1
The Incas used to recite and
sing the legends about how they
began. According to one of these
legends, a family of four brothers
and four sisters came out of a cave
15 miles South of Cusco. They were
led by Manco Capac, and his sister,
Mama Ocllo, whom he married.
They persuaded ten ayullus (small
tribes or extended families), who
emerged from two other caves, to
come with them to find somewhere
to settle and
Lar
Vilca
grow crops.
p
e
2. They had a custom where
the ruler would marry his own sister.
This may have been to keep power
over the tribe within the royal
family.
3. They thought that the best way to
change their ruler was for him to
choose his successor from among the
sons of his chief wives. The idea
was that he would choose the most
capable of his sons to rule after him.
a
ilc
piv
pa um
am a h
ta p a r C a y o
s
a
Co a h u
uyu
Om
Cuntis
n
Ya u a
ech
Qu
Each of
these things
Pau
ampa
car
may have
ta m
p
Incas
u
The Incas
helped the
Chanca
Cavina
C
eventually
Incas to
hi
lq
Sora
u
e
arrived in the
become
Kanche
Aymara
Cusco area.
stronger than
Kana
They made
their neighAzangaro
the people
bours. While
C
there accept
some of the
Parinacocha
Collagua olla
them as their
details of the
Cavana
rulers. From
Inca legends
Ubina
time to time
are disputed
Lupaca
The main tribes near the Incas
they
by historians,
attacked
the Incas
neighbouring tribes, forcing them to must have started somehow, perhaps
hand over their wealth.
round about 1200 A.D.
The legends do not provide us
with firm facts about how the Incas
began. But they do tell us at least
three things about how the Incas
wanted to remember their rulers:
1. They admired powerful warriors,
but knew that cruel ones might lose
the support of their own people.
According to the Inca stories, the
leaders who followed Manco Capac,
Sinchi Roca and Lloque Yupanqui,
were not particularly warlike.
As can be seen from the map, the
Incas were just one of many tribes
living in the central Andes.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
2
A time of tribal warfare
The Incas became more warlike
under their fourth leader, Mayta
Capac. One reason why the Incas
became more aggressive may have
been a change in climate resulting in
less rainfall. More land was needed to
grow the same amount of food.
Mayta Capac led the Incas in a fight
with their neighbours over water
rights. The Incas won the war, looted
their neighbours’ homes, and took
over some of their land and water.
Sapa Inca on the death of
Inca Roca. The kidnapping
shows that the Incas were not
at this point any more powerful than
their neighbours.
During the reign of Viracocha
Inca, in the early 15th century, the
Incas began their permanent
conquests, at first on a small scale.
Viracocha’s uncles, Vicaquirao and
Apo Mayta, were able generals. They
defeated the Ayarmaca kingdom by
attacking it from two directions. But
According to some accounts the instead of just helping themselves to
fifth leader, Capac
plunder they took
Chiefdoms
Yupanqui, was the
the kingdom
first one to fight
over. This set a
Farmers
outside the Cusco
pattern for future
chimu
valley. He defeated
Inca conquests.
two very small
tribes, the
Virococha was
chancas
Cuyumarca and
now the ruler of a
incas
Ancasmarca. His
powerful state,
Coastal
successor, Inca
one of only 8
states
Roca, conquered
powerful states in
land to the south east colla
the Andes area of
of Cusco.
South America.
Lupaca
Two of these, the
One of Inca
Colla and the
Hunters
Roca’s young sons,
Lupaca, lay to the
Farmers
Yahuar Huacac,
south of Inca
was kidnapped and
territory. The
held captive for a
Incas became
Organisation
of
states
number of years
allies of the
and peoples in 1430
because of a quarrel
Lupaca, so the
between two
Colla were faced
neighbouring tribes, the Ayarmaca
by enemies in two directions. But in
and the Huayllaca. Yahuar Huacac’s the fighting that followed the Inca
mother, Mama Mikaywas, was from army arrived at the scene only to find
the Huayllaca tribe. Yahuar Huacac that the Lupaca had already won the
was eventually released and became
battle!
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
3
A time of tribal warfare
To the West of the Inca
kingdom, the Chancas seemed set to
become the leading power in the
Central Andes. They had already
conquered the Quechua tribe, and in
about 1438 attacked the Incas.
many people left the Calca
group to join Pachacuti.
Pachacuti had to deal with two
enemies at the same time, the
Chancas, and his father's forces at
Calca. Pachacuti struck eastward,
According to one story Viracocha to the edge of the tropical rainforest,
Inca and his chosen heir Inca Urcon to add to the territory he controlled,
left Cusco. They withdrew some
and to hem in Viracocha’s forces at
miles to the north to Calca.
Calca.
However, another son, later to be
known as Pachacuti or
At this point Viracocha Inca
‘Earthshaker’, remained in Cusco to died, and Inca Urcon was killed
defend the city, supported by
shortly afterwards in a skirmish.
generals Vicaquirao and Apo Mayta. Viracocha’s and Urcon’s followers
accepted Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui
Pachacuti successfully defended
as the new Sapa Inca, and the Inca
Cusco. (According to legend, stones nation was reunited.
turned into
Pachacuti
warriors in
continued
order to
fighting the
complete the
Chancas until
Chanca
he had
defeat!) More
completely
Inca soldiers
subdued
joined
them. The
Pachacuti’s
Incas now had
army, and he
the resources
was able to
of a large and
drive the
powerful
Chancas away
kingdom to
from Cusco.
add to their
own, and in
By now
Pachacuti
there were two
they had a
Inca states, one in Cusco, led by
Sapa Inca who had a vision of what
Pachacuti, and the other in Calca, led he could do with that power. He
by his father Viracocha Inca. As the believed the gods had given him the
power of the Cusco group grew,
task of conquering the Andes.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
4
2 - The conquests of
Pachacuti ‘Earthshaker’
Before 1438 the Andes had
the same way that Andean villages
been occupied by a hundred or so
had already done over hundreds of
larger tribal groups, and thousands of years.
smaller ones. The kingdoms,
Pachacuti would then ask the
chiefdoms, tribes and lordships of the neighbouring tribe to provide him
Andes had many different languages with troops or labourers, in return for
and customs. Tribes sometimes
the gifts he had given. Overall,
traded with one another, but often
although both sides in the agreement
they fought for
did both giving and
scarce land and
taking, in practice
Chiefdoms
resources. From
the Incas did most
Farmers
the reign of
of the taking!
Pachacuti all this
Even so, when the
chimu
changed.
Incas later became
Thousands of
more powerful, they
different peoples
still had to request
chancas
became one - ‘The
help in this way,
incas
Land of Four
and if the custom
Coastal
Quarters’,
was forgotten it
states
Tawantinsuyu. In
could cause trouble.
theory, and someBut it was an
colla
times in practice,
effective way of
Lupaca
the entire Andes
raising very large
was at peace.
armies. As the
Hunters
Incas conquered
Farmers
Pachacuti
more tribes, they
‘Earthshaker’
gained more and
began this change
more goods, which
Organisation of states
partly through
in turn allowed
and
peoples
in
1430
defeating other
them to have even
tribes and partly through talking to
larger armies.
them. He made special Give-andThe first important group the
Take agreements with neighbouring Incas conquered were the Chancas.
tribes, using age-old Andean customs. By using the wealth gained in this
‘Give-and-Take’ meant that the Incas victory, the Incas were able to start
exchanged gifts with another tribe, in out on their programme of conquest.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
5
The conquests of Pachacuti ‘Earthshaker’
The Chancas were the first major
tribe to come under Inca control. It
happened gradually. Pachacuti
defeated them in battle on several
occasions. At one point the two tribes
agreed not to attack one another,
leaving them both free to gain more
territory. There was then something
like a competition between the two
tribes to see who could conquer the
most land.
which the Chancas became
the junior partners.
With the resources of
these two ‘super-tribes’ Pachacuti was
able to send Capac Yupanqui on a joint
Inca-Chanca expedition to the north.
He had orders not to go too far north.
Pachacuti probably did not want him to
stir up the powerful northern kingdom
of Chimu.
It turned out that the Chancas did
most of the
fighting. This
made the Incas
look foolish.
Pachacuti
became worried
that the Chanca
army would
attack their Inca
allies. He sent
an order to
Capc Yupanqui
to kill the
Chanca leaders.
The
Chancas’ army
moved south,
conquering the
Colla people in
the area of Lake
Titicaca.
Pachacuti and
the Incas
marched west
through
Quechua
territory to
conquer the
Vilcas and the
Sora tribes.
Warned of
Pachacuti then
this, the Chanca
sent his brother
army fled
The conquests of Pachacuti
Capac
further to the
Yupanqui
north east into
southwards. He reached as far as the
the rainforest. CapacYupanqui tried to
Pacific Ocean, and on his return
follow them, but eventually gave up.
journey to Cusco even captured a few
But Capac Yupanqui had now
Chanca villages.
broken Pachacuti’s orders not to go too
Somehow, through threats,
far north. He captured the city of
bribes and military pressure, the
Cajamarca, even though the city was
Chancas were forced into a ‘Give-and- an ally of Chimú, and he left an Inca
take’ agreement with the Incas, under garrison there before starting the long
return journey to Cusco.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
6
3 - The conquests under
Pachacuti ‘Earthshaker’
Pachacuti’s general Capac
Yupanqui, caused problems for
Pachacuti.by capturing Cajamarca.
Cajamarca was an ally of the Chimu
Empire, the largest and most powerful
state in South America. Pachacuti was
angry that his brother had disobeyed
his orders. He was also afraid that he
might use his victorious army to replace
him as Sapa Inca. Pachacuti ordered
him to be killed before he arrived in
Cusco.
Pachacuti put a younger son,
Tupac Inca Yupanqui, in charge of an
army to move northwards. Tupac
forced the Chancas and the Quechua
to fully accept Inca control. But his
main task was to defeat Chimu. Its
great capital city of Chan Chan was
600 miles to the North through high
and unfamiliar mountain paths.
Tupac Inca’s huge army, which
included many Inca allies, set off. The
smaller tribes they encountered quickly
Pachacuti now had to face
came to terms with the Incas. The Inca
enemies from two
army then
directions. In the
approached the
north there was
Chimu Empire,
Chimu. In the
and drove off the
Peru
south, his Chanca
Chimu soldiers
allies, smarting
who were
Cajamarca
Brazil
from the execution
surrounding the
Chimu
of their generals,
Inca garrison at
empire
rose against the
Cajamarca.
Inca empire
Chan Chan
Incas.
To face this
Tupac Inca
Pacific
challenge,
then attacked
Ocean
Cusco
Pachacuti sent
Chimu from
armies against
several directions.
both threats. The
They cut off the
The conquests
Incas had already
city’s water
Of Tupac Inca
defeated the Colla
supply, and in
under Pachacuti
tribe. Now the
1464 the last
southern Inca army
Chimu Emperor,
defeated the Lupaca and their allies, so Minchancaman, was forced to
that the Incas controlled all the land
surrender.
between Cusco and Lake Titicaca.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
7
The conquests under Pachacuti
Tupac Inca had extended the
food supply. He reformed
Inca Empire far to the north and
the panaqas (the royal
defeated its most serious rival. He now families who preserved the
marched his army back towards home, memory - and the mummies - of all the
but along the coast to the south of
Inca emperors). He ensured that they
Chimu. One by one he defeated many had sufficient land to support his
of the rich coastal kingdoms, including mummified ancestors. He began the
the city of Pachacamac, with its
practice of moving whole tribes from
important oracle. The Incas had come one part of the empire to another.
to control all the
These mitimaes
tribes and peoples
were then less
in the Northern
likely to rebel,
Andes. There
and also played a
was now no
part in spreading
kingdom in the
Inca ideas. He
Peru
entire Andes
encouraged a
strong enough to
state religion
challenge them.
based on the
Chan Chan
worship of the
creator god
Tupac Inca
Virococha, while
Pacific
returned to
also allowing all
Cusco. Pachacuti
the peoples he
Cusco
Ocean
appointed him his
conquered to
successor, and
keep their own
Inca
empire
while Tupac Inca
religions.
After
the
Northern
accompanied the
conquests of Pachacuti
army, Pachacuti
remained at
Pachacuti and
and Tupac Inca Yupanqui
Cusco. He
his son Tupac
reformed the government of the Incas Inca worked together, the father
so that they could rule ‘The Land of
organising the armies and changing the
Four Quarters’ that they had
system of government, and the son
conquered.
doing much of the fighting. In 1471
Pachacuti took their partnership a stage
He began rebuilding the city of
further by abdicating, allowing Tupac
Cusco to be a worthy capital.
Inca Yupanqui to become the new Sapa
Impressive buildings were constructed, Inca.
including the massive fortress of
Sacsahuaman. He terraced the land
around the capital to provide a good
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
8
Tupac Inca’s reign got off to a
body in his path, as far as the Maule
bad start. He tried to add to Inca lands River (in central Chile). Here the
in the northeast. However, this was
tough Araucanian tribesmen, and the
low-lying tropical rainforest or jungle, much colder climate, brought the Incas
not the mountains the Inca armies were to a halt. A number of small civilized
used to. The local tribes fought back. and independent lowland states
However, the Incas
remained on the
did take some new
Pacific coast, west of
Ecuador
Columbia
land, and trade
Cusco. Around 1476
routes were opened
Tupac Inca
so that the Incas
Yupanqui attacked
Peru
Brazil
could have tropical
them one by one,
products. The local
defeating them all
Chan Chan
tribes also agreed to
after heavy fighting.
supply archers for
Like his father
the Inca army.
Pachacuti, Tupac
Cusco
However, the
Inca spent the end of
Bolivia
hard fighting led to
his reign changing
Colla
Lupaca
a rumour that Tupac
how Tawantinsuyu
Inca Yupanqui had
was governed. He
The campaigns
been killed. The
distributed the land
of Tupac Inca
Colla and Lupaca
he had conquered
Yupanqui as
tribes (who lived
among his followers;
Inca emperor
south of Cusco) led
he introduced a
Chile
a rebellion. Tupac
system of dividing
hurried south, and
people into labour
(Modern states
captured the Colla's and frontiers
units ranging from
mountaintop
100 to 10,000 men,
shown in grey)
Argentina
fortresses one by
to provide manpower
one. Then he
for agricultural
River Maule - limit of
attacked the Lupaca, Inca advance
projects and the
Araucanians
who had regrouped
army; and he
and joined up with
introduced the
the Pacasa tribe as their ally. The now system where each province provided
all-powerful Inca army defeated them. girls to train to become Acclacunas
Tupac Inca continued hundreds (Chosen Women).
of miles southward, conquering every- He died unexpectedly in about 1493.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
Tawantinsuyu - the Inca Empire
uano
After Tupac Inca’s death
guards. Huayna Capac
different branches, or panaqas, of the continued to push northInca royal family, plotted to get their wards.
prince made Sapa Inca. The final
He also had to face a
choice was a young son of Tupac Inca threat from the east. When the
called Huayna Capac. He was too
powerful Chiriguano tribe raided
young to rule on his own, so there was Tawantinsuyu, he sent an army to deal
a further quarrel about who should
with them. The Chiriguano were
hold real power.
driven back, and
Once he was
fortresses were built
Pasto
old enough to rule Quito
along the frontier to
in his own right,
prevent further
Huayna Capac
raids.
proved a competent
Sapa Inca. By the
Huayna Capac
Chachapoyas
beginning of the
himself focused on
th
16 century
bringing the
Tawantinsuyu was
northern province
nearing its
of Quito (the
Cusco
maximum size. In
modern country of
fact it was so big
Ecuador) under
that the main
control.
problem facing
Huayna Capac was
Meanwhile it
how to hold it
was probably the
together. To do
Chiriguano who
this he travelled
passed on the
around, so that
deadliest enemy the
people would know
Incas were ever to
him in each part of 0
face – European
200 miles
the empire.
diseases. Early
Despite this, he
Spanish explorers
Campaigns of
still had to put
on the Atlantic
Huayna Capac
down a number of
coast of South
rebellions. Huayna
America were
Capac continued to add new
carriers of diseases such as measles
territories to the empire. He
and smallpox which Native Americans
conquered Chachapoyas, a
had not been exposed to for thousands
mountainous area in northeastern Peru. of years. They had no immunity, and
Afterwards, these conquered people
died in large numbers.
provided him with excellent body-
Chir
ig
9
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
10
Tawantinsuyu - the Inca Empire
In 1525 disease struck the area soon afterwards. Tawantinsuyu now
of the Inca capital Cusco, killing
faced a major crisis.
thousands. Huayna Capac returned to
deal with the panic - and himself died
of the disease. His successor, a
young son Ninan Cuyuchi, died very
Chinchaysuyu
0
200
miles
Antisuyu
Cuntisuyu
Kollasuyu
Tawantinsuyu
- The land of
Four quarters
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
11
5 - The Civil War
After the death of Huayna
Different Inca armies chose
Capac and his son Ninan Cuyuchi sides, and Huascar and Atalhualpa
in 1525, another son, Huascar, was fought an increasingly bitter civil
proclaimed Sapa Inca at Cusco.
war to decide who would control
However, another panaqa - a
Tawantisuyu.
different branch of the royal family
Huascar had the bigger
– had other ideas. Atahualpa had
armies. But Atahualpa had the more
been with his father, with the main
Inca army, in the north. Atahualpa’s experienced generals and soldiers.
Huascar failed to gain the respect of
followers claimed that his halfhis nobles, including his own
brother Huascar was not the
generals. One by one Huascar’s
‘official’ Sapa Inca. They pointed
out the proper religious ceremonies armies were defeated by Atalhaulpa,
before Huascar
had not been
finally led out
performed by
(Atahualpa’s
an army
the High Priest.
Base)
QUITO
himself.
Huascar,
N
N
Huascar was
who ruled from
1
Huascar
sent
defeated and
Cusco from
N
large armies
captured in
1525–1532,
N
To attack
1532.
treated
N
Atahualpa
2 - Atahualpa’s
Atahualpa and
armies defeated
By now
his followers
them one by one
the hatred
with contempt.
N
and captured Huascar N
between the two
N
Huascar used
outside Cusco
sides ran very
his immense
N
deep. Huascar
CUSCO
power to take
= Battle in the
(Huascar’s was made to
away some of
Civil War
Base)
watch hundreds
the wealth of
of members of
The Civil War
the panaqas for
his family being
himself. This
butchered in front of him on the
lost him many friends.
orders of Atalhualpa’s generals. His
Quipucamarocs, who remembered
Meanwhile the northern
and recited Inca History from the
province of Quito became
point of view of Huascar’s family,
Atalhualpa’s base, almost an
were also killed.
independent kingdom. But
Atahualpa wanted to be Sapa Inca.
N
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
12
6 - The collapse of
the Land of Four Quarters
Tawantinsuyu had been torn in Pizarro had personal experience of
two by the civil war between Huascar this fighting.
and Atahualpa. Then it was turned
Atahualpa, following his own
upside down by forces from outside. armies southwards, had reached the
In 1532 the Spanish adventurers,
abandoned town of Cajamarca. He
Francisco Pizarro and 150 soldiers,
had experience of war, but only
were moving south from where they
according to the rules and customs of
had landed at Tumbes. They were
the people of the Andes. He and his
armed with
advisers
firearms,
seem not to
protected by
have fully
steel armour,
understood
and mounted
what Pizarro
Tumbes
on horses.
was aiming
They
to do. They
also had a
certainly
clear aim - to
underestseize the vast Cajamarca
imated him.
amounts of
Some of
gold and
Atahualpa’s
silver in the
advisers even
Cusco
Inca empire
thought
and make
Pizarro was
themselves a
sent by the
fortune.
god
They
Viracocha
The Spanish Invasion 1531 - 1533
had other
and would
aims too, to
bring a new
take the land on behalf of the King of age to Tawantinsuyu, so they prepared
Spain, and convert the ‘Indians’ to the to worship the strangers. Others
Christian faith. These aims were
considered the Spaniards were
genuine enough, but in practice not so enemies who should be killed - after
important as getting the gold.
getting from them the secret of ironPizarro and his men had the advantage making. Overall, Atahualpa and his
of coming from the Spanish Empire
advisers were curious about
and had experience of conquering
Pizarro and his men when they should
people in Europe and America.
have been cautious.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
13
The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters
Atahualpa himself seems to
By this time the
have thought that the strangers would Conquistadors realised they
make good allies in his quarrel with
needed an emperor that they
Huascar. This may be why
could control – a ‘puppet’ Sapa Inca.
Atalhualpa’s army was not prepared
They gave Atahualpa a swift ‘trial’ on
for a battle when Atahualpa came to
a number of charges, and he was then
meet with Pizarro at the plaza in
strangled to death. They made Tupac
Cajamarca.
Hualpa the new emperor (in 1533),
After a brief attempt to convert
thinking that he would be obeyed by
Atahualpa to Christianity failed, the
both the supporters of Huascar and
Spaniards suddenly attacked. They
those of Atahualpa. In fact he was
used their cannon and their other
part of Huascar’s branch of the Inca
superior weapons. They massacred
royal family, and so was hated by
hundreds of
many Incas. He died
apparently unarmed
shortly afterwards,
Inca warriors.
perhaps by being
Map of conquest
1536-37
Inca
forces
Pizarro himself
poisoned.
attack
Spaniards
captured Atahualpa
Manco Inca
by pulling him out of
(1533-1545), a brother
his litter.
of Atahualpa, was
The Conquistadors
appointed the next
Lima
took Atahualpa
Sapa Inca by the
Cusco
(new
Spanish
hostage, and marched
Conquistadors. At
Capital)
on to Cusco. They
first he submitted to
forced Atahualpa to
them, because he
Almagro leads
Spanish
use his power and
thought they would
expedition to
authority to get them
help him finally end
south
1535
masses of gold and
the civil war and bring
silver from all over
Tawantinsuyu back
the Inca empire.
under his control. In
Almagro returns
Atahualpa did this,
1535, when he
to Cusco and
but was fearful that
realised that they were
prevents Spanish
defeat,
1537
the Conquistadors
not interested in
would hand over his
reuniting the Inca
Spanish
invasion
and
empire to Huascar,
empire, he escaped
who was still being
from the fortress of
Inca resistance
held by Atahualpa’s
Sacsahuamán in
soldiers. So Atahualpa, from his
Cusco.
prison, gave orders that Huascar
By now Manco Inca was
should be executed.
planning to drive the strangers out of
Tawantinsuyu.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006
14
The collapse of the Land of Four Quarters
Once he realised the Spanish
(and heavier taxes) of the
invaders were a deadly threat Manco Spaniards.
Inca organised an army of over
The Conquistadors
40,000 men to destroy them. The
explored the entire length of
Spaniards were now weaker, because Tawantinsuyu, looking for treasure.
part of their army had split off to
But they fought among themselves,
explore the south.
and many were killed. They were
Manco Inca had the advantage of a replaced by other adventurers from
large army, and knew that he was
Spain and from the New World. It
facing a ruthless enemy. After days was not until the late 1560’s that the
of fighting in which the city of Cusco Spaniards set up an effective governwas destroyed, his siege failed. He
ment for the Andes region. It was
retreated to a remote area , where with sited at Lima on the coast, where
a few loyal followers he set up the
ships could keep the Viceroyalty of
tiny Inca kingdom of Vilcabamba.
Peru in touch with Spain.
Tawantinsuyu had collapsed. It
Meanwhile all that was left of
had depended on
Inca rule was a tiny
there being one
area. From this
strong Sapa Inca to
mountain ‘kingdom’
give orders - and
of Vilcabamba,
now there wasn’t
Manco Inca carried
one. The only Incas
on guerrilla
with any power were
warfare against the
the curacas (the
Spanish. His
Vilcabamba
local nobles who
successors sometimes
Lima
had accepted Inca
fought the Spanish
control.) But they
and sometimes tried
Cusco
soon came to realise
to come to an
that the Conquistaagreement with them.
The
Spanish
dors were only
Viceroyalty
interested in looting
In 1572 a new
of
Peru
all the gold they
Spanish governor
in 1570
could find. So the
captured the capital
curacas stopped
of Topa Amaru
helping the
(1571 – 1572). He
Spaniards and
had Topa Amaru
restricted themselves
publicly executed in
to following as few
Cusco. The remains
of their orders as
of the mummies of
possible. Eventually
the Sapa Incas were
they had to submit to the heavy rule
destroyed.
© Norman Pratt Nov 2006