Water quality and phytoplankton assessment in three selected waterfalls of Kuching and
Serian Districts, Sarawak
JASMINA BINTI MAJIT
This dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor
Science with Honours in Aquatic Resource Science and Management
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2008
DECLARATION
No portion of the work referred to in this dissertation has been submitted in support of an
application for another degree qualification of this or any other university or institution of higher
learning.
_____________________
JASMINA BINTI MAJIT
Aquatic Resource Science and Management Programme
Department of Aquatic Science
Faculty of Resource Science and Technology
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I would like to thank GOD for the continuous blessing that I have
received during those challenging and wonderful times that I have gone through from the starting
until the end of this project.
Secondly, I would like to express my deepest gratitude and sincere appreciation to my
supervisor, Dr. Samsur Mohamad, co-supervisor Dr. Ruhana Hassan, and other lecturers for their
advices, guidance, supports and building comments from the very beginning until the completion
of this project.
Million of thanks are extended to my seniors, Mr. Nasarudin Harith and Ms. Ailen May
for their kind assistances and valuable insight regarding this project. Sincere thanks also go to the
laboratory staff especially, Mr. Nazri Latip, Mr. Zaidi Ibrahim and Mr. Mustafa Kamal @ Harris
and other aquatic’s laboratory staff for their help and companionship throughout this project. Not
to forget, special thanks to the Headman and villagers of Kampung Rayang for their willingness
and precious help during the completion of this project.
My heartfelt appreciation goes to all my supportive friends; especially Fam Choo Chen,
Nur Amalina, Andrew Ujang, Anuar, Siaw Li Ching, Vincent Dainsi, Siti Fairuz, Jocelyn Jonip,
Christharina Saurin, Nur Ezzaidah, Emmy Goh Ling Ling and Mary Teh Chee Sing for their
helping hand, companionship, understanding and willingness.
Last but not least, my devoted appreciation and greatest thankfulness goes to my loving
and caring family, especially my parents: Mr. Majit Bin Bubat and Mrs. Ziniba Hj. Bujang,
brother and sisters, relatives and Ally Basyrah for their unconditional love, supports and prayers.
i
TABLE OF CONTENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Page
i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ii
APPENDICES
iv
LIST OF ABREVIATION
v
LIST OF TABLES
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
vii
ABSTRACT/ABSTRAK
viii
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1
CHAPTER II
2.1
LITERATURE REVIEW
Physical Parameter
2.1.1
Temperature
2.1.2
pH
2.1.3
Turbidity
2.1.4
Total Suspended Solid
2.1.5
Total Dissolved Solid
2.1.6
Dissolved Oxygen
2.1.7
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Parameter
2.2.1
Chemical Oxygen Demand
2.2.2
Ammonia-nitrogen
2.2.3
Nitrate
2.2.4
Nitrite
2.2.5
Orthophosphate
Biological Parameter
2.3.1
Chlorophyll a
2.3.2
Phytoplankton
Water Quality Monitoring in Sarawak
4
2.2
2.3
2.4
CHAPTER III
3.1
3.2
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Sampling Sites
Methods
3.2.1
Field Sampling
3.2.2
Laboratory Analysis
ii
5
5
6
6
6
7
7
8
8
8
9
9
10
10
11
12
15
16
CHAPTER IV
4.1
4.2
4.3
CHAPTER V
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
RESULTS
Water Quality Parameter
4.1.1
Physical, chemical and biological parameter during
dry season
4.1.2
Physical, chemical and biological parameter during
wet season
Phytoplankton composition
Water Quality based on DOE Water Quality Index
19
23
28
31
5.7
DISCUSSION
Physical, chemical and biological parameter during dry season
Physical, chemical and biological parameter during wet season
Nutrient Analysis
Phytoplankton composition
Correlation for phytoplankton composition with water quality
parameter
Relation between phytoplankton composition and chlorophyll
a
Water Quality based on DOE Water Quality Index
CHAPTER VI
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
52
CHAPTER VII
REFERENCES
54
5.6
APPENDICES
iii
33
37
42
44
46
49
51
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I
Calculation
APPENDIX II
Comparison of water quality parameters at 3 waterfalls and Water
Quality Index
APPENDIX III
Method
APPENDIX IV
Human activities that are potentially alter the natural water quality
APPENDIX V
Phytoplankton identification
iv
LIST OF ABREVIATION
pH
Potential of Hydrogen
TSS
Total Suspended Solid
TDS
Total Dissolved Solid
DO
Dissolved Oxygen
BOD
Biological Oxygen Demand
NO3-
Nitrate
NO2-
Nitrite
NH3-N
Ammonia nitrogen
PO43-
Orthophosphate
COD
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Chl a
Chlorophyll a
mg/L
Milligram per Liter
µg/L
Microgram per Liter
µm
Micrometer
GPS
Global Positioning System
NTU
Nephelometric Turbidity Units
ºC
Degree Celcius
km
Kilometer
WQI
Water Quality Index
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
Page
1
GPS reading for Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfall
13
2
Significantly different water quality parameters during dry season
19
3
Significantly different water quality parameters during wet season
23
4
List of phytoplankton identified at Ranchan, Giam and Rayang
waterfall
29
5
DOE Water Quality classification based on Water Quality Index
32
6
Water Quality status at Ranchan
32
7
Water Quality status at Giam waterfall
32
8
Water Quality status at Rayang waterfall
32
9
Correlation of phytoplankton composition with water quality
parameter
48
vi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure no.
