hematite
1
1
Pithouse 12; general fill
hematite
3
3
Pithouse 12; general fill
chrysocolla
Pithouse 12; general fill
limonite
Pithouse 12; floor
azurite
Pithouse 13; general fill
chrysocolla
1
1
Pithouse 13; general fill
limonite
1
1
8
11
Total
Figure 4.46. Modified minerals; (a) limonite, LA
70196, (b, d) chrysocolla, LA 70185, (c) gypsum, LA
45507, (e) azurite, LA 45507.
fifth, a blocky chunk of hematite. The chrysocolla
measure an average of 4 by 3 by 2 mm, and the
hematite measures 18 by 13 by 11 mm.
LA 70185 (DZ site). A total of seven mineral
samples were found on this site: two pieces of
hematite and five fragments of chrysocolla. The
hematite measure an average of 22 by 13 by 8 mm,
and the chrysocolla average 10 by 8 by 7 mm. Three
of the five pieces of chrysocolla were found inside
the roomblock. One chrysocolla fragment is ground
on two sides and was found in the wall of Pit 8 in
Room 1 (Fig. 4.46d). A second fragment was found
in the fill of Room 2, and the last, ground on two
188
Modified
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
sides, was found in the ventilator shaft in the same
room (Fig. 4.46b). One chrysocolla fragment, found
outside the roomblock, was associated with a sandstone pendant. The remaining samples were found
outside the structure.
LA 70196 (Fence Corner). A total of six mineral samples were found on this site. Five of these are
limonite, the remaining, hematite. One limonite
sample found in the floor fill of the pit structure
measures 32 by 12 by 9 mm and is shaped to be held
in the fingers easily (Fig. 4.46a). This sample may
have been used as a paint stick. Another limonite
sample was soft and may also have been used as pigment. Four of the samples show grinding on a flat
surface, possibly from use as pigment; unfortunately, some of these samples were washed. Three of the
artifacts were from the lower pit fill, two were from
the surface, and the last was found in the floor fill.
The average measurements of the minerals are 38 by
30 by 19 mm.
LA 75792 (Thunder Ridge). One piece of
limonite was found in the upper 9 cm of the site. The
piece measures 40 by 20 by 14 mm and was not culturally modified.
Miscellaneous Stone
LA 3279 (Hough site). Several miscellaneous
stone items were recovered from this site (Table
4.74), including nine ball-shaped concretions and
two obsidian nodules. The majority of these artifacts
were in general room fill; some were in contexts that
suggest they were placed deliberately.
Two sandstone concretions were recovered
Table 4.74. Miscellaneous Stone Artifacts from LA 3279
Provenience
Artifact Type
Material
Size (cm)
Total
Room 2; genera l fill
ball concretion
sandstone
1 4 x 12 x 10
1
Room 5; genera l fill
nodule
obsidian
7 x6x5
1
Room 6; Feature 15
ball concretion
sandstone
3 7 x 36 x 31
1
Room 6; floor
ball concretion
sandstone
2 4 x 23 x 22
1
Room 7; floor fill
ball concretion
sandstone
2 5 x 25 x 23
1
Room 7; floor fill
ball concretion
sandstone
1 9 x 18 x 14
1
Room 10; general fill
nodule
obsidian
3 5 x 31 x 27
1
Kiva; Level 3
ball concretion
sandstone
2 1 x 20 x 19
1
Gen eral site fill
ball concretion
sandstone
2 0 x 19 x 17
1
Gen eral site fill
ball concretion
igne ous
2 1 x 19 x 19
1
Gen eral site fill
ball concretion
sandstone
3 2 x 31 x 30
1
Total
11
Figure 4.47. Miscellaneous stone items; (a-b) concretions, LA 45508, (c) geode, LA 39968, (d) concretions, LA 39968.
from Room 6. One was found in the fill of Feature
15, a storage pit partially underneath the southern
wall of the room. The second concretion was found
on the floor to the east of the hearth, also in the
southern area of the room.
In Room 7, two sandstone concretions were
recovered from the floor fill of the room. In Room
10, one obsidian nodule was recovered from the
general room fill. The great kiva (Room 15) contained a single sandstone concretion.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). Two miscellaneous stone artifacts were recovered (Fig. 4.47c-d).
The general fill of the pit structure contained a specular hematite concretion measuring 17 by 17 by 10
mm. An unmodified Luna Blue agate manuport was
recovered within 2 m of the pit structure. It is a
bowl-shaped, partially formed geode measuring 31
by 32 by 25 mm, with a rectangular interior hole
measurement of 7 by 10 mm.
LA 45508 (Humming Wire). Three sandstone
concretions were recovered from this site. These
ball-shaped concretions, measuring an average of 29
by 26 by 25 mm, were found in association with
Pithouse 2. The first was found to the south of the pit
structure within 20 cm of the surface. The other two
(Fig. 4.47a-b) were found inside the structure, one in
the lower fill, and the other in the floor fill.
LA 70185 (DZ site). One sandstone concretion
measuring 35 by 33 by 29 mm was found outside the
structure on this site.
Crystals
A total of 174 quartz crystals were recovered from
13 of the 25 sites in the project area. Twenty-one of
these crystals are culturally modified (Table 4.75),
showing signs of rotary wear, grinding, abrasions,
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
189
Table 4.75. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
through Time
Modified
Archa ic
Pinelawn
5
Georgetown
San
Francisco
Three Circle
Reserve
7 (2)
Total
Total
3 8 (3)
38 (3)
15
20
2 (1)
2 (1)
5
12 (2)
5 (1)
2 8 (8)
33 (9)
1
2 (2)
3 (2)
1 5 (2)
15 (2)
3 (1)
48 (21)
51 (21)
21 (4)
153 (38)
174 (42)
Reserve/
Tularosa
Tularosa
Unmodified
The n umbers in parentheses refer to crystals found in floor contact
or in features.
and polishing. The majority of the specimens were
found in room or pit structure fill, or on the floor of
a structure. Almost one-fourth (24.7 percent) were
found in features.
Quartz crystals are found throughout the region
as a natural resource. Quartz occurs in plutonic, volcanic, and hypabyssal rocks. It crystallizes directly
from igneous magma and often forms as geodes,
crystal-lined pockets (veins), and crystal crusts
(Prinz et al. 1978). In the area, it also forms alongside Luna Blue agate, which was used for lithic
tools.
The sites in the project area are within 13 km of
mountains with large concentrations of crystals.
Since crystals are often in the soil, some quartz crystals in the structures may not have been deliberately
placed there, but washed in after abandonment; others were found in contexts suggesting that they were
deliberately placed. The total weight of the crystals
is 1675.7 g. All utilized crystals, plus several that
were found in features, were photographed (Figs.
4.48-4.51).
LA 3279 (Hough site). A total of thirty-seven
crystals were recovered from this site (Table 4.76).
Two of these show signs of cultural modification
and were found in the great kiva and in the upper fill
of Room 9. Several of the unmodified crystals show
signs of erosion in the form of a tumbled, battered,
and broken appearance. Crystals not found in features, especially those in the upper levels of fill,
probably washed in after abandonment. The crystals
measure an average of 24 by 11 by 9 mm.
Room 7 had a single crystal in the fill of Feature
190
Table 4.76. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
from LA 3279
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Provenience
Unmodified
Total
Room 2; lo wer fill
2
2
Room 5; lo wer fill
5
5
Room 6; u pper fill
1
1
Room 7;
Feature 8
1
1
Room 9;
general fill
Mo dified
1
1
Room 9; lo wer fill
2
2
Kiva; u pper fill
1
1
Kiva; middle fill
6
6
Kiva; Feature 8
1
1
Kiva; Feature 14
3
3
2
3
11
11
35
37
Kiva; Feature 2
1
General site fill
Total
2
8, a posthole in the southern area of the room. This
crystal was found upright in the upper 10 cm of the
fill. The crystal is rather large and measures 52 by
33 by 30 mm (Fig. 4.48a).
Room 9 contained one of the culturally modified crystals in the general fill (Fig. 4.48b). The artifact is ground heavily on all edges and shows some
polishing on these edges as well, possibly indicating
bag wear (this may have been a medicine bag item).
Two more crystals were present in the lower fill, one
of which was found in the doorway between Rooms
9 and 10. It was probably placed there deliberately.
Several quartz crystals were found in the fill of
the great kiva (Room 15). Some of these were in features, suggesting they were deliberately placed. A
single crystal was found in Feature 8, a small rocklined pit. Three were present in the fill of Feature 14,
a burial and associated pit (Fig. 4.48c-e). Three crystals were also found in the fill of Feature 2, a foot
drum and subfloor ash pit. One of these crystals has
evidence of grinding and wear, and a slight amount
of polish on the edges.
Outside the structure, eleven quartz crystals
were found. All of these were in the upper fill and
were probably not deliberately placed.
LA 3563 (South Leggett Pueblo). A single culturally modified quartz crystal measuring 23 by 15
by 7 mm was found in the upper fill of the pit struc-
Figure 4.48. Crystals from LA 3279; (a) Feature 8, (b) general fill, (c-e) Feature 14.
Figure 4.49. Modified crystals; (a) LA 43786, (b) LA 70189, (c-e) LA 45507, (f) LA 3563, (g-i) LA 39968,
(j) LA 39969.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
191
Figure 4.50. Modified and unmodified crystals; (a-e) modified crystals from LA 39975, (f-g) unmodified
crystals found in features and floor contact, LA 45507, (h) unmodified crystal from LA 45508.
Figure 4.51. Modified crystals from LA 70196.
192
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Table 4.77. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
from LA 39968
Provenience
Modified
Unmodified
Total
Roomblock 2
4
4
Pit structure;
upper fill
1
1
Pit structure;
lower fill
6
6
Pit structure;
floor fill
2
2
West of Room 2
1
Total
1
1
13
14
Table 4.80. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
from LA 70185
Provenience
Unmodified
Total
Room 1; g eneral fill
2
2
Room 2; g eneral fill
3
3
Room 2; Feature 1
1
1
Room 2; h earth
1
1
Room 2; n ear the
bench
1
1
Outside the
roomblock
7
7
15
15
Total
Mod ified
0
Table 4.78. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
from LA 39975
Provenience
Modifie d
Pithouse 1;
upper fill
1
Pithouse 1;
general fill
1
Unmodifie d
Total
Table 4.81. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
from LA 70188
1
Provenience
Mod ified
Unmodified
Total
12
13
Pit structure;
general fill
19
19
Pithouse 2;
upper fill
2
2
Pit structure;
lower fill
5
5
Pithouse 3;
general fill
1
1
Pit structure;
floor fill
2
2
3
Pit 3; general fill
8
8
General site fill
2
2
36
36
Outside of
structures
3
Total
5
15
20
Table 4.79. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
from LA 45507
Provenience
Modifie d
Unmodifie d
Total
Pithouse 1;
general fill
2
2
Pithouse 1; pit
1
1
West of
Pithouse 1
1
1
Pithouse 3; floor
1
1
Total
0
Table 4.82. Modified and Unmodified Crystals
from LA 70196
Provenience
Mod ified
Unmodified
Total
Pit structure;
upper fill
1
2
3
3
6
1
1
Pit structure;
lower fill
3
Pithouse 9;
trash p it
1
13
13
Pit structure;
floor fill
1
Pithouse 12;
upper fill
Backhoe Trench 5
1
1
Pithouse 12;
lower fill
4
4
Outside structure
1
1
Pithouse 12;
floor fill
5
5
Total
7
Burial ne ar
Pithouse 12
1
1
Pithouse 13;
general fill
1
1
2
Total
3
28
31
5
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
12
193
ture. The crystal has abrasions on one tip, with some
abrasions and polish evident on the edges (Fig.
4.49f). Although the artifact was modified, its original context is unknown, since the fill from the pit
structure was redeposited from earlier excavations.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). A total of 14
quartz crystals were found on this site (Table 4.77).
The majority showed signs of erosion in the form of
a tumbled and waterworn appearance and probably
entered the site through erosion. The artifacts measure an average of 22 by 13 by 10 mm. The only culturally modified crystal was found several meters
west of Room 2 (Fig. 4.49h). This crystal shows
some signs of erosion and has three intentionally
removed flakes on one end.
Two crystals found in the floor fill of the pit
structure (Fig. 4.49g, i) were probably deliberately
placed. Four crystals were recovered in Roomblock
2, and all but one are tumbled; these may have
entered the site through bioturbation. The crystals in
the upper fill probably washed into the pit after the
site was abandoned.
LA 39969 (Haury's site). Two quartz crystals
were recovered from features on this site. One was
recovered from Burial 1 (Fig. 4.49j), the other from
Feature 2, a shallow pit to the west of Room 2. Both
appear to have been deliberately placed and have
average dimensions of 20 by 12 by 9 mm.
LA 39975 (Lazy Meadows). A total of 20 quartz
crystals found here (Table 4.78) have a mean measurement of 22 by 15 by 11 mm. Some are waterworn
and probably washed onto the site through erosional
processes. Five are culturally modified and were
probably used as drills (Fig. 4.50a-e). All have
heavy abrasions on one end. Some show slight polishing on the edges, possibly indicating bag wear.
Three of the utilized crystals were found outside the
structures.
Of the fourteen crystals found in Pithouse 1,
one modified artifact (a chalcedony flake with
quartz crystals) was found in the upper levels. This
artifact is included in the lithic analysis. In the fill of
Pit Structure 2 were two crystals that may have
washed in after abandonment. A crystal was also
found in the fill of Pit Structure 3.
LA 43786 (Downslope site). A single crystal
was found in the upper 5 cm of this site, 5 m north
of a possible pit structure. This artifact appears to
have been used as a drill at one time, because one
end shows signs of rotary wear and polish (Fig.
4.49a). This point appears to have partially snapped
off, and the rest of the crystal was probably carried
in a pouch afterwards, since the edges are abraded
and show some polish. The piece measures 16 by 15
194
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
by 10 mm.
LA 45507 (Luna Village). Crystals were found
throughout this large pithouse village. Several were
collected from each of the five excavated pit structures. A total of 31 crystals were found (Table 4.79),
but only three are modified. A few are battered,
waterworn, and tumbled, and eight are also in the
original matrix, meaning that the inhabitants probably went to the source for them. The crystals found
in the upper levels were probably a result of erosional processes rather than deliberate placement.
The average measurement is 30 by 19 by 13 mm.
In Pithouse 1, three unmodified crystals were
found, one of which was deliberately placed inside a
small pit near the hearth (Fig. 4.50). A single modified crystal was found to the west of Pithouse 1 (Fig.
4.49).
In Pithouse 3, a single culturally modified crystal was found on the floor (Fig. 4.50). Another crystal was associated with the trash pit adjoining
Pithouse 9. The majority of crystals on the site (22)
were found in the fill of Pithouse 12, five in the floor
fill. Another crystal was found in a burial next to Pit
Structure 12 (Fig. 4.50). Pit Structure 13 contained
two quartz crystals in the general fill, one of which
was obviously modified (Fig. 4.50).
LA 45508 (Humming Wire). Two unmodified
quartz crystals were found on this site and measure
an average of 15 by 7 by 6 mm. In Pithouse 1, a single crystal was recovered from the upper fill. This
quartz crystal may be associated with the occupation
of a Reserve-phase roomblock on a hill overlooking
the site. The second crystal was found in Pithouse 2,
in the fill of Feature 2, inside a possible posthole. It
was probably deliberately placed in this feature (Fig.
4.50c).
LA 70185 (DZ site). Fifteen crystals were collected from this site; none were modified, but several were found in the excavated rooms and features
(Table 4.80). Many are battered, tumbled, and
waterworn, and they have a mean measurement of
33 by 16 by 14 mm. The artifacts in the features
appear to have been deliberately placed, while those
in the upper fill probably washed in later.
Room 2 contained six crystals in all: three in the
general fill, one in the hearth, one in Feature 1, and
another near the bench.
LA 70188 (Raven's Roost). This site is on the
side of a mountain where quartz crystals are part of
the geologic formation. Many of these crystals
washed out of the soil and tumbled down the mountain. Most show signs of the erosional process, such
as heavy battering on the edges and facets of the
material, as well as waterworn areas. A total of 36
Table 4.83. Effigies by Site
Site
LA 32 79
Provenience
Surface
Size (mm)
Total
Site Total
Room 6; floor fill
rough
55 x 25 x 19
1
Room 7; general fill
rough
40 x 18 x 20
1
Room 11; lower fill
smoothed
44 x 18 x 20
1
Room 11; lower fill
smoothed
56 x 27 x 27
1
Kiva; general fill
rough, slig ht polish
45 x 29 x 15
1
Kiva; general fill
rough
66 x 22 x 33
1
Kiva; general fill
rough
63 x 18 x 31
1
Kiva; general fill
smoothed
44 x 28 x 40
1
Kiva; general fill
smoothed, slight polish
80 x 43 x 38
1
Kiva; general fill
smoothed
25 x 17 x 30
1
General site fill
rough
54 x 25 x 23
1
General site fill
rough
50 x 26 x 19
1
General site fill
rough
25 x 16 x 35
1
General site fill
rough
46 x 21 x 29
1
14
LA 39 968
General site fill
rough
44 x 14 x 16
1
1
LA 39 972
Pinelawn component
polished
19 x 15 x 16
1
Pueblo component
polished, p ainted
45 x 28 x 30
1
2
LA 45 510
North area of site
rough
48 x 20 x 20
1
1
LA 70 185
North of roomblock
smoothed
62 x 27 x 28
1
North of roomblock
smoothed
43 x 18 x 18
1
North of roomblock
smoothed
37 x 30 x 36
1
3
21
21
Total
crystals were found at various levels of the site
(Table 4.81) and have a mean measurement is 19 by
9 by 7 mm. None are culturally modified.
Twenty-six crystals were found in the pit structure on the site, and eight came from the fill of Pit 3.
The remaining two were recovered in the fill across
the site. It is likely that the majority of these artifacts
washed in after the site was abandoned. Possible
exceptions are the two crystals found in the floor fill
of the pit structure.
LA 70189 (Lightning Strike). A single quartz
crystal was found outside the pit structure in the
upper 30 cm of the site. The artifact was most likely
in the trash associated with the nearby Reserve
phase roomblock. The artifact measures 20 by 10 by
7 mm (Fig. 4.49) and has one ground end, with some
rotary wear and slight polish evident.
LA 70196 (Fence Corner). A total of 12 quartz
crystals were found on this site (Table 4.82), with a
mean measurement of 18 by 11 by 8 mm. Seven out
of the 12 were culturally modified, probably used as
drills (Fig. 4.51). These utilized artifacts show rotary
wear, polish, and abrasions. The modified crystals
were found primarily in the lower pit structure fill.
One utilized crystal was found outside the pithouse
just above the prehistoric surface.
Ten crystals were found inside the structure: six
in the lower fill, and one in the floor fill. The crystal
found on the floor of the pit structure had heavily
abraded edges and tips, with some polish evident.
This may indicate use as a medicine bag item (Fig.
4.51). The crystals found in the upper pit fill and
outside the pit structure may have washed in after
the structure was abandoned.
LA 78439 (Leaping Deer Ridge). Two unmodified crystals were recovered from this site, which is
at the base of several mountain crystal deposits. A
single crystal in Pit 2 and measures 13 by 6 by 4
mm. The second measures 17 by 10 by 8 mm and
was found in the general site fill. The cultural association of these artifacts is unclear.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
195
Effigies
Twenty effigies were recovered over the course of
this project (Table 4.83). One was carved from a
piece of quartz, and the remaining nineteen were
clay. The ceramic effigies were made out of a local
clay, which was also used for making vessels. The
figurines were generally formed from a single coil
of clay, with the legs and head molded separately
and attached while still wet. The effigies are often
smoothed but unpolished on the surface. Most
appear to be zoomorphic quadrupeds, but the figures
are incomplete. The recovered figures are of a similar size throughout the project area.
LA 3279 (Hough site). A total of thirteen ceramic effigies were recovered from this site (Figs. 4.524.53). The zoomorphic figures are Alma Plain Ware,
and of a similar size. The average measurements are
50 by 24 by 27 mm. Most were found in room fill,
and the remainder were recovered from outside the
rooms.
The first effigy is a roughly made torso and
head with a chipped tail and four broken legs (Fig.
4.52a). It has a rough, unpolished surface and was
found in the floor fill of Room 6. The second effigy
was recovered from the fill of Room 7. It is crudely
formed, with a large head in relation to the body
(Fig. 4.52b). This effigy has two broken legs and a
rough, unpolished surface. The other two effigies
were recovered from the lower fill of Room 11 (Fig.
4.52c-d). Both consist of only a torso, with the legs,
tail, and head broken off. One has a hole from below
the tail through the body to below the head. Both
effigies have a smoothed, unpolished exterior.
Six ceramic effigies were found in the general
fill of the great kiva (Room 15). One figurine (Fig.
4.52e) has an irregularly shaped head with broken
ears and three broken legs. The exterior is rough but
slightly polished. The surface is also somewhat
burned and may have been fired with broken legs or
refired at some point. The second effigy has a long
torso and neck, a small head, and broken ears and
legs (Fig. 4.52f). It was made without a tail and has
a rough exterior. The third effigy is almost complete;
the body is long and swaybacked, with stubby legs,
and the head of the effigy has an open mouth (Fig.
4.52g). The ears and tail of this figure are broken,
and it has a small hole below the tail. The exterior is
rough, unpolished clay. The fourth effigy consists of
a body with three broken legs, a broken tail and
head, and a smoothed surface (Fig. 4.52h). The fifth
from this area is part of a ceramic duck effigy (Fig.
4.53a). It is a hollow form, with only the body and
196
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
tail remaining. The surface is smoothed and slightly
polished. The last figurine from this area consists of
the hindquarters and tail of a zoomorphic figure
(Fig. 4.53b). The exterior is a smoothed clay, and the
hind legs are broken off.
The remaining three effigies were found outside
the structures in the general fill. One is merely a
torso with stumps where the head, legs, and tail used
to be (Fig. 4.53g). The second effigy has the
hindquarters and tail of a figurine; the legs are small
stubs (Fig. 4.53i). The other figurine, partially broken by a pick, is missing two legs, a tail, and the ears
(Fig. 4.53h). These three effigies have rough, unpolished surfaces.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). A single Alma
Rough ceramic effigy was found outside the structures. The figurine is an unidentified zoomorphic
quadruped with only the torso remaining. It is fully
shaped, with a rough and unpolished surface.
LA 39972 (SU Tanks). Two zoomorphic figurines were found on this multicomponent site. The
first effigy was recovered from the Pinelawn component and is carved from a piece of local quartz.
Only the head was found (Fig. 4.54a), which resembles the head of a grasshopper. It is fully shaped and
polished, and appears to have broken off at the neck,
which was probably a weak point in the material.
Two eyes were conically drilled into the head; each
measures 5 mm in diameter.
The second effigy is a Reserve Black-on-white
ceramic effigy handle (Fig. 4.54b). This ceramic figure was originally attached to a vessel and is fully
shaped, with a polished, slipped, and painted surface. The ears, nose, neck, and back of the figure are
all painted with black bands. The effigy was found
on the Pueblo phase component of the site.
LA 45510 (SAK site). A single Alma Plain effigy was found on the northern end of this site (Fig.
4.54d). It is roughly shaped, with an unpolished surface. All four legs and the ears are broken.
LA 70185 (DZ site). Three Alma Plain ceramic
effigies were found to the north of the roomblock.
One of the animals is only a torso with a smoothed
surface, a second is fully shaped, also with a
smoothed surface. Both of these effigies (Fig. 4.54c,
e) have a hole through the longest portion of the
body (from the chest to rear end) that appears to
have been formed by putting a reed through the central core of the body when the clay was wet. The
diameter of this hole measures an average of 3 mm.
The third effigy is only a large head (Fig. 4.54f). It
is shaped and smoothed, has a broken ear, and has
obviously broken off of a larger body.
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Figure 4.52. Effigies from LA 3279; (a) Room 6, (b) Room 7, (c-d) Room 11, (e-h) kiva.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
197
Figure 4.53. Additional effigies from LA 3279; (a-b) great kiva; (c-f) general fill, (g-i) outside of structures.
198
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.54. Effigies and fetishes; (a) two views of quartz effigy from LA 39972, (b) ceramic effigy handle
from LA 39972, (c-e) LA 70185, (f) ceramic effigy head from LA 70185.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
199
or. They are somewhat crude and friable and have
drill holes measuring 4 mm in diameter. One of the
artifacts came from the upper fill of the pit structure
and is broken; this fragment measures 22 by 13 by
18 mm. The other artifact is whole, measures 22 by
21 by 18 mm, and was found in the floor fill of the
pit structure.
Pipes
Figure 4.55. Possible loom weights from LA 70196.
Loom Weights
LA 70196 (Fence Corner Site). On this site, two
possible loom weights were recovered (Fig. 4.55).
These artifacts, which resemble four spindle whorls
found at Snaketown (Haury 1976:259), are discussed later in this report. They were fashioned by
putting a wet ball of local clay around a reed and firing it when dry. Both artifacts are round, fully
shaped, and drilled, with a rough unpolished exteri-
LA 45507 (Luna Village). Two cloudblowers were
recovered from Luna Village. Both artifacts have a
residue of dottle on the interior of the pipe, which
was analyzed to determine the materials smoked
(see Cummings, this report). Both pipes are tapered
cylinders, fully shaped, and drilled out of locally
available materials.
One pipe is made of volcanic tuff, has a
smoothed exterior surface, and is of fine craftsmanship (Fig. 4.56a). Only the mouthpiece end of the
pipe remains. The pipe measures 43 by 41 by 37 mm
and weighs 52.3 g. The drill hole measures 11 mm
and 15 mm. This fragment was recovered in the fill
of Pithouse 3, and the residue appears to consist of
the remains of mixed grasses. The second pipe was
found in the lower fill of Pithouse 9. It is a complete
ceramic Alma Plain pipe with a polished exterior
surface (Fig. 4.56b). It measures 81 by 44 by 42 mm
and weighs 150.5 g. The drill holes measure 24 mm
a
b
Figure 4.56. Pipes from LA 45507; (a) stone, (b) ceramic.
200
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
and 7 mm. The residue from this pipe was found to
consist of native tobacco, mixed grasses, and a small
amount of volcanic ash. These pipes appear to have
been used in two different ways.
Indeterminate Artifacts
LA 3279 (Hough site). Three artifacts of indeterminate function were recovered from this site.
The first is a tapered sandstone cylinder found in the
lower fill of Room 8. It measures 30 by 41 by 43
mm and weighs 67.5 g. The cylinder is incomplete
and broken. It is fully shaped and drilled, with a
smoothed and slightly polished surface that is oxidized on one side (Fig. 4.57). It has a central biconical drill hole measuring 7 mm in diameter along the
broken length. The perforation has no obvious wear,
but the bottom of the object is flat and very worn.
The second indeterminate item was found
below the floor in the southern area of Room 10,
near two limonite samples. This artifact is a fragment of indeterminate shell, irregular in shape, and
fragile. It has no obvious shaping or polishing and
an unmodified surface. This fragment measures 14
by 11 by 1 mm and is probably an imported shell.
The last indeterminate item was recovered from
Room 7, in the lower fill. It is a piece of pipestone
ground flat and triangularly shaped. A groove is
present down the center of one side of the artifact,
with abrasions and small incisions visible on this
same side. The opposite side is ground flat and
smoothed, with slight polish in spots. The item
measures 24 by 25 by 7 and appears to have broken
off of a larger piece. This artifact may have been an
Figure 4.57. Two indeterminate items from LA 3279.
attempt at ornament manufacture (Fig. 4.44a).
LA 39969 (Haury's site). Two items of indeterminate function were recovered from this site. In the
fill of Room 3, a pipestone object measuring 39 by
13 by 5 mm was found. The artifact is triangular in
profile, with two ground and smoothed flat surfaces.
It may have been an ornament still in the manufacturing process. The second item is a fragment of
shell from the fill of Room 2. This artifact measures
33 by 21 by 2 mm and was probably imported. Its
original shape and morphology are not known. The
surface treatment, wear polish, and manufacturing
stage are also unknown, due to erosion of the shell
surface.
LA 70185 (DZ site). One item of indeterminate
morphology was recovered from Room 2. It may be
a bead or pendant blank made out of igneous material, but not enough of the original piece remains for
a positive determination. The artifact has an irregular shape and is partially shaped with grinding and
abrasions visible on one flat side. It measures 33 by
17 by 6 mm overall.
Bracelets
LA 3279 (Hough site). Two shell bracelet fragments were recovered from this site. The genus was
not identified because of heavy erosion of the surface, which removed distinguishing characteristics.
They are probably Glycymeris shell, imported
through various trade routes from the Gulf of
California area.
The first fragment is fully shaped, with some
evidence of grinding still visible on the surface (Fig.
4.58). It measures 32 by 3 by 4 mm—less than half
of the original ornament. It was found in the fill of
Room 10. The second fragment is partially shaped,
with grinding also visible. It measures 33 by 4 by 3
mm and was recovered from the fill of Room 11.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). One shell bracelet
fragment was recovered from the floor fill of the pit
structure. The artifact measures 28 by 9 by 5 mm
(Fig. 4.58) and consists of the beak, dorsal margin
and anterior end of a Glycymeris shell. The ornament is fully shaped and polished, with a few incised
lines near the umbo of the shell.
LA 39969 (Haury's site). A bracelet fragment
was found in the upper fill of Room 3. It is a shell
fragment with an eroding surface. The shell is probably Glycymeris, but the distinguishing characteristics are missing. The ventral margin of the shell
remains and measures 36 by 9 by 4 mm. It is fully
shaped, with the remains of a heavily polished sur-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
201
a
b
c
Figure 4.58. Shell artifacts; (a) pendant, LA 39969, (b-c) bracelet fragments, LA 3279, (d) pendant blank,
LA 39968, (e) bracelet fragments, LA 39968, (f) pendant blank, LA 39969, (g-h) bracelet fragments, LA
45507.
202
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
face, and indeterminate wear polish.
LA 43786 (Downslope site). One shell bracelet
fragment was found on the surface of the site. The
piece was identified as Glycymeris shell. It measures 15 by 6 by 2 mm and is at an indeterminate
point of manufacture. The fragment is irregularly
shaped, with evidence of grinding and abrasions.
This ornament probably washed out of a Three
Circle phase pueblo just outside the right-of-way.
LA 45507 (Luna Village). Three shell bracelet
fragments were found on this site. Two were recovered from the fill of Pithouse 12 (Fig. 4.58). Both
pieces were identified as Glycymeris. They are less
than half of the original bracelet and are fully shaped
and polished. The larger piece measures 31 by 50 by
3 mm. The other fragment measures 20 by 5 by 4
mm and is made from a beach-eroded shell. The
third fragment was recovered from the lower fill of
Pithouse 3. It is fully shaped and made of an indeterminate shell (probably Glycymeris). The piece
measures 25 by 7 by 5 mm and has a ground and
eroded surface.
Pendants
LA 3279 (Hough site). Two triangular pendants
were found at this site. Both are turquoise, with a
biconical drill hole at the apex of each ornament.
They measure an average of 11 by 8 by 3 mm and
appear to have been formed from the same type of
turquoise (blue-green, with no visible matrix). Both
pendants are fully shaped and polished (Fig. 4.59).
The first pendant was found in the lower fill of
Room 11. The drill hole on this pendant is uneven,
measuring 1.5 mm and 1.7 mm in diameter, with
slight wear polish from stringing. The second pendant is roughly rectangular, with slight wear polish
on the surface. The drill hole measures 1.7 mm in
diameter, with no visible stringing wear. This pendant was recovered from the general fill of the great
kiva (Room 15).
LA 3563 (South Leggett Pueblo). One effigy
pendant was found on this site (Fig. 4.59). This pendant was made from a blue-gray metamorphic rock
and measures 21 by 10 by 3 mm. The artifact is fully
shaped and polished, with incised edges. It has a
biconical drill hole 3 mm in diameter. A portion of
the pendant is broken off, so the original shape is
difficult to ascertain. Unfortunately, the ornament
came from redeposited fill, so its original context is
not known.
LA 39969 (Haury's site). One pendant was
recovered from the fill of Room 3 (Fig. 4.58). This
complete ornament measures 36 by 9 by 4 mm and
is formed from a shell bracelet fragment remanufactured into a pendant by perforating one end and
grinding down the two broken ends. The pendant is
probably made from a Glycymeris shell, but distinguishing characteristics are missing. It is roughly
semicircular, with a biconical drill hole at one end
measuring 2 mm and 4 mm in diameter. The ornament has a polished surface, heavy wear polish on
the exterior, and slight stringing wear.
LA 70185 (DZ site). This pendant was found
outside the roomblock, associated with a chrysocolla fragment. The ornament is made from a finegrained sedimentary rock and is subrectangular (Fig.
4.59). The bottom portion of the pendant is broken
off. The piece is fully shaped and polished, with a
biconical drill hole measuring 2 mm in diameter.
The artifact measures 17 by 13 by 3 mm and has no
obvious wear polish.
LA 75792 (Thunder Ridge). A pendant was
found to the south of the ramada (Fig. 4.59). It is
made from a sedimentary pebble, probably found
among the gravel in a nearby arroyo. Only the middle portion of the pendant remains; both ends have
broken off (the top portion broke down the center of
the drill hole). The drill hole is biconical and measures 6 and 5 mm, and the surface of the pendant is
unmodified. It measures 15 by 16 by 6 mm overall,
with no evident wear polish.
Pendant Blanks
LA 3279 (Hough site). A rhyolite pendant blank
was recovered from this site, outside the structures.
It is fully shaped, with striations from grinding still
visible, and no visible wear polish. The blank is rectangular and measures 22 by 15 by 6 mm, with no
apparent drilling.
LA 3563 (South Leggett Pueblo). A single
chrysocolla pendant blank was recovered from this
site. It is partially shaped and abraded and measures
18 by 13 by 10 mm. The basic shape, suggesting a
tabular pendant, is formed, but the flat surfaces are
incompletely ground.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). Two tabular pendant blanks were recovered from the pit structure.
The first blank is made of sandstone and is fully
shaped, with one unmodified surface. The edges and
one flat surface show grinding from the manufacturing process. The artifact measures 40 by 27 by 4 mm
and was found in the floor fill.
The second pendant blank is formed from an
unidentified shell (Fig. 4.58) and was recovered
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
203
Figure 4.59. Ornaments and pendants; (a) LA 3279, (b) LA 3563, (c) LA 45510, (d) LA 70185, (e) LA 75792,
(f) pendant blank, LA 45507, (g) pendant blank, LA 75792, (h-i) pendant blanks, LA 70185, (j) LA 70188,
(k-l) shell ornaments, LA 3279.
204
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
from the lower fill. The ornament is lacking distinguishing characteristics that would aid in identification of genus. This blank is a partially shaped rectangle with two rounded corners. The surface is
smoothed, and the entire piece measures 17 by 13 by
4 mm.
LA 39969 (Haury's site). One pendant blank
was found east of Room 3. It is manufactured of
white chert and is partially shaped, with a ground
and abraded surface (Fig. 4.58). The pendant is oval
to subrectangular and measures 10 by 9 by 2 mm.
LA 45507 (Luna Village). A semicircular jet
pendant blank was found near Pithouse 13. It is broken across the length and width and measures 16 by
18 by 3 mm (Fig. 4.59). It has a smoothed surface
and a conical drill hole measuring 7 mm and 3 mm.
Too much pressure during drilling fractured the pendant across the drill hole. The jet was probably
imported.
LA 70185 (DZ site). Four pendant blanks were
recovered from this site. One blank, found outside
the roomblock, is made of a hard, fine-grained, spotted material, possibly hematite. It is partially shaped
and drilled (Fig. 4.59) and appears to have broken
during drilling. The biconical perforation measures
3 mm and 5 mm. The blank is rectangular, with a
ground and smoothed surface. Four fragments of the
blank were found, and they measure 42 by 18 by 4
mm overall.
Four fragments of a second blank were scattered outside the roomblock at approximately the
same depth. They are made of a fine-grained
hematite, with a combined measurement of 37 by 31
by 5 mm. The ornament is ovoid (Fig. 4.59) and
ground to an uneven thickness, with a smoothed surface. Although the blank is fully shaped, it probably
broke during shaping since the material is fairly
fragile.
A rectangular, red chert blank was found outside the roomblock. It is partially shaped and ground
to a thin wafer. The blank was not drilled and measures 17 by 14 by 3 mm. This ornament is similar in
material to an ornament found in Room 10 of LA
3279, tentatively identified as pipestone.
Another pendant blank is made of chrysocolla.
It is partially ground and shaped into a rough form;
the edges show more shaping than the two flat faces.
The blank is subrectangular, with no drilling, and
was found during surface stripping. It measures 14
by 11 by 9 mm overall.
LA 70188 (Raven's Roost). A sedimentary pendant blank (Fig. 4.59) found here represents the earliest ornament recovered from the excavated sites. It
is subrectangular, fully shaped, and has a smoothed
surface with visible striations from shaping. The
blank measures 32 by 22 by 3 mm and broke into
three fragments during drilling. The off-center drill
hole is conical, measures 2 mm and 1 mm, and is on
an upper corner. The upper portion of the pendant
blank opposite the drill hole is missing.
LA 75792 (Thunder Ridge). A chrysocolla pendant blank was found north of the ramada like structure. It is a subrectangular ornament, partially
shaped and ground, with one smoothed surface. The
basic shape is formed but still rough (Fig. 4.59), and
it measures 31 by 19 by 10 mm.
Ornaments
LA 3279 (Hough site). Two ornaments were
found in the general fill of Room 10. It is half of a
bivalve shell with an eroded surface. It is partially
drilled and partially shaped. The umbo is ground
down to create an aperture for stringing (probably as
a pendant), and the hinge teeth are also ground down
(Fig. 4.59). It measures 24 by 21 by 2 mm, with no
evidence of wear polish.
The second ornament collected from this room
was broken. It is a sedimentary material, possibly
pipestone or red argillite. Red argillite is similar to
pipestone, and artifacts and outcrops of this material have been found in the southwest (Bartlett 1939;
Jernigan 1978; McGregor 1941, 1943; Cosgrove
and Cosgrove 1932). The ornament measures 18 by
9 by 1 mm and may be a pendant blank. It is partially formed, with one flattened and ground edge, and
visible abrasions on the surface.
LA 39969 (Haury's site). A broken turquoise
ornament was recovered from this site. Its original
shape is unknown. The piece is ground into a thin
slab, with a single rounded edge, and may have originally been part of a pendant or mosaic piece. It is
manufactured from a blue-green, waxy-looking
turquoise in matrix. The ornament is fully shaped
and polished and measures 8 by 4 by 2 mm.
LA 39975 (Lazy Meadows). One bone ornament
was found on this site. The material came from an
animal identified only to the order Artiodactyla, and
it is irregular in shape. The fragment is partially
shaped and worked, with serrations cut along one
edge (Fig. 4.60a), but of unknown function. It has a
smoothed surface, with no obvious polish, and
measures 54 by 38 by 11 mm.
LA 45507 (Luna Village). One broken ornament
was recovered from this site. It is fully shaped and
made of an indeterminate shell (probably
Glycymeris). The piece measures 11 by 6 by 4 mm
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
205
b
c
a
d
e
f
Figure 4.60. Miscellaneous ornaments; (a) worked artiodactyl bone, LA 39975, (b-c) bone ring fragments,
LA 3279, (d) large bead, LA 39968, (e) turquoise mosaic piece, LA 39969, (f) chert inlay, LA 70185.
and may be a ring or bracelet fragment. It is gray,
probably from burning, and was found in the fill of
Pithouse 12. The ornament has a polished surface
with medium wear.
Rings
LA 3279 (Hough site). Two bone ring fragments
were recovered from this site. One is formed from
the humerus of a large mammal (probably deer),
while the second is from a medium mammal. The
large mammal bone ring is fully shaped and polished, with heavy polish on both the exterior and
interior of the ornament. It measures 22 by 4 by 2
mm, with approximately half the original ring present (Fig. 4.60b). It was found in the lower fill of
Room 8. The second fragment measures 17 by 6 by
4 mm, with less than half the ornament remaining
(Fig. 4.60c). It is fully shaped and polished, with
medium wear polish overall. Both ends are slightly
polished, indicating it may have been carried around
after it broke. It was recovered outside the rooms.
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Inlay and Mosaics
LA 39969 (Haury's site). A single mosaic piece
measuring 8 by 8 by 2 mm was found in Feature 2,
a shallow pit to the west of Room 2. It is made of a
small piece of blue-green turquoise with matrix still
attached to the back, and it is shaped into a thin
square (Fig. 4.60e). The ornament is fully shaped
and polished, with three incisions along one edge.
LA 70185 (DZ site). A single piece of inlay was
recovered south of Room 4 within the wall fall. It is
made from a small piece of orange, heat-treated
Luna Blue chert and has been faceted and shaped
into a cabochon (Fig. 4.60f) measuring 11 by 10 by
2 mm.
Discoidal Beads
LA 3279 (Hough site). Fifteen disc beads were
recovered from the room fill on this site (Fig. 4.61).
All the beads are whole and round; no fragments
were recovered. Fourteen beads are made of stone,
the last ceramic. The metamorphic and ceramic
Table 4.84. Discoidal Beads from LA 3279
Provenience
Material
Size (mm)
Drill Hole Type
Drill Hole Size
(mm)
Number
Room 5; general fill
metamorphic
5x 2
biconical
2
1
Room 5; general fill
ceramic
2x 2
cylindrical
1
1
Room 6; general fill
metamorphic
6x 3
biconical
2
1
Room 6; lower fill
metamorphic
5x 1
conical
2
1
Room 6; lower fill
jet
4x 1
cylindrical
2
1
Room 6; lower fill
jet
4x 2
cylindrical
2
1
Room 9; Feature 4
metamorphic
5x 2
cylindrical
1.5
1
Room 12; lower fill
unidentified
4x 2
biconical
1
1
Kiva; upper fill
jet
5x 1
biconical
1
1
Kiva; upper fill
jet
4x 1
biconical
0.5
1
Kiva; upper fill
metamorphic
5x 2
biconical
2
1
Kiva; upper fill
metamorphic
2x 1
biconical
1
1
Kiva; lower fill
possibly shale
3x 1
conical
1
1
Kiva; burial pit
metamorphic
5x 1
conical
1
1
Kiva; burial pit
jet
4x 1
cylindrical
1
1
Total
15
beads are made out of locally available materials,
while the jet beads were probably imported. All the
beads are fully shaped and drilled, and many have a
polished surface. These ornaments were measured
by diameter and thickness only (Table 4.84).
Two of the fifteen discoidal beads were found in
the general fill of Room 5. The first is made from a
metamorphic stone and has a smoothed surface with
slight wear polish (Fig. 4.61). The second bead is
formed from a local clay, and has a lightly polished
exterior (Fig. 4.61). A cylindrical ceramic bead was
also found in the general fill of this room; it will be
discussed in the "other" bead category.
Room 6 contained four beads: two of metamorphic stone, and two of jet (Fig. 4.61). Both metamorphic beads have a polished surface and slight
wear polish from stringing. The two jet beads have a
polished surface, with no visible wear polish. When
seen from the side, the jet beads appear slightly
wedge shaped and show battering on the sides.
Room 9 contained a single bead formed from a
metamorphic stone (Fig. 4.61). It was found in the
fill of Feature 4, a shallow pit in the northwest quadrant of the room. The bead has a smoothed surface
with slight wear polish.
Room 12 contained a single bead of an uniden-
tified material in the lower fill. It has a polished surface, with slight wear polish (Fig. 4.61). In profile it
is slightly wedge shaped.
The great kiva (Room 15) contained the remaining seven beads. They are made of metamorphic
rock, jet, and one unidentified stone (possibly
burned shale). The beads are fully shaped and
drilled, and all except the possible shale bead have
wear polish on the surface.
In the upper fill of the great kiva, four beads
were recovered (Fig. 4.61). The first two are made
of jet and have a polished surface. The larger jet
bead is slightly wedge shaped in profile and has
some circular wear on one face from an adjacently
strung bead. The remaining two beads are made
from a metamorphic stone, are wedge shaped in profile, and have wear along one face from an adjacent
bead. One has a polished surface, and the other has
a smoothed surface.
In the lower fill of the kiva, a possible burned
shale bead was recovered (Fig. 4.61). It has a
smoothed surface and is slightly wedge shaped in
profile.
The remaining two beads in the kiva were
recovered from the fill of the burial pit in the floor
(Fig. 4.61). One bead is made from a metamorphic
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
207
Figure 4.61. Discoidal and shaped beads, a-p are from LA 3279; (a-c) Room 5, (d-g) Room 6, (h) Room 9,
(i) Room 12, (j-p) great kiva, (q-r) shaped beads from LA 39968, (s) shaped beads from LA 39969.
beads on both faces. The greatest wear alters the
shape of the bead on one side. In profile, the bead
has one flat side and one convex side.
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). A discoidal bead
measuring 12 by 5 mm and made of limestone was
recovered several meters to the west of Roomblock
1. The ornament is fully shaped, drilled, and polished, and has a 4 mm cylindrical drill hole. Incised
lines appear on one edge of the bead, which appear
to be natural (Fig. 4.61).
LA 45510 (SAK site). A single discoidal bead
(Fig. 4.61) was made of a gray metamorphic rock
measuring 4 by 2 mm. It is a fully shaped, drilled,
and polished bead, with a cylindrical drill hole
measuring 1.5 mm in diameter. Little wear polish is
evident.
Tube Beads
Figure 4.62. Bone tube beads; (a) LA 3279, (b) LA
45507.
stone, has a polished surface, and is slightly wedge
shaped in profile. The second bead is made of jet,
has a polished surface, and exhibits the most wear of
all the beads found. It has heavy wear from adjacent
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
LA 3279 (Hough site). Two bone tube beads
were recovered from this site. The first is made from
a hollow section of a medium mammal bone that is
incised and broken on the ends and further ground to
create a smooth surface. It measures 33 by 12 mm
and represents approximately one-fourth of the original bead, which split down the length. The fragment
is fully shaped, with a polished and slightly worn
surface, and has slight wear polish on the interior.
The bead probably broke while being worn. It was
recovered from the lower fill of Room 11.
The second bone bead was found outside the
structures in the vicinity of an effigy and two
chrysocolla fragments. This bead is made from a
section of turkey bone, measures 34 by 12 by 9 mm,
and is partially worked. The bead is incised and broken on the ends from the manufacturing process,
with no further grinding evident (Fig. 4.62). It has an
unmodified surface and slight wear polish on the
interior.
LA 45507 (Luna Village). A single bone tube,
possibly worn as a pendant, was found in the lower
fill of Pithouse 12. It is made of deer bone, measures
52 by 45 by 32 mm, and is a fully shaped, tapered
cylinder (Fig. 4.62). The surface is polished, with
incisions from the manufacturing process. Medium
wear polish is present along the upper, cut edge, and
on the interior from stringing.
measuring 3 mm in diameter running through a short
end of the oval (the drill holes almost look like
eyes). In addition, the drill holes show rotary and
slight stringing wear. Wear polish is also evident on
the edges of the flat side of the bead (which would
have faced the wearer).
Gaming Piece
LA 3279 (Hough site). A bone gaming piece
was found in the roof fall above the floor of Room
8. It is a rectangular fragment of large mammal bone
(Fig. 4.63) measuring 22 by 14 by 5 mm. It is fully
shaped and has a polished surface, with medium
wear polish. The manufacturing abrasions are still
visible.
Other Beads
LA 3279 (Hough site). Two beads were recovered from this site. The first is a cylindrical bead
made of local clay, fully shaped and drilled, with a
rough, slightly polished exterior (Fig. 4.61). It has a
cylindrical perforation (slightly oval in shape) measuring 2 mm, with no wear polish evident. The ornament measures 6 by 6 mm and is broken on the ends,
probably as part of the manufacturing process. This
bead was recovered from the fill of Room 5.
The second is a bilobed shell bead. The shell is
unidentified due to the lack of distinguishing characteristics. The bead is fully shaped with a smoothed
surface (Fig. 4.61). It has a biconical perforation
through the upper lobe measuring almost 3 mm in
diameter. The bead measures 15 by 9 by 5 mm overall and was found in the general fill of the great kiva
(Room 15).
LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw). Two beads were
found in the general pit structure fill. Both are calcium carbonate and are fully ground and shaped. The
material is too fragile and coarse to allow more than
rough shaping. One bead is bilobed (Fig. 4.61), with
a biconically drilled hole 4 and 5 mm in diameter,
and measures 13 by 12 by 5 mm overall. The second
bead has a rough "birdwing" shape (Fig. 4.61) and
measures 11 by 9 by 4 mm. This ornament is cylindrically drilled, with a 4 mm diameter perforation.
LA 39969 (Haury's site). A domed bead was
found in the fill of Room 3. It is a light blue
turquoise, with little matrix. The ornament is oval in
plan view, cabochon-shaped in profile (Fig. 4.61),
and measures 10 by 9 by 4 mm. The bead is fully
shaped and polished, with a biconical drill hole
Figure 4.63. Gaming piece from LA 3279.
Raw Clay Ball
LA 3279 (Hough site). A piece of raw clay was
found in the lower fill of Room 8. It is ball-shaped
(from being rolled between the hands) and is made
of local clay. It has a rough unpolished exterior and
measures 33 by 32 by 28 mm. The artifact's function
is unknown, and it was given to the ceramicists for
study in that assemblage.
Historical Item
LA 39969 (Haury's site). A historic metal site
tag was recovered from the surface of Room 1. The
tag marked the area of a surface collection made by
Gila Pueblo, Globe, Arizona.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
209
Table 4.85. Adobe sample measurements, LA 3279
Provenie nce
Width of Impressions
Range
(mm)
Average
(mm)
Room 6; roof fall
2 - 62
8.83
13
Room 8; general fill
2 - 37
14.26
13
Room 9; lower fill
4 - 33
16.83
4
Room 10; general fill
3 - 62
16.45
7
Room 11; upper fill
4 - 46
16.45
7
Room 12; lowe r fill
21 - 44
28.25
5
Room 13; upper fill
4 - 67
15.38
16
Kiva; general fill
1 - 47
16.33
3
20 - 40
30
1
Outside the roomblock
Total
Adobe Samples
Approximately 107 adobe samples were recovered
from five sites in the project area. Most samples
show impressions of the building materials used.
Impression widths were measured in millimeters to
ascertain the type of building materials utilized.
However, identification of these materials is
extremely difficult since these are only cast impressions of plant materials.
LA 3279 (Hough site). Sixty-nine adobe samples were collected from several rooms on this site;
the majority were in Rooms 6, 8, and 13. All samples show impressions of building materials ranging
from small to large widths (Table 4.85).
Room 6 contained samples of adobe roof fall,
primarily with small impressions. Room 8 contained
burned adobe throughout the fill, probably representing roof fall. Most of these samples have narrow
impressions. The adobe samples in Room 9, all
burned, were found in the lower fill. The impressions are generally narrow. In Room 10, the majority of samples were burned and came from the general fill; a few samples were recovered below or
between the floors. The widths are generally small,
possibly from the use of reeds or small twigs, as
opposed to grasses. Room 11 contained several
burned adobe samples in the upper fill, with impressions probably of small twigs. The adobe samples
recovered from Room 12 were all burned and in the
lower fill; the larger impressions may have come
210
Number
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
69
from stripped branches. Several burned samples
were collected from the upper fill of Room 13, one
from just above the floor. The wider impressions
seem to represent smooth, bark-stripped branches,
while the narrow ones appear to be from reeds. The
great kiva (Room 15) contained three burned adobe
samples in the general fill. The larger ones may be
the impression of a stripped branch, with thinner
vegetal materials alongside. The last adobe sample
was found outside the roomblock and is burned.
LA 3563 (South Leggett Pueblo). The fill from
the pit structure was redeposited, so the context of
the artifacts is suspect. All the adobe came from
inside the structure, well above the floor. Only three
samples show an impression of reeds or other building materials. The widths range from 12 to 26 mm
(an average of 17.67 mm).
LA 45507 (Luna Village). Nine adobe samples
were found on the site, all of which show reed and
building material impressions. One sample came
from Backhoe Trench 109, one from the fill of Pit
Structure 13, and seven from the fill of Pit Structure
1. All are roof fall and are severely burnt and friable.
The average width of the impressions is 4.16 mm,
with a range of 2 to 15 mm, and the majority of the
impressions are very narrow. The adobe sample
from Backhoe Trench 109 turned out to a clay plug
fragment, used in a ceramic vessel to keep rodents
out of a supply of corn kernels (Fig. 4.64). Clay was
smoothed over the vessel aperture and allowed to
dry, sealing it from moisture and small foragers. A
fire burned the plug, leaving impressions of the corn
Figure 4.64. Adobe plug from LA 45507.
kernels and the mouth of the vessel in the adobe.
The rim radius of the vessel would have been about
10 cm.
LA 45510 (SAK site). Six adobe samples were
recovered from near the surface of the site. All show
reed impressions. None can be considered roof fall,
since they appear to have washed out of the nearby
pit structure. The widths range from 2 to 26 mm,
with an average of 5.69 mm. Most of the impressions are 3 mm wide. They appear to have been
made by a mat of small reeds impressed into the
clay. Only two of the samples have impressions over
3 mm, which resemble a cast of a stripped limb.
LA 70196 (Fence Corner). Approximately 20
adobe samples were recovered from this site, the
majority of which came from Backhoe Trench 4. A
single sample came from the pit fill, and five samples from the floor fill of the pit structure. These are
probably representative of roof fall. Nearly all of the
samples show impressions. The average width of the
impressions is 19.22 mm in a range of 10 to 27 mm.
Large impressions are more common, and the
smoothness of the impression suggests that they
were made by bark-stripped branches.
ORNAMENT AND OTHER ARTIFACT USE IN
THE MOGOLLON AREA
A total of 541 miscellaneous artifacts were recovered from 17 of the 25 excavated sites. These assorted artifacts represent a period of approximately
1,400 years; the earliest site dates from A.D. 90, and
the most modern is about A.D. 1300. The Mogollon
utilized a variety of microenvironments during this
time, including valleys, springs, and high-altitude
(over 8,500 ft; 2,575.76 m) mountain areas, where
they left behind signs of habitation, possible hunting
camps, and shrines (Morris 1980). Artifacts classified as miscellaneous are often found in burials,
caches, and middens associated with these areas.
Throughout the time that the Mogollon lived in the
region, they left clues to their trading patterns, personal adornment, and ceremonial items in the form
of crystals, ceramic effigies, ornaments, pipes, and
more.
The residents of the Reserve area sites utilized a
broad variety of local materials in addition to a number of imported items. These various imported items
recovered from the excavated sites suggest that the
residents had limited trading relations with several
cultural groups. However, the assemblage is too
small to support any hypothesis regarding frequency
or intensity of trading between groups or permit an
in-depth look at various trends, especially with
respect to ornament utilization. Since these items
generally are not recovered from sites of several
consecutive time periods or in large enough quantities to allow for conclusions about the extent of contact between different cultures, often the only conclusion that can be drawn is that cultures traded
material goods. However, these collections of artifacts may indicate certain trends of trade and cultural exchange.
Ornaments and Manufacture
While the artifacts included in the miscellaneous
category are not just ornaments, but also pipes, minerals, crystals, and so on. Several methods of creating an ornament out of a raw material were used by
the Mogollon. These methods were cruder at the earliest sites but appear more refined in the later sites.
Some of these methods may reflect the influence of
contact with other cultures.
Early ornaments were taken from the natural
world and included perishable (seeds and wood) and
sturdy materials (pebbles, animal teeth and claws,
and bone). These early ornaments were modified
very little from their original state. In later times,
materials were heavily modified to create more
refined adornments (small beads and turquoise and
shell ornaments). These later ornaments were also
modified to reflect the living creatures found in
nature, like animals, birds, reptiles, and insects.
Ornaments were manufactured in different
ways according to the material they were made of.
Bone and univalve shells were often used for beads,
since they need little modification to be worn.
Univalve shells were usually ground on one or both
sides, while bivalve shells were often ground down
on the highest point (the umbo) for stringing as a
pendant. Stone materials required the most work to
fashion into jewelry. A suitable piece of raw materi-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
211
al had to be found, ground into the appropriate
shape, and drilled for suspension. This could be a
lengthy process if the material was very hard, like
turquoise, or if it was shaped into a complicated geometric form. In general, beads seem to be one of the
most time-consuming of all the ornaments, being
very small and uniform in shape. The manufacture
of beads has been widely discussed in the literature
(Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932; Haury 1931; Haury
and Gifford 1959; Jernigan 1978).
Two ceramic beads formed out of a local clay
were present in the assemblage. They were probably
formed by putting a moist blob of clay around a very
thin material (fibers or grass stems) while wet,
rolling it until it became a thin tube, and incising
lines on the tube. The tube and encased fibers were
then fired, burning out the organic material. The
fired clay was snapped off in sections at the incisions, and the edges of the bead would have been
abraded to remove the rough edges (Jernigan 1978;
Haury 1931).
Bone tubes and rings would have been produced in a similar manner. A more-or-less tubular
long bone would have been grooved at intervals
with a saw, then the sections snapped off at the incision. The edges would have then been ground to
create a smooth surface. One of the bone tubes in the
assemblage appears to have been snapped, with no
further abrasions on the edges.
Materials with no natural hollow cavity to use
for suspension were perforated by a different
method. These ornaments were drilled using a stone
drill or (possibly) a cactus spine as a drill bit, plus an
abrasive, to create an opening. Three types of drill
holes have been noted in prehistoric ornaments: conical, biconical, and cylindrical. Conical and biconical drill holes are the most common. Biconical
drilling has an advantage with fragile materials
because the pressure can be minimized by drilling
on both sides instead of a single side, as in conical
drilling. To form a cylindrical hole through a material that has no inner cavity, a biconically drilled
hole is formed then either evened out with an abrasive or smoothed through wear (which would tend to
produce an uneven interior hole). Another way to
form a cylindrical hole may be to use a drill with a
uniform thickness. This method seems unlikely,
because it would tend to fracture fragile materials
and is inefficient.
The importance of drilling methods is interconnected with the type of material used. Some materials are more friable than others when drilled (jet and
shale, for example) and may tolerate less pressure
from drilling than sturdier materials (such as
212
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
turquoise and metamorphic rocks). Occasionally, the
drill leaves a circular impression on the face of an
ornament. In the case of beads, this type of circular
wear pattern is more likely the result of the stringing
of variable-sized beads. This type of wear is distinct
from the manufacturing process and changes the
face of the bead in a different way (Haury and
Gifford 1959).
Several of the ornaments in the collection were
manufactured from exotic materials. The assemblage data does not indicate the occurrence of ornament manufacture beyond a few partially manufactured adornments produced from local materials.
Lacking on the sites were raw material caches, manufacturing tools, and manufacturing debris, indicating that manufacturing took place off site. Since
there was little to no manufacturing debris of exotic
material, it is likely that these ornaments were
brought onto the sites in a finished state along trade
routes associated with the Hohokam or the Colorado
Plateau.
The Use of Miscellaneous Items through Time
Despite the relatively low number of miscellaneous
artifacts found, several patterns emerge when the
artifacts are grouped into time periods and use categories.
Archaic Period. The Archaic sites containing
miscellaneous artifacts in the project area (LA
78439 and LA 70188) contained many quartz crystals, the majority of which were from LA 70188.
Despite the large number, none were culturally modified. While it is possible that the high frequency of
recorded crystals indicates the "caching" of items to
be used or modified later, this seems unlikely in this
situation, because the site was near the base of a
mountain with major quartz crystal deposits. It is
likely that the majority of the crystals were a result
of erosion, especially considering the degree of
weathering and tumbling evident. The only exceptions to the erosional theory may be the three crystals found in features.
A single crude pendant was found at LA 70188
(Fig. 4.59), a site that dates to the transitional period
between the Archaic and the Pinelawn phase. It is
the earliest of the 25 sites in the project area where
any ornament was found. Typical jewelry of the time
period consisted of "simple" artifacts like beads,
pendants, and occasional (presumed) bird effigies
(Martin 1939; Martin and Rinaldo 1947). Although
locally available materials were most often utilized
for jewelry, a shell bracelet, most likely imported as
a finished product, was noted (Martin 1939) on a
temporally equivalent site.
Pinelawn Phase. The Pinelawn phase was represented in LA 39975 and an early component of LA
39972. From these sites, respectively, a highly modified piece of hematite and a quartz zoomorphic
effigy were recovered. Pigments and effigies have
been found on previously studied sites of this time
period, including several from the SU site (Martin
and Rinaldo 1947; Martin 1939). Several crystals
(modified and unmodified) and a modified bone
fragment with a serrated edge were also recovered
from the Pinelawn sites in this project.
The quartz grasshopper head is reminiscent of
several insect figurines seen in the Mimbres area
and at Ridge Ruin (Jernigan 1978). Although the
figurine was found on the earlier component, it was
recovered from the upper 30 cm of the site and may
actually be part of the later Pueblo assemblage.
The excavated sites dating from this time period show the first evidence of culturally modified
crystals. Quartz crystals were modified by chipping
or abrasion, possibly to use as drills or incising tools
(Sayles 1945). Minerals began to appear in the
archaeological record, and some trade with the
Anasazi may have occurred at this time (Martin and
Rinaldo 1947).
Georgetown Phase. The Georgetown phase
showed a change in the material culture. At this time
there was some trade with the Anasazi and an apparent influence from Mexico with the introduction of
cotton and woven cloth to the Mogollon area
(Martin 1954; Doyel 1991). Little variability in collected minerals is evident in the Georgetown (LA
45508, LA 45510) and the Georgetown/San
Francisco transitional phase site (LA 75791).
During this period, a slight increase was noticed in
the gathering of minerals and manuports. Of the two
unmodified crystals recovered from sites of this
phase, one was found on the floor of a pit structure.
After this phase, the deliberate placement of crystals
in structures and features, and the modification of
quartz crystals increased. This time period also
yielded the first confirmed animal effigy from the
excavated sites, a crudely formed quadruped of local
clay. In addition, one ornament (a stone discoidal
bead) was found.
San Francisco Phase. A clear shift in material
culture occurred during the San Francisco phase
(LA 70196). Hematite and limonite were the only
minerals recovered. Most were ground, possibly for
use as pigments. This phase had the largest number
of culturally altered crystals, although few modified
and nonmodified crystals were present in features
(see Table 4.75). One quartz crystal was a possible
medicine bag item.
The possible clay loom weights from LA 70196
were remarkably similar in shape and size to four
spindle whorls found at Snaketown during the 19641965 excavations of Sacaton phase associations
(A.D. 900-1100). These are clearly different from
the perforated sherd disc type of spindle whorl. It
was suggested that the Hohokam got the idea for
these whorls from trading with people in western
Mexico, where they used the simpler forms (Haury
1976: 259).
No ornaments were recovered from this site.
Three Circle Phase. Three sites dated to this
phase: LA 3563, LA 43786, and LA 45507. At this
time the local population utilized local resources and
imported materials. An expanding variety of minerals was collected, although few were ground.
Crystals purposely placed in features were present
on the sites, and several quartz crystals were culturally modified, although most were unmodified. One
quartz crystal was found in a burial and may have
had greater ceremonial importance than those in the
trash or fill of the roomblock (Sayles 1945). Quartz
crystals and mineral samples have been found on
other sites of this time period as well (Martin and
Rinaldo 1950b).
This phase exhibited the first obvious use of
imported ornamental goods and technology at the
sites studied. The variety of adornments expanded.
Ornaments were probably made locally, and some
adornments of exotic materials were imported.
Chrysocolla was probably used as a substitute for
turquoise (Sense 1967) at this time. Although the
majority of ornaments were made from imported
materials, since no ornamental manufacturing debris
was recovered from any of the sites, it is presumed
that all the ornaments of imported material
(Glycymeris shell and jet) were brought into the area
in a finished state.
Ornaments in the Three Circle phase became
smaller and more skillfully produced, with a more
distinctive Mogollon style, while some adornments
superceded design styles of the Hohokam and the
Anasazi (McNeil 1986). One example of shared
design characteristics is the stone effigy pendant category (both the quadruped and bird forms), which
was made in all three regions. One such pendant was
recovered from LA 3563. The forms are stylistically
similar to those found in Anasazi and Hohokam
areas, but the execution is not as fine. In the
Mogollon area, stone bird effigy pendants were generally blue, gray, or red and were represented with
wings folded and incising on the wings and tail to
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
213
suggest feathers. These effigies are found in
Pinelawn phase sites in the region (Martin 1939;
Martin and Rinaldo 1947; Martin and Rinaldo
1950b) through the Three Circle phase (Martin et al.
1964) and are possibly an antecedent to effigies of
historic times (Cushing 1974).
During this time there was much trade in foreign goods in the Southwest (Brand 1935; Colton
1941; Tower 1945) and trade with Mexico through
the Mimbres area (Whalen 1987). The Hohokam
were the closest group to the Mogollon involved in
the trade of shells from the Pacific coast and Gulf of
California (Hayden 1972; McGuire 1992), and trade
between the two cultures has been previously documented (Danson 1957; Bronitsky and Merritt 1986).
Aside from the imported ornaments, the Mogollon
may have assimilated technology and ideas from
these other cultures. Two pipes from Luna Village
had no precedent in the previous phases studied during the project, and they appear more frequently in
the Mogollon archaeological record after this phase.
After the Three Circle phase, there was an
apparent increase in interaction between the
Mogollon and the Anasazi (Reid 1989; Bluhm
1957), and several theories have been suggested for
long-range commerce (Doyel 1991) among the
Mogollon, Hohokam, and Anasazi during this time.
It has also been suggested that the Mogollon were
middlemen in trade between the Hohokam and the
Anasazi (Jernigan 1978).
Reserve Phase. The Reserve phase was represented by LA 39969 (Haury's site), LA 75792
(Thunder Ridge), and LA 70189 (Lightning Strike).
LA 70185 (DZ) was a Reserve/Tularosa transitional
phase site. In addition, LA 39972 contained a component that dated to this time period. These sites
contained a broad variety of minerals as well as a
number of quartz crystals, a manuport, and several
ornaments. Materials from local and distant sources
were used during the Reserve phase and
Reserve/Tularosa transitional period.
These later sites showed an increase in the frequency and variety of minerals used (see Table
4.69). Hematite, limonite, and occasionally chrysocolla were commonly used as pigments. Several of
the minerals (chrysocolla was the most common)
were ground on one or more sides, while others were
recovered from contexts that suggest they were
deliberately placed. Two pieces of chrysocolla and a
piece of pipestone may represent on-site ornament
manufacture at LA 39969. A single piece of ground
and shaped chrysocolla may be a fragment of ornament manufacturing debris, while a second piece of
chrysocolla discovered underneath a floor may have
214
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
been an attempt to reproduce a turquoise domed
bead found on the same site. A large piece of
unmodified pipestone was found at LA 39969 and
may have been cached for later use. Some of the
pipestone may actually be red argillite, which is similar in appearance. Artifacts and outcrops of red
argillite have been found in the Southwest (Bartlett
1939; Jernigan 1978; McGregor 1941, 1943;
Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932). Other sites of the
Reserve/Tularosa transitional period in the region
had similar mineral samples and quartz crystals
(Bluhm 1957; Martin et al. 1956).
Of the quartz crystals recovered from the
Reserve and transitional phase sites, one was culturally modified. Few unmodified crystals were found
in features on the sites, although many of the crystals were recovered inside or directly outside structures.
Several zoomorphic effigies were recovered
from the Reserve phase sites. Although an effigy
resembling an insect was recovered from the
Pinelawn component of LA 39972, it more closely
resembles figurines recovered from sites dating
much later (Jernigan 1978), and the presence of a
Reserve Black-on-white effigy handle on the same
site lends weight to the argument that the quartz
insect effigy came from the later component. While
few effigies have been documented from the
Mogollon period, their manufacture increased during the Reserve phase. Three effigies were recovered from LA 70185, and they resemble figures
from Pecos (Kidder 1932), east-central Arizona
(Martin et al. 1961), and Luna County (Lambert
1956). These later forms were generally more deliberately modeled and often drilled lengthwise
through the body. Other sites of this time period in
the region had similar animal effigies (Bluhm 1957;
Martin et al. 1956; Martin and Rinaldo 1950a).
A variety of ornament types utilized in the
embellishment of the human body were present at
these sites. These adornments were typical of
Reserve phase and Reserve/Tularosa phase sites in
the area (Bluhm 1957; Jernigan 1978; Martin and
Rinaldo 1950a; Martin et al. 1964). Imported and
locally available materials were represented. This
phase also had the only remodified ornament found
during the project, a shell bracelet fragment that was
ground and drilled to form a pendant. These modified shell bracelets are fairly common from the
Reserve phase on and have been found at Hooper
Ranch Pueblo (Martin et al. 1961), Ridge Ruin
(McGregor 1941), Swarts Ruin (Cosgrove and
Cosgrove 1932), and others (Sayles 1945; Martin
and Rinaldo 1950b).
Several turquoise ornaments were recovered
from LA 39969, including a mosaic piece and a
domed bead. Mosaic pieces are not uncommon on
sites of this time period (Jernigan 1978). In addition,
side-drilled domed beads of turquoise have been
found at several sites in the Southwest (Bahti 1970;
Jernigan 1978), and a similar ornament made of
shell was recovered from Ridge Ruin (McGregor
1941). These beads, variously called domed beads,
frogs, or tadpoles, are typically manufactured from
turquoise and perforated for suspension. Both the
Hohokam (Bahti 1970; Jernigan 1978), and the
Anasazi (McNeil 1986; Pogue 1972) had a similar
type of side-drilled turquoise bead during the same
time period. The domed bead could have come to
the Mogollon region through trade with either culture but may be of Hohokam origin (Jernigan 1978).
A pebble pendant and a chrysocolla pendant
blank were collected from LA 75792. They were
large, roughly formed, and manufactured out of
locally available materials. Although they were possibly associated with a Reserve phase roomblock,
their cultural affiliation is unclear. The pendant
appears to be more typical of an earlier time period.
On the sites studied, the local Mogollon people
seemed to use slightly more locally available materials than imported ones for adornments. Pendants
and pendant blanks were the most common ornaments; they were generally subrectangular in outline, although other shapes were also represented.
Grinding was evident on the surface of several ornaments, while others showed either smoothed or polished surfaces. Most ornament manufacture was
probably local, with some use of imported items and
remodification of broken imported items.
Tularosa Phase. The change from the Reserve to
the Tularosa phase brought a greater shift in material culture, with increased contact with the northern
Anasazi (Bluhm 1957; Reid 1989). Two sites dating
to this time period were excavated (LA 3279 and LA
39968). LA 3279 also had a Reserve phase component, so some of the material may actually date to
that occupation.
This phase contained the largest number and
variety of mineral samples collected from any of the
excavated sites, most of which were recovered from
LA 3279. The majority of the samples were found in
structures and features, and all are items typically
found on sites dating to this time period (Martin et
al. 1956; Rinaldo 1959). Chrysocolla was the predominant material in the assemblage. Although a
large number of minerals were collected, few were
actually modified. Local ornament manufacture may
be represented at LA 3279 by two pieces of chryso-
colla and a piece of hematite.
A large number of unmodified quartz crystals
were recovered from sites of this phase. Most of the
crystals were found in structure fill, while almost
half were found deliberately placed in features. Only
three crystals were modified. Of the two from LA
3279, one was recovered from the fill of a foot drum
in the kiva, while the other may be a medicine bag
item. The third crystal, from LA 39968, was found
west of Room 2. As in earlier time periods, crystals
were often modified by chipping or abrasion, and
some may have been used as drills or incising tools
(Jernigan 1978; Sayles 1945).
Several manuports were recovered from the
Tularosa phase sites. This was the highest number of
miscellaneous stone items found throughout the
project. These objects included a number of ballshaped concretions, obsidian nodules, a specular
hematite concretion, and a partially formed geode.
Most of these artifacts appear to have been discarded, and few were in a context suggesting any deliberate placement. Ball-shaped concretions, the most
common manuport, are not an unusual find at
Mogollon sites (Bluhm 1957; Martin 1939; Martin
and Rinaldo 1950b).
Fourteen ceramic effigies were recovered from
the Tularosa phase sites; thirteen were from LA
3279. Four were outside the structures, six were in
the great kiva fill on LA 3279, and the remaining
four were found within rooms at LA 3279. These
effigies resemble those found throughout the region
at this time (Martin et al. 1956; Rinaldo 1959). A
single effigy had an usual hole from below the head
through the body to below the tail.
Thirty-four ornaments were found on the
Tularosa sites, mostly from LA 3279. This was the
largest number and widest variety of adornments
found during the project. The majority of the ornaments were fully shaped, while a few were partially
formed. Local and imported materials were both
represented, and the majority of ornaments were
made of locally available materials. No evidence of
on-site manufacturing was found. At LA 3279,
ornaments (mainly disc beads) were found primarily in Rooms 5, 6, 10, 11, and 15 (great kiva). Shell
fragments from LA 3279 were recovered from
Rooms 10 and 11, while those from LA 39968 were
found in the lower pit structure fill. Of the six ornaments from LA 39968, only one was found outside
the pit structure. The ornaments found on these sites
were not uncommon to the area, although several
were ornamental types not seen in previous phases
studied during the project.
The most common ornament was the disc bead,
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
215
made of both locally available and exotic materials.
Several beads were wedge-shaped in profile and had
wear polish from stringing and circular indentations
from an adjacent bead. At LA 3279, Room 15 (the
great kiva) contained the highest number of this type
of ornament (seven). Several disc beads (also at LA
3279) were found with the burial in the kiva (one of
which was heavily used), along with three quartz
crystals. At some Mogollon sites, beads are found in
association with quartz crystals and other apparently ceremonial gear in kivas, indicating the use of
beads in religious ceremonies (Jernigan 1978).
Two ceramic beads were recovered from LA
3279. Minute clay beads are fairly rare in the
Southwest, and concentrations center in the Salt and
Gila River valleys and Casa Grande (Haury 1931).
Some disc beads of clay were also found at Pueblo
Bonito (Judd 1954), Ridge Ruin (McGregor 1941),
and Swarts Ruin (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932).
These ceramic beads resemble small stone beads
and were sometimes colored with iron oxides
(Haury 1931).
Bone tube beads and bone rings appear at several Tularosa sites (Martin et al. 1956; Rinaldo
1959) and in assemblages from other sites in the
area from several time periods (Martin et al. 1961;
Martin et al. 1964; Martin and Rinaldo 1950b;
Sayles 1945). Undecorated bone rings are common
in the Southwest, having been found at Swarts Ruin
(Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932), Point of Pines
(Wendorf 1950), and other sites (Jernigan 1978).
Since they are represented in assemblages from
most areas and time periods, there is little to be
inferred from their presence.
On LA 3279, a bone tube bead, a bilobed shell
bead, and a turquoise pendant were found in the fill
of Room 11. The shaped shell bead was common in
both Mogollon and Hohokam areas during the same
time period (Bluhm 1957; Jernigan 1978; McGregor
1941; Martin et al. 1956), and bilobed shell beads
have also been found to the north, at Pueblo Bonito
(Judd 1954). The pendant found in this room was
one of two found on the site. The two pendants were
turquoise, triangular, and of a similar size.
Triangular pendants are fairly uncommon in the
Mogollon area, and matching turquoise pendants
(pairs) have been found in the Anasazi area as ear
pendants (Jernigan 1978).
A bone gaming piece was also found at LA
3279. These artifacts are recovered from sites of
many time periods (Cosgrove and Cosgrove 1932;
Martin 1939; Martin and Rinaldo 1947; Martin et al.
1949; Martin and Rinaldo 1950b). It was found in
Room 8, along with a cylindrical sandstone object
216
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
and several pieces of modified chrysocolla. These
items may have been a cache of some sort.
Changes in Material Culture
There was a discernable shift in the material culture
from the Archaic to the Tularosa phase. This trend of
increasing variability is not uncommon in the region
(Martin et al. 1949; Rinaldo 1959). The changes can
be attributed to internal cultural growth and external
influences. It has been established that the Mogollon
had at least a limited amount of contact with other
cultural groups (Hohokam, Anasazi, and Mexico),
but the extent of that contact and how much it affected Mogollon society has not yet been determined.
The results of the analysis suggest that the local
Mogollon were not dependant on frequent trade with
outside groups to bring in exotic goods and new
ideas. They seemed to make do with materials available in the area, with limited outside contact.
The variety of materials recovered increased
from the earliest phases (mostly crystals) to the later
phases (various minerals, crystals, stones, clays, and
shell). At the earliest sites, the minerals most commonly found were coloring agents such as limonite
and hematite. During the later phases, there was an
increase in the variety of forms created from a single mineral, and a greater assortment of minerals utilized. Minerals went beyond simple ochre and were
used as ornamental material (chrysocolla, pipestone)
and in a variety of manuports.
The crystals show a marked change in the way
they were used and the possible importance attached
to their use by the Mogollon. In the earliest phases,
quartz crystals were unmodified, and few were
placed in features. As the culture evolved, crystals
were modified (used as drills, etc.) and more frequently placed in features. The practice of placing
both modified and unmodified crystals in features
increased during the Three Circle and Tularosa
phases. Most quartz crystals from the later time periods were almost always found in or just outside of
structures.
The early ornaments consisted of larger and
more bulky items made out of locally available
materials. A slow change in the nature of ornaments
took place, with an increase in the number of adornments and variety of materials used to manufacture
them (Table 4.86). Ornaments after the Georgetown
phase became smaller and more skillfully produced
with more exotic materials.
Typical later Mogollon jewelry consisted of
small- to medium-sized beads, pendants made of
Table 4.86. Ornament Morphology and Material Types by Age of Site
Archaic
Pinelawn
Georgetown
Three Circle
Reserve
Bracelet
4 Glycymeris
1 shell
Pendant
1
metamorphic
1 shell
1 sedimentary
1 chrysocolla
1 jet
1 chert
1 chrysocolla
1 shell
1 turquoise
Pendant
blank
1
sedimentary
Ornament
1 bone
Reserve/
Tularosa
1 turquoise
Disc bead
8
1 sedimentary
2 turquoise
6
1 chert
1 chrysocolla
2 hematite
1 sandstone
1 shell
1 rhyolite
12
1 shell
1 sedimentary
5
2 bone
2
1 bone
Other bead
Total
1 Luna blue
1
metamorphic
Tube bead
1 turquoise
1
1
1
9
turquoise and local stones, and shell bracelets. Fully
shaped ornaments dominated the assemblage (Table
4.87), followed closely by partially worked ornaments. Beads and subrectangular pendants (including pendant blanks) were the most frequently found
ornament. Pendant shapes did not appear to change
much through time. Rectangular pendants seem to
be the favored form (Table 4.88), along with other
simple geometric shapes.
Attempts at ornament manufacture were evident in several phases, and the greatest concentration occurred after the Reserve phase. Although
there is little evidence of ornament manufacture onsite, it is likely that most of the adornments made of
local materials were made in the area. It is believed
that the Mogollon were making their own disc beads
by at least A.D. 900, and probably earlier, and it is
not unlikely that they also traded for beads (Jernigan
1978). In addition, pendants were presumably fashioned locally, with the exception of those made of
exotic materials.
The turquoise and shell ornaments recovered
from the excavated sites are comparable to those
found at sites in Arizona (Bronitsky and Merritt
1986). Pendants made of turquoise and local materials are common, and whole shell pendants are not
uncommon. Tabular shell pendants are rarer
(Jernigan 1978). Bilobed beads and bird-wingshaped ornaments are also not uncommon, and the
8
Total
2 shell
1 Glycymeris
Ring
Inlay
Tularosa
6
2
7 metamorphic
5 jet
1 clay
1 limestone
2 indeterminate
17
2 bone
3
1 clay
1 shell
2 calcium carbonate
5
34
60
bird shape is fairly typical of Mogollon style.
Although turquoise mosaics have been found in the
Mogollon region, they are generally not as well
formed as those made by the Anasazi or Hohokam
(Jernigan 1978). After A.D. 1100, it is harder to distinguish a clear-cut Mogollon style, since they borrowed from the Anasazi designs (Jernigan 1978).
Although evidence of cultural changes may be
indicated most clearly in architecture and pottery
(Martin and Rinaldo 1950b), this may simply reflect
the comparative rarity of miscellaneous goods and
ornaments. A more subtle change (especially in a
"religious or ceremonial" sense) may be more visible in the miscellaneous items that show up in the
archaeological record. Sometimes that change may
be the adoption of technology or ideas from another
group (using zoomorphic imagery, pipes, etc.) or
something more palpable, like the imported material itself or any related finished goods. Shell
bracelets, shell beads, and copper bells are wellknown examples.
The variety of both imported and local materials used by the Mogollon grew during the Three
Circle phase and peaked in the Tularosa period.
These later sites represent a time when the cultures
throughout the Southwest and Mexico were in flux,
which is primarily reflected in the distribution of
material goods. The rise in variability may be
indicative of the increased contact between groups,
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
217
218
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
1
1
Broken in
Shaping
Fully Shaped/
Drilled
1
Total
11
1
3
1
30
4
Other bead
Tube bead
16
2
1
Disc bead
1
1
Ornament
Ring
1
Pe ndant blank
Pe ndant
1
1
Inlay
Tularosa bracelet
2
1
Reserve/Tularosa
Pendant
Pendant blank
1
11
1
2
2
1
1
Inlay
Other bead
1
Ornament
Pendant blank
1
1
Reserve bracelet
2
1
Tube bead
Pendant
1
1
Fully
Shaped
Ornament
Pendant blank
Pendant
3
1
1
Broken in
Drilling
Three Circle bracelet
1
Partia l
Drill/Shape
1
1
Partial
Shape
Georgetown disc bead
Pinelawn ornament
Archa ic pendant b lank
Unknown
1
1
Drilled
Table 4.87. Ornament Manufacturing Stages and Morphology by Age of Site
1
1
Remodified
60
2
4
16
2
2
3
2
3
1
4
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
1
Total
60
34
6
8
9
1
1
1
Site Total
Table 4.88. Shape of Pendants and Pendant Blanks by Age of Site
Indeterminate
Oval
Tria ngular
Archaic
Rectangular
Semicircular
Zoomorp h
1 blank
Thre e Circle
1 blank
Reserve
1 pendant
1 blank
1 pendant
3 blank
5
3 blank
5
2
2
an outgrowth of the developing Mogollon culture, or
a combination of the two. The trend of increasing
variability is not uncommon in the region (Martin et
al. 1949; Rinaldo 1959), and the changes can be
attributed to both internal cultural growth and external influences. The foreign materials in the assemblage probably represent trade with several of the
major southwestern cultures involved in exchanging
goods. The obviously exotic materials occur during
phases when there was increased trade between cultures, and these items provide a view into the economic practices in the Reserve area.
Regional Exchange
In general, a great deal of exchange occurred in
southwestern prehistory, and the likely trade routes
have been extensively researched (Brand 1935,
1938; Colton 1941; Tower 1945; Warren and
Mathien 1985). These trade routes are often reconstructed based on the locations of river valleys,
mountain passes, water sources, easily traveled
landscapes, and routes used by ethnohistoric populations. The conjectured routes are also based on the
distribution of archaeological materials of obviously
exotic origin (Venn 1984), although some exchanges
may not be evident if two groups are trading similar
items. When cultures interact (exchange material
goods) over a lengthy period of time, similar stylistic forms and design elements will develop as one
group adapts an idea from another. This can be seen
among the Hohokam, Mogollon, and Anasazi, especially in their ornaments (Jernigan 1978; McNeil
1986).
Trade is a necessary activity in a society. A
community may be self-sufficient in certain raw
materials and crafts, yet lacking in other areas.
Exchanges with other groups can provide critical
goods (ritual items, clothes, and possibly food) to
replenish exhausted supplies or provide resources
1 pendant
3
1 blank
2 pendant
2
1 pendant
1 blank
Tularosa
Total
1
1 blank
Reserve/
Tularosa
Total
9
2
4
1
18
that are not locally available. Regional trade is a
form of foreign policy that is necessary for intertribal relations and maintaining boundaries and relations with others (Ford 1972). This transfer of materials could have been accomplished by mutual assistance, gambling and gaming, ceremonial redistributions, and trading or raiding parties. Several modern
and ethnographic equivalents of these conjectured
prehistoric exchange methods have been suggested
(Ford 1972, 1983; Seymour 1988). Prehistoric procurement, production, and manufacture may have
been practiced within a single family or accomplished by kin groups who then traded among other
family/kin groups with possible Hohokam or
Mexican "family" connections (Seymour 1988).
Ornaments (especially beads) seem to be suitable as
a trade item or currency, since they are so easily
portable and can be "an anonymous means of
exchange between people of different cultural
worlds" (Graeber 1996).
Trade Items
Trade in exotic goods in the Southwest (Brand 1935,
1938; Colton 1941; Tower 1945) and trade with
Mexico through the Mimbres area (Whalen 1987)
increased after the San Francisco phase in the
Mogollon area. At this time there was also an apparent increase in interaction between the Mogollon
and the Anasazi (Bluhm 1957; Reid 1989; Martin
and Rinaldo 1950a). Several theories have been suggested for long-range commerce (Doyel 1991)
among the Mogollon, Hohokam and Anasazi. Some
researchers suggest that there was very limited interaction between the Mogollon and the Hohokam but
grudgingly admit to the many similarities between
objects found in both areas (LeBlanc 1989b). Yet
some trade between the two is evident, since intrusive elements appear in both areas.
Marine shells were prehistorically available
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
219
from several sources. The Hohokam were the closest group to the Mogollon involved in the trade of
shells from sources primarily along the Gulf of
California (Hayden 1972; McGuire 1992), and trade
between the two cultures has been previously documented (Danson 1957; Bronitsky and Merritt 1986).
In addition, the Mogollon may have been involved
as middlemen in the shell trade between the
Hohokam and Anasazi (Jernigan 1978). Hohokam
shell manufacturing was at its height during the
Sedentary period, approximately A.D. 900-1100
(Haury 1976), which coincides with the Three Circle
and Reserve phases in the project area. Since there
was no evidence for imported shell ornament manufacture on the sites excavated, it is presumed that
these artifacts were obtained in a finished state,
probably through trade with the Hohokam.
Evidence of on-site manufacture of turquoise
ornaments was also lacking, and it is likely that prehistoric residents of the area also procured these
ornaments in a finished state. While turquoise was a
desirable commodity, several examples of ornaments potentially created to mimic turquoise have
been found at other southwestern sites (Jernigan
1978; Judd 1954; McGregor 1943). Both the
Anasazi and the Hohokam had access to turquoise
and the skill to make those ornaments. In addition,
the possibility that the Mogollon went to the mines,
made the ornaments at the mining site, and brought
finished adornments back to the area cannot be discounted.
Although none of the turquoise artifacts were
chemically sourced, a number of prehistoric mines
are potential sources of the raw material. Several
prehistorically utilized turquoise mines are in the
southwestern area of New Mexico (Anyon and
LeBlanc 1984; Kayser 1971; McNeil 1986; Pogue
1972; Weigand et al. 1977) and in Arizona (Pogue
1972; Sigleo 1970). It is also possible that the raw
material came from the vicinity of Cerrillos, since
the area was mined prehistorically (Levine and
Goodman 1990; Sigleo 1970; Warren 1976; Warren
and Mathien 1985; Wiseman and Darling 1986) and
saw an increase in use just before the Reserve phase.
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Prehistoric Cerrillos turquoise has been found at
many sites, including an extraordinary burial at
Ridge Ruin near Flagstaff, Arizona (McGregor
1943), Chaco Canyon (McNeil 1986; Warren and
Mathien 1985), Snaketown (Haury 1976), and Alta
Vista, in northwest Mexico (Harbottle and Weigand
1992; Weigand 1982). The distribution of sites
yielding turquoise artifacts seems to indicate a widespread use of the material, no matter what the original source, suggesting that turquoise was selected as
a desirable commodity. The turquoise ornaments
may have come from those areas, or else they were
imported from some other area.
It is likely that at least some of the imported
turquoise ornaments came through trade with the
Anasazi, who had more influence in the Mogollon
area in the later time periods. While the Mogollon,
Anasazi, and Hohokam cultures had some stylistically similar ornaments, the shell items may have
come through trade with the Hohokam.
CONCLUSION
The changes perceived in the assemblage through
time are indicative of the growth of the Mogollon
culture and increased contact with the Hohokam and
Anasazi. This is evident when considering the adaptation of technology originally found in other areas
(spindle whorls, effigy pendants) and the development of their own ornament-making technology.
The results of this analysis suggest that although the
local Mogollon traded with outside groups to bring
in exotic goods and new ideas, they generally made
do with resources available in the area.
A thorough investigation has not been made in
the area to ascertain the frequency of imported
goods versus those locally manufactured and the
extent of the exchange of ideas, technology, and
goods that comes with the meeting of several cultures. For improved knowledge on the subject, more
ornaments from the region need to be studied.
BIOARCHAEOLOGY IN THE MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS
Linda Mick-O'Hara
Archaeologists have long speculated on the origins
of the populations in the Mogollon Highlands.
However, only a small number of excavated skeletal
remains have been found in a condition that would
allow for sound data collection to approach issues of
origin, status, stature, and health. Preservation of
human remains from the Luna-Reserve area is variable, and most remains are heavily eroded and fragmentary. Occasionally, drainage patterns and general context have resulted in excellent preservation,
and it is these burials that can be used to address
problems of population origin, stature, and health.
The four phases of the Luna-Reserve Project
resulted in the recovery of nine burials of various
completeness and numerous pieces of disarticulated
human bone. The disarticulated human bone varied
in condition. Table 4.89 contains information on sex,
age, and conjoinable or articulated elements when
this could be assessed. The burials recovered represent a small sample, but the lack of complete analysis of remains from the Mogollon Highlands makes
any additional data valuable. Adding this information to the other burial analyses can only add to the
body of knowledge about the people who lived in
these highlands during both the Pithouse and Pueblo
periods.
Each of the burials recovered is described and
analyzed separately by site placement, location
within the site, and site age. The burials are generally assigned to the Pithouse or Pueblo periods, but
early and late divisions are made when noted
changes in burial practices occur. To augment our
small burial sample, data was collected on seven
well-preserved skeletons from the Whiskey Creek
and Apache Creek areas within the project area.
These skeletal remains were only a few of the thirty-three individuals excavated during the 1970s, on
previous projects undertaken by the Museum of
New Mexico. Variable preservation among these
remains drastically reduced the number of individuals that could be used in the comparative study.
These individuals are compared with the LunaReserve sample and the remains from Starkweather
Ruin (Nesbitt 1938). The comparison is restricted to
cranial measurements at this time because of the
comparative analyses done by Nesbitt and the
importance of speculation by Nesbitt and by Martin
and Rinaldo (1951) as to the occurrence of two morphologically distinct populations within the
Mogollon Highlands during the Pueblo period.
Discussion of the results of these comparisons
includes an evaluation of this argument as it relates
to the burials from the Mogollon area of the greater
Southwest.
METHODOLOGY
The OAS guidelines for the treatment of human
remains were followed in recording and excavating
all remains. All human remains were excavated
under an approved ARPA permit and all appropriate
USDA Forest Service guidelines. Consultation with
the Zuni tribe, who claim remains from the
Mogollon area as ancestral, resulted in a decision to
conduct no destructive analysis of remains and to
rebury them near the area of excavation after analysis.
All burials except that from LA 3279 were first
returned to OAS for cleaning and analysis. Remains
were cleaned by dry brushing, but adherent dirt was
occasionally removed by minimal dampening of the
bone. No exfoliation was noted on the bones that
had been moistened to remove dirt. All human
remains were then rehoused and stored in a secure
area.
The analysis of each burial was as complete as
possible. Preservation and completeness of elements
determined the measurements and the details of the
evaluations made on each set of remains.
Measurements were taken whenever possible, and
anomalies and pathologies of the elements were
evaluated when cortical tissue and epiphyses were
complete enough to make such analysis feasible. All
evaluations of human skeletal remains were recorded on individual inventories and used in statistical
comparisons.
The adult male burial from the great kiva at LA
3279 was recovered during the final phase of the
Luna project, subsequent to a Gila National Forest
decision that no human remains should be transport-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
221
Table 4.89. Disarticulated Human Bone
LA Number
Fie ld Specimen
Grid
Level
Sex
Age
3279
83
Code 50 0
3
Unknown
3279
105
Code 60 0
3
Unknown
3279
679
Code 60 0
5
Unknown
Child
1 deciduous molar
3279
715
Code 15 10
Kiva
6
Unknown
Adult
1 fo urth metatarsal and 3 long
bon e fragments
3563
191
103N/96 E
2
Unknown
3563
375
106N/94 E
2
Unknown
3563
398
105N/98 E
2
Unknown
Adult
1 parietal fragment and 1
vertebra
3563
416
140N/99 E
1
Unknown
Adult
1 left central incisor
3563
454
106N/94 E
2
Unknown
Adult
1 cranial fragment
39968
2137
88N/95E
3
Unknown
Adult
8 cranial fragments
39968
2517
95N/104 E
2
Unknown
Adult
1 fragment, mastoid process
39968
2132
87N/98E
5
Unknown
Adult
4 fragments, ba dly eroded
sacrum
39968
555
87N/99E
2
Unknown
Adult
3 cranial/parietal fragments
39968
1276
86N/96E
2
Unknown
Adult
5 left p arietal fra gments
39968
1555
87N/95E
3
Unknown
Adult
1 third metacarpal
39968
1743
87N/98E
3
Unknown
Child
1 left in ominate in fragments, 1
carpal, and 1 ph alange
39968
1486
88N/88E
2
Unknown
Adult
5 right rib fragments
39968
1748
87N/98E
Pit Structure
3
Unknown
Adult
1 man dibular lateral incisor
39969
157
103N/10 2E
2
Unknown
Child
1 femur fragment
39969
389
104N/99 E
3
Unknown
New Born
1 right ilium and pubis with
carnivore bite marks
39969
348
10N/103 E
2
Unknown
Child
2 fib ula fragments*
39969
1050
Feature 14
6
Unknown
Child
1 deciduous incisor*
39969
826
107N/10 8E
2
Unknown
Child
1 right ilium*
39969
941
108N/10 6E
2
Unknown
Child
1 left Ilium*
39969
845
108N/10 1E
2
Unknown
Child
1 left femur*
39972
173
95N/86E
3
Unknown
Child
1 partial femur, 1 ischium
45507
32
104N/10 8E
2
Unknown
Child
1 parietal fragment
45507
33
104N/10 7E
2
Unknown
Child
1 deciduous molar and 1 cranial
fragment
45507
34
105N/10 9E
2
Unknown
Child
1 cranial fragment
45507
56
105N/10 8E
2
Unknown
Child
12 cranial fragments
45507
85
105N/10 7EF
2
Unknown
Adult
1 right temporal (conjoins with FS
89, 91 )
45507
89
130N/98 E
2
Unknown
Adult
1 occipital, in fragments (conjoins
with FS 85, 91)
222
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Child
Element Description
24 cranial fragments, 2 ribs, and
2 vertebra e fragments
1 long bone fragment
1 temporal fragment and 1
parietal fragment
1 right temporal fragment
Table 4.89. Continued.
LA Number
Fie ld Specimen
Grid
Level
Sex
Age
Adult
Element Description
45507
91
130N/98 E
2
Unknown
1 left temporal and parietal
(conjoins with FS 85, 89)
45507
123
129N/98 E
2
Unknown
45507
137
102N/96 E
2
Unknown
Adult
1 right petrous temporal
45507
1356
156N/24 2E
3
Unknown
Adult
1 cranial fragment
45507
1417
152N/29 9E
3
Unknown
Adult
1 rib fragment
45507
1525
154N/24 0E
4
Unknown
Adult
1 zygomatic fragment and 2
vertebrae fragments
45507
1542
155N/24 1E
3
Unknown
Child
1 radius and 4 p halange
fragments
45507
1551
154N/23 9E
Feature 12
3
Unknown
Child
1 vertebra e fragment
45507
1627
153N/24 1E
Feature 13
3
Unknown
Child
1 metatarsal fra gment
45507
1811
154N/24 1E
Feature 13
3
Unknown
Adult
2 parietal fragments
45507
2125
153N/24 2E
Feature 12
3
Unknown
Child
1 right ulna and 1 cranial
fragment
45507
2089
151N/23 0E
Feature 13
4
Unknown
Adult
1 metapodial fra gment
45507
2177
154N/24 0E
Feature 12
5
Unknown
Child
1 thoracic vertebrae
45507
2171
153N/24 0E
Feature 12
3
Unknown
Child
4 rib fragments, 1 left ilium and
pub is, and 1 metatarsal
45507
1709
154N/24 1E
Feature 12
3
Unknown
1 cranial fragment, 5 long bo ne
fragments, and 3 vertebrae
fragments
45507
1498
151N/22 8E
Feature 13
4
Unknown
13 cranial fragments
45507
1555
150N/23 1E
Feature 13
4
Unknown
1 long bone fragment
45507
1580
151N/22 9E
Feature 13
4
Unknown
3 long bone fragments
45507
1579
151N/22 8E
5
Unknown
2 long bone fragments
45507
656
103N/90 E
2
Unknown
5 long bone fragments
45507
628
104N/88 E
3
Unknown
4 cranial fragments and 1 rib
fragment
45507
651
130N/99 E
2
Unknown
1 right parietal fragment and 1
long bone fra gment
45507
1493
152N/22 9E
4
Unknown
1 cranial fragment and 1 rib
fragment
45507
1581
154N/21 4E
3
Unknown
1 cranial fragment
45507
652
131N/98 E
2
Unknown
3 long bone fragments
45508
1932
154N/23 0E
3
Unknown
1 cranial fragment and 2 long
bon e fragments
70201
290
121N/11 3E
4
Unknown
1 left p arietal fra gment
1 cranial fragment
* These remains are consistent in size a nd may be from the same child.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
223
ed away from project areas. These remains were
housed at the USDA Forest Service office in Luna,
New Mexico, prior to their analysis. These remains
were not cleaned before analysis was undertaken,
and photographs of the remains were taken under
less than ideal conditions.
After analysis, all human remains, burials, and
disarticulated remains were returned to the project
area for reburial. Through consultation with the Gila
National Forest, it was decided that all remains
would be reinterred away from the original sites but
near them and out of danger. The Luna Project directors worked with Gila National Forest personnel to
accomplish this task. Reburial locations are filed
with the Gila National Forest and the New Mexico
Cultural Resource Information System (NMCRIS),
Historic Preservation Division, in Santa Fe.
BURIALS FROM LUNA VILLAGE (LA 45507)
Walter Hough (1907) uncovered a burial at LA
45507 (Luna Village) around the turn of the century,
the discovery that brought the prehistoric pit structures of Luna Village to his attention. His later excavations provided information on the extent of these
ruins and uncovered a "cemetery in which infants
alone were buried" (Hough 1919:413). There were
actually five burials in the cemetery and two others
in pit structure context. These human remains, isolated during the two field seasons, were never analyzed beyond the initial excavation assessments.
Thus direct information about the site occupants was
never available.
During the recent excavations undertaken by
the Office of Archaeological Studies, several more
pit structures were exposed in the highway right-ofway from the Luna Village complex. Within two
pithouses assigned to the Three Circle phase at Luna
Village (Pit Structures 12 and 13), two burials were
isolated. The first to be exposed was the burial of a
young child interred in an oval pit dug into the edge
of Pit Structure 12. The pit obviously postdated the
use of the structure. The second burial was the partial remains of an adult female buried in the fill of
Pit Structure 13.
Burial 1
Burial 1 was the partial but fully articulated remains
of an adult female approximately 25 to 35 years of
age at death, found during the excavation of Pit
Structure 13. The remains consisted of a mandible,
an eroded vertebral column, and most of the ele-
224
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
ments of the left arm of a single individual. Since all
elements were in articulation, rodent disturbance or
other post-depositional activities in the area disturbed the burial context. There was no apparent
burial pit identified, but if the area had been disturbed after the initial interment of the individual,
this disturbance may have obliterated evidence of a
pit.
The elements present were eroded and fragile.
Some of the missing elements may have eroded
away through rodent disturbance and the altered
drainage pattern that it created in the feature area. In
this case, the elements remaining were probably
those less directly affected by the drainage of water
through the area. The remains still present exhibit
varying degrees of erosion. Some ribs and vertebrae
were documented during excavation but only
retrievable as small fragments.
Though no burial pit was discernable during
excavation, the position of the left arm and torso
(eroded vertebrae) suggest that this individual was
formally placed in the fill of the pit structure, on top
of the roof fall. The body appeared to have been
buried in a semiflexed position on its right side with
the head pointing to the east.
In Ham's (1989:71-73) recent assessment of the
burials from Nan Ranch Ruin (LA 15049), she
found that burials positioned with their heads to the
east accounted for 42.9 percent of her sample, while
burials were semiflexed only 26.9 percent of the
time and placed on the right side only 8.9 percent of
the time. The partial remains of this female follow
the major interment practices in inhumations from
NAN Ranch Ruin and in the Mogollon area as a
whole.
Sex was determined through an assessment of
the mandible (Bass 1987:81; White and Folkens
1991:322), which was rounded rather than squared,
and by measurements of the humeral head and the
epicondylar width, which fall within the parameters
for females (Bass 1987:150).
The age estimate of 25-35 years was made
through observations on the mandibular dentition.
There was occlusal wear on all dentition present,
with particular wear on the buccal edge of the premolars. The molars exhibited varied wear from M1
to M3 and differing wear between left and right
molars. Using Brothwell (1965:69), an assessment
of molar wear would place this individual in the 25
to 35 year age group at the time of death. The more
extensive wear on the right molars and premolars
may indicate a preferential use of that side of the
mouth for chewing. This preference has no apparent
osteological origin in the mandible and could only
be assessed further if the maxillary dentition had
been present.
The missing mandibular dentition appeared to
have been lost after death and not because of any
apparent pathology. There were pit caries noted on
the mesiobuccal surface of left M1 and on the
occlusal surface of right M1.
Burial 1 was eroded, and much of the cortical
tissue was damaged enough to prevent identification
of any pathologies affecting the surface of the bone.
The postcranial remains that could be retrieved
included thirty fragments of cervical and thoracic
vertebrae. Both scapulae were present and eroded,
but the glenoid fossa and acromion process were
present in both elements. Both clavicles were also
present but, again, extremely eroded. Rib fragments
were identified, but refitting or assignment to side
was not possible. The left humerus, radius, ulna, and
most of the left hand were present, but no measurements were possible.
This burial was primary at this location, but
rodent disturbance and erosion had destroyed many
of the elements. Interment on top of roof fall suggests a less formal burial, which seems to be true of
many of the Pithouse period burials in the area.
There were no associated ceramic vessels or other
grave goods, which occur frequently during the
Pueblo period.
Burial 2
The second burial from Luna Village was that of a
child 3.5-4.5 years of age at death, who was interred
in a formal burial pit (Feature 14) dug into the eastern edge of Pit Structure 12. Feature 14 was an oval
pit, 110 by 52 cm and 18 cm deep, excavated into
the compact soils at the edge of the pit structure but
lacking any formal lining. Several lithic artifacts and
sherds were recovered from the fill of the burial pit
along with one crystal and an awl fragment, which
may have been included as a grave offering.
The burial had been impacted by previous road
work and ground pressure due to its location just
under the road shoulder gravels near the Luna gas
station in the town of Luna, New Mexico. The skeleton was supine, in a semiflexed position, with arms
down to the sides but legs flexed at the hip and knee.
The head was pointing to the northeast, and the face
was turned slightly to the west. The remains were
eroded due to some rodent disturbance and drainage
through the burial pit.
The cranium was complete but fragmented and
had to be removed in pieces. The pieces were refit-
ted in the laboratory, but the refitting was only possible with individual elements. The skull had been
extremely deformed by ground pressure, which
made the refitting of elements difficult when fragments of cranium were missing. There was some
cradleboard deformation at the right lamboidal
suture, and there was parietal bossing concomitant
with the immaturity of the remains.
The maxilla was fragmented but could be
reconstructed, and both deciduous and developing
permanent dentition were in place. All deciduous
teeth were erupted, with slight wear apparent. Most
of the permanent dentition was developing, and
many of the crowns were fully formed, but with little resorption of the roots of the deciduous dentition.
There were small pit caries on the mesio-occlusal
surface of the deciduous right M1. The mandible of
this child presented a similar picture. It was complete, with the first permanent molar crowns formed.
All deciduous dentition was fully erupted and exhibited evidence of wear. Crowns for most permanent
dentition were developed, but no deciduous root
resorption was apparent. All molars were carious to
the extent that both right and left M2 were severely
reduced by the large caries that had taken most of
the center of these teeth. Both left and right M1 had
small carious lesions on the occlusal surfaces that
had penetrated into the dentin. This dental pattern
suggests that the child was weaned onto a largely
carbohydrate diet and that chewing of meat or tough
plant fiber that would tend to clean the teeth and
reduce carious activity was not a significant part of
the diet (Brothwell 1972; El-Najjar 1974; Berry
1985).
The occurrence of only slight wear on the dentition is noteworthy because, at four years of age, the
child was certainly weaned and eating solid foods.
This incongruence between the dental development
and dental wear is also true of the dentition and the
postcranial remains of the child.
In general, the postcranial remains recovered
were eroded. This weakens inferences that could be
made in an assessment of these remains and their
comparison to the dental development of this burial.
The postcranial remains are small for the dental age
of the child.
The vertebrae present were fused arches and
centrum fragments that were eroded and fragile. The
fused vertebral arches suggest an age of three to
seven years (Bass 1987:94), but the size of elements
suggest a younger child. Fragments of both the atlas
and axis and the five other cervical vertebrae were
present along with more fragmentary thoracic and
lumbar vertebrae. Other postcranials exhibit similar
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
225
erosion, and the elements of the right side are the
most heavily eroded. The long bones have very thin
cortical tissue and are fragile, which may indicate
that the child was nutritionally deprived and/or in
poor health for some time prior to death (Speth
1990).
It is interesting to note that the burial of this
child postdates the occupation of Pit Structure 12.
The burial pit was excavated into the east wall and
fill of the pit structure. If this burial is related to the
former occupants of this pithouse, it may also be
related to the female buried in the pit structure fill.
Hough's (1919:413) excavations at Luna
Village recovered several child burials accompanied
by small pots, scrapers, and animal bone. Hough's
excavated burials could not be located as a comparative sample, but the context of these burials alone
can be used for comparison. All burials were of children less than 5 years of age. Both Burial 2 and
Hough's burials were interred in formal pits in the
wall or at the edge of abandoned pit structures. The
care taken to inter an individual in the fill of an
abandoned pithouse suggests that these children
were related to the former occupants and that the
interments were in "family space" (Schlanger 1992).
If these child burials were related to the occupants of
the pithouses near which they were buried, why did
six children die at fairly similar ages? This may indicate that some nutritional factors and perhaps disease were affecting this age group. Burial 2 exhibits
some reduction of cortical and trabecular tissue,
which may suggest poor health for some time, but
this cannot be used to suggest long-term health
problems for other burials at the site.
BURIALS FROM SPURGEON DRAW (LA
39968)
During the third phase of the Luna Project in the
Mogollon Highlands, six burials and a small amount
of disarticulated human bone were recovered from
two sites dating to the Pueblo period, after A.D.
1000. Three burials were recovered from Spurgeon
Draw and three from the Haury site. All but one of
the formal burials and most of the disarticulated
bone are from child burials ranging in age from
neonate to 10 years. The burials from LA 39968 and
LA 39969 are shown on their respective site maps,
showing the spatial relationship between the burials
and the surrounding structural units.
The two formal burials from LA 39968 were
young children. The graves contained vessels and
corn pollen as part of the interment ritual. Burials
excavated by Hough (1919) at LA 45507 were also
226
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
young children but primarily without grave goods.
LA 45507 represents a Three Circle phase Pithouse
period community, while the children and adult burials from the Pueblo period communities have
ceramic vessels and frequently other items as well.
This change in burial associations, which may
reflect a change in ritual behavior, is apparent
between these two periods and will be discussed in
more detail later in this chapter.
Burial 1
Burial 1 was the remains of a nine to ten year old
child interred in a shallow burial pit 1 m north of the
entryway to the pit structure. The edge of the burial
pit was extremely hard to define, but the pit was
almost circular (40 by 40 cm) in plan view and
approximately 10 cm deep. Six small vessels were
associated with this Tularosa phase burial. Two
Alma polished jars, one Alma neckbanded jar, and
one Reserve smudged bowl were placed around the
child's head with the bowl on top of the skull. The
other two vessels, an incised corrugated jar and a
Reserve smudged bowl, were found at the edge of
the burial pit and for purposes of interpretation are
associated with the burial. Vessel 2, an Alma polished jar, contained corn and buckwheat pollen, suggesting that the vessels and their contents were ritual offerings buried with this child.
The burial consisted of a number of cranial
fragments from the occipital, parietals, sphenoid,
and right temporal regions along with the maxilla in
fragments with all maxillary dentition in place and
fragments of both scapulae.
The maxilla was small and fragmented, but all
dentition was present and in good condition. Both
M3 crowns had developed but were still unerupted.
All other permanent dentition had erupted, but little
wear was apparent, and no pathologies were noted.
Fragments of the left scapula were the only postcranial remains recovered from this burial. They were
eroded and fragile, suggesting that drainage through
the burial pit had destroyed most of the burial.
This child burial, interred in a shallow pit with
ceramic vessels surrounding the skull and in the
grave fill, represents a pattern seen again and again
in juvenile and adult burials in the Mogollon
Highlands during the Early and Late Pueblo periods
(Nesbitt 1938; Kayser 1975). Burial practices seem
at this point to be physically similar to those from
the Pithouse period, but vessels, crystals, and other
offerings are often an important part of the interment
ritual.
Burial 2
Burial 2 was isolated 2 m north of Burial 1 in what
was probably the southwest corner of Room 2. This
burial was that of a six to nine month old infant
interred in a shallow pit below the floor of Room 2.
The pit edges could not be well defined, but it
appeared to be a small circular pit, 30 by 25 cm and
17 cm deep. An alligator juniper had grown into the
southern part of the burial pit. The cranium was
fragmented, and numerous elements had been
moved by root disturbance.
Assessment during excavation was that this was
a fairly complete infant burial. The child had been
interred on its back in a semiflexed position with
knees bent and arms at the side of the body. The
head was to the east with the face to the north, and
the legs were to the west. Many of the epiphyses
were not formed or were small, fragile, and not
recoverable.
The elements of the cranium had been fragmented by root activity, but most were present and
very fragile. These elements and fragments had been
warped by ground pressure and were not entirely
reconstructible. The maxilla was present with a few
teeth or developing crowns in place. The left deciduous molars were present as unerupted crowns seated in the alveolar ridge. The left I2 had partial root
development but was unerupted, while left I1 was
preparing to erupt through the soft tissue, or had just
done so. This dental pattern indicates an age of six
to nine months (Ubelaker 1989).
The mandible was nearly complete with only
the left coronoid process missing. The crowns of
both the left and right deciduous molars were developed in the alveolar ridge but unerupted. The left
and right canines and both left and right I2 were
developed with the roots developing, but all were
unerupted. Only the right and left I1 were erupted
and showed slight wear. The estimated age from the
development of the mandibular dentition is consistent with an infant six to nine months of age
(Ubelaker 1989).
Most of the vertebrae were present during excavation but were unfused and fragile, so not all of
them could be retrieved for complete identification.
Part of the atlas and axis were recovered and identifiable along with four other cervical centrums and
unfused arches. Ten thoracic centrums and unfused
arches and five lumbar centrums and unfused arches
were present and identifiable. These elements, considering the age of the individual, were fairly well
preserved. The two halves of the vertebral arch fuse
between the ages of one and three years (Bass
1987:96), placing the child at less than one year of
age, but the dental age is much more precise at this
stage of development.
An inventory of the other postcranial remains
(NMCRIS files) indicates that most of these elements were present as porous diaphyses and a few as
developing epiphyses. The diaphyseal length of the
left humerus supports other estimates of age by placing this infant in the newborn to 0.5 year group
(Johnston 1962). Most of the ribs were present and
nearly complete, but the left seventh rib exhibits a
healed fracture of the body toward the sternal end
with thickening of the porous cortical tissue extending from the point of fracture, indicating infection in
the area of the fracture with some periosteal involvement. The left tibia had also been fractured at midshaft and was healed with extensive periosteal
involvement around the area of the fracture. The
tibia is thickened along the diaphysis from the infectious process that had followed the injury, but the
fracture had resolved prior to the infant's death. In
young children fractures may be fully consolidated
in four to six weeks (Merbs 1989:163). The pattern
of fracture healing and infection evident in this
infant would be consistent with an accident (e.g., a
fall or being dropped), followed by an infection that
eventually was the cause of death. The fracture of
the left seventh rib and the shaft of the left tibia suggests that the child was dropped or fell on that side,
and though no cranial injuries were evident, there
was probably other soft tissue involvement. The fall
was hard enough or at a sufficient angle to break the
tibia, and the force of the leg against the rib cage
fractured the seventh rib. This accident eventually
lead to the child's death.
The interment of this infant with a single Alma
neckbanded jar that contained some corn pollen suggests that some ceremony was involved in the burial
of this infant. Infants and children from the
Mogollon Highlands Pueblo period were often
interred with grave goods similar to those that
accompanied adult burials.
Burial 3
This burial was originally thought to be part of
Burial 1 and was separated after remains were
returned to the OAS laboratory for cleaning and
analysis. These are the partial remains of an adult
male 40+ years of age, recovered from the fill in the
entryway of the pit structure, approximately 2 m
south of Burial 1. Since these remains were scattered
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
227
in the fill of the entryway, they may be a secondary
deposit from another location, but no other remains
of equivalent age were isolated during the excavations undertaken at LA 39968.
The only cranial fragment recovered was the
heavily eroded mandibular symphysis with two
tooth roots still in place. The chin was large and
squared, indicating that the individual was most
likely a male (Bass 1987:81). The eroded postcranial
remains consisted of the articulated vertebral segment, which was composed of parts of L3, L4, L5,
and the first sacral vertebra. All of these elements
displayed extensive arthritic lipping on the margins
of each centrum and the left alae (wing) of the first
sacral vertebra. This remodeling could be scored as
a 1 (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:157). There was
also one rib fragment present among these remains.
The fusion of the vertebral fragments and the arthritic involvement place this individual in the 40+ age
group.
BURIALS FROM HAURY'S SITE (LA 39969)
The excavations at Haury's site were restricted to a
Reserve phase roomblock, associated pits, and activity areas. The excavation of a large trash pit (Feature
2) contained the remains of three infants along with
numerous disarticulated fragments of human bone
(Table 4.89). All of the burials from LA 39969 were
infants, from newborn to approximately one year of
age at death. The two burials recognized as formal
interments also contained several ceramic vessels
with food offerings, evidence of rituals involved in
the interment of these children. Both of these infants
were six months to one year of age at death, and
because of the presence of cholla pollen, we can narrow the time of death to early summer. Both had evidence of trauma as a result of falling or being
dropped. These traumas were healed, but the
periosteal reaction in the area of the traumas, in both
infants indicates that the infection had complicated
the healing process and may have resulted in death
in both cases. The likelihood of falls on the rough
terrain of the Luna/Reserve area may have increased
the risk of such trauma, both to adults and to the
infants they carried.
Burial 1
Burial 1 was isolated within a basin-shaped burial
pit (42 cm by 43 cm) only 7 cm deep and excavated
into the underlying decomposing conglomerate
layer. This burial pit was just outside the southwest
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
side of a large pit filled with trash. The pit showed
no evidence of preparation or sealing. The edges of
the pit and much of the interior fill had been disturbed by rodent activity, and many of the elements
of the infant burial contained in this feature were
also disturbed by this intrusive rodent burrowing.
The burial was that of an infant six months to one
year of age, but due to rodent disturbance and the
fragile nature of these remains, many elements were
not recovered. Three ceramic vessels were associated with this interment. One Alma Plain bowl excavated before this burial was found was 50 cm west
of this burial and has been subsequently associated
with it. A small Alma neckbanded jar was found on
the north side of the burial pit, while a small bowl
was found on the south side of this feature. Pollen
from cholla flowers or buds and corn pollen were
identified from the grave fill and the fill of the small
jar. Both the flowers or fruit of the cholla and the
corn were probably offerings made at the time of
interment. The presence of cholla, which flowers
and bears fruit in the late spring to early summer,
indicates a spring or summer burial for this infant.
The cranium was fragmented in situ, but most
of the individual elements were present. Evidence of
cribra orbitalia was present in the superior orbitals,
and porotic hyperostosis was apparent on both the
right and left parietals. Both of these pathologies
were not severe but exhibited no evidence of healing
(see Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). There had been
excavation damage to the frontal, but periosteal
reaction and some evidence of swelling and healing
of the left frontal was apparent (Buikstra and
Ubelaker 1994; score = 1 periosteal reaction). A
small perforation also occurred in the right parietal
along the sagittal suture 153 mm posterior to the
coronal suture, 3 mm in diameter. This appears to be
perimortem in nature, with no apparent healing. The
infant suffered one blow to the head prior to the time
of death with subsequent infection near the sight of
injury and another near the time of death. The
periosteal reaction at the first sight extends over a 20
by 20 mm area but shows healing of the outer cortical bone with no penetration into or through the
diploe. The second small wound exhibits penetration through the skull and may have resulted in the
death of the infant.
The maxilla of Burial 1 was fragmentary, and
only a single unerupted molar crown was still present in the remains. The mandible was also in fragments, but the developing and erupting dentition of
this burial were still in place. All dentition were
unerupted developing teeth except the left I1 which
had erupted with evidence of slight wear. According
to Ubelaker (1989) the dental development in this
infant would place it between six months and one
year of age at death.
The postcranial remains of this infant were
eroded and fragile with many elements missing. The
two vertebral fragments recovered included arches
that were unfused (Bass 1987:96), indicating an age
of less than one year. Fragments of the left scapula,
ribs, right tibia, right fibula, and several metatarsals
were present but fragmented and difficult to evaluate for any evidence of the trauma that the infant
may have suffered in conjunction with the apparent
head injuries.
Burial 2
Burial 2 consisted of the partial remains of a one
year old child interred in a shallow pit near the north
edge of the large trash-filled pit, 1 m west of Room
2. The burial pit was excavated into the underlying
decomposing conglomerate layer. The burial pit was
not well defined due to root disturbance in the area,
and the fill consisted of gravels and sandy clays that
may have been part of the postdepositional disturbance in the area. The cranium had been pushed to
the south part of the pit by root disturbance, and a
partial ilium and fragments of a sacrum were found
just to the northeast of the burial pit, along with several other fragments of the burial that were recovered from adjacent grids within the larger pit. It was
difficult to assess body alignment and face direction.
The midline of the body was northwest to southeast,
and the face direction probably west-southwest.
There were six ceramic vessels associated with
Burial 2. Two vessels were recovered from the burial pit. These included an Alma Plain jar recovered
from above the right arm and a partial Reserve
smudged bowl recovered around the right shoulder
of this infant. The remaining vessels, which included a Reserve smudged bowl, a small Alma Plain
bowl, a small Alma Rough jar, and an Alma polished jar were recovered from Grid 105N/100E and
associated with the burial.
The pollen analysis of the soils from around
Burial 2 contained grass, aster, and corn pollen. The
grass pollen could have been introduced as matting,
or the grasses could have been windblown, but their
combination with aster and corn pollen suggests that
they were from items placed in the pit during interment of the infant. The pollen sample from Vessel 2
also contained cholla pollen, which may have been
another offering. The pollen may be evidence that
the child was buried in the early summer (Holloway,
this report).
The cranium of this infant had been displaced
by ground disturbance and was fragmented. Most
elements were present, but many were fragile and
warped by ground pressure. Cribra orbitalia was evident but not severe in both orbitals (Buikstra and
Ubelaker 1994:151-153), and cradleboard deformation was observed along the right lamboidal suture.
Only the right maxilla with dentition was present,
and this element was eroded and fragile. The central
incisors had erupted and displayed slight wear, and
the right deciduous molar was erupting, but all other
dentition was unerupted and still developing. This
level of dental development would be consistent
with an age at death of six months to one year
(Ubelaker 1989).
Many postcranial elements were eroded and
fragmentary or completely missing as a result of
ground disturbance and erosion. Two thoracic arches were present and unfused (<1 year of age; Bass
1987:96), but the long bones isolated during excavation had developing epiphyses. The right humerus
diaphysis and the proximal epiphysis were complete. The length of the humeral shaft placed the age
at death between 0.5 and 1.5 years (Johnston 1962;
Bass 1987).
The infant also exhibited signs of nutritional
stress. Though the cause of death is not directly evident, poor nutrition may have contributed. The
infant died in the early summer and was interred in
a small shallow pit dug into the decomposing sandstone. The grave, though shallow, took time to prepare. The child was then buried with two to six
ceramic vessels. Some of these vessels contained
food offerings of cholla buds and corn. From pollen
taken within the burial pit, we know that cornmeal
may also have been sprinkled over the deceased at
the time of burial. Thus, burial rituals were evidently performed during the interment of even the
youngest member of the group that occupied this
Pueblo period village.
Burial 3
This burial is that of a newborn infant that was stillborn or died shortly after birth. It was isolated in the
fill of the large trash pit. No formal pit for this burial was observed at the time of excavation, and no
associations were made between this burial and any
ceramics recovered in the vicinity. There were also a
few cranial fragments from an older child mingled
with these remains. These cranial fragments were
inventoried and are presented in Table 4.89 with the
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
229
other disarticulated human remains.
Only the zygomatic arches and a few other
unidentifiable fragments remain of the cranium. The
mandible consisted of the right horizontal ramus.
The area of tooth development could be seen in the
alveolar ridge, but all buds were missing.
The postcranial remains were fragmentary and
fragile. Eight centra and eleven unfused arches were
present from the vertebral column along with the
two unfused halves of the atlas. The right clavicle,
one rib, and the left humeral diaphysis were the
other postcranials recovered. The length of the
humerus places this infant in the fetal/neonate category at the time of death (Bass 1987:149, after
Johnston 1962).
BURIAL FROM GREAT KIVA AT THE HOUGH
SITE (LA 3279)
The Hough site (LA 3279) is a late Tularosa phase
pueblo (A.D. 1275-1325) previously investigated by
Walter Hough during his explorations of the Upper
Gila and Salt Rivers (Hough 1907). During the
recent excavations done by the Office of
Archaeological Studies, a large rectilinear great kiva
with a ramp entry was excavated toward the eastern
end of the site. The burial of an elderly male (Burial
1) was isolated just to the northwest of the central
posthole within the kiva. This individual was
interred in what appeared to be a preexisting bellshaped pit, which was modified slightly to accommodate these human remains. The pit was 160 cm
north/south by 75 cm east/west and 51 cm deep. The
burial pit was sealed by the floor in the kiva. The
grave fill was dark, trash-filled deposits that date to
the period of kiva use. There was evident rodent burrowing within the pit, which had disturbed the feet
of the burial. The vertebral column was heavily
eroded, and the elements of this burial ranged in
condition from fair to poor. The burial was, as a
whole, fairly intact, lying in a supine position with
the head to the southeast and the face turned to the
east. The arms were folded across the chest with the
wrists crossed at the sternum, and the hands were
bent at the wrist. The legs were flexed with the
knees extending upward and slightly to the east. The
burial had been discovered during excavation of the
area with a pick, and the left temporal/parietal area
was fragmented. Other parts of the cranium were
also fragmented, and only a few measurements were
possible.
The elderly male was interred with three ceramic vessels, two shell fragments, and an obsidian pro-
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
jectile point. Two Tularosa fillet rim bowls were
placed one inside the other at the back of the cranium, in the southern part of the pit, while a single
Reserve corrugated jar was placed at the left side of
the body. The two fragments of shell were found on
the right side of the torso and could have been part
of an ornament worn around the arm. The projectile
point was found lying flat on the left side of the cranium. The projectile was lying on the cranium. It
does not appear to have been there as a result of trauma and was probably an offering to the deceased.
Three crystals were also recovered from within the
pit and were probably burial offerings as well.
The burial is that of an elderly male measuring
170.72 cm ± 3.27 cm in height (approximately 5 ft 7
in ± 1 in) (Bass 1987: 238). This estimation of living height used the left tibia for calculations. Sex
was determined by nonmetric assessment of the
attributes of the cranium and os coxae along with
metric determinations from the humeral and femoral
heads. The age at death was assessed at 65+ from
suture obliteration on both the interior and external
surfaces of the cranium (Meindl and Lovejoy 1985),
extreme cranial thickening of the diploe, which happens mainly in old age (Mann and Murphy
1990:34), and severe dental attrition.
The cranium was robust with a pronounced
brow ridge and a prominent occipital ridge. The
diploe was extremely thick in the frontal, both parietals, and the occipital region. This hyperostosis
appears related to the age of the individual, resembling that occurring in Paget's disease (Mann and
Murphy 1990:34) but here restricted to the cranial
bones of a male (Ortner and Putschar 1985:294).
The cranium had suffered postdepositional fracturing, but most of the elements were present.
The maxilla was complete and exhibited evidence of extreme age, and all molars showed premortem loss and tissue resorption of the alveolus.
Left P2, right P2, and right P1 also exhibit premortem loss, while left P1 was worn flat into the
dentin. The right canine was decayed to the root,
which was still in the alveolar ridge, and the left I1
and I2 were also lost sometime before the individuals death. The overall dentition shows severe tooth
loss and bone resorption associated with advanced
age and poor diet. Since dental attrition and caries
are positively correlated with increasing carbohydrates in the diet (Dahlberg 1960; Kelley et al.
1987), this dental pattern suggests that the diet of
this individual may have been higher in carbohydrates than those in the Pithouse period in the
Mogollon Highlands.
The mandible of this individual displays a pat-
tern of dental attrition similar to that of the maxilla.
All of the molars exhibited premortem loss, and
there was resorption of the alveolar ridge. The left
P1 and P2 and the right P1 and P2 had the entire
crown worn away. The incisors and canines were
lost after death, with resorption of the alveolar ridge.
The remnants of the tooth socket for the right canine
displayed a large apical abscess with a drain through
the buccal surface of the mandible. This dental attrition pattern reenforces the conclusions arrived at
through observation of the maxillary dentition. Age
would have been a significant contributor to the
tooth loss noted, but the abscessing and evidence of
carious activity suggests a high-carbohydrate diet.
The cervical vertebrae were in excellent condition, while others were eroded and fragmentary. All
thoracic and lumbar centrum fragments displayed
arthritic remodeling and lipping, which, again, indicate advanced age. There are also arthritic changes
noted on the os coxae, at the acetabulum, and on the
distal tibiae. The left scapula exhibited eburnation of
the medial aspect of the glenoid fossa, which suggests repeated dislocation of the left humeral head.
The left humerus was heavily eroded at the proximal
neck and humeral head, but some eburnation was
evident on the parts of the posterior humeral head
that remained. The right clavicle also exhibited
extreme thickening at the sternal end, which may
relate to the episodes of dislocation and perhaps
infection in the area. Most of the upper limb bones
exhibited reduced muscle attachments, probably
associated with reduction in mobility and old age.
All long bones were light for their size, suggesting
some osteoporosis, again related to the age of the
individual.
The left calcaneus exhibited a large lytic
depression on the medial aspect. There was also a
lytic depression on the proximal end of the left second metatarsal. The origin of these depressions is
unknown.
This elderly male was interred near the center of
a large rectilinear great kiva with three complete
ceramic vessels, a projectile point, and two shell
fragments. The placement of the burial alone would
suggest that the individual was of some importance
among the people belonging to that kiva group.
Though pollen samples could not be taken from this
burial, it could be postulated from other burials of
this period that the burial of this individual was
accompanied by a ceremony that included food
offerings and other perishable grave goods, as well
as the ceramic vessels that were recovered.
This individual was tall, even at his advanced
age, and had a long face compared to other burials
from the area. Toward the end of his life, he must
have required some assistance in eating (e.g., more
processing of his foods) and walking (e.g., because
of decreased muscle attachments). This person may
have been of value to his community and was buried
accordingly. To better understand this individual in
the context of the few other burials complete enough
and available for study from the area, a study was
done of all comparable cranial measurements within
the greater Mogollon area.
COMPARISONS AND DISCUSSION
The small sample of burials excavated during the
various phases of the Luna project have provided a
glance at the burial patterns and practices associated
with the interment of the dead at these sites, and
temporal variation in these patterns between the
Three Circle and Reserve/Tularosa phases. The predominance of child burials in our sample also provides evidence on the pathologies affecting the overall population in this group.
In the following discussion of the excavated
remains and their comparison with other assemblages from the Mogollon Highlands and the
Mimbres Mogollon, we will look at interment practices and burial patterns along with the physical
types represented among the burials of the Mogollon
area. Pathologies and cranial deformation patterns
will also be assessed, along with cranial anomalies
that may be significant for the study area.
Children
Six of the nine burials (66.6 percent) recovered during the various phases of the Luna project were
those of infants and children. These burials have
provided data on interment practices associated with
the young and evidence of trauma and infection
indicating that a variety of circumstances affected
the survivability of the younger segment of the population.
Other large Mogollon assemblages from the
Mimbres area (Woosley and McIntyre 1996; Anyon
and Le Blanc 1984) also have large numbers of
immature burials in their overall assemblages, but
these numbers are generally lower than those from
our small sample. From the Wind Mountain site in
the Mimbres area, 22 percent of the inhumations
were infants or children (Woosley and McIntyre
1996), while at Galaz Ruin, 36 percent of the inhumations were in this age category. Martin's (Martin
et al. 1957) burial sample from Jewett Gap pueblo
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
231
was approximately 32 percent children, while his
excavations at Higgins Flat pueblo (Martin et al.
1956) recovered thirteen children and two adults.
This suggests that our sample from the Mogollon
Highlands is probably too small to be clearly representative of the percentage of immature burials for
this area. Additionally, most of the other data available are skewed toward the analysis of adult individuals. In Hough's (1919) excavations at Luna
Village, he uncovered five children buried outside
one pit structure and another child interred within a
pit structure, and in Martin's (Martin et al. 1956)
Higgins Flat excavations, a note was made that the
analysis of a fragile child would provide little data
for the area. Though children were recovered in
these early samples, they were much less likely to be
fully analyzed when the collection of adult cranial
measurements was critical to the analyst (Nesbitt
1938; Martin et al. 1956; 1957; 1961). There is no
corresponding data on the probable cause of death in
other samples, but, as evident in our small sample,
children often did not survive trauma, infection, and
disease, which became minor only after the advent
of modern medical technology.
The child burial recovered from the edge of a
pit structure at LA 45507 had no associated grave
goods. This was the case with the remains of children recovered by Hough (1919) from this site, Ham
(1989) for Nan Ranch, Woosley and McIntyre
(1996) for Wind Mountain, and Anyon and LeBlanc
(1984) for Galaz. This is typical of pithouse village
burials throughout the Mogollon area. The four formal child and infant burials from the Reserve and
Tularosa phase sites excavated in the project area
were accompanied by one to six ceramic vessels.
The pollen and ceramic analysis suggest that the
burial of these children followed a ceremonial pattern similar to that of adults from the same time periods. Woosley and McIntyre (1989:279) and Anyon
and LeBlanc (1984:185-186) indicate that the methods employed in the interment of infants, children,
and adults converged during the Pueblo period in the
Mogollon area and that similar percentages from
each age category were accompanied by ceramics or
other grave associated goods.
To quantify and compare this trend in ceramic
association and age group, the small Luna sample
was examined with other samples relevant to the
study area (Fig. 4.65). Nesbitt (1938) was interested
in the association of grave goods with individuals
and found at Starkweather Ruin that 39 percent of
the adult inhumations had one or two ceramic vessels in association, and 33 percent of the child burials showed this association. This comparison also
232
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
held true for those adults and children having three
to five ceramic vessels in association, while adults
were the only category exhibiting large numbers of
vessels in grave associations. At NAN Ranch, 31
adult burials and 59 child inhumations had no vessels in association. The most frequent ceramic association was one or two vessels, a number found with
48 adult and 47 child interments (Ham 1989). NAN
Ranch dates to around A.D. 1000, and perhaps it
was this placement at the end of the Pithouse period
that influenced the lack of ceramics in some burial
contexts. In the Luna burial sample, the single adult
from the Pueblo period and the four infants all had
vessels in association, though two children were
associated with the most vessels. These associations
may reflect only the temporal placement of these
burials and the general ritual involved with interment for this time period, or it may reflect the care
given to these particular interments. The data to
make this distinction are not available from the samples at hand.
Adults
There were three adult burials in the Luna Project
sample. Only a single adult male from the Hough
site (LA 3279) had complete burial context and adequate element representation to be used for a comparison with other remains isolated in the study area.
Since the Luna burial was recovered from a Tularosa
phase site, only burials from the Pueblo period will
be used in comparison.
A number of burials excavated by the Museum
of New Mexico during the Whiskey Creek project
(Kayser 1971) are housed at the Maxwell Museum
of Anthropology. To increase the comparative data
set, a metric and nonmetric evaluation was done on
these remains. Though all remains were present,
most were fragmentary and heavily eroded, and only
six adult individuals were in adequate condition for
comparable data collection. Data collection focused
on metric and nonmetric cranial data to assess conclusions made by Nesbitt (1938) in his assessment
of individuals from Starkweather Ruin and their
comparison with individuals from the Caddoan area,
the Mimbres area, and the Upper Gila area.
It was clear from the initial cranial measurements and stature estimates that the remains of the
male from the great kiva at LA 3279 was not average for the Puebloan Southwest. His cranial measurements were 181 mm in maximum cranial length
and 142 mm in maximum cranial breadth. A stature
of 170.72 cm (5 ft 7 in ± 1 in) placed him with a
Figure 4.65. Comparison of adult and child burials and vessel associations.
small number of remains that were estimated as tall
individuals compared to the averages for the
Puebloan Southwest. These physical characteristics
are also true of a single individual recovered during
the Whiskey Creek project who had a maximum cranial length and breadth of 180 and 140 mm. This
adult male was recovered from a room at Apache
Creek pueblo (LA 2949), where grave associations
are unclear, but physical characteristics are similar
to those of the burial from LA 3279. The burial from
LA 3279 and that from Apache Creek (LA 2949) are
outliers compared to skeletal remains in the
Whiskey Creek sample (164 mm length and 120 mm
width) and to the averages for the Upper Gila region
(160 by 141 mm) and the Mimbres region (158 by
133 mm). A sample t-test was performed to compare
these cases to the Upper Gila and Mimbres averages.
Both outliers were significantly different from the
other samples. In the case of the adult male from LA
3279, who also was buried in a place of significance
and accompanied by a number of ceramic vessels,
shell, and a projectile point, some hierarchical differences may have existed. Frisbie (1978:220) suggests that high-status burials were evident in the
Mogollon area, especially during late Mogollon
times. He indicates that placement of the burial on a
site (e.g., in a kiva) and items accompanying the
burials were the primary lines of evidence used in
assigning a high-status burial. These lines of evidence, also taking unusual physical characteristics
into account, may apply to the elderly male from LA
3279.
Gilman (1990) suggests that no vertical or horizontal social differentiation exists in the Mimbres
area. She explains differences in grave associations
and placement as a difference in accrued wealth at
the indi vidual or family level. With the knowledge
that certain individuals exhibit physical characteristics that vary from the norm and distinguish them, in
addition to their burial in special locations and the
number of grave associations, this conclusion
should be reconsidered. In fact, increased ceramic
and other burial associations along with physical
distinctions may indicate that ascribed status existed
in the Mogollon area and is evident in both adult and
child burials.
CONCLUSIONS
The small number of burials recovered during the
Luna project excavations provide a springboard for
considering issues and proposing questions that may
enlighten our views of the past through further
analysis. The ratio of infants and children in our
sampleis similar to that of the remains recovered
from the Higgins Flat pueblo (Martin et al. 1956).
Though we do not have a full analysis of the Higgins
Flat remains, the high ratio of infants and children to
adults in both areas may be an artifact of the small
sample size, or it could reflect a mobility pattern not
usually considered to be a conventional part of
Pueblo period community behavior.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
233
The ritual interment of both children and adults
during the Pueblo period in the Mogollon Highlands
is similar to that throughout the Mogollon area. Both
children and adults are found in similar burial contexts and are accompanied by one or two ceramic
vessels and sometimes other grave goods. Some
researchers have interpreted this pattern as a lack of
social differentiation, but it is suggested here that a
closer look at burial location, amount and type of
accompanying grave goods, and physical characteristics of these inhumations provides evidence indi-
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
cating status differentiation for adults and children.
The elderly male from LA 3279 was interred in
a place of honor, but this alone does not suggest that
he held a place of higher status within his community. He was accompanied by a variety of grave goods,
but this also would not be a sufficient indicator of
accrued or ascribed status. However, combined with
his height, advanced years, severe dental attrition,
and reduced muscle attachments, which suggest he
depended on others for most of his needs, these lines
of evidence indicate social differentiation.
BONE TOOL ANALYSIS
Yvonne R. Oakes
There are few in-depth studies of prehistoric bone
tool assemblages and no mid-range experimentation, so to speak, on patterns of tool use or types of
materials upon which tools are used, such as the
studies on ground stone conducted by Zier (1981)
and Adams (1996), for example. This chapter provides a description of the 162 bone tool artifacts
recovered from the Luna Project and notes basic differences between them in form and, as much as possible, function. It also compares the assemblages
from sites representing the various cultural periods
in the Mogollon Highlands in order to assess potential cultural variability in tool selection and use.
METHODOLOGY
The overall research goal of the Luna Project was to
examine changing subsistence adaptations through
time and relate the findings to potentially increasing
dependency upon agriculture. Analysis of bone tool
artifacts may inform on activities carried out on the
various sites and indicate patterns related to agricultural or hunting practices through time. Species of
fauna used to produce bone tools is also useful in
assessing faunal availability and preference. The
Luna analysis describes the bone artifacts from each
site and classifies them by assumed function and
also by species. It also looks at the different tool
proveniences at sites as an indication of function at
various sites. Measurements were taken of all tools,
and type of modification, wear, portion of bone, and
completeness were recorded. A binocular microscope was used to examine wear patterns and degree
of polishing on some tools. Types of possible modification to produce the desired form include cutting,
scoring, splitting, breaking, grinding, drilling, and
shaping. Wear patterns may include various types of
striations, scraping, incising, polishing, and grooving and occur on specific portions of the tools.
Thermal alteration and potential reuse were also
recorded for each tool.
BONE TOOL CLASSIFICATIONS
Only a limited number of bone tool artifacts were
recovered from eight sites in the Luna Project. These
are listed and tabulated by site within cultural periods in Table 4.90. Many (38.9 percent) are fragmentary, and tool type is unidentifiable. However, the
majority are awls of different sizes modified in a
variety of methods. Other tool types are only minimally represented.
Table 4.90. Bone Tools by Cultural Period
Artifact
Pinelawn
San
Francisco
Three
Circle
Reserve
LA
39972
LA
70196
LA
4 5507
LA
3 9969
Indeterminate tool
1
Tularosa
LA
3279
LA
70185
Athabaskan
LA
39968
6
11
4
34
1
6
Awls
5
8
6
51
3
12
Preforms
1
1
1
1
Tubes
1
Scra pers
1
1
1
Spatulates
Total
1
1
Scoo ps
1
1
13
20
12
91
5
19
Pct
LA
37917
3
Shuttles
Total
1
63
38.9
86
53.1
4
2.5
3
1.9
2
1.2
2
1.2
1
.6
1
.6
162
100.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
235
Table 4.91. Types of Awl Points
Site
Fine
Med ium
Coarse
LA 70 196
1
1
LA 45 507
1
1
LA 39 969
1
Indeterminate
1
1
LA 70 185
LA 39 968
LA 32 79
5
LA 37 917
Total
Percent of total
2
5
6
8
4
6
3
3
6
3
3
12
5
8
33
51
1
1
7
15
13
51
86
8.1
17.4
1 5.2
89.3
100.0
Awls
The relatively large number of awls recovered from
the sites allows for comparisons of manufactured
types, suggested functions, and change through
time. Awls were generally used for perforating hides
or weaving baskets or mats of fibrous material
(Kidder 1932:203). Sizes usually vary from about 5
to 25 cm long, and the tool is shaped into a fine,
medium, or coarse point at one end. Variations in
thickness presumably represent use on materials of
differing degrees of toughness. Awls with very fine
tips are extremely fragile and subject to easy breakage. However, a number of fine-pointed awls were
recovered unbroken at the Luna Project, which
could indicate a nonutilitarian use of these tools.
Table 4.91 is a breakdown of awl tip types by site.
Many awls have been broken prehistorically, rendering their tip thickness unmeasurable. Medium- and
coarse-tipped awls seem to be equally present on
sites through time. Fine-tipped awls are less common and are only somewhat abundant at the Hough
site, a Late Tularosa phase site.
It is believed that modality in lengths of bone
awls could indicate differing uses for these implements (Breternitz 1982). Some sites exhibit a statistically valid variation between long and short awls,
while others, such as Pueblo Alto in Chaco Canyon,
do not (Miles 1987:659). On the Luna project, the
awl lengths display a normal curve (Fig. 4.66). The
mean length of 44 complete awls for all cultural
periods is 10.5 cm, with a range of 3.0-17.8 cm.
Three awls are distinctively shorter than the others
(3.0-4.2 cm), of which the shortest is thought to be
Athabaskan. Long awls measure over 12.5 cm.
When broken down by period, awl lengths indicate
no statistically significant
236
Total
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
differences, except for the Athabaskan example
(Fig. 4.67). The length of the implement may imply
functional variation, but it seems that thickness may
be a better measure of the ability to perform different tasks. Also, reduction through use is almost
impossible to detect on awls and certainly affects
interpretations based on length.
Kidder (1932:202), in a seminal study, compiled
lists of types of awls. Most are formed from the
ulnae or long bones of large mammals; however,
Figure 4.66. Length of awls (n = 44).
Figure 4.67. Mean length of awls by cultural period.
Table 4.92. Awl Formation Processes
Process
Hea d intact
LA
70196
LA
45507
LA
39969
1
Hea d split
1
Hea d reduced
2
Hea d removed
2
Splintered
1
Total
2
5
LA
70185
LA
39968
LA
327 9
LA
37917
Total
Percent
1
2
5
9
19.1
1
1
1
4
8.5
1
2
9
14
29.9
1
2
4
11
23.4
2
5
1
9
19.1
9
24
1
47
100.0
2
4
2
Figure 4.68. Preform with initial grooving prior to splitting.
ribs of mammals and shafts of bird bones are also
employed. In mammal long bones, types include (1)
head of bone left intact;(2) head of bone split; (3)
head of bone reduced; (4) head of bone removed;
and (5) splinters of long bones. Kidder's Types 1-3
retain a butt end for gripping the tool. Frequently,
these are the strongest awl types. Those with the
head removed are often the thinnest and have the
sharpest points (Kidder 1932:211). Some of the
finest awls are smoothed on all surfaces and are
round in cross section. Splinter awls are usually
expediently produced from remains of long bones.
Ends can be quickly sharpened to a workable point.
All else being equal, such as tip thickness, ease
of production seems to have had no bearing on the
type of awl-reduction process used. All types are
present at sites in the Mogollon Highlands. At LA
3279, a Late Pueblo roomblock, all forms are found
in many of the rooms. Splinter awls and those with
the head intact are the two easiest types to produce,
and yet Table 4.92 shows that neither is the most
common type made. Thus, we may not be able to
correctly interpret the processes that produced the
recovered awl forms. Splinters may be remains of
broken awls that once had heads as well as being
expediently used fragmentary long bones. Likewise,
those found with the head removed may have previ-
ously fractured at the junction of the head (if formed
from ulnae) and the shaft. Awls formed by splitting
long bones may have been less favored on Luna
sites because of the time involved to produce them
(Table 4.92). Figure 4.68 shows a preform partially
grooved as part of the initial process of splitting a
long bone. It was recovered from a small exterior
room at LA 39968.
Rib bone awls are frequently rounded at one end
and may have been used as shuttles for weaving and
as perforators. Sometimes, the end is flattened and
exhibits polish from use in rubbing against hides or
polishing interiors of small orifices of ceramic vessels, suggesting that these rib pieces were used in
more than one way. Bird bone awls were usually
made from the shafts of turkeys and can be quite
long.
Shuttles
Shuttles are formed from the rib bones, usually of
medium to large mammals, which are usually sawed
in half lengthwise. The tips are flat and rounded on
both ends. Shuttles are weaving implements, and
polish is commonly evident at midshaft, along with
grooving caused by fibers wearing into the bone
from repeated use.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
237
Tubes
Bone tubes are an ambiguous category because in
many cases they can also be classified as ornaments,
particularly large beads. If this type of bone artifact
is over 11.5 cm in length, Kidder (1932:263) calls it
a tube rather than a bead. Ends have sometimes been
smoothed or ground down. However, Hodge (1920)
suggests they may also have been used for drinking
or sucking, as handles for other tools, or as preforms
for flutes. Use for ceremonial purposes has also been
suggested because they have been recovered in bundled packages in burials and caches (Kidder
1932:266).
Scrapers
Scraping tools are generally made from the leg
bones (sometimes ulnae) of larger mammals and are
used for the scraping or rubbing of hides. On the
Luna project, one scraping/rubbing implement was
formed from an antler tine. On shaft bones, the distal end of the bone is usually tapered or cut so that
only a portion of the shaft remains. This end is then
ground down or smoothed to a rounded shape.
Sometimes these shaped ends are denticulated. High
polish from use is characteristically found on these
rounded ends.
Figure 4.69. Bone awls from LA 3279, head left
intact.
Spatulates
Spatulates are multipurpose tools with one wide,
flattened end and an awl projection at the other
extremity. The flattened end is also rounded on the
edges. Spatulates are usually formed from long
mammal bones. It has been suggested that they may
also be hairpins, delicate knives used in skinning
processes, or tools for the weaving of rush or yucca
mats or baskets (Kidder 1932:222).
BONE TOOLS BY SITE
LA 3279
This large Late Pueblo period site produced most of
the bone artifacts found on the Luna Project (N =
91). The majority of these are awls (56.0 percent;
Figs. 4.69-4.71). Other bone tools are minimally
represented and include a preform, tubes, a shuttle,
and a scoop (Fig. 4.72). LA 3279 also had the greatest diversity of bone tool types. A variety of awls
occurs in most of the rooms as well as the two probable storage rooms and the great kiva. Hide working
238
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
c
a
d
e
b
Figure 4.70. Bone awls, from LA 3279; (a-c) head
reduced; (d) splinter; (e) splinter with rubbing tool
on opposing end.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
239
b
c
e
Figure 4.71. Bone awls from LA 3279: (a) head removed; (b) small scraper, head reduced; (c) splinter; (d) head removed; (e) splinter; (f) head
reduced.
a
d
f
a
b
c
Figure 4.72. Bone tools; (a) tube, (b) shuttle, (c)
scoop.
and weaving (as inferred from the shuttle) are indicated as activities. The ratio of large bones to smaller sizes is actually lower at LA 3279 than at the
other sites. Large mammal bones provided 67.0 percent of the faunal species used for producing the
bone tools; however, a greater variety of other
species were also used than at any other site. These
include antelope, canid, jackrabbit, pocket gopher,
and turkey. The reasons for this variety in species
usage are unclear. The sample is too small to suggest
possible large mammal depletion; however faunal
resource depression is suggested for this site based
on faunal data in the following chapter.
LA 37917
Only one very small splinter awl was recovered
from this Athabaskan campsite. It was obviously
expediently made, and it is the crudest awl found at
Luna (Fig. 4.73). Such a small tool would be easy to
miss on survey but may be characteristic of the type
of awls produced by Athabaskan peoples.
LA 39968
This Tularosa phase roomblock has a bone tool
assemblage of 19 artifacts, 63.1 percent of which are
240
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Figure 4.73. Athabaskan splinter awl from LA
37917.
awls, along with a preform (Fig. 4.74). The preform
displays initial grooving of the bone prior to splitting of the head. All classifications of awls are represented, most deriving from the fill of the single pit
structure. Large mammals are the largest group of
faunal species represented (63.1 percent). Hide
working is suggested as a component of the activities performed at the site.
LA 39969
LA 39969 is a Reserve phase roomblock that produced only 12 bone tools. Fifty percent of these are
awls; however, one scraper and a shuttle were also
recovered (Fig. 4.75). The scraper was made from a
deer antler and is worn down and highly polished on
the tip. It may have been used for scraping material
from hides or for rubbing. The majority of tools are
from large mammals (66.6 percent). Seventy-five
percent of the tools derive from within the rooms,
mostly within the largest unit, Room 3. Weaving and
hide working are indicated.
LA 39972
Only one unidentifiable bone tool fragment was
recovered from the Pine Lawn phase portion of this
site. It was found in general fill and consists of a
piece of large mammal bone. No conclusions
regarding site activities can be made.
LA 45507
This large pithouse village produced 20 bone tools,
of which 40 percent are awls, and one is a spatulate
(Fig. 4.76). All were formed from large mammal
bones. Seventy percent of the tools were found within pithouses at the site. Pithouse 12 is the largest pit
structure, with features that may indicate communal
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
241
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
Figure 4.74. Awls from LA 39968; (a-b) head intact, (c) head reduced and ground, (d) head removed and end shaped, (e) head reduced, (f) splinter
with tip whittled, (g) head split, (h) head removed.
a
a
b
a
b
c
d
c
d
e
Figure 4.75. Awls and antler tool from LA 39969;
(a) head split, (b) head intact, (c) head reduced, (d)
head reduced and shaped, (e) antler tine with polish
on ends.
Figure 4.77. Awls and end scraper from LA 70196;
(a) end scraper, (b) awl with head intact, (c) antler
tine with ground tip, burned, (d) splinter awl,
burned.
use, and it contained 61.5 percent of the bone tools.
An additional indeterminate piece was recovered
from a trash pit and two tool fragments from a child
burial. The spatulate is fragmented but has the
beginning of the characteristic flattened end. The
awls on the site also suggest hide working.
a
b
LA 70185
LA 70185 is a Tularosa phase roomblock with a
bone tool assemblage of five artifacts, including
three awls and a preform (Fig. 4.76). All were
formed from large mammal bones. Sixty percent of
the tools are from the fill of the rooms. Hide working is implied.
c
d
LA 70196
e
Figure 4.76. Awls from LA 45507, (a) head
removed, (b) head split, (c) head reduced, (d) head
removed; (e) awl from LA 70185 with head reduced.
242
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
An assemblage of 13 bone tool artifacts was found
on this San Francisco phase pithouse site. Awls constitute 38.4 percent of the assemblage, along with a
single preform and a scraper (Fig. 4.77). The end
scraper is formed from a split large mammal bone
with the end rounded and flattened. Wear appears on
Table 4.93. Bone Tools by Faunal Species
Species
LA
39972
LA
70196
Small mammal
LA
45507
LA
39969
LA
701 85
1
Medium mammal
LA
3 9968
LA
3279
1
1
3
1.9
17
20
12.4
70
43.6
3
Large mammal
1
6
11
4
3
1
TOTAL
PCT
1
41
3
8
14
8.7
Indeter. mammal
2
Artiodactyl
1
2
2
1
5
5
17
10.6
Dee r
3
3
2
1
6
16
31
19.2
Antelop e
1
1
.6
Can id
1
Jackrabbit
1
1
.6
Pocket gopher
1
1
.6
Turkey
2
2
1.2
161
100.0
Total
1
13
1
LA
37917
16
12
one end of the cut side. The usual function of such
tools is the scraping of hides. The pithouse contained 91.6 percent of the bone tools, of which 76.9
percent are from large mammals. Hide working
seems to have been part of the activities carried out
at the site.
DISCUSSION
5
19
94
.6
1
resource depletion by the Pueblo period, about A.D.
1000, and the generally lower dependency on large
game material in this valley may reflect that depletion. By the end of the Pueblo period in the
Mogollon Highlands, LA 3279, in the Luna Valley,
may also have suffered from a reduction of
resources.
Table 4.94. Large Mammal Tools by Area
Faunal Species Used
Pine Lawn Valley
When the bone tools from the Luna project are tabulated by faunal species (Table 4.93), sites are seen
to be remarkably similar in their use of specific
fauna. Large mammals are the overwhelming choice
for bone tool production, a mean of 74.0 percent for
all sites. Small mammals account for 3.1 percent,
medium mammals 13.0 percent, birds 1.2 percent,
and indeterminates 8.7 percent. Besides the occasional use of small and medium-sized mammals, the
species selection is rather narrow. Deer and indeterminate artiodactyls are the preferred large mammals.
Only at the Late Pueblo site of LA 3279 are other
faunal species employed as material for bone tools:
canid, jackrabbit, pocket gopher, and turkey. As stated earlier, their use only at LA 3279 is somewhat
unusual, and may be related to resource depletion of
large mammals.
Luna Valley sites have a higher percentage of
large game bone use than Pine Lawn Valley sites,
except for LA 3279 (Table 4.94). It has been suggested that the Pine Lawn Valley was experiencing
Luna Valley
LA 7019 6 = 77.0 percent
LA 45507 = 1 00.0 percent
LA 3996 9 = 66.7 percent
LA 70185 = 1 00.0 percent
LA 3996 8 = 77.9 percent
LA 3279 = 67.0 percent
Provenience
Placement of bone tools within individual sites was
examined to help assess the function of specific
locations on the sites (Table 4.95). The majority of
tools at all sites was recovered from within rooms,
or from features within structures, a mean of 83.2
percent. However, only 4.3 percent of this total is
from floor contexts. All others are from structural
fill, suggesting that bone tools were originally on
roof tops that later collapsed or burned and fell into
room fill, or they were tossed into the fill as trash
items. Burning of roofs is evident at LA 70196, two
structures at LA 45507, LA 39968, and some rooms
at LA 3279. Bone tools are infrequently found outside of rooms, in trash deposits, in features such as
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
243
Table 4.95. Proveniences of Bone Tools
Provenience
General fill
LA
39 972
LA
70196
LA
45507
LA
39969
LA
70185
1
1
3
2
2
Trash
10
Floor
14
9
3
14
1
Outside
hearth
LA
3279
LA
3 7917
5
Total
1
2
1
12
20
20
12.4
3
1.9
77
127
78.9
6
7
4.3
1
.6
3
1.9
161
100.0
1
12
hearths, or with burials. Most were found in general
fill.
Several interesting observations can be made
about bone tool proveniences at several sites. At LA
3279, the Late Pueblo roomblock, most tools are
within rooms (91.2 percent): habitation rooms contain 43.0 percent, storerooms 20.9 percent, and the
great kiva 36.0 percent. The number of artifacts in
all types of structural units is between 1 and 31 per
unit. The storerooms yielded a mean of 9.0 tools,
while habitation rooms produced a mean of 5.2 per
room. However, one habitation room (with the most
interior floor features, evidence of ground stone use,
and storage pits) produced the highest count of bone
tools, 20.9 percent of the site total. This could be
fortuitous; however, the largest and most complex
room at LA 39969, with possible communal activities, also yielded 70.0 percent of all bone tools on
the site, as did Pit Structure 12 at LA 45507, Luna
Village, the largest, most architecturally complex,
and probably most communally oriented room, with
61.5 percent of all tools out of five structures. The
sample is actually too small to make significant
comparisons, but there could be a correlation
between large, high activity (possibly communal)
rooms at a site and the use of bone tools. Could we,
therefore, along with other characteristics, identify
possible communal rooms as those with the highest
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
5
19
Percent
2
1
Burial
244
5
1
Fill of room
Total
LA
39968
91
1
percentage of bone tools? Since awls are the vast
majority of tool types recovered on the Luna project,
does hide working (such as in clothing manufacture)
therefore become an activity performed mostly in
specialized communal areas?
CONCLUSIONS
Possible trends in the varying functions of awls of
different lengths and tip thicknesses, selection of
faunal species for tool use, the association of bone
tools with specialized activity rooms, and the possible identification of Athabaskan bone awls need to
be subjected to further comparisons among a wide
variety of sites. In general, bone tool use in the
Mogollon Highlands changes little through time.
Selection of faunal species is universally that of
large mammals. Only one Late Pueblo site adds
minor other faunal variants, and awl manufacture
maintains a consistent variety of types and thicknesses through time. A drop in large mammal bone
is noted at LA 3279, one of the last sites occupied in
the Mogollon Highlands (about A.D. 1300). This
decline may be a sign of resource depletion and
comparative data from other Late Pueblo period
sites seems to confirm this.
FAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES OF THE MOGOLLON HIGHLANDS
Yvonne R. Oakes
The research design for the Luna Project calls for an
evaluation of the role of agriculture in the subsistence system of prehistoric Mogollon peoples. To
arrive at a determination of dependency upon agricultural products, it is necessary to examine the
exploitation of faunal resources as opposed to
domesticates and wild plant foods. Does faunal
dependency change or lessen through time? Does
species utilization vary through time also?
The Mogollon Highlands are considered an
excellent habitat for economic wildlife. As part of an
upland environmental zone, large-sized game animals are prevalent here as well as preferred plant
foods. For species such as deer and elk as well as
small animals such as rabbits, the piñon/juniper zone
is the richest of all. Thickets and low trees provide
good browse and cover, and the open meadow areas
allow for sufficient grazing lands. Therefore, it is
expected that faunal resources would have provided
a dependable source of sustenance for Mogollon
peoples and that only increasing populations and the
ensuing competition for those resources, climatic
degradation, dwindling resources, or more intensive
agriculture would have led to a decrease in faunal
utilization. This chapter examines the role of faunal
species in the various Mogollon economic systems.
METHODOLOGY
All faunal material collected on the Luna Project
was analyzed by provenience and level within
proveniences. All bones were dry brushed and occasionally washed if needed and given a specific lot
number. Analysis data were entered into a computer-based SPSS program. Variables recorded during
analysis included taxon, number of individuals
recorded for each taxon within a specific provenience, general element, element portion, estimated
age, articulation, body part and side, completeness,
portions of fragmented pieces present, environmental alteration, animal alteration, the presence of
burning and its location, processing indications and
location, type of human modification, length, width,
and thickness.
Identification of species was performed with the
OAS comparative collection. Unidentified bones
were further compared with collections at the
Museum of Southwestern Biology at the University
of New Mexico. All taxa were identified to the lowest level possible. If specimens were unidentifiable,
gross taxonomic categories were used. The minimum number of individuals (MNI) was not determined for this assemblage by the faunal analyst, but
a count of specimens (NISP) was.
SPECIES FOUND AT THE PROJECT
All species recovered from the Luna Project are
indigenous to the Mogollon Highlands, an upland
zone of mountains, foothills, canyons, and narrow
valleys. A wide variety of animal types appear at 20
of the 25 sites examined. A total of 11,794 faunal
remains were found (Table 4.96). Absent from the
assemblage (and assumed not to have been utilized
as food) are grizzly bear, mountain lion, javelina,
and beaver, known to have been present in the area
in prehistoric times. The largest identifiable category of fauna is artiodactyl (Table 4.97).
Miscellaneous Taxa
Forty percent of all fauna collected on the Luna
Project are miscellaneous species. These include
fauna that are only identifiable by size or are of
unknown type, therefore Table 4.98 includes only
small, medium, and indeterminate mammals. Large
mammals are usually considered to be artiodactyls
and are counted as such (Akins 1998a:336). Small
mammals are generally lagomorphs or rodents, but a
distinction cannot be made. Therefore, these two
classes of mammals are undoubtedly much greater
in number than the species counts indicate. Of interest is the overall lack of predominance of any of the
three classifications, except at individual sites.
Artiodactyls
In comparison to sites in other areas of southwestern
New Mexico, there are a large percentage (35.2 percent) of artiodactyls present at the Luna sites (Table
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
245
4.97). However, percentages of artiodactyls at the
more substantial sites range from 11.6 to 63.0 percent. Percentages available for other sites in the
region include LA 5407, which contained 22.1 percent of artiodactyl bone (Akins 1998b:451), which
the author considers to be low. Wind Mountain, at a
lower elevation and in a less mesic environment, had
19.4 percent (Olsen and Olsen 1996). In an even
more xeric location, the Ormand site contained 58.9
percent of artiodactyls (Akins 1998a:337), but the
Galaz Ruin had only 4.8 percent (Anyon and
LeBlanc 1984:216). Deer, in particular, are known
to prefer highland environments, especially
piñon/juniper zones. However, the discrepancies in
percentages are apparently not related solely to environmental conditions. Shaffer and Schick
(1995:128) suggest that other contributing factors
may lead to variations in artiodactyl frequencies
such as resource depletion of an area, human population size, and prey preference.
The majority of identifiable artiodactyl are deer
(both white-tailed and mule deer), which are prevalent in the area today. As late as 1885, near the WS
Ranch, Navajo scouts killed 84 deer in just a few
days, saving the skins and intestines, and making
jerky of the meat (French 1990:88,98). Antelope,
bighorn sheep, bison, and elk are much less common
in the faunal assemblages (Table 4.99), but all are
still found in the area today. They occur mostly in
the San Agustin Plains, northeast of the study area.
Antelope have also been recovered at two early
Mogollon sites bordering the plains, Bat Cave and
Tularosa Cave. Their remains were present at nine
(36.0 percent) of the Luna Project sites. Bighorn
sheep were found at five of the sites, elk at four, and
bison at three. Bighorn sheep have also been recovered at the SU site (Martin and Rinaldo 1947:288),
Bat Cave (Dick 1965:64), Tularosa Cave (Heller
1976:14), and the Gallo Mountain sites (Akins
1998b:259). Elk would have been prevalent in prehistoric times but do not appear to have been a major
prey species. All of the sites with bison bone are in
the Luna Valley, suggesting possible major procurement areas in the grasslands to the north toward Red
Hill or to the northwest in nearby eastern Arizona.
Amick (1996:12) suggests they may have also been
on the San Agustin Plains in Paleoindian times.
Bison have also been found at Tularosa Cave
(Hough 1914:5), LA 5407 in the Gallo Mountains
(Heller 1976:60), Bear Ruin near Showlow, Arizona
(Haury 1941:15), Mogollon Village (Haury
1936b:6), and in the Pine Lawn Valley at Turkey
Foot Ridge (Martin and Rinaldo 1950b:350), the
Sawmill site, and Higgins Flat (Berman 1979:51,
246
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
67). Thus, most artiodactyls show fairly general spatial patterning within the Mogollon Highlands.
Antelope, bison, and bighorn sheep procurement
would have involved slightly more travel than deer
and elk; however, antelope and bison are herd animals, and more of them can be obtained at one time
with little increase in cost.
Rabbits
Rabbits are the second most common animal recovered in the faunal assemblages (8.6 percent, compared to 35.2 percent for artiodactyls), indicating
their probable use as dietary items. Both cottontail
and jackrabbits are represented. Cottontail bones
exceed those of jackrabbits (63.4 percent and 32.9
percent, respectively; Table 4.100), almost 2:1. At
no site with more than 15 rabbit bones do jackrabbits outnumber cottontails. Szuter (1989) notes that
agricultural field clearing creates a better environment for jackrabbits, who tolerate open spaces better. She suggests that jackrabbits should predominate at later Pueblo sites dependent on agriculture.
Interestingly, this is definitely not the case at the
Luna Project sites, which could indicate that fields
were not close to sites, or that there were no large
plots of agricultural land.
Birds
Ten varieties of bird species constitute 8.3 percent of
the faunal assemblage from the Luna sites (Table
4.101), including two that are water-seeking ducks
and mallards. Numbers for individual species are
generally low, suggesting that use of birds such as
Mexican jays, quail, and hawk was not subsistence
oriented. Ceremonial use of ravens, hawks, and
other birds cannot be ruled out, however (Clark
1998:34, 35). The majority of the bird population is
composed of turkey, which was recovered at seven
(or 35.0 percent) of the project sites. Wild turkey are
not uncommon in the Mogollon Highlands today,
particularly in the Oak Springs/Dry Leggett area,
and their use prehistorically as a food source is well
documented. However, our analysis can only confirm a few instances of probable food use.
It has long been thought that nondomestication
of wild turkeys is a characteristic of the prehistoric
Mogollon Highlands (Reed 1956:12; Bluhm 1957);
however, there are hints that there actually may have
been some domestication. At Tularosa Cave, desiccated eggs, turkey droppings, and presence of corn
and beans in the stomach contents of turkeys (Heller
1976) suggest some degree of domestication.
Berman (1979:39) believes a portion of the cave
also may have been used as turkey pens. Large
quantities of turkey dung were also found at LA
4989, a late Tularosa phase site in the Gallo
Mountains (Kayser 1972:12). The keeping of
turkeys has been documented at late Mogollon
pueblos in nearby eastern Arizona. The earliest
turkey remains in the region are from Tularosa Cave
and are thought to date between 300 and 150 B.C.
(Heller 1976:61). However, finds seem to be more
prevalent in Pueblo period sites than in Pithouse
period ones. Pithouse sites with turkey remains
include Luna Village (this report), Turkey Foot
Ridge (Martin and Rinaldo 1950b:350), the SU site,
the Promontory site (Linskey 1975:257), Mogollon
Village (Haury 1936b:1), and Fence Corner (this
report). It is known that later in time, the Western
Apache kept turkeys and traded them to Zuni Pueblo
as they got older (Ferg and Kessel 1987:86).
Rodents
Rodent populations on the Luna sites were fairly
small. The two largest sites (LA 3279 and LA
45507) had the highest frequencies. The majority of
rodents were prairie dog, pocket gopher, or woodrat,
accounting for 78.0 percent of all rodents recovered
(Table 4.102). All taxa may have been considered
edible by prehistoric peoples in the Mogollon
Highlands, particularly prairie dogs (Bailey
1971:124,125). Prairie dogs were probably not a primary choice as food items, but were eaten when
other populations were exhausted or running low.
However, Basso (1971:97) reports that Apache
youth often hunted pack rats. They would catch
them and put the animals directly into a fire and burn
off all the hair. The rats were then skinned and roasted or boiled. However, many rodents from the Luna
Project sites may represent nondietary animals
inhabiting site areas.
Carnivores
Carnivores make up only 1.3 percent of the Luna
faunal assemblage, 66.8 percent of them dog, wolf,
or coyote (Table 4.103). No domestication of canids
is evident at the sites, such as large amounts of
gnawing on discarded bones. Although prevalent in
the Mogollon Highlands, carnivores were not common food items, but they may have been hunted for
specific ornamental or ceremonial parts, such as the
claws of bears. More often, carnivores were killed
because they were life-threatening or a menace to a
community. Most carnivore remains were from the
large, late Tularosa phase pueblo of LA 3279
(Hough site); however, 77.8 percent of all raccoons
were recovered from LA 45507, a Late Pithouse village. Their number suggests purposeful killing, but
for what purpose is unknown.
Amphibian/Reptiles
Only 49 elements were recovered, representing
three species: frog/toad, snake, and turtle (Table
4.104). The snakes and frog/toads all probably
occurred on the sites as postdepositional deposits;
however, turtles may have been food items, and their
shells are often integral parts of ceremonial gear.
Fish
Fish are the least common faunal material, constituting .1 percent of the total assemblage (Table 4.105).
Suckers and catfish were the only two types of fish
recovered. Suckers were mostly (83.3 percent) from
LA 3259, a Late Pueblo site on the banks of the San
Francisco River. The two elements of catfish were
from LA 39969, an early Reserve phase site on the
SU Canyon drainage, which leads into the San
Francisco River at a distance of 6.4 km. The eating
of fish is not common among Indian groups; however, fishing is frequently depicted on bowls from
the Mimbres area to the south. The Apache, on the
other hand, seem to have had a definite taboo against
eating fish (Basso 1971:31; Kessel 1971:150).
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES BY SITE
LA 3279
This Late Pueblo period site, with 5,462 pieces of
bone, accounts for 46.3 percent of all fauna recovered from the project (Table 4.106). Of most interest, however, are the differences in floor and thermal
assemblages between the numerous rooms, which
are listed by broad species category and described
below (Table 4.107). Most room floors are lacking
the low-frequency species of carnivores, amphibians, and fish. The 474 identifiable taxa recovered
from the floor contexts at the site break down as
shown in Table 4.108.
Artiodactyls (or large mammals) appear to be
the single most common faunal type found on the
floors of LA 3279. However, when combining small
mammals with rabbits and rodents, this category
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
247
outnumbers large mammals by 49.1 percent to 32.5
percent. When looking at thermal features, the difference is even greater: 41.0 percent small mammals
are found within hearths compared to 21.9 percent
large mammals. Yet, for the site as a whole, large
mammals do outnumber smaller ones by 34.2 percent to 29.6 percent, a difference, however, of less
than 5 percent. The majority of the large animal
remains were found within the upper fill of the great
kiva. When considering floor and hearth assemblages, large animals seem to be used less for food
than small mammals. Room 10 had the highest percentage of large mammals at 61.0 percent, above the
single standard deviation expected. This is a small
room thought to have been used originally for storage but later converted to living quarters. It contained a hearth, which also had high numbers of
large mammal bone. Somewhat unusual taxa found
on other floors include three bighorn sheep, two
ducks, a badger, and a high number of turkey bones.
In Room 9, different species include two muskrat, a
crow, a turtle, and a canid.
Medium-sized mammals within the great kiva
are higher in number than statistically expected (20
percent). They were also the most frequently found
faunal type within the excavated hearths. Mammals
of this size include fox, badger, dog, wolf, coyote,
badger, and bobcat, all found at the site. However,
this category may also include smaller artiodactyls
such as the young or immature. The consumption of
medium-sized mammals is perhaps an indication of
the lack of availability of larger mammals and/or the
use of less preferred species as food items. The reason for their higher frequency within the great kiva
is unknown.
There is a large percentage of rodents in Room
5, probably post-depositional because the room had
been excavated prior to OAS work and contained
looser fill. Identifiable rodents within room hearths
or ash pits on the site are minimal and include a
vole, prairie dog, pocket gopher, woodrat, and squirrel. However, thermal features also contained five
canids, a red fox, red-tailed hawk, and a frog/toad.
The canids, fox, squirrel, and prairie dog were all
calcined, indicating they were not postdepositional
occurrences.
Hearths and other thermal features within
rooms, such as ash pits, contained 256 identifiable
faunal remains. The contents of these hearths suggest that all sizes of fauna were being consumed
(Table 4.109). While only 8.2 percent of the remains
are identified as rabbit, many of the unidentified
small mammals may also be of this taxa, increasing
248
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
their number to a dominant position. Of interest is
the fact that only 2.7 percent of the bird bones
(and/or turkey) displayed burning, indicating that
these also were not postdepositional occurrences.
In summary, occupants of LA 3279 subsisted on
a wide variety of fauna; however, small and medium-sized mammals seem to have been the most utilized, followed closely by artiodactyls. Turkey
remains are prevalent in the fill of rooms and on
floors, but only a small percent (.4-2.7) were recovered from hearths. This could suggest that turkeys
were being kept alive, but there were no signs of
turkey pens within the rooms excavated by OAS.
The large variety of seldom-used fauna found as calcined specimens (rodents, birds, and canids) in
hearths indicates these species were also being consumed. The presence of these somewhat less preferred taxa may suggest subsistence stress was
occurring at the site because these are not considered primary food items.
Within the great kiva, there are no outstanding
additions or lack of particular species. Two canid
bones, both burned, were recovered from the hearth
(along with other species) and one each from the
two footdrums. Within the footdrums were also
deer, rabbit, turkey, and Mexican jay bones, along
with several burrowing rodent species. The burial pit
containing an elderly male yielded several large and
medium-sized mammals and rabbit, bird, and redtailed hawk remains. The association of the hawk
with a person thought to have had some degree of
prominence in the community may have ceremonial
significance.
LA 3563
The pit structure at LA 3563 dates to the Three
Circle phase, ca. A.D. 900-1000, and was initially
dug by Paul Martin in 1949. He also dug an adjacent
Reserve phase roomblock, filling the pit structure
with uncurated items from the roomblock. It was not
possible during OAS excavations to separate the
fauna by occupation period. Table 4.110 gives faunal species recovered from the pit structure but does
not separate them by phase.
LA 37917
Only four pieces of mid-to-large-sized mammal
bones were recovered from the site, which may date
to the Archaic period. One is a deer fragment. All
were burned and found together in a charcoalstained area on the south side of the site.
LA 39968
Fauna from the different cultural features at this
Tularosa phase site are given in Table 4.111.
However, the only unit with substantial numbers of
fauna is the pit structure. Roof fall was easily
detectable during excavation, and comparative faunal data from roof fall, floor, and hearth are given in
Table 4.112.
The roof fall contained 2 canids and 14 king
snakes, not found in the rest of the site assemblage.
The large number of one type of snake suggests a
nest, but how all died at once is unknown. Small
mammals are the predominant type of fauna in roof
fall, as in the other areas of the pit structure. A variety of rodents was recovered from the pit structure
floor, including 1 pocket gopher, 15 woodrats (9
individuals), 2 prairie dogs, and 1 kangaroo rat.
Their presence in the hearth suggests they were subsistence-related. An unusual number of frog/toads
were found on the floor (N = 20) and one in the
hearth. Because of the one in the thermal feature, it
may be that frog/toads were food items. Of the 32
faunal bones from the hearth, there were two gray
fox, one frog/toad, seven kangaroo rat, 1 woodrat,
and one prairie dog, none of which are usually considered food staples.
The variety of rodents and medium-sized mammals recovered from the floor and hearth of the pit
structure suggests that a wide mix of animal food
was being consumed. The artiodactyl percentages
for all levels within the pit structure are extremely
low in comparison to other sites and indicate low
reliance on larger mammals. Subsistence stress may
been occurring at the site during its occupation.
LA 39969
For the size of LA 39969, with three rooms and outside work areas, the faunal remains are few in number (Table 4.113). A comparison between the rooms
seems most warranted when looking at faunal utilization. The faunal assemblage is quite different
from the nearby, but somewhat later, site of LA
39968. LA 39969 dates to the Early Reserve phase
and displays no shortage of artiodactyls, heavy use
of rodent species, or utilization of less desirable animal food. Two catfish bones were recovered from
Room 3, and while fish are not often found at northern Mogollon sites, their presence is not a surprise
here because the San Francisco River flows a short
distance away. Room 2 contained only a small
amount of bone, whereas Rooms 1 and 3 had an
almost equal distribution of species. Both rooms are
very high in artiodactyl representation, suggesting
processing of these large mammals (including deer,
pronghorn, and bighorn sheep) or short-term storage. However, turkey and fish appear only in Room
3. Subsistence stress is not indicated in the existing
percentages.
LA 39972
The site is multicomponent with a limited number of
fauna recovered from the surface scatter (Table
4.114). The trash pit is related to a Reserve phase
occupation of the site, and general fill is mixed with
Early Pithouse period material. Turkeys and birds
(probably turkeys) dominate the assemblage with
also a fair number of rabbits and small mammals.
Artiodactyl remains were not found in the trash pit.
The assemblage is too small to determine subsistence patterns for the Reserve phase and too mixed
to determine what fauna are associated with the earlier pithouse occupation.
LA 39975
While 100 pieces of faunal bone were recovered
from this Early Pithouse period site, few were from
within the pit structures or pits (Table 4.115). Large
mammals dominate the entire assemblage (63.0 percent). This amount is expected if the premise holds
true that early Mogollon settlers were primarily
hunter/gatherers utilizing domestic crops only as
supplemental to their subsistence regime.
LA 43766
This is a mixed-component site with an Archaic
roasting pit overlain by fill from an eroded Pueblo
roomblock upstream. Fortunately, the two can be
separated (Table 4.116). Because the Pueblo material is secondarily deposited, it is difficult to assess
except to note that artiodactyls dominate (57.4) percent. Use of small mammals, such as rabbits, is minimal. The Archaic roasting pit contained only one
deer fragment and six rabbit or small mammal
bones. The site is a short-term campsite, and the
fauna represented would be locally available to a
group on the move.
LA 43786
Only 22 pieces of bone were found on the outside
surface of this Three Circle site. All are artiodactyls
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
249
(including deer and antelope). Too few remains were
found to suggest subsistence patterns.
LA 45507
The five pit structures at this Three Circle village
site provide a good opportunity for intrasite comparisons. Table 4.117 presents a listing of all fauna
found on the site. Table 4.118 gives comparative
data from pit structures. Room 12 is divided into two
columns because of a later occupation in the upper
fill of the structure.
All structures fall within expected percentages
for the site, with a few minor exceptions. Pit
Structure 1 has a high percentage of rodents, which
may be a result of its shallow depth (less burrowing
involved). Room 9 has an extremely low count
because only a small portion of the room was intact
prior to excavation. Room 12 has an unusually high
number of faunal bones because a later, temporary
Pueblo occupation utilized the upper portion of the
pit structure. Therefore, only the count for roof fall
and floor of Room 12 was used in statistically comparing the rooms, not the upper level. It has been
suggested elsewhere that Room 12 was perhaps ceremonial in nature because of its large size, surrounding bench, and complex ventilation system.
However, no rare or unusual faunal remains were
present in this room (or any other at the site). The
most uncommon remains were ten prairie falcons, a
hawk, bighorn sheep, and a Mexican jay in Room
12. The large number of birds may indicate selection
for ceremonial purposes (Clark 1998:34-35).
Artiodactyls appear in high percentages in the
rooms, but if rabbits, small mammals, and rodents
are consolidated, then small, secondary economic
food sources surpass artiodactyls. Pit Structure 13
has slightly higher percentages of rabbit and bird,
indicating, again, a balanced diet of large and small
mammals. An evenly mixed diet of large and small
mammals is suggested for the site, signaling some
degree of subsistence stress.
The upper level of Pit Structure 12 contains a
more diverse array of fauna, including the only
turkeys and frog/toads on the site. The absence of
identifiable turkey on the rest of the site is surprising
and suggests they probably were not food items.
This upper level also has the lowest artiodactyl percentage of all site units.
A burial pit overlying Pit Structure 12 contained
seven faunal remains: one deer, one cottontail, one
woodrat, two kangaroo rats, one rodent, and one
unidentified. Only the deer bone can be assumed to
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LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
be purposefully placed within the pit.
A large fire pit outside of Pit Structure 12 contained 356 bones: 88 small mammal (24.7 percent),
81 medium mammal (22.8 percent), 5 rodent (1.4
percent), 3 rabbit (.8 percent), 175 artiodactyl (49.2
percent), and 4 bird (1.1 percent). It is thought to
date to the same time period as the upper fill of
Room 12 (post-A.D. 1000).
LA 45508
Only 13 faunal remains were recovered from the
site. Ten of these were from Pit Structure 1, dating to
the Georgetown phase (Table 4.119). Seventy percent of these were large mammals or artiodactyls.
On the floor were a pocket gopher, prairie dog, and
a medium-sized mammal. These are probably intrusive, because no hearth or indication of food processing was evident within the pit structure.
LA 70185
At this small Pueblo roomblock, there were surprisingly few faunal remains. The lack of pottery and
tools on the floors suggests the roomblock was
cleaned out at abandonment, hence also the paucity
of bone (Table 4.120). There are more than twice as
many small mammals, rodents, and rabbits present
as artiodactyls (58.9 percent and 27.2 percent,
respectively). If these percentages are correct and
smaller animals were used as food items, then subsistence stress may have occurred. However, the
small assemblage size makes this speculative.
LA 70188
This Archaic site is somewhat unique in that it contained one pit structure and several associated pits.
Fauna was recovered from all of these features and
are shown in Table 4.121. A comparison between
the various pits is given in Table 4.122. The faunal
assemblage is heavily weighted toward artiodactyls
at a mean of 74.4 percent within the various pits. It
is interesting that no rodents were present on the
entire site. While artiodactyls are high and rabbits
and small mammals low within the pits, the units are
not quite alike in their assemblages. The pit structure
has medium-sized mammals, a carnivore, and a bird.
It is low in small mammals and artiodactyls. Pit 2
has the only occurrence of rabbits, while Pit 3 has
the largest number of small mammals, which may be
rabbits. Differential use of space (i.e., pits) may be
implied. In general, though, it is apparent that large
mammals make up the large majority of site fauna,
an indication of heavy reliance on large game by the
occupants of this short-term Archaic base camp. The
low number of rabbits and small mammals, together
with the lack of rodents, suggests only incidental use
of small-sized animals.
LA 70196
The site contained one pit structure dating to the San
Francisco phase. However, numerous fauna were
found within the pithouse (Table 4.123). The roof
had burned and collapsed into the structure, creating
a division between roof fall, floor fill, and floor
(Table 4.124). The fill above roof fall in the upper
levels of the pithouse contained most of the rodents,
suggesting nonutilization by site occupants. The
floor fill was slightly above one standard deviation
for artiodactyls, indicating their probable use in processing or for consumption. The roof fall had few
faunal remains, so the fact that this level was statistically higher in medium-sized mammals and birds
probably is not meaningful.
In general, it appears that the site population
relied heavily on artiodactyls as a source of food
and, to a moderate degree, turkey also. Rodent and
rabbit counts indicate minimum use as dietary
resources. Subsistence stress cannot be substantiated
for this site.
LA 70201
Because the site is redeposited with eroded materials from three different pithouse phases
(Georgetown, San Francisco, and Three Circle) at
Turkey Foot Ridge, not much can be said about the
ten faunal bones recovered from excavations (Table
4.125). Most of the bone is from large mammals or
artiodactyls (70 percent).
LA 75791
Only 13 pieces of faunal bone were recovered from
this shallow site, which appears to have been inundated at least once by the overflowing of the nearby
Dry Leggett stream. The site is important, however,
because Pit Structure 2, which contained seven
burned large mammal remains, is believed to date to
the Athabaskan period (Table 4.126). From this we
can infer the hunting and cooking of large mammals
at the site by Athabaskan peoples.
LA 75792
The site is a small Reserve phase roomblock with
only an outside ramada area and adjacent surface
excavated. Twenty pieces of bone were recovered;
however, only three were identifiable and proved to
be large mammal. Processing of these fauna may
have occurred in the area of the ramada.
LA 78439
This is a multicomponent site with an Archaic roasting pit and several hearths from a short-term campsite of the Late Pueblo period (Table 4.127). The
Archaic roasting pit contained 17 fragments of indeterminate mammal. The two Pueblo period hearths
yielded three large mammal bones, two of them
heavily burned.
LA 89846
Several Archaic roasting pits were buried under cultural fill from a later Pueblo period occupation upslope from the site. Faunal remains were recovered
from both roasting pits (Table 4.128). Most remains
in both pits were from small mammals and indeterminate species. Only one artiodactyl bone was
recovered. All of the small mammal bones were
burned. Finding more small than large mammals in
the roasting pits is uncharacteristic of Archaic sites.
Of course, there could be many logical reasons why,
at that particular moment in time, small game was
taken, such as the possibility that women were gathering in nearby areas and caught small animals that
happened to be present.
LA 89847
This site is the result of cultural materials washing
downslope from the hill above the site area.
Numerous faunal bone were recovered (Table
4.129). The vast majority (88.0 percent) were from
large mammals, including elk and bison. The hilltop
site is thought to represent several cultural periods.
Therefore, the deposits within the highway right-ofway are likely to be temporally mixed.
TAPHONOMIC PROCESSES
A variety of taphonomic processes can occur on faunal remains, such as weathering, pitting, sun bleach-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
251
ing, checking or exfoliation, and root etching. Very
few bones from the Luna faunal assemblage exhibited any of these environmental alterations. This
suggests that bone remains were generally well
buried at the various sites soon after deposition and
not particularly subject to weathering and sun damage. The examples were too few to detect any patterns on the sites. Likewise, nonhuman processes
such as rodent or carnivore gnawing and tooth punctures were rare and not a factor in the examination of
the faunal assemblage.
FAUNAL RESOURCES AND SUBSISTENCE
NEEDS
One research goal for the Luna Project was to evaluate the dependency on agriculture through time
within the various subsistence systems of the
Mogollon people. One means of determining that
dependency is through the study of faunal exploitation and availability. This chapter specifically examines the role of large versus small mammals within
the many prehistoric periods or phases associated
with the Mogollon Highlands. For assessment purposes, large mammals are those classified as large
(no species given) or as artiodactyl, which, in this
assemblage, includes mostly deer, but also pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and bison. Small mammals
include those identified only as small and also all
rabbits and rodents. These two broad classifications
provide a good data base from which to evaluate
faunal utilization within the highlands area.
Large mammals, particularly deer, are considered the preferred choice of food for prehistoric
groups. Their size allows for the feeding of a number of people at one killing, and the body parts can
be used in a variety of ways, such as for bone tools,
sinew, pouches, clothing, blankets, and ceremonial
accoutrements. However, large animals are not as
plentiful in the environment as smaller ones and can
become overexploited and therefore depleted fairly
easily, thus causing an imbalance in resource availability. If this occurs, the taking of smaller-sized animals for subsistence needs increases out of necessity.
Figure 4.78 is a comparison of the amounts of
large versus small fauna through time. Based on percentages of these fauna in the Luna assemblage,
there appear to be ample numbers of large game
early in the prehistoric sequence in the Archaic period and in the following Pinelawn and Georgetown
phases. While small game may also have been plentiful, their presence on sites is minimal, suggesting
little exploitation. In general, the percentage of large
game at Mogollon sites decreases through time,
while small game numbers rise.
However, during the Late Pithouse period
(Three Circle phase), the percentage of large game
takes a larger drop and is almost virtually matched
90
large
small
80
70
PERCENT
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Archaic
Three
Pinelawn/
San
Georgetown Francisco Circle
PHASE
Figure 4.78. Percentage of large and small fauna by phase.
252
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Reserve
Tularosa
by small game. Large game are obviously not being
procured in this phase to the degree they were earlier, presumably because of a lack of availability,
which was probably caused by overexploitation.
The using of a resource without allowing for natural
regeneration of that resource may often be the result
of population pressure. In the Three Circle phase,
there may simply have been too many mouths to
feed at this time, when villages had become quite
large and mostly sedentary, settling in specific
locales for greater lengths of time. The following
Reserve phase is a time of major change in the highlands in which settlements scattered to locations
higher in elevation and in underutilized areas. Also,
new architectural forms and ceramic types appear at
this time. The movement to new locales may well be
the result of having to leave the depleted resource
bases of the large Three Circle villages. Large game
faunal procurement rises again during the Reserve
phase as new territories are opened up. However,
with the massive aggregation that occurs in the
Tularosa phase, large mammal presence on sites
drops to an all-time low of 32.4 percent, while small
game counts exceed that of large game for the first
time in the prehistory of the Mogollon Highlands
(Fig. 4.78). These low percentages again may reflect
population pressure on faunal resources. The imbalance in availability of large versus small game may
indicate longer-term damage to the ecosystem in a
time when adequate faunal resources were not available, possibly contributing to the abandonment of
the region during this time.
Another measure of resource depression of large
game is the artiodactyl index developed by Szuter
and Bayham (1989) and tested in the southern
Mogollon area by Cannon (1998) and the Luna
Project. The index presents a ratio of artiodactyls (or
large mammals) in an assemblage to the number of
artiodactyls and rabbits (or small game) combined,
whereby artiodactyls ÷ artiodactyls + rabbits =
index. Cannon (1998:8) notes that a decline in the
values of the indices over time in a given area is considered evidence of resource depletion. Other factors that can influence the indices, however, include
small sample size, bias in collecting faunal samples,
screen size greater than 1/4 inch (or no screen used),
and spatial variability in sites (including both location and elevation). Cannon (1998:19) warns of difficulties in comparing sites for temporal variability
if spatial variability exists. The Luna Project has
corrected for spatial variability by dividing index
results into two areas of study, Reserve (including
the Pine Lawn Valley) and Luna (Table 4.130).
Resource depression usually occurs in periods
of high population density or when settlements are
large and basically permanent (Cannon 1998:7). It is
often accompanied by intensification or diversification when groups take a greater variety of resources,
including those that offer a lower return for their
efforts. The prey choice model of foraging theory
likewise states that resources with higher caloric
return are preferred, and lower return resources are
taken only when higher ones are not available
(Stephens and Krebs 1986). Greater emphasis on
domesticated plants is another response to faunal
depletion (Shaffer and Schick 1995:118). Table
4.130 indicates that there is a decrease in large game
abundance over time in both the Reserve and Luna
areas (see also Fig. 4.78). In the Reserve area, the
drop is dramatic and temporally significant. Large
game abundance in this area in the Archaic period
and following Pinelawn phase is not surprising,
given the postulated low population densities and
richness of this environment. From our settlement
pattern studies (this report), we know that during the
later Reserve phase in the Pine Lawn Valley, sites
disperse and shift out of the valley, probably because
of the overpopulation and overexploitation of
resources. By the ensuing Tularosa phase, very few
sites remain in the area. Therefore, it may be for this
area specifically that an index of about 0.60 or lower
is a sign of resource depression, indicating only a
slightly higher reliance on large game compared to
small. The taking of small game such as rabbits and
birds is relatively inefficient and likely not pursued
by choice (Cohen 1985:102). Certainly, by the
Tularosa phase, resource depression is highly evident at LA 39968 (Spurgeon Draw), with an index
of only 0.14. Settlement pattern studies indicate this
is also the time when the Pine Lawn Valley and surrounding area is almost completely abandoned.
In the Luna area, the indices are not quite as
clear-cut, and this may be, in large part, due to several small sample sizes. The Archaic period is represented by LA 89846, a temporary campsite containing two roasting pits with few faunal remains. The
index of 0.36 for this site tends to indicate a high
dependence on food other than large game. This
could be true; however, the site is likely not representative of the full spectrum of subsistence activities of site occupants. LA 45508, while low in sample size, seems to generally mimic the pattern found
in the Reserve area for the Pinelawn phase, that of
high dependence on large game. The low index of
0.32 for the Tularosa phase site of LA 70185 also
may relate to small sample size; however, the site
was occupied from A.D. 1175 to 1200, when sites
were being abandoned in the Reserve area and a
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
253
90
large
small
80
70
PERCENT
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Archaic
Three
Pinelawn/
San
Georgetown Francisco Circle
Reserve
Tularosa
PHASE
Figure 4.79. Graphic representation of large game index by area.
similar pattern was beginning in the Luna area.
Therefore, the index is likely an accurate representation of resource availability on the site. The Hough
site, LA 3279, shows a rise over earlier periods in
large game abundance around A.D. 1275. This could
be the result of a rebound effect, whereby if areas
are not overexploited or if populations leave, large
game will be replenished. Cannon (1998:29) has
documented this upswing after periods of low abundance in the Mimbres area to the south. From the
resource depression seen at LA 45507 (Luna
Village) to the later rise in large game at LA 3279,
the rebound effect may have occurred here also.
However, the index at the Hough site is barely above
0.50, and the environment probably could not sustain taking enough small game to balance the fewer
large species available to feed the large population at
the site. Resource depression, a signal that resources
are stressed, is strongly implied for both LA 3279
and LA 45507.
Figure 4.79 demonstrates the decline in large
game availability in the two resource areas.
Discounting the index for the Archaic site, LA
89846, it is concluded that there is a definite pattern
of temporal decline in large game availability in the
Mogollon Highlands, possibly contributing to the
abandonment of the two areas.
Age of species can provide a measure of how
many immature taxa may have been used as food
254
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
items. Immature species are not readily available
subsistence choices, and their presence in quantities
is another indicator of faunal resource stress. Tables
4.131 and 4.132 reveal the same basic pattern (as
shown in earlier comparisons) of no evident stress
present in the Archaic and Pinelawn/Georgetown
periods, when few or no immature species were
being utilized. The San Francisco phase does show a
slight increase in the occurrence of immature
species, particularly young deer. As in the faunal
index, the utilization of deer that are slightly out of
season, before they are fully mature, may be an indicator of stress. The Three Circle phase site of Luna
Village exhibits slightly more use of immature
species, again young animals, than does the earlier
San Francisco phase. However, the diversity of
immature species jumps to almost three times that of
the earlier phase: 72.0 percent are small mammals
(mostly rodents).
The Reserve phase occupation at LA 39969
yields the highest percentage of immature species,
15.5 percent. However, the sample size is very small
and suggests prehistoric clearing out of much of the
faunal site debris. The species diversity is very low,
only four types, and canids and medium-sized mammals (which could also be canids) make up 84.6 percent of the assemblage. All remains are in or near
the outside trash pit and may or may not be related
to the occupation of the site. During the Tularosa
80
70
PERCENT
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Archaic
Pinelawn/
Georgetown
San
Francisco
Three
Circle
Reserve
Tularosa
PHASE
Figure 4.80. Percentage of processed fauna by phase.
phase, the percentage of immature species remains
high (6.2 percent). The greatest use of these species
is at LA 39968, where a percentage of 11.3 was
recorded. The site also has the lowest faunal index
of all periods. Diversity among species is high: 13
varieties. Twenty-seven percent of the assemblage is
comprised of juveniles, and 69.2 percent of young
adults. Small animals account for 68.6 percent of the
immature assemblage and large mammals only 10.9
percent. This is also the only site where fetal
remains were recovered, 91.3 percent of which were
canids. An evaluation of the data, in general, seems
to indicate the presence of subsistence stress.
In addition to the number of large fauna
decreasing through time, the percentage of potential
human processing of Mogollon faunal remains also
diminishes. Processing activities that can indicate
human involvement include impact breaks, burning,
cutting, chopping, sawing, and spiral or snap fractures. Processing of animal bones is generally
indicative of preparation for consumption but may
also represent use for tools or ceremonial items.
Breakage can also result from trampling, weight of
soil deposits overlying bones, crushing by carnivores, or injury to an animal (Marshall 1989; Lyman
1994:424).
Figure 4.80 presents the percentages of
processed animal bone, exclusive of burning, by cultural period or phase. Burning is discussed separately because it may be coincidental with other processing, such as breakage or cutting of bones, and
inflate the count. It can be seen that much more
potential processing of game is recorded for the
Archaic and the Pinelawn/Georgetown phases of the
Early Pithouse period, matching the high frequency
of game at these times. A lack of dependence on
agricultural products has been assumed for these
early periods, and Figure 4.80 may indicate the
greater reliance on faunal resources than in later
periods (thus, presumably, more processing). The
Three Circle phase displays the lowest percentage of
processed fauna and is also the time when availability of game appears to be very low. There seems to
be a relationship, which we did not fully explore,
between the availability of fauna and the amount of
possible processing of faunal remains.
When broken down by faunal categories of
large versus small game, processing always occurs
less on smaller animals (Fig. 4.81). The Three Circle
phase stands out again as having a disproportionate
amount of processing of small game. This is also the
phase when large game fauna display a drop in
availability. The extra effort spent in processing
small animals may be another indication of subsis-
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
255
large
small
70
60
percent
50
40
30
20
10
0
aic
h
c
Ar
n/ n
w
a
l ow
ne rget
i
P o
Ge
e
re le
h
T irc
C
n o
Sa cisc
n
Fra
Re
r
se
a
ve
os
lar
Tu
phase
Figure 4.81. Percentages of large and small game processed.
tence stress. Processing of small fauna also rises
again during the Tularosa phase, when large fauna
are at their lowest. This is another time of postulated stress on subsistence resources.
The varieties of potential processing activities
recorded for project sites are listed by faunal type in
Table 4.133. The three most common categories of
processing are splitting, snapping, and impact fractures (Fig. 4.82). The splitting of bones is the most
frequent of the three, and the occurrence does not
decrease much through time. However, human
causality is difficult to assess, and much splitting of
bone may be due to trampling events (Marshall
1989). It is used principally on large mammals,
although medium-sized mammal bones are often
also split in the Archaic period. In the large-gamedepressed Three Circle phase, a fair number of small
mammal bones are also split. In the Tularosa phase,
prior to abandonment, a large number of bird and/or
turkey bones are found split. The snapping of bones
usually occurs with both small and large mammals.
It does not become noticeable in the record until the
San Francisco phase and steadily increases through
time. However, in the Tularosa phase, all types of
bone are found snapped, such as rabbits, rodents,
birds, turkeys, canids, and toad/frogs. Impact fractures are generally related to the taking of large
256
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
game, although rabbits, canids, and birds sometimes
evidence these breaks also. As large game usage
decreases through time, the presence of impact fractures drops considerably.
Burning appears on both processed and nonprocessed bone, which are tabulated separately.
Generally, burned or calcined bone is evidence of
human activity. The Luna Project yielded 2,223
pieces of burned bone, comprising 18.8 percent of
the total faunal assemblage). Not surprisingly, large
mammal bones exhibit the most frequent burning,
followed by medium-sized, and then small (Table
4.134; Fig. 4.83). Burned rabbit bones constitute
only 3.1 percent of the total assemblage, a very low
number. Most rabbit remains were found in an
unburned condition. Rodent, canid, and carnivore
use is also minimal: 1.3, .2, and .1 percent, respectively. The presence of these seldom-used animals in
the Three Circle and Tularosa phases may indicate
stress. Rodent bones that were burned include those
of prairie dog, pocket gopher, muskrat, squirrel,
woodrats, and vole. Carnivores include weasel,
badger, and fox.
Animal bone retrieved from hearths, ash pits,
and roasting pits (N = 567) are shown in Table
4.135. Some, however, were not burned. The use of
these thermally found species for human consump-
90
80
percent
70
60
split fracture
snap fracture
impact feacture
50
40
30
20
a
ar
os
Tu
l
rv
e
se
Re
Ge Pin
or ela
ge w
to n/
wn
Ar
ch
aic
0
Fr Sa
an n
cis
co
Th
Ci re
rc e
le
10
phase
Figure 4.82. Types of processing on Luna fauna.
100
90
large mammal
medium mammal
small mammal
80
percentage
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Arc
hai
c
Thr
Pin
San
Re
ee
Fra
Ge e La
Circ serve
ncis
org wn
le
co
eto /
wn
Tul
a
ros
a
phase
Figure 4.83. Percentages of burned bone by period.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
257
tion is likely, although several taxa are unusual, such
as hawk, fox, and frog/toads. Species diversity is at
a peak during the Tularosa phase, the last major prehistoric occupation of the Mogollon Highlands.
However, faunal bone retrieved from thermal features on earlier sites is at a minimum, and it is difficult to know how much of the displayed diversity
was actually present in Tularosa times. While indeterminate, small, and medium mammals are all consistently found in hearths, when small mammals,
rabbits, and rodents are combined, the small animal
category becomes the largest (33.1 percent), followed by indeterminate. Heavy burning of some
bone rendered it unidentifiable. Rodents comprise
3.2 percent of Tularosa thermal bone, and their numbers suggest they were eaten at this time. If looking
for signs of subsistence stress in the only adequate
hearth assemblage (Tularosa phase), it may be
observed in the low number of large mammal bone
found in thermal units (15.6 percent), the high percentage of small animals (33.1 percent), including
rabbits, and the great species diversity of the assemblage.
CONCLUSIONS
The Importance of Faunal Resources
One goal of this chapter was to provide a determination of the role of hunting in the various Mogollon
Highlands subsistence systems. After study of the
faunal assemblages, it appears that large game hunting was not only very important throughout all cultural periods in the area, but that it may have driven
all subsistence adaptations. Changes through time in
resource availability, specifically large game, seem
to have been a factor in the type of faunal and possibly plant foods found on sites. Ideal faunal availability would allow for sufficient game to be taken
to provide necessary dietary and other subsistence
requirements. Rarely are conditions ideal, however.
Numerous situations can arise that lower or deplete
the resource base, including overexploitation of
fauna, human populations becoming too large within a given area, and environmental perturbations. A
shift in subsistence strategy to more dependence on
agricultural products would increase faunal availability, not lower it.
When resource depletion does occur, one common response is to diversify the resource base. This
could be accomplished through movement of a settlement or camp to a new location, dispersing into
smaller habitation units, and developing economic
258
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
trade networks. It could also be effected through
greater reliance on agriculture or wild plant gathering. However, agricultural food is probably never a
satisfactory substitute of choice over game animals
in the dietary regime (Wills 1988a:36). The pursuit
of agriculture is also a costly and risky investment
(Lightfoot and Feinman 1982:74; Larson et al.
1996:223). One of the most common methods of
diversifying the resource base is to expand the variety of fauna used as food items (Minnis 1985:35).
This would include, in particular, the taking of small
versus large fauna, those animals that are immature
(and thus smaller), and an assortment of less preferred prey species such as many rodents and carnivores. Whatever diversification tactic is used, the
goal seems to always be attaining meat and protein
even though wild and domesticated plants are available.
Faunal Utilization in the Mogollon Highlands
Faunal analyses tracked the availability and diversity of fauna through time in the Mogollon Highlands.
Resource depression can be seen in the temporal
decline in availability of large game resources and in
the corresponding diversity of fauna taken during
periods of overexploitation and overcrowding. The
Archaic period of hunting and gathering frequently
has been defined by several opposing faunal
resource procurement strategies. Most researchers
believe that hunting and gathering adaptations
involved a broad-spectrum use of plants and animals
(Simmons 1989:39; Vierra 1990:62) or that wild
plant foods were the most important subsistence
items (Bettinger 1980:192; Speth 1990:16). Others
believe there was a limited variety of plant and animals or only few major species selected (Price and
Brown 1985:3). Still others say that hunting was
minimally important to hunters and gatherers and
Early Pithouse dwellers (Martin 1943:121; Linsky
1975:266).
Our contention is that hunting of game animals
was of great importance, particularly during the
Archaic and Early Pithouse periods in the Mogollon
Highlands. While archaeologists have uncovered
plentiful edible plant remains on Archaic sites
throughout the Southwest, campsites and home
bases are usually short-term, specialized sites and
much more focused on single activities. By deduction, therefore, very few sites are liable to represent
the entire range of subsistence adaptations present at
that time. Spatial variability, including location and
elevation, is also often ignored when assessing the
faunal assemblages of early sites (Cannon 1998).
Several comparisons have been made between the
Mogollon Highlands and the much more xeric and
lower Mimbres and Cochise sites of southern New
Mexico and Arizona (Stein 1963; Linsky 1975).
However, lower elevations will almost always have
less large game and more rabbit species, and therefore assemblage comparisons are not evaluating relative resource abundance but demonstrating what is
environmentally available.
In the Mogollon Highlands, the Archaic period
is characterized by low population densities, high
biomass, and apparently little or no competition for
resources. The period has one of the highest faunal
indices in prehistory, based on Szuter and Bayham's
(1989) artiodactyl measurement. Large game are
abundant and are preferred, perhaps more so in the
Reserve area than in the Luna region; however,
sample sizes for Luna are small. There is no evidence of resource depletion or selection for a diversified subsistence base. In other regions of the
Southwest, a broad-spectrum adaptation has been
suggested (Simmons 1989; Speth 1990). In the
Mimbres Valley and into southern Arizona, the
availability of large game is much lower because of
less favorable environmental conditions (Shaffer
and Schick 1995; Cannon 1998). Thus, the emphasis
in these areas seems to be on smaller game and a
more diverse selection, out of necessity. Preference
of game may not have played a defining role in the
species type and frequency of game animals and
plant foods obtained by Archaic and later peoples in
these more xeric areas. In the Mogollon Highlands,
while gathered foods and some domesticated crops
are present during the Archaic, dependency upon
them is not suggested by the data from the Luna
Project sites. The ability to take the desired game of
choice in the highlands at this time suggests that
groups moved freely over the landscape in pursuit of
preferred species, unrestricted by social constraints
or territoriality.
In the following Pinelawn and Georgetown
phases, the occurrence of large game on sites is even
higher, with maximum faunal indices for both the
Reserve and Luna areas. Large game apparently
remains plentiful, with little other selection even for
smaller animals. Linsky (1975:259) notes this same
high dependency on large mammals on several sites
of this phase. Evidence of agriculture is not uncommon at this time; however, mobility does not seem
to be restricted because resource depletion is not
apparent, and dependency on large game remains
high.
In the San Francisco phase (A.D. 800-900), a
change is perceptible in faunal indices and in percentages of large game used compared to the earlier
periods. Large game on sites drops from 89.0 percent to 40.5 percent, and the use of small game
increases by 10.1 percent. Faunal indices do not fall
as much in the Reserve area, from 94.3 percent to
76.8 percent; still high enough, though, to indicate a
continuing dependency on large game. The use of
other game is heightened by the addition of turkey
remains on sites and are perhaps a newly added food
for Mogollon peoples. However, it can not be
unequivocally determined that the presence of
turkey is indicative of a new subsistence item:
turkeys may have been kept for ceremonies or feathers. The drops in indices and percentages could,
however, suggest a slight decrease in large game
abundance, but certainly not near depletion. Pit
structures, at this time, have become deeper and
more suggestive of at least seasonal occupation, and
more than in the past, faunal utilization may be
recurring in specific areas near the more permanent
sites.
By the Three Circle phase (A.D. 900-1000),
there is a strong indication of resource depletion.
Populations have tripled, bigger villages have
sprung up, and large game dependency shows a significant decline. As much small as large game is
being taken (see Fig. 4.78), 40 percent each. A wide
diversity of species also appears for the first time,
another indication of faunal resource stress. Causes
for this subsistence crisis have not been sufficiently
examined to warrant explanation at this point. One
suggestion offered is that growing populations
resided too long in a single place, so that normally
abundant resources eventually became depleted.
However, the issue is undoubtedly much more complex, involving numerous factors. A result of this
crisis seems to be that populations then dispersed
into small communities and new environmental
niches over a broad area of the Mogollon Highlands.
The Reserve area loses a large amount of population, and new villages are founded in the Gallo
Mountain area (see settlement pattern study, volume
6). The greatly lowered faunal indices suggest that a
drop in availability of large game may be contributing to that large shift and dispersion in population at
the end of the Three Circle phase. Great quantities of
corn were not found in the extensive excavation at
Luna Village, and it may be that agricultural dependency was not strong or important enough to sustain
faltering faunal resources.
During the Reserve phase, sites show a slight
increase in faunal percentages, which could suggest
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
259
some rejuvenation of faunal resources because of
population dispersion into new and smaller habitation sites. However, data from this phase are skimpy,
and several sites may have been cleaned out before
abandonment, thus presenting a skewed picture of
actual faunal remains. Sites do have corn, but many
are at new locations and display a bimodality in
which half of the sites are situated above 6,800 ft.
Therefore, a number of sites may be too high for a
reliable or even possible dependency on agriculture.
A better determination of corn reliance needs to be
undertaken for Reserve phase populations.
As marginal lands became exploited during the
Reserve phase and populations continued to dramatically grow, about half of the people shifted to settlements at lower, more arable elevations while
aggregating into large communities. In these aggregated villages, faunal percentages drop to an all-time
low for large game during any time in the prehistory of the highlands. Also, the utilization of small
game surpasses that of large for the only time in prehistory. This decline in numbers is accompanied by
a great increase in diversity of faunal species on
sites, a strong indication of resource depletion,
whereby game choices not usually selected may be
260
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
consumed. There are differences also between the
Reserve and Luna areas at this time. The Reserve
area shows a much larger decline in faunal resources
to a low index of only 0.14. It is probably not coincidental that the Reserve area was abandoned earlier than Luna and immediately after A.D. 1200 was
almost devoid of sites. After A.D. 1350, the entire
Mogollon area is abandoned. Movement to lower
elevations along the rivers and stream beds, such as
the San Francisco and Tularosa Rivers, accompanied by site aggregation, would seem to have
allowed for greater dependency on agriculture than
in the earlier Reserve phase, in which sites were
small and populations scattered into all types of
environmental zones and elevations. But Tularosa
phase populations may have simply been too aggregated and food resources not sufficient to maintain
stability; thus the area was abandoned. So while
there are those who imply that hunting was never a
very critical subsistence adaptation (Martin 1943;
Linsky 1975; Bettinger 1980), it appears that subsistence systems rose and fell on the availability of faunal resources in specific areas in the Mogollon
Highlands.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
261
20
3279
240
31
.3
Total
Percent
2.0
1
87847
87846
78439
75792
75791
70201
1.7
200
3
1
65
9
73
46
12
Rat
1
1
Vole
.5
1.2
140
.0
.1
13
2
2
1
8
Muskrat
1
1
Porcupine
1
1
Nutria
1
10
20
22
Unidentified
Rodent
9
91
1
3
13
205
1
317
Cottontail
.0
.0
.4
53
5.5
646
1
4
2
31
1
33
Mouse
70196
4
1
122
2
2
5
60
Pocket
Gopher
1
2
1
30
10
1
61
134
Prairie
Dog
70188
70185
45508
45507
43786
43766
39975
6
1
39969
39972
2
39968
37917
3563
Squirrel
LA
Number
Table 4.96. Faunal Species Recovered from Project Sites
2.8
335
11
2
2
44
6
2
7
115
1
145
Jackrabbit
.3
38
1
1
1
35
Unidentified
Rabbit
262
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
2
Skunk
309
Deer
3
1
3
101
.9
Total
Percent
1
87847
87846
78439
75792
75791
70201
70196
70188
70185
.1
13
.1
15
.1
13
1
2
2
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
4.4
514
3
34
30
2
40
45507
45508
20
43786
20
43766
1
1
23
39975
39972
1
9
1
1
Unidentified
Carnivore
39969
3
3
Bobcat
1
1
1
Badger
26
1
1
Weasel
4
10
2
Raccoon
39968
2
12
Bear
37917
4
7
Fox
5
81
Wolf/
Dog/
Coyote
3563
3279
LA
Number
Table 4.96. Continued.
.4
53
3
1
3
1
1
2
12
2
28
Antelope
.0
6
2
1
1
Elk
.0
7
1
2
4
Bison
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
263
505
24
.2
Total
Percent
4.3
4
87847
.0
5
87846
78439
75792
75791
2
37
70196
2
34
70188
3
2
70185
70201
1
45508
48
45507
2
1
130
11
43766
43786
3
39975
39972
10
8
171
Unidentified
Artiodactyl
39969
1
1
Bovid
49
1
7
Big Horn
Sheep
39968
37917
3563
3279
LA
Number
.0
4
4
Duck
.0
4
1
3
Mallard
.1
16
2
14
Hawk
.1
10
10
Falcon
.2
21
11
1
9
Quail
Table 4.96. Continued.
2.7
324
30
1
4
18
3
5
263
Turkey
.2
18
18
Mourning
Dove
.2
24
5
13
1
5
Mexican
Jay
.0
2
2
Raven
.0
3
2
1
Crow
4.5
535
1
20
1
55
19
8
431
Unidentified
Bird
264
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
505
24
.2
Total
Percent
4.3
4
87847
.0
5
87846
78439
75792
75791
2
37
70196
2
34
70188
3
2
70185
70201
1
45508
48
45507
2
1
130
11
43766
43786
3
39975
39972
10
8
171
Unidentified
Artiodactyl
39969
1
1
Bovid
49
1
7
Big Horn
Sheep
39968
37917
3563
3279
LA
Number
.0
4
4
Duck
.0
4
1
3
Mallard
.1
16
2
14
Hawk
.1
10
10
Falcon
.2
21
11
1
9
Quail
Table 4.96. Continued.
2.7
324
30
1
4
18
3
5
263
Turkey
.2
18
18
Mourning
Dove
.2
24
5
13
1
5
Mexican
Jay
.0
2
2
Raven
.0
3
2
1
Crow
4.5
535
1
20
1
55
19
8
431
Unidentified
Bird
Table 4.97. Percentage of Faunal Types at
Luna Sites
Type
Number
Percent
Table 4.101. Bird Types
Type
Number
Percent
Unide ntified
5 35
55.7
3 24
33.7
Miscellaneous
4708
40.0
Turkey
Artiodactyl
4153
35.2
Mexican jay
24
2.5
Rabbit
1019
8.6
Quail
21
2.2
Rodent
745
6.3
Mourn ing dove
18
1.9
Carnivore
151
1.3
Hawk
16
1.7
49
.4
Falcon
10
1.0
Fish
8
.1
Duck
4
.4
Total
11,794
100.0
Mallard
4
.4
Crow
3
.3
Raven
2
.2
9 61
100.0
Amphibian/Reptile
Table 4.98. Miscellaneous Faunal Types
Type
Number
Percent of Fauna
Small mammal
1746
14.9
Me dium mammal
1317
11.1
Unidentified mammal
1645
14.0
Total
4708
40.0
Percent of faun a
Number
Large mammal
8.3
Table 4.102. Rodent Types
Type
Table 4.99. Artiodactyl Types
Type
Total
Percent of Fauna
Number
Percent
Prairie d og
239
32.2
Pocket gopher
200
26.9
Rat
140
18.9
3042
73.3
Mouse
65
8.7
Identified
505
12.9
Unide ntified
53
7.1
Deer
514
12.4
Squirrel
31
4.2
Antelope
53
1.3
Muskrat
13
1.7
Bighorn sheep
24
.6
Vole
1
.1
Bison
7
.2
Porcupine
1
.1
Elk
6
.1
Nutria
1
.1
Bovid
2
.0
Total
744
100.0
4153
100.0
Total
Percent of faun a
6.3
Table 4.100. Rabbit Types
Type
Numbe r
Percent
Cottontail
646
63.4
Jackrabbit
335
32.9
Unide ntified
Total
Percent of faun a
38
3.7
1019
100.0
8.6
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
265
Table 4.103. Carnivore Types
Type
Number
Wolf/dog/coyote
Percent
101
66.8
Bear
15
10.0
Fox
13
8.6
Raccoon
13
8.6
Bobcat
3
2.0
Weasel
2
1.3
Skunk
2
1.3
Badger
1
.7
Unidentified
1
.7
151
100.0
Total
Percent of
Fauna
1.3
Table 4.104. Amphibian and Reptile
Types
Type
Number
Percent
Frog/toad
27
55.1
Snake
16
32.6
Turtle
4
8.2
Amphibian
2
4.1
49
100.0
Total
Percent of fauna
0.4
Table 4.105. Fish Types
Type
266
Number
Percent
Sucker
6
75.0
Catfish
2
25.0
Total
8
100.0
Percent of fauna
0.1
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
267
98
Medium mammal
3
Sciurus alberti (Albert's squirrel)
1
Geomys bursarius (Plains pocket gopher)
2
1
4
1
4
19
11
24
(N)
2.0
1.0
4.0
1.0
4.0
19.2
11.1
24.2
(%)
1
1
4
1
15
46
62
30
(N)
.4
.4
1.4
.4
5.4
16.5
22.3
10.8
(%)
1
9
1
23
16
42
126
94
95
(N)
Onychomys leucogaster (Northern grasshopper
mouse)
3
1
1.3
5.2
.6
18.7
14.8
21.3
5.2
(%)
.5
.2
1.0
3.2
.2
1.5
.2
3.9
2.7
7.2
21.5
16.0
16.2
(%)
Room 7
Peromyscus boylii (Brush mouse)
2
8
1
29
23
33
8
(N)
Room 6
6
.3
.3
5.6
11.1
20.0
19.0
15.7
(%)
Room 5
Peromyscus leucopus (White-footed mouse)
1
1
17
34
61
58
48
(N)
Room 2
19
.2
1.4
.7
2.3
.2
.2
21.8
22.7
7.2
7.4
(%)
Trash
Midden
Peromyscus maniculatus (Deer mouse)
Perognathus flavescens (Silky pocket mouse)
6
Thomomys bottae (Botta's pocket gopher)
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus (Red squirrel)
10
1
1
Cynomys gunnisoni (Gunnison's prairie dog)
Spermophilus variegatus (Rock squirrel)
Spermophilus spilosoma (Spotted ground squirrel)
Spermophilus sp. (Ground squirrels)
Cynomys sp. (Prairie dogs)
Ammospermophilus leucurus (White-tailed antelope
squirrel)
Family Sciuridae (Squirrels)
Order Rodentia
94
31
Small mammal
Large mammal
32
Mammal (indeterminate)
(N)
General Fill
Table 4.106. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 3279
3
7
6
44
35
35
23
(N)
1.3
3.0
2.6
18.9
15.0
15.0
9.9
(%)
Room 8
268
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
5
Lepus californicus (Black-tailed jackrabbit)
Taxidea taxus (Badger)
Mustela frenata (Long-tailed weasel)
Procyon lotor (Raccoon)
Ursus americanus (Black bear)
Family Ursidae (Bears)
Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Gray fox)
Vulpus vulpus (Red fox)
Canis lupus (Gray wolf)
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote, wolf)
.5
1
.3
1
13
.6
8.4
1
2
1
(N)
1.0
2.0
1.0
(%)
1
25
6
28
2
1
(N)
.4
9.0
2.2
10.1
.7
.4
(%)
4
1
33
43
2
(N)
.7
.2
5.6
7.3
.3
(%)
Room 7
11
15
1
1
1
(N)
2
.9
.9
.4
4.7
6.4
.4
.4
.4
(%)
Room 8
2
1.3
6.5
.6
(%)
Room 6
Family Canidae (Dog, coyote, fox, w olf)
4
10
1
(N)
Room 5
1
1.2
7.2
.3
.3
.3
.3
(%)
Room 2
Order Carnivora (Meat eating animals)
2
24
Sylvilagus audubonii (Desert cottontail)
22
1
1
Family Leporidae (Rabbits)
5.6
1
1
Myocaster coypus (Nutria)
.2
.5
(N)
1
2
(%)
Trash
Midden
Erethizon dorsatum (Porcupine)
Family Muridae (Rats)
Ondatra zibethicus (Muskrat)
Microtus montanus) (Montane vole)
Neotoma mexicana (Mexican woodrat)
Neotoma albigula (White-throated w oodrat)
(N)
General Fill
Table 4.106. Continued.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
269
18
1
3
4
(N)
18.2
1.0
3.0
4.0
(%)
16
3
3
4
12
(N)
5.8
1.1
1.1
1.4
4.3
(%)
1
14
1
26
9
(N)
Lophortyx gambelii (Gambel's quail)
.2
.2
.2
2.4
.2
4.4
1.5
(%)
Room 7
1
6.5
1.3
2.6
1.3
(%)
Room 6
Callipepla squamata (Scaled quail)
.3
10
2
4
2
(N)
Room 5
1
1
.3
.3
8.9
.7
.3
1.3
2.0
(%)
Room 2
Family Phasianidae (Quails, partridges, and pheasants)
Buteo regalis (Ferruginous hawk)
Buteo lagopus (Rough-legged hawk)
Buteo jamaicensis (Red-tailed hawk)
Family Accipitridae (Hawks and harriers)
Mergus merganser (Common merganser)
Aix sponsa (Wood duck)
1
27
Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard)
12.3
2
1
4
6
(N)
1
53
Aves (Birds)
.2
1.2
5.3
3.5
(%)
Trash
Midden
Anatinae (Surface-feeding ducks)
1
Bos/Bison (Indeterminate cattle/bison)
Bison bison (Bison)
Ovis canadensis (Bighorn sheep)
Family Bovidae (Bison, cattle, sheep, goat)
Antilocapra americana (Pronghorn)
5
23
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
Odocoileus hemionus (Mule deer)
15
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed hoofed mammals)
Lynx rufus (Bobcat)
(N)
General Fill
Table 4.106. Continued.
1
2
1
10
2
9
8
(N)
.4
.9
.4
4.3
.9
3.9
3.4
(%)
Room 8
270
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
100
3.6
155
8
(N)
100
5.2
(%)
99
3
(N)
100
3.0
(%)
Total
278
2
1
14
(N)
100
.7
.4
5.0
(%)
Room 6
10
(N)
586
100
.3
.3
1.7
(%)
Room 7
2
305
11
(%)
Room 5
Family Catostomidae (Suckers)
100
.2
5.1
(N)
Room 2
2
431
1
22
(%)
Trash
Midden
Order Salienta (Frogs and toads)
Amphibian
Family Colubridae ((Nonvenomous snakes)
Order Squamata (Lizards and snakes)
Subfamily Emydinae (Box and water turtles)
Corvus brachyrynchos (Common crow)
Corvus corax (Common raven)
Aphelocoma ultramarina (Mexican jay)
Progne subis (Purple martin)
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
(N)
General Fill
Table 4.106. Continued.
233
1
1
11
(N)
100
.4
.4
4.7
(%)
Room 8
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
271
32
27
Medium mammal
Large mammal
22
1349
763
663
521
(N)
3
.8
1
1
10
Peromyscus boylii (Brush mouse)
.1
6
2
Peromyscus leucopus (White-footed mouse)
1.1
50
1
13
132
22
4
.4
.0
.1
1.3
Peromyscus maniculatus (Deer mouse)
.4
.4
1
1.9
Perognathus flavescens (Silky pocket mouse)
4
1
.4
Geomys bursarius (Plains pocket gopher)
1
10
2.5
6
3
Thomomys bottae (Botta's pocket gopher)
.9
1
2
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus (Red squirrel)
Sciurus alberti (Albert's squirrel)
4.7
30
11
2
Cynomys gunnisoni (Gunnison's prairie dog)
.0
.1
.1
36.5
9.5
6.9
7.1
(%)
1
2
2
817
212
154
159
(N)
1
2.5
.3
26.1
8.2
22.5
3.3
(%)
Spermophilus variegatus (Rock squirrel)
9
1
95
30
82
12
(N)
1
1.0
1.0
27.1
12.5
1.0
36.5
(%)
Spermophilus spilosoma (Spotted ground
squirrel)
Spermophilus sp. (Ground squirrels)
1
1
26
12
1
35
(N)
Total
2
1.4
25.4
13.9
13.9
4.3
(%)
Kiva
Cynomys sp. (Prairie dogs)
3
53
29
29
9
(N)
Room 13
1
2.6
29.7
17.2
14.2
7.3
(%)
Room 12
Ammospermophilus leucurus (White-tailed
antelope squirrel)
6
69
40
33
17
(N)
Room 11
1
.8
11.4
13.6
16.9
12.3
(%)
Room 10
Family Sciuridae (Squirrels)
2
40
Small mammal
Order Rodentia
29
Mammal (indeterminate)
(N)
Room 9
Table 4.106. Continued.
.0
.1
.4
.0
.2
.9
.0
.2
2.4
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.0
.4
24.7
14.0
12.1
9.5
(%)
272
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
.4
17
4.7
2.1
.4
2
2.1
3
4
Procyon lotor (Raccoon)
Ursus americanus (Black b ear)
Family Ursidae (Bears)
1
.4
2
2.1
1
1
.4
2
9
Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Gray fox)
.4
1
5.7
1
1
.4
12
Vulpus vulpus (Red fox)
Canis lupus (Gray wo lf)
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote, wolf)
1
2.6
.3
.3
.8
1.1
2.5
1
4
5
2
9
23
36
.0
.2
.2
.1
.4
1.0
1.6
145
2
8
4
6
1
2
21
58
6
Family Canidae (Dog, coyote, fox, wolf)
3.4
1
8
317
Order Carnivora (Meat-eating animals)
Lepus californicus (Black-tailed jackrabbit)
3.9
87
6.2
Sylvilagus audubonii (Desert cottontail)
14.4
35
32
Family Leporidae (Rabb its)
34
1
Myocaster coypus (Nutria)
1.4
1
.1
Erethizon dorsatum (Porcup ine)
2
.1
(N)
2
13
1.0
3
(%)
Family Muridae (Rats)
.8
1
(N)
8
2
9.5
(%)
Ondatra zibethicus (Muskrat)
22
(N)
1
1.0
(%)
Microtus montanus) (Montane vo le)
2
(N)
Total
9
1
(%)
Kiva
Neotoma mexicana (Mexican woodrat)
(N)
Room 13
1
(%)
Room 1 2
Neotoma albigula (White-throated woodrat)
g rasshopper mouse)
(N)
Room 1 1
3
(%)
Room 10
Onychomys leucogaster (Northern
(N)
Room 9
Table 4.106. Continued.
.0
.1
.1
.1
.0
.0
.4
1.1
.0
2.7
5.8
.6
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.2
.0
.1
(%)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
273
10
4.2
3.9
(N)
32
8.8
.5
3.6
1
6
188
Buteo regalis (Ferruginous hawk)
Buteo lagopus (Rough-legged haw k)
1
.5
2
3
.9
Buteo jamaicensis (Red-tailed hawk)
2
2
Family Accipitridae (Hawks and harriers)
.4
1
1
Mergus merganser (Common
merganser)
Aix sponsa (Wood duck)
.1
.1
.1
.0
.0
430
1
3
8
2
2
1
3
1
9.8
3
1
7
1
28
2
307
171
Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard)
219
.1
.0
.0
.3
8.4
3.6
1
5.7
2
13
4.1
.1
(%)
Anatinae (Surface-feeding ducks)
Aves (Birds)
12
1.0
3.1
15
2
1.0
1
3
5.2
Bos/Bison (Indeterminate cattle/bison)
2
.5
.5
6.2
5
1
9
13
2.9
(N)
Bison bison (Bison)
Ovis canadensis (Bighorn sheep)
Family Bovidae (Bison, cattle, sheep,
goat)
1.7
3.9
1
4
9
6
Antilocapra americana (Pronghorn)
3.4
1.7
1
8
4
Odocoileus hemionus (Mule deer)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
.17
(%)
81
4
(N)
Order Artiodactyla
(Even-toed hooved mammals)
(%)
3
(N)
Total
3
(%)
Kiva
Lynx rufus (Bobcat)
(N)
Room 13
1
(%)
Room 12
Taxidea taxus (Badger)
(N)
Room 11
1
(%)
Room 10
Mustela frenata (Long-tailed weasel)
(N)
Room 9
Table 4.106. Continued.
.0
.1
.1
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
7.9
.1
.0
.1
.0
.5
.0
5.6
3.1
.1
.0
.0
(%)
274
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
3.9
19
(N)
9.1
(%)
4
(N)
4.2
(%)
(N)
Total
Family Catostomidae (Suckers)
236
1
100.0
.4
232
100.0
209
100.0
96
100.0
364
100.0
2238
2
1
100.0
.1
.0
5462
5
4
.3
Order Salienta (Frogs and toads)
1
2
4
Amphibian
.1
1
2
Family Colubridae ( Nonvenomous
snakes)
.4
1
1
1
Subfamily Emydinae (Box and w ater
turtles)
.4
Order Squamata (Lizards and Snakes)
1
Corvus brachyrynchos (Common crow)
2
2
Corvus corax (Common raven)
.1
5
.2
263
2
2
5
5
5.2
(N)
Aphelocoma ultramarina (Mexican jay)
116
.1
.0
(%)
.1
.1
.0
.0
.0
.1
.0
.0
.1
.0
4.8
.0
.0
.1
(%)
100.0
Total
1
7.1
1.1
(%)
Kiva
Progne subis (Purple martin)
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
26
4
(N)
Room 13
2
9
(%)
Room 12
Lophortyx gambelii (Gambel's quail)
4.2
(N)
Room 11
1
10
(%)
Room 10
Callipepla squamata (Scaled quail)
Family Phasianidae
(Quails, partridges, and pheasants)
(N)
Room 9
Table 4.106. Continued.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
275
2
1
5
1
1
1
1
Medium
mammal
Rodent
Rabbit
Carnivore
Artiodactyl
Bird
Turkey
2
Total
Amphibian
40
2
Bird
Turkey
6
Artiodactyl
Carnivore
50
1
Rodent
Rabbit
21
119
1
14
14
28
1
49
6
12
24
%
5
15
52
28
1
12
12
23
1
16
5
10
20
Room 6
Count
1
3
3
27
12
21
6
27
%
Medium
mammal
33
1
1
9
4
7
2
9
Count
11
50
7
7
7
7
36
7
14
14
%
Room 5
Small
mammal
Hearths
Total
14
2
Amphibian
Room 2
Count
Small
mammal
Floors
Fauna
29
20
8
22
1
8
6
1
2
4
Count
%
71
29
5
36
27
5
9
18
Room 7
7
1
3
3
41
5
5
9
12
7
3
Count
%
14
43
43
12
12
22
29
17
7
Room 8
14
1
3
3
2
5
90
2
3
15
24
10
16
19
Count
%
7
21
21
14
36
1
2
3
17
26
11
17
21
Room 9
71
1
31
6
1
12
20
31
1
1
2
19
1
4
4
Count
%
1
44
8
1
17
28
3
6
61
3
13
13
Room 10
Table 4.107. Faunal Remains, Floors and Thermal Features, LA 3279
4
3
1
3
2
1
Count
%
75
25
66
33
Room 11
30
3
5
7
15
81
1
4
8
44
2
8
9
5
Count
%
10
17
23
50
1
5
10
54
2
10
11
6
Room 13
14
7
1
6
40
4
19
1
3
3
8
2
Count
Kiva
50
7
43
10
48
2
7
7
20
5
%
276
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICALPROJECT
Count
Room 2
12
Total
Amphibian
Turkey
Bird
Artiodactyl
Carnivore
6
1
17
8
1
12
14
1
2
2
1
8
%
7
14
7
14
57
Room 8
Count
1
23
75
%
Rabbit
17
6
Count
Room 7
Rodent
2
%
33
Room 6
Count
1
%
Medium
mammal
Count
2
%
Room 5
Small
mammal
Other Thermal Features
Fauna
Count
Room 9
%
Table 4.107. Continued.
7
2
2
3
Count
%
29
29
43
Room 10
Count
Room 11
%
Count
Room 13
%
Count
Kiva
%
Table 4.108. Species Recovered from Floors, LA 3279
Species
Number
Percent of
Assemblage
Percent
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Small mammal
72
15.2
16.8 ±
6.1
Medium mammal
62
13.0
13.0 ±
4.5
Rodent
37
7.9
7.3 ±
6.4
Rabbit
76
16.0
17.6 ±
12.4
3
.6
32.8 ±
18.2
Carnivore
Artiodactyl
154
32.5
Bird
39
8.3
7.6 ±
3.6
Turkey
28
5.9
4.9 ±
4.6
3
.3
Amphibian
Total
474
100.0
Table 4.109. Species Recovered from Thermal Features, LA 3279
Species
Number
Percent of Assemblage
Small mammal
79
30.9
Medium mammal
88
34.4
Rodent
5
1.9
Rabbit
21
8.2
Artiodactyl
56
21.9
Bird
6
2.3
Turkey
1
.4
256
10 0.0
Total
Table 4.110. Faunal Remains from Major Interpret ive Units, LA 3563
Pit Structure
(N)
Tot al
(% )
(N)
(%)
Mammal (indeterminate)
6
8.0
6
8 .0
Medium mammal
6
8.0
6
8 .0
45
6 0.0
45
6 0 .0
Sylvilagus audubonii (Desert cot tontail)
1
1.3
1
1 .3
Lepus californicus (Black-tailed jackrabbit )
1
1.3
1
1 .3
Order A rtiodactyla (Even-t oed ho oved mammals)
8
1 0.7
8
1 0 .7
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
5
6.7
5
6 .7
Ant ilocapra americana (Pronghorn)
2
2.7
2
2 .7
Apheloco ma ultra marina (Mexican jay)
1
1.3
1
1 .3
75
1 0 0.0
75
10 0 .0
Large mammal
Tot al
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
277
278
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
5
3
8
Small mammal
Medium mammal
Large mammal
2
50.0
60
20
55
41
539
84
(N)
1
1
Sigmodon hispidus
(Hispid's cotton rat)
Neotoma albigula
(White-throated woodrat)
Lepus californicus
(Black-tailed jackrabbit)
Sylvilagus audubo nii
(Desert cottontail)
Ondatra zibethicus (Muskrat)
102
176
1
22
1
Peromyscus leucopus
(White-footed mouse)
Neotoma mexicana
(Mexican woodrat)
20
4.7
(%)
Dipodo mys ordii
(Ord's kanga roo rat)
2
(N)
4
50.0
(%)
8.2
14.1
.1
1.8
.1
.1
.1
1.6
.32
.1
4.8
1.6
4.4
3.3
43.3
6.8
(%)
Pit Structure
Tho momys bottae
(Botta's p ocket gopher)
2.3
1
(N)
Burial 2
1
1
Sciurus a lberti
(Albert's squirrel)
2.3
1 8.6
7.0
1 1.6
1 6.3
(%)
Roasting Pit (Pit
10)
Family Geomyidae
(Pocket gophers)
1
Cynomys gunnisoni
(Gunnison's p rairie dog )
Spermoph ilus varie gatus
(Rock squirrel)
Order Rodentia
7
Mammal (indeterminate)
(N)
General Fill
(N)
(%)
East Pit
Table 4.111. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 39968
1
9
7
11
27
1
1
10
(N)
14.1
34.6
1.3
1.3
12.8
1.3
11.5
9.0
(%)
Entryway
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
279
50.0
4
100.0
Total
Family Catostomidae (Suckers)
1244
100.0
.2
2
100.0
1.5
19
Order Salienta (Frogs and toads)
2
1.1
14
Lampropeltis sp. (Kingsnakes)
100.0
.1
1
Family Turdidae (Thrushes, solitaires,
and bluebirds)
Family Bufonidae
(True toads)
.3
4
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
Lophortyx gambelii (Gambel's quail)
43
.1
1
Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard)
1
.6
7
Antilocapra americana (Pronghorn)
Odocoileus hemionus (Mule deer)
Aves (Birds)
25.0
.2
3
1.0
1
3.0
37
12
20.9
14.0
.6
9
6
.2
8
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed hooved
mammals)
Mephitis sp. (Skunks)
Family Mustelidae (Weasels and allies)
2
.1
1
Ursus americanus (Black bear)
25.0
.1
1
Family Ursidae (Bears)
1
.1
(%)
1
(N)
Urocyon cinereoargentus (Gray fox)
(%)
Pit Structure
.2
2.3
(N)
Burial 2
3
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote, wolf)
1
(%)
(N)
(N)
(%)
Roasting Pit
(Pit 10)
General Fill
Table 4.111. Continued.
2
2
(N)
100.0
100.0
(%)
East Pit
78
1
3
6
1
(N)
100.0
1.3
3.8
7.7
1.3
(%)
Entryway
Table 4.111. Continued.
Roomblock 1
(N)
(%)
Roomblock 2
(N)
Total
(%)
(N)
Mammal (in determinate)
98
7.1
554
40.2
Medium mammal
45
3.3
Large mammal
73
5.3
Order Rodentia
20
1.5
1
.1
61
4.4
Sciurus alberti (Albert's squirrel)
1
.1
Family Geomyid ae (Pocket gophers)
1
.1
Thomo mys bottae (Botta's pocket gopher)
4
.3
Small mammal
Spermophilus variegatus (Rock squirrel)
1
100.0
Cyno mys gunnisoni (Gunnison's prairie dog)
Dipodo mys ord ii (Ord's kangaroo rat)
21
1.5
Pero myscus leucopus (White-footed mouse)
1
.1
Sig modon hispidus (Hispid's cotton rat)
1
.1
Neoto ma albigula (White-throated woodrat)
1
.1
23
1.7
1
.1
Sylvilag us audubonii (Desert cottontail)
205
14.9
Lepus californicus (Black-tailed jackrabbit)
115
8.4
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote, wolf)
4
.3
Urocyon cine reoargentus (Gray fox)
4
.3
Family Ursidae (Bears)
1
.1
Ursus americanus (Black bear)
1
.1
Family Mustelidae (Weasels and allies)
1
.1
Mephitis sp. (Skunks)
2
.1
49
3.6
Neoto ma mexicana (Mexican woodrat)
Ondatra zibethicus (Muskrat)
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toe d hooved
mammals)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
1
3 3.3
4
.3
Odocoileus he mionus (Mule deer)
1
3 3.3
22
1.6
12
.9
Aves (Birds)
7
.5
Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard)
1
.1
Lopho rtyx gambelii (Gambel's quail)
1
.1
5
.4
1
.1
14
1.0
Antilocap ra a mericana (Pron ghorn)
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
Family Turdidae (Thrushes, solitaires, and
bluebirds)
La mpropeltis sp. (Kin gsnakes )
280
(%)
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
3 3.3
Table 4.111. Continued.
Roomblock 1
(N)
Roomblock 2
(%)
(N)
Total
(%)
(N)
Order Salienta (Fro gs and toads)
(%)
19
1.4
Family Bufo nidae (True Toads)
2
.1
Family Catostomidae (Suckers)
1
.1
1377
100.0
Total
1
100.0
3
1 00.0
Table 4.112. Fauna from Roof Fall, Floor, and Hearth, LA 39968
Species
Roof Fall
Number
Small mammal
Floor
Percent
Number
Hearth
Percent
Number
Percent
69
5.6
59
35.1
8
25.0
Medium mammal
7
5.7
5
3.0
4
12.5
Rodent
7
5.7
30
17.8
9
28.1
Rabbit
19
15.6
45
26.8
9
28.1
Carnivore
-
-
-
-
-
-
Artiodactyl
5
4.1
8
4.7
1
3.1
Bird
1
.8
-
-
-
-
Turkey
Amphibian/reptile
Total
-
-
1
.6
-
-
14
11.5
20
12.0
1
3.1
122
100.0
168
100.0
32
100.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
281
282
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
7
3
1
Medium mammal
Large mammal
Cynomys gunnisoni
(Gunnison's prairie dog)
1
100.0
(%)
1
1
(N)
50.0
50.0
(%)
1
2
33
1
9
(N)
8.3
5
2
1
(N)
Odocoileus hemionus
(Mule deer)
28.6
71.4
(%)
9.3
1.9
3.7
1.9
3.7
61.1
1.9
16.7
(%)
Room 1
1
4.2
2
5
(N)
Burial 2
1
66.7
33.3
(%)
Storage Pit
(F13)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
2
1
(N)
Burial 1
2
30.0
16.7
50.0
16.7
16.7
(%)
Hearth (F9)
Order Artiodactyla (Eventoed hooved mammals)
4.2
3
1
Vulpus vulpus (Red fox)
16.7
.
4
.
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote,
wolf)
8.3
2
Lepus californicus
(Black-tailed jackrabbit)
10.0
1
3
1
(N)
1
10.0
30.0
20.0
(%)
Sylvilagus audubonii
(Desert cottontail)
1
3
2
(N)
Jacal (F7)
1
4.2
4.2
12.5
29.2
8.3
(%)
Large Pit (F2)
Thomomys bottae (Botta's
pocket gopher)
Sciurus alberti (Albert's
squirrel)
2
Small mammal
Mammal (indeterminate)
(N)
General Fill
Table 4.113. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 39969
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
283
(Desert cottontail)
Sylvilagus audubonii
(Botta's pocket gopher)
Thomomys bottae
(Albert's squirrel)
Sciurus alberti
(Gunnison 's prairie dog)
Cynomys gunnisoni
Large mammal
1
33.3
1
2
2
33.3
(N)
14.3
28.6
28.6
(%)
Room 2
100.0
(%)
Medium mammal
1
(%)
(N)
(%)
(N)
10
Storage Pit
(Under Room 1
F4)
100.0
(N)
Post Collar
(Room 1 F4)
24
(%)
Large Pit (F2)
Small mammal
Mammal (indeterminate)
Total
Family Ictaluridae
(Catfish)
Meleagris gallopavo
(Turkey)
Ovis canadensis (Bighorn
sheep)
Antilocapra americana
(Pronghorn)
(N)
General Fill
6
100.0
(%)
1
(N)
100.0
(%)
Room 2 (F1)
(N)
Jacal (F7)
4
6
1
4
(N)
10.0
15.0
2.5
10.0
(%)
Room 3
3
(N)
7
(N)
(N)
(%)
1
(N)
(N)
(%)
1
1
1
(N)
20.0
20.0
20.0
(%)
1
(N)
100.0
(%)
Posthole
(Room 3 F33)
100.0
(%)
Burial 2
2
(N)
Storage Pit
(Room 3 F31)
100.0
(%)
Storage Pit
(F13)
Posthole (Room
3 F30)
100.0
(%)
Burial 1
Pit under Cobbles
(Room 4 F20)
100.0
(%)
Hearth (F9)
Table 4.113. Continued.
13
2
1
1
42
22
12
16
(N)
54
(N)
Total
7.8
1.2
.6
.6
25.1
13.2
732
9.6
(%)
100.0
(%)
Room 1
284
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
33.3
3
100
7
100
1
100
40
2
Family Ictaluridae
(Catfish)
Total
3
2
Meleagris gallopavo
(Turkey)
Ovis canadensis
(Bighorn sheep)
Antilocapra americana
(Pronghorn)
10
100
5.0
7.5
5.0
25.0
1
100.0
1
1
(N)
20.0
20.0
(%)
(N)
1
100
(%)
7
(N)
1
100
1
100
5
100
167
2
3
1
2
2
100
100.0
(%)
21
1
1
(N)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
14.3
(%)
Odocoileus hemionus
(Mule deer)
1
(N)
Posthole
(Room 3 F33)
Total
4.2
(%)
100
1.2
1.8
.6
1.2
12.6
1.2
6.0
.6
20.0
(%)
Storage Pit
(Room 3 F31)
1
8
(N)
Posthole (Room 3
F30)
10
14.3
(%)
Pit under
Cobbles
(Room 4 F20)
Vulpus vulpus (Red fox)
1
(N)
Room 3
Order Artiodactyla (Eventoed hooved mammals)
100.0
(%)
Room 2 (F1)
5.4
1
(N)
Room 2
9
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote,
wolf)
Lepus californicus
(Black-tailed jackrabbit)
(%)
(N)
(N)
(%)
Storage Pit
(Under Room 1
F4)
Post Collar
(Room 1 F4)
Table 4.113. Continued.
Table 4.114. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 39972
General Fill
(N)
Trash Pit (F1)
(%)
(N)
Small mammal
3
7.7
Medium mammal
3
Total
(%)
15.4
7.7
3
3.8
11
28.2
11
14.1
Cynomys sp.
1
2.6
1
1.3
Cynomys gunnisoni
(Gunnison's prairie dog)
8
20.5
1
2.6
9
11.5
Sylvilagus audubonii (Desert cottontail)
2
5.1
1
2.6
3
3.8
2
5.1
2
2.6
Lepus californicus (Black-tailed jackrabbit)
23.1
(%)
12
Large mammal
9
(N)
Aves (Birds)
5
12.8
14
35.9
19
24.4
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
6
15.4
12
30.8
18
23.1
39
100.0
39
100.0
78
100.0
Total
Table 4.115. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 39975
Gen eral Fill
(N)
Mammal (indeterminate)
Pit 1
(%)
31
37.3
Small mammal
1
1.2
Large mammal
50
60.2
(N)
(%)
3
Pit Structure 1
Pit Structure 2
(N)
(N)
(%)
(%)
100.0
(%)
34
34.0
1
1.0
59
59.0
58.3
Thomomys bottae
2
16.7
2
2.0
Order Artiodactyla
(Even -toed hoofed
mammals)
3
25.0
3
3.0
1
1.0
100
100.0
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
Total
1
1.2
83
100.0
3
100.0
12
1 00.0
2
100.0
(N)
7
(Botta's p ocket gopher)
2
Total
100.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
285
Table 4.116. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 43766
General Fill
(N)
Hearth 2
(%)
(N)
Mammal (indeterminate)
71
23.1
Small mammal
10
3.2
Medium mammal
45
Large mammal
16
Roasting Pit
(%)
(%)
20.0
Total
(N)
(%)
72
22.8
12
3.8
14.6
45
14.2
5.2
16
5.1
1
.3
1
.3
6
1.9
Family Le poridae (Rabbits)
1
(N)
2
1
66.7
20.0
Sylvilagus audubonii (Desert
1
.3
Lepus californicus
3
1.0
Family Ursidae (Be ars)
1
.3
1
.3
130
42.2
130
41.1
cottontail)
3
60.0
(Black-tailed jackrabb it)
Ord er Artiodactyla (Even-toed
hooved mammals)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
1
.3
Odocoileus hemionus
18
5.8
Antilocapra americana
1
1
.3
19
6.0
.3
1
.3
11
3.6
11
3.5
308
100.0
316
100.0
1
33.3
(Mule deer)
(Pro nghorn)
Ovis canadensis
(Bigh orn sheep)
Total
286
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
5
100.0
3
100.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
287
(Dee r mouse)
Peromyscus maniculatus
Peromyscus sp. (Mouse)
(Banner-tailed kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys Spectabilis
(Yellow-faced pocket gopher)
Pappogeomys castanops
(Botta's pocket gopher)
Thomomys bottae
(Albert's squirrel)
Sciurus alberti
(Gunnison's prairie d og)
Cynomys gunnisoni
(Black-tailed pra irie dogs)
Cynomys ludovicianus
(Spotted g round squirrel)
Spermophilus spilosoma
(Ground squirrels)
Spermophilus sp.
Order Rodentia
Large mammal
4
1
73
3.8
1.0
69.5
1
12.5
2
1
1
(N)
28.6
14.3
14.3
(%)
49
(N)
2
.5
.5
43.0
19.8
21.7
12.1
(%)
Fire Pit
2
174
80
5.7
87.5
(%)
Medium mammal
7
(N)
Burial 1 (F14)
88
6
(%)
Trash Pit
Small mammal
Mammal (indeterminate)
(N)
Genera l Fill
1
9
2
4
11
(N)
34. 4
3.1
28.1
6.3
12.5
(%)
Pit Structure 1
11
56
9
10
25
(N)
8.3
42.1
6.8
7.5
18.8
(%)
Pit Structure 3
Table 4.117. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 45507
1
(N)
10 0.0
(%)
Hearth (Pit
Structure 3)
1
1
8
3
(N)
6.7
6.7
53.3
20.0
(%)
Pit Structure 9
288
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
1
(N)
14.3
14.3
(%)
1
(N)
(%)
.2
(N)
1
3.1
3.1
(%)
Pit Structure 1
(N)
6
Bison bison (Bison)
shee p)
Ovis canadensis (Bigho rn
Bos taurus (Cattle)
(Pronghorn)
Antilocapra americana
1
1.0
2.9
1
14.3
1
.2
1
1
3
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
3.8
9.5
1
4
10
.2
.2
1
1
.5
2
Cervus canadensis (Wapiti/elk)
Order Artiodactyla
(Even-toed hooved mammals)
Procyon lotor (Raccoon)
(Gray fox)
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote, wolf)
(Black-tailed jackrabbit)
Lepus californicus
(Desert cottontail)
3.1
3.1
1
3
1
1
.8
2.3
.8
.8
1.5
.8
4.5
(%)
Pit Structure 3
2
2.9
(%)
Fire Pit
Sylvilagus audubonii
(N)
Burial 1 (F14)
1
3
(%)
Trash Pit
Family Leporidae (Rabbits)
(Mexican woodrat)
Neotoma mexicana
(White-throated woodrat)
Neotoma albigula
(Hispid's cotton rat)
Sigmodon hispidus
(Northern grasshopp er mouse)
Onychomys leucogaster
(White-footed mouse)
Peromyscus leucopus
(N)
General Fill
Table 4.117. Continued
(N)
(%)
Hearth (Pit
Structure 3)
(N)
2
13.3
(%)
Pit Structure 9
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
289
Total
Family Bufonidae
(Tru e toads)
Order Salienta (Frogs and toads)
Family Icterida e ( Meadowlarks , blackbirds, and
orioles)
Corvus brachyrynchos (Common crow)
Aphelocoma ultramarina (Mexican jay)
Family Corvida e (Jays, mag pies, and crows)
Zenaidura macroura (Mourning dove)
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
Lorphortyx gambellii (Gambe l's qua il)
Callipepla squamata (Scale d quail)
Colinus virginianus (Bobwhite)
Family Phasianidae (Quails, phe asants,
partridges)
Falco mexicanus (Prairie falcon)
Parabuteo unicinctus (Harris' hawk)
Buteo sp. (Hawks)
Podilymbus podiceps (Pie d-billed grebe)
Aves (Birds)
105
(N)
(%)
100
General Fill
8
(N)
100
(%)
Trash Pit
7
(N)
100
(%)
Bu rial 1 (F14)
40 5
4
100
1.0
(%)
Fire Pit
(N)
Table 4.117. Continued.
32
1
(N)
100
3.1
(%)
Pit Structure
1
133
2
1
1
3
(N)
100
1.5
.8
.8
2.3
(%)
Pit Structure 3
1
(N)
100
(%)
Hearth (Pit
Structure 3)
15
(N)
100
(%)
Pit Structure 9
290
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
118
282
4
3
Medium mammal
Large mammal
Order Rodentia
Spermophilus sp. (Ground squirrels)
.2
1
31
1
9
1
75
8
37
41
(N)
3.0
10.2
.3
3.0
.3
24.7
2.6
12.2
13.5
(%)
2
(N)
100.0
(%)
2
(N)
66.7
(%)
Hearth (Pit
Structure 13)
1
(N)
(%)
100.0
Burial
5
2
120
2
26
4
1
3
10
712
280
388
592
(N)
(Hispid's cotton rat)
Sigmodon hispidus
(Northern grasshopp er mouse)
Onychomys leucogaster
(White-footed mouse)
Peromyscus leucopus
(Dee r mouse)
5
1
.4
.1
.3
5
1
2
2
1
2.2
.7
7.2
13.0
26.5
48.7
(%)
Post Hole 6 (Pit
Structure 13)
26
2.2
.3
9
3
30
54
110
202
(N)
Pit Structure 13
Peromyscus maniculatus
26
3
.2
4.3
51
2
.1
1.3
1
15
.3
.3
.3
2 4.0
1 0.0
1 1.8
2 2.6
(%)
Vent (Pit
Structure 12)
Peromyscus sp. (Mouse)
(Banner-tailed kangaroo rat)
Dipodomys Spectabilis
(Yellow-faced pocket gopher)
Pappogeomys castanops
(Botta's pocket gopher)
Thomomys bottae
Sciurus alberti (Albert's squirrel)
(Gunnison's prairie d og)
Cynomys gunnisoni
(Black-tailed pra irie dogs)
Cynomys ludovicianus
(Spotted g round squirrel)
4
139
Small mammal
Spermophilus spilosoma
266
Mammal (indeterminate)
(N)
Pit Structure 12
Table 4.117. Continued.
Total
.2
.0
.1
1.0
.1
.2
.1
4.6
.1
1.0
.2
.0
.1
.4
27.3
10.7
14.9
22.7
(%)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
291
.2
19
22
16
5
(N)
6.3
7.2
5.3
1.6
(%)
(N)
(%)
1
(N)
33.3
(%)
Hearth (Pit
Structure 13)
(N)
Burial
(%)
1
3
44
91
1
60
3
(N)
1
.2
2
.7
3
40
6
.3
2.0
1
35
Family Phasianidae (Quails, pheasants,
partrid ges)
Falco Mexicanus (Pra irie falcon)
10
.8
1
10
1
1
Parabuteo unicinctus (Harris' hawk)
.1
1.7
1
1
20
2
Buteo sp. (Hawks)
Podilymbus podiceps (Pied -billed gre be)
Aves (Birds)
Bison bison (Bison)
.1
4.9
2
1
15
Ovis canadensis (Bigho rn sheep)
.2
1.4
1
2
17
1
Bos taurus (Cattle)
Antilocapra americana (Pronghorn)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
Cervus canadensis (Wapiti/elk)
48
1
.2
.2
.2
.2
(%)
Post Hole 6 (Pit
Structure 13)
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed hooved
mammals)
1.7
1
1
1
1
(N)
Pit Structure 13
10
20
.2
1.6
19
2
5.6
3.8
.2
66
45
2
(%)
Vent (Pit
Structure 12)
Procyon lotor (Raccoon)
Urocyon cinereoargenteus (Gray fox)
Canis sp. (Dog, coyote, wolf)
(Black-tailed jackrabbit)
Lepus californicus
Sylvilagus audubonii (Desert cottontail)
Family Leporidae (Rabbits)
Neotoma mexicana (Mexican wo odrat)
Neotoma albigula (White-throated woodrat)
(N)
Pit Structure 12
Table 4.117. Continued.
Total
.0
.4
.0
.0
.0
1.3
.1
.1
.0
.1
1.5
.0
1.8
.4
.0
.1
1.7
3.5
.0
2.3
.1
(%)
292
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Total
Family Bufo nidae (True Toads)
1177
10 0.0
.1
415
100.0
304
1
Order Salienta (Fro gs and Toads)
100.0
.3
2.0
.3
.3
1.3
(%)
6
1
1
4
(N)
Family Icteridae
(Mead owlarks , Blackbirds and Orioles)
(Common crow)
1
(%)
.3
1.0
.1
1.5
(N)
Pit Structure 13
1
12
1
.3
.6
.8
(%)
Vent (Pit
Structure 12)
Corvus brachyrynchos
Aphelocoma ultramarina (Mexican jay)
Family Corvidae
(Jays, Magpies, and Crows)
18
4
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
Zenaidura macroura (Mourning dove)
7
9
Lophortyx gambelii ( Gambel's quail)
Callipepla squamata (Scaled quail)
Colinus virginianus (Bobwhite)
(N)
Pit Structure 12
2
(N)
100.0
(%)
Post Hole 6 (Pit
Structure 13)
Table 4.117. Continued.
3
(N)
100.0
(%)
Hearth (Pit
Structure 13)
1
(N)
(%)
100.0
Burial
2608
1
1
6
1
13
1
18
4
9
1
13
(N)
Total
100.0
.0
.0
.2
.0
.5
.0
.7
.2
.3
.0
.5
(%)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
293
Total
100.0
15
100.0
66.7
52
230
50
97
147
204
Number
785
100.0
.1
.5
6.6
29.4
6.4
12.4
18.8
25.7
Percent
10 0 .0
10
1
Order A rtiodactyla (Even-t oed ho ofed mammals)
3
1
6
1
Thomomys bottae (Botta' s pocket gop her)
3 3 .3
(N)
1
1
Large mammal
3 3 .3
3 3 .3
(%)
10 0 .0
1 0 .0
1 0 .0
1 0 .0
6 0 .0
1 0 .0
(% )
Pit Struct ure 1
Cynomys gunnisoni (Gunnison's prairie dog)
1
Medium mammal
(N)
General Fill
1
Tot al
323
11
123
37
80
27
45
Number
10 0.0
3.4
3 8.1
1 1.5
2 4.8
8.3
1 3.9
Percent
Roof Fall/floor
Structure 12
(N)
Table 4.119. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 45508
107
6.5
10
13.3
20.0
Percent
Mammal (indeterminate)
100.0
7
3.7
56.1
2
3
Number
1
32
4
60
15.9
8.4
9.4
Pe rcent
Upper Level
Amphibia n
3.1
37.5
17
9
10
Number
Structure 9
4
1
12
40.6
6.2
12.5
Percent
Structure 3
Turkey
Bird
Artiodactyl
Rabb it
13
2
Med. mammal
Rode nt
4
Number
Structure 1
Small mammal
Species
13
1
1
1
7
2
Total
.4
7.5
43.2
14.1
18.0
3.0
13.8
7 .7
100.0
10 0 .0
7 .7
7 .7
7 .7
5 3 .8
1 5 .4
(% )
268
1
20
116
38
48
8
37
Percent
Structure 13
Numbe r
1
Table 4.118. Comparison of Fauna within Pit Structures, LA 45507
4.1
4 8.3
5.8
1 4.5
7.7
9.9
Mean
2.9
12.7
6.6
8.9
7.6
5.8
Standa rd
Deviation*
Percent
294
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
1
1
5
2
Small mammal
Med ium mammal
Large mammal
Thomomys bottae
1
6
1
Family Leporidae (Rabbits)
Sylvilagus audubonii
Lepus californicus
Total
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
27
1
1
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
Antilocapra americana (Pronghorn)
1
Order Artiodactyla
(Even-toe d hoofed mammals)
(Racoon and racoo n-like)
Procyonidae
(Black-tailed jackrabbit)
(Desert cottontail)
2
Ondatra zibethicus (Muskrat)
(Botta's pocket gophe r)
5
Mammal (indeterminate)
(N)
100.0
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
22.2
3.7
7.4
7.4
18.5
3.7
3.7
18.5
(%)
Genera l Fill
(N)
5
1
1
2
1
1 00.0
20.0
20.0
40.0
20.0
(%)
Room 1
(N)
1
1
100.0
100.0
(%)
Pot Rest 1
16
1
100.0
6.3
6.3
6.3
1
1
6.3
12.5
12.5
6.3
43.8
(%)
1
2
2
1
7
(N)
Room 2
Table 4.120. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 70185
1
1
2
2
1
2
9
1
2
4
8
3
8
5
49
(N)
Total
100.0
2.0
2.0
4.1
4.1
2.0
4.1
18.4
2.0
4.1
8.2
16.3
6.1
16.3
10.2
(%)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
295
4
6.5
1
8.3
21
11
1
5
4
(N)
100.0
52.4
4.8
23.8
19.0
(%)
3
21
5
1
6
(N)
8.3
58.3
13.9
2.8
16.7
(%)
25
24
2
11
(N
)
Total
Aves (Birds)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
381
19
100.0
5.0
.3
22
100.0
63
100.0
62
5
100.0
8.1
12
100.0
36
100.0
66
1
1
12.7
33.3
58.3
(%)
100.0
1.5
3.0
1.5
37.9
36.4
3.0
16.7
(%)
Pit Structure
Cervus canadensis
(Wapiti/elk)
8
38.7
4
7
(N)
Rocks
2
4.2
24
1.6
8.1
37.1
(%)
Stone Circle
16
1.6
1.6
33.3
1
5
23
(N)
Rock Pile
Order Artiodactyla
(Even-toed hoofed
mammals)
27.3
21
9.5
6.3
34.9
(%)
Pit 3
1
6
36.4
6
4
Pit 2
Canis sp.
(Dog, coyote, and
wolf)
.3
8
4.5
22
(N)
1
1
56.7
1
31.8
(%)
Lepus californicus
(Black-tailed
jackrabbit)
Large mammal
3.1
17.6
7
(N)
1
216
Medium mammal
12.9
(%)
Pit 1
Sylvilagus audubonii
(Desert cottontail)
12
67
Small mammal
49
Mammal
(indeterminate)
(N)
General Fill
Table 4.121. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 70188
663
1
30
1
34
1
2
1
326
108
30
129
(N)
100.0
.2
4.5
.2
5.1
.2
.3
.2
49.2
16.3
4.5
19.5
(%)
Total
Table 4.121. Continued.
Stone Circle
(N)
Rocks
(%)
(N)
Pit Structure
(%)
(N)
Total
(%)
(N)
(%)
Mammal (indeterminate)
4
19.0
6
16.7
11
16.7
129
19.5
Small mammal
5
23.8
1
2.8
2
3.0
30
4.5
Medium mammal
1
4.8
5
13.9
24
36.4
108
16.3
11
52.4
21
58.3
25
37.9
326
49.2
Sylvilagus audubonii (Desert cottontail)
1
.2
Lepus californicus (Black-tailed jackrabbit)
2
.3
Large mammal
Canis sp. (Dogs, coyotes, and wolves)
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed hooved
mammals)
3
8.3
1
1.5
1
.2
2
3.0
34
5.1
1
.2
30
4.5
Cervus canadensis (Wapiti/elk)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
Aves
Total
21
100.0
36
100.0
1
1.5
1
.2
66
100.0
663
100.0
Table 4.122. Comparison of Fauna within Pits, LA 70188
Species
Pit Structure
No.
Pit 1
Percent
Small
mammal
2
3.6
Medium
mammal
24
43.7
No.
Pit 2
Percent
1
6.7
Rabbit
Carnivore
1
1.8
Artiodactyl
27
49.1
Bird
1
1.8
Total
55
100.0
296
14
15
93.3
100.0
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
No.
Pit 3
Percent
No.
Percent
Percent
Mean
Std.
Dev.
4
9.7
5
12.8
8.2 ±
3.9
6
14.6
1
2.6
15.2 ±
20.0
2
4.9
1.2 ±
2.4
.4 ±
.9
74.4 ±
19.3
.4 ±
.9
29
41
70.8
100.0
33
39
84.6
100.0
Table 4.123. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 70196
General Fill
(N)
Pit Structure
(%)
(N)
Total
(%)
(N)
(%)
Mammal (indeterminate)
5
22.7
54
12.2
59
12.7
Small mammal
2
9.1
41
9.3
43
9.3
27
6.1
27
5.8
163
37.0
172
37.1
1
.2
1
.2
1
.2
2
.4
Sciurus alberti
(Albert's squirrel)
2
.5
2
.4
Thomomys bottae
(Botta's pocket gopher)
1
.2
1
.2
Neotoma mexicana
(Mexican woodrat)
9
2.0
9
1.9
Sylvilagus audubonii
(Desert cottontail)
4
.9
4
.9
Lepus californicus
(Black-tailed jackrabbit)
11
2.5
11
2.4
Order Artiodactyla
(Even-toed hoofed mammals)
37
8.4
37
8.0
32
7.3
34
7.3
3
.7
3
.6
Medium mammal
Large mammal
9
40.9
Order Rodentia
Cynomys gunnisoni
(Gunnison's prairie dog)
Odocoileus sp. (Deer)
1
2
4.5
9.1
Antilocapra americana (Pronghorn)
Ovis canadensis
(Bighorn sheep)
1
4.5
2
.5
3
.6
Aves (Birds)
2
9.1
18
4.1
20
4.3
30
6.8
30
6.5
5
1.1
5
1.1
441
100.0
463
100.0
Meleagris gallopavo (Turkey)
Aphelocoma ultramarina
(Mexican jay)
Total
22
100.0
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
297
Table 4.124. Fauna within Pit Structure Levels, LA 70196
Species
Above Roof Fall
N
Roof Fall
%
N
Floor Fill
%
N
Floor
%
N
Percent
%
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Small
mammal
1
8.3
5
8.8
-
-
35
11.1
7.0
4.8
Medium
mammal
2
16.7
2
3.5
-
-
23
7.3
6.9
7.2
Rodent
-
-
1
1.7
-
-
13
4.1
1.4
1.9
Rabbit
-
1
1.7
1
25.0
13
4.1
7.7
11.6
Artiodactyl
7
58.3
39
68.4
2
50.0
189
60.3
59.2
7.6
Bird
1
8.3
2
3.5
-
-
20
6.4
4.6
3.6
Turkey
1
8.3
7
12.3
1
25.0
21
6.7
13.1
8.3
Total
12
57
4
314
Table 4.125. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 70201
General Fill
Total
(N)
(%)
(N)
(%)
Mammal (indeterminate)
1
10.0
1
10.0
Small mammal
1
10.0
1
10.0
Large mammal
3
30.0
3
30.0
Order Artiodactyla
(Even-toed hoofed mammals)
2
20.0
2
20.0
Cervus canadensis (Wapiti/elk)
2
20.0
2
20.0
Aves (Birds)
1
10.0
1
10.0
Total
10
100.0
10
100.0
Table 4.126. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 75791
298
General Fill
Pit Structure 2
No.
No.
Pct.
Total
Pct.
No.
Pct.
Large mammal
6
100.0
7
100.0
13
100.0
Total
6
100.0
7
100.0
13
100.0
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
Table 4.127. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 78439
General Fill
(N)
Mammal (indeterminate)
Large mammal
Total
Total
(%)
(N)
(%)
17
85.0
17
85.0
3
15.0
3
15.0
20
100.0
20
100.0
Table 4.128. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 89846
General Fill
(N)
Mammal (indeterminate)
50
(%)
Roasting Pit 1
Roasting Pit 2
(N)
(N)
69.4
Small mammal
Medium mammal
(%)
17
73.9
5
21.7
(%)
6
100.0
Total
(N)
(%)
67
66.3
11
10.9
12
16.7
12
11.9
Large mammal
3
4.2
3
3.0
Geomys bursarius (Plains pocket gopher)
3
4.2
3
3.0
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed hoofed
mammals)
4
5.6
1
4.3
5
5.0
72
100.0
23
100.0
101
100.0
Total
6
100.0
Table 4.129. Faunal Remains from Major Interpretive Units, LA 89847
General Fill
(N)
Total
(%)
(N)
(%)
Mammal (indeterminate)
10
4.3
10
4.3
Medium mammal
11
4.7
11
4.7
195
83.7
195
83.7
1
.4
1
.4
2
.9
2
.9
1
.4
1
.4
3
1.3
3
1.3
4
1.7
4
1.7
2
.9
2
.9
3
1.3
3
1.3
1
.4
1
.4
233
100.0
233
100.0
Large mammal
Cyno mys gun nisoni
Ondatra zibethicus
(Gunnison's prairie dog)
(Muskrat)
Sylvilagus audu bonii
Canis
(Desert cottontail)
sp. (Dog, coyote, and wolf)
Order Artiodactyla (Even-toed hooved mammals)
Cervus canadensis
Odocoileus
sp. (Deer)
Bison bison (Bison)
Total
(Wapiti/elk)
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
299
Table 4.130. Large versus Small Animal Indices for the Reserve and Luna Areas
Reserve Area
Period
Site
Small
Luna Area
Large
Index
Site
Large
Index
Archaic
LA 43766
21
178
0.89
LA 89846
14
8
0.36
Pinelawn/
Georgetown
LA 70188
33
391
0.92
LA 45508
2
8
0.80
San
Francisco
LA 70196
73
249
0.77
LA 45507
810
809
0.50
Reserve
LA 39969
36
78
0.68
Tularosa
LA 39968
1010
160
0.14
LA 70185
27
13
0.32
1453
1869
0.56
Three Circle
LA 3279
300
Small
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
301
0
.7
1
33.3
2608
2540
34
Count
11
100.0
8
30.9
3.8
3.8
3
61
109
116
19
20
19
30
Count
100.0
68
100.0
26
10.0
425
3
Carn ivore
Total
7
Toad/frog
3
7
16.2
1
1
3.8
3.8
53.9
%
41
11
1.5
42.6
11.7
13.2
1
1
14
Count
4.4
4.7
4.4
7.0
100.0
.7
1.6
9.6
1.6
.7
14.3
25.6
27.3
%
100.0
84.4
14.4
1.2
Percent
Tu larosa
167
141
Canid
1
1.5
3.0
10.3
%
Reserve
100.0
97.4
1.3
1.3
Percent
Turkey
Bird
9.1
29
1
9
Rode nt
72.7
7
8
8
9.1
Rabb it
Artiodactyl
Indeterminate
0
9.1
Count
1
66.7
%
Large mammal
2
100.0
Three Circle
1
Count
San Francisco
1
%
463
97.6
1.7
34
Table 4.132. Immature Faunal Species
100.0
452
Medium mammal
Count
Pinelawn/
Georgetown
113
100.0
8
2
%
100.0
99.5
.2
113
3
Small mammal
Count
Archaic
663
Total
Species
660
1
Mature
Young adult
.3
Count
Count
5 33
3
7
61
7
4
92
1 18
1 33
20
31
35
3.7
5.8
6.6
6.0
100.0
.6
1.3
11.4
1.3
.8
17.3
22.2
25.0
%
100.0
93.8
.4
4.7
.7
.4
Percent
Total
32
Count
6841
6416
30
324
24
2
Percent
Tularosa
Immature
Count
Reserve
48
Percent
Three Circle
2
Count
San Francisco
Juvenile
Percent
Pinelawn/
Georgetow n
23
Count
Archaic
Fetal
Age
Table 4.131. Age of Faunal Species
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
302
1
37
227
Total
181
13
3
100.0
6
1
1
Turkey
3
15
Snap
4
86
26.7
105
21
25
Split
9
9
23
69.8
2.3
1.2
Percent
4
4
Spiral
Bird
12
2
1
60
Count
15
15
Impact
1
65
23
Snap
Total
1
1
Snap
LA 70188
Rodent
Rabbit
Indeterminate
mammal
7
Split
Large mammal
12
Impact
2
1
Snap
LA 45508
Medium mammal
Small mammal
Split
LA 39975
Pinelawn/Ge orgetown
7
4
1
386
2
Rabbit
185
22
Indeterminate
mammal
1
77
26
Split
Total
106
Large mammal
Spiral
1
45
Medium mammal
2
Snap
Bird
10
Small mammal
Split
LA 43766
Archaic
16
1
15
Impact
LA 70196
24
3
3
12
6
Spiral
6
1
2
3
San Francisco
1
1
Snap
LA 89846
Split
Table 4.133. Types of Processing on Faunal Remains
3
3
Cut
219
3
15
1
3
15
131
22
29
Count
606
1
6
62
357
134
46
Number
100.0
.2
1.0
10.2
58.9
22.1
7.6
Percent
100.0
1.4
6.8
.5
1.4
6.9
59.8
10.0
13.2
Percent
Total
Total
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
303
Split
Spiral
Cut
1
55
5
Rabb it
Rode nt
57 1
2301
Total
1
1
1
Carn ivore
10
2
75
43
53
16 5
16
15 4
43
98
Turtle
7
Canid
Toad/frog
49
117
Indeter. mammal
Turkey
909
Large mammal
133
600
Medium mammal
Bird
425
Small mammal
Sna p
34
1
1
31
1
Impact
LA 3279
16
1
3
6
3
3
1
1
2
1
1
Chop
413
2
3
24
40
82
28
234
Split
Tularosa
100.0
79
1
1
2
10
51
2
8
3
31
Snap
LA 3 9968
1011
.1
3.0
3.2
4.0
60.1
.6
29.2
Percent
3
32
11
10
Split
6
1
5
Impact
68
1
1
30
32
41
608
6
293
Count
Total
9
1
Saw
3
8
1
Chop
Canid
16
8
1
Cut
3
126
7
1
Spiral
Turkey
850
1
1
14
Impact
6
1
23
27
26
25
21
Snap
Total
Indeterminate mammal
Toad/frog
7
4
Rode nt
Bird
14
550
4
271
Rabb it
Large mammal
Medium mammal
Small mammal
Split
LA 45507
Three Circle
17
9
2
6
Split
13
3
4
4
1
1
Snap
1
1
Sn ap
LA 70188
1
1
Impact
LA 39 969
Table 4.133 (continued). Types of Processing on Faunal Remains
1
1
Sp iral
1
1
Chop
Reserve
83
6
3
6
7
38
12
11
3562
1
2
19
2
12 6
18 0
72
30 0
17 5
1206
68 0
79 9
Count
Count
100.0
.0
.0
.5
.0
3.6
5.1
2.0
8.4
4.9
33.8
19.2
22.5
Percent
100.0
7.2
3.6
7.2
8.4
45.8
14.5
13.3
Percent
Total
Total
304
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
64
101
22
Medium mammal
Large mammal
Indeterminate
mammal
63
5
1
3
44
10
Count
100.0
8.0
1.5
4.8
69.8
15.9
Percent
2
1
10
7
118
321
242
227
Count
.1
.1
1.2
.7
12.7
34.5
26.2
24.6
Percent
Three Circle
Total
Frog/toa d
928
100.0
27
1
4
11
4
7
Count
100.0
3.7
14.8
40.8
14.8
25.9
Percent
Reserve
5
18
18
62
156
244
255
178
943
1
100.0
.1
.1
.5
.5
2.0
2.0
6.6
1 6.5
2 5.9
2 7.0
1 8.8
Percent
Tularosa
Count
1
100.0
4.3
89.01
4.3
2.2
Pe rcent
San Francisco
Carn ivore
46
2
41
2
1
Count
Pine lawn/
Georgetown
5
100.0
1.8
.5
10.2
46.8
29.6
11.1
Percent
Archaic
Canid
216
4
Bird
Turkey
1
Rode nt
Rabb it
24
Count
Small mammal
Bone Type
Table 4.134. Burned Bone Types by Period
2223
1
3
5
6
28
29
70
305
762
567
447
Count
100.0
.0
.1
.2
.3
1.3
1.3
3.1
13.7
34.4
25.5
20.1
Percent
Total
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
305
2
Large mammal
100.0
4
100.0
31
12 3
77
11 6
10 6
Count
50 0
2
Frog/toa d
100.0
3
Fox
26
1
Total
2
Squirrel
2
Pocket gopher
Vole
2
Prairie d og
7.7
7
Kangaroo rat
2
2
3.8
Woodrat
1
1
Hawk
Rode nt
2
Turkey
7
34.7
50.0
50.0
Percent
Bird
9
2
2
Count
5
7.7
3.8
34.7
3.8
3.8
Percent
Canid
2
1
9
1
1
Count
Reserve
11
37
46.0
5.4
5.4
40.5
Percent
Three Circle
Blackjack
Cottontail
17
2
Medium mammal
Indeterminate mammal
15
Small mammal
Count
Archaic
Table 4.135. Animal Bone Retrieved from Thermal Features
100.0
.4
.6
.2
.4
.4
.4
1.4
.4
.2
.4
1.4
1.0
2.2
6.2
24.6
15.4
23.2
21.2
Percent
Tularosa
567
2
3
1
3
4
2
7
2
1
1
2
16
5
11
33
141
88
121
124
Count
Total
1 00.0
.3
.5
.2
.5
.7
.3
1.2
.3
.2
.2
.3
2.8
.9
2.0
5.8
24.9
15.6
21.4
21.9
Percent
306
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
APPENDIX 4.1. CLAYS COLLECTED DURING THE LUNA
PROJECT
CS 1 is from the upper soil horizon exposed on the
roadcut near the site on Oaks Springs. This clay lies
directly below loose gravel deposits near the surface.
Form. Chunky and easily ground, fairly plastic
Natural Color. Gray-Brown
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 6/6
Inclusions. Fine volcanic clastic sand
CS 2 is exposed about 30 cm along Oak Springs
drainage. Above the sample are grayish, poorly sorted, redeposited clays and loam layers. Slightly lower
are brownish clays. These sediments are mixed with
redeposited igneous cobbles, which are rounded to
angular in shape.
Form. Chunky, easily ground, highly plastic
Natural Color. Gray-Brown, 5YR 4/6
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 6/6
Inclusions. Small angular dull and lithic particles
CS 3 was collected from the upper layers of a stream
bank cut. The high organic content of this sample
resulted in a dark color.
Form. Chunky, easily ground, not plastic
Natural Color. Dark Brown, 5YR 4/2
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 6/4
Inclusions. Small sand grains, occasional angular
fragments
CS 4 is a very high-quality clay lens associated with
alluvial fans just north of Pueblo Creek Ranch.
Samples were collected about 10 cm below the surface. These alluvial fans are along a fairly flat area
and are thick with bands of high-quality clay layers.
A large amount of clay from this source was collected over time and used in ceramic pottery replication
experiments.
Form. Hard and chunky, excellent plasticity
Natural Color. Red-Brown, 5YR 6/4
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 6/6
Inclusions. Very fine lustrous and dull angular fragments, occasional fine sand grains
CS 5 is a leached clay near the surface of an alluvial
fan fairly close to sample CS 4.
Form. Chunky, fairly easy to grind, very good plasticity
Natural Color. Red-Brown, 5YR 6/3
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 6/6
Inclusions. Fine lustrous and dull angular fragments
with some sand
CS 6 is from an exposure along a creek just north of
Reserve.
Form. Soft and easy to ground, poor plasticity
Natural Color. Gray-Brown, 7.5YR 7/4
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 6/6
Inclusions. None
CS 7 is from thick soil layers exposed by a ditch just
north of the Reserve dump. It is represented by interspersed layers of conglomerate or gravel-bearing
sand, sand, loam, and clay. High-quality clays occur
in thin layers throughout a thick exposure of over 6
m.
Form. Breaks in small angular chunks, fairly easy to
grind, good plasticity
Natural Color. Gray-Brown, 5YR 6/2
Refired Color. Yellow-Red 5YR 6/6
Inclusions. Fine sand some angular fragments
CS 8 is a soil clay slightly below the surface along a
roadcut near the Luna Y Junction to Reserve and
Luna.
Form. Breaks in loose chunks, fairly easy to grind,
good plasticity.
Natural Color. Gray-Brown, 2.5YR 6/4
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Fine sand and angular fragments
CS 9 is a weathered tuff along a road exposure just
south of Pueblo Creek ranch.
Form. Soft, chunky, not plastic enough to be use as
a slip clay, but the light color would have made a
good white slip clay; applies well as slip. Most of it
flaked off after firing, although better prepared samples may stay on.
Natural Color. White
Refired Color. 10YR 9/4, Buff
Inclusions. Natural occurring mica flakes show
through.
CS 10 is exposed by a roadcut north of Buckhorn. It
consists of layers of red and greenish white shale.
This sample came from the lower levels of this
exposure.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
307
Form. Soft, chunky, slightly plastic clay, potential
slip
Natural Color. White
Refired Color. NA
Inclusions. NA
CS 11 is from the same roadcut as CS 10 but from
lower levels.
Form. Soft, chunky, slightly plastic clay, potential
slip
Natural Color. Greenish white
Refired Color. Red, 25YR 7/6
Inclusions. None
CS 12 is a chunky shale and sandstone from the
same exposures north of Buckhorn.
Form. Soft, chunky
Natural Color. Greenish white
Refired Color. Red, 25YR 7/6
Inclusions. None
CS 13 is a colluvial clay forming along a pond north
of Glenwood.
Form. Soft, chunky, not very plastic
Natural Color. Gray-Brown
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Sand and crushed rock
CS 14 is redeposited river clay near the Griffin
Ranch entrance.
Form. Very chunky, extremely difficult to grind, not
very good for pottery making
Natural Color. Gray-Brown, 5YR 6/3
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 5/6
Inclusions. Volcanic clastic sand
CS 15 and CS 16 were collected during two visits
and underlie archaeological deposits at the Hough
site. These sample was taken about 1.5 m below the
surface and exhibited the same characteristics.
Form. Hard, chunky, very plastic
Natural Color. Gray-Brown
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Crushed rock and sand
CS 17 is a band of pink shale near Quemada. We
attempted to process it, but it turned out not to be a
possible ceramic source.
CS 18 is a band of pink shale on the road between
Reserve and Quemada. It could not be processed
into a clay. Inspection of similar sources indicated
that clay could have been made from sources in this
exposure.
308
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICALPROJECT
CS 19 is a band of gray shale clay near Lyman,
Arizona. These are commonly exposed near the surface along a road.
Form. Soft, very plastic
Natural Color. Gray
Refired Color. Pink, 75YR 8/4
Inclusions. None
CS 20 is a gray weathered deposit north of Pueblo
Creek.
Form. Chunky and weathered powder. Mixed with
numerous white (calcium flakes deposits, fairly poor
working properties).
Natural Color. Gray
Refired Color. Yellow-Red, 5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Sand
CS 21 is a weathered tuff north of Pueblo Creek.
Form. Powdery and weathered, could have been
used as a slip clay only.
Natural Color. Gray-Tan
Refired Color. Buff, 10YR 9/2
Inclusions. Mica flakes
CS 22 is a weathered tuff north of Pueblo Creek.
Form. Powdery, weathered
Natural Color. Gray-Tan
Refired Color. Buff, 10YR 9/2
Inclusions. None (mica flakes)
CS 23 was omitted from the study.
CS 24 is from tuff in a road exposure north of
Pueblo Creek.
Form. Chunky tuff
Natural Color. White speckled
Refired Color. Not able to process
Inclusions. None
CS 25 is from a road exposure of tuff north of
Pueblo Creek.
Form. Chunky tuff
Natural Color. White speckled
Refired Color. Buff, 10YR 9/2
Inclusions. Mica
CS 26 is from an upper soil horizon exposed in a
ditch in a soil profile near Luna.
Form. Chunky, weathered, fairly plastic
Natural Color. Gray-Brown
Refired Color. Red, 2.5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Volcanic clastic sand and small angular
white fragments
CS 27 is from an outcrop in Apache Creek National
Forest east of Luna.
Form. Chunky clay, plastic
Natural Color. Reddish purple, white speckles,
extremely high iron content, very plastic
Refired Color. Red, 10R 5/6
Inclusions. White tuff
CS 27 is from a localized road exposure of high-iron
clay in Apache Creek National Forest east of Luna.
Form. Thin localized layer of high-iron clay, very
plastic
Natural Color. Reddish purple, white speckles,
extremely high in iron content, plastic
Refired Color. Red, 10R 5/6
Inclusions. White tuff
CS 29 is a tuff layer in Apache Creek National
Forest east of Luna.
Form. Chunky, slip clay only
Natural Color. Speckled pink
Refired Color. Could not be processed into slip
Inclusions. NA
CS 30 includes samples collected from a major shale
exposure south of Fence Lake. This and similar
exposures represent possible sources of Anasazi pottery produced in the southern Colorado Plateau.
Form. Chunky shale. Exposures very deep and
extremely common. Shale weathered to various
degrees. When processed into a clay, it is very plastic.
Natural Color. Dark gray to brown.
Refired Color. Pink to Red, 7.5YR 8/4, 5YR 7/6
Inclusions. None
CS 32 is from a sterile clay deposit at LA 39972.
Form. Hard and chunky
Natural Color. Red-Brown
Refired Color. 2.5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Tuff
CS 33 is exposed along the side of a road near LA
3279 (the Hough site).
Form. Hard and chunky
CS 34 is present in lenses in the noncultural layers at
LA 3279.
CS 35 is from 75 cm below ground level at LA
3279.
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
309
310
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT
APPENDIX 4.2. ARCHAEOLOGICAL CLAY SAMPLES
LA 45507, FS 1667
Form. Soft, chunky, possible slip clay
Natural Color. White
Inclusions. None
LA 45507, FS 2257
Form. Small, soft, chunky, fairly plastic
Natural Color. Greenish brown
Refired Color. 5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Small angular igneous and sand fragments
LA 70185, FS 143
Form. Fairly hard but easily processed, good plasticity
Natural Color. Dark gray brown
Refired Color. 5YR 7/6
Inclusions. Mostly sand derived from volcanic clastic sandstone
LA 70189, FS 12
Form. Dried to a fairly hard form but easily
processed. Excellent plasticity.
Natural Color. Gray-Brown
Refired Color. 5YR 6/6, Yellow-Red
Inclusions. Angular igneous and sand fragments
LA 70189, FS 13
Form. Dried to a fairly hard form but easily
processed. Excellent plasticity.
Natural Color. Gray-Brown
Refired Color. 5YR 6/6
Inclusions. Angular igneous and sand fragments
LA 70189, FS 14
Form. Dried to a fairly hard form but easily
processed. Excellent plasticity.
Natural Color. 5YR 6/6
Refired Color. Gray-Brown
Inclusions. Angular igneous and sand fragments
LA 78439, FS 5
Form. Dried to fairly hard form but easily
processed, extremely plastic.
Natural Color. Gray-Brown
Refired Color. 2.5YR 5/4
Inclusions. Large white igneous fragments
VOLUME 4. CERAMIC, BIOARCHAEOLOGY, AND FAUNAL ANALYSES
311
312
LUNA ARCHAEOLOGICAL PROJECT