1
Location of Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfall
2
Page
14
Distinct parameter values at Ranchan, Giam and Rayang;
(a) Temperature and (b) NO3-
21
Distinct parameter values at Ranchan, Giam and Rayang;
(a) PO43- and (b) Chl a
22
Different parameter values at Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfall;
(a) Turbidity and (b) BOD
25
Different parameter values at Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfall;
(a) pH and (b) NO3-
26
Different parameter values at Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfall;
(a) NO2- and (b) NH3-N
27
7
Relation between Chl a, PO43- and NO3-
35
8
Relation between Turbidity and TSS
39
9
Different proportion of Nutrient at Ranchan, Giam and Rayang
waterfall
43
10
Phytoplankton composition identified at 3 different waterfalls
45
11
Relation between Phytoplankton composition and chl a (biomass)
50
3
4
5
6
vii
Water quality and phytoplankton assessment in three selected waterfalls of Kuching and
Serian Districts, Sarawak
Jasmina Majit
Aquatic Resource Science and Management
Faculty of Resource Science and Management
Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
ABSTRACT
The study was carried out in dry season (Apr’ 07 – Sept ’07) and wet season (Oct’07 - March’08) to assess the water
quality levels and phytoplankton composition in three waterfalls located at Ranchan (Serian), Giam (Padawan) and
Rayang (Borneo Height). A total of three sampling stations from each waterfall were selected as the 15 water quality
parameters were analyzed based on APHA and HACH standard method. Meanwhile, phytoplankton samples were
collected using plankton net (20 µm) and identified under inverted microscope. The results of physical, chemical
and biological parameters were compared based on dry and wet season of each waterfall. It shows that temperature
was significantly different among the waterfall during dry season, where both Giam and Rayang marked highest as
28 °C. Nitrate concentration (mg/L) was highest at Giam (0.14) and lowest at Rayang (0.01). Orthophosphate
concentration (mg/L) however, marked highest level at Ranchan (0.5) and lowest at Giam (0.1). In chlorophyll a
analysis, highest concentration (µg/L) was obtained in Giam (1.5), whereas, Ranchan recorded the lowest value
which is 0.5. During wet season, Biological Oxygen Demand was significantly different where Ranchan recorded
the highest concentration (2.2mg/L) while Rayang recorded the lowest value (0.7 mg/L). Turbidity level was
recorded to be the highest at Ranchan (7.8 NTU) and lowest at Rayang (0.2 NTU). Ammonia nitrogen concentration
(mg/L) however, marked highest level at Rayang (0.054) and lowest at Ranchan (0.031). For phytoplankton
composition, a total of 58 genera have been identified where Rayang illustrates the highest number of genera (49
genera). Based on the Water Quality Index, Ranchan, Giam and Rayang are classified as slightly polluted due to
their BOD level.
Key words: Water quality, waterfall, phytoplankton, Water Quality Index
ABSTRAK
Kajian ini telah dijalankan pada musim panas (Apr’ 07 – Sept ’07) dan musim hujan (Okt’07 - Mac’08) untuk
menilai kualiti air dan komposisi fitoplankton di tiga air terjun iaitu Ranchan (Serian), Giam (Padawan) dan
Rayang (Borneo Height). Tiga stesen kajian untuk setiap air terjun telah dipilih untuk mengkaji 15 parameter kualiti
air yang dianalisa berdasarkan piawai APHA dan HACH. Sampel fitoplankton diambil menggunakan jaring
plankton (20 µm) dan dikenal pasti menggunakan mikroskop (inverted microscope). Keputusan parameter fizikal,
kimia dan biologi air dibandingkan mengikut musim panas dan hujan. Suhu menunjukkan perbezaan yang ketara
pada musim kering di mana Giam dan Rayang menunjukkan suhu tertinggi iaitu 28°C. Nitrat menunjukkan bacaan
tertinggi di Giam iaitu 0.14 mg/L dan terendah di Rayang (0.01 mg/L). Orthophosphat mencatatkan nilai tertinggi
di Ranchan (0.5 mg/L) dan terendah di Giam (0.1 mg/L). Untuk analisis klorofil a, nilai tertinggi dicatatkan di
Giam (1.5µg/L), manakala Ranchan mencatatkan nilai terendah (0.5 µg/L). Pada musim hujan,. Ranchan
mencatatkan nilai yang tertinggi untuk permintaan biologi oksigen iaitu sebanyak 2.2 mg/L dan nilai yang terendah
dicatatkan di Rayang (0.7 mg/L). Kekeruhan air di Ranchan mencatatkan nilai tertinggi (7.8 NTU) manakala
Rayang mencatatkan nilai terendah (0.2 NTU). Nilai Ammonia Nitrogen (mg/L) yang tertinggi dicatatkan di Rayang
(0.054) dan terendah di Ranchan (0.031). Bagi komposisi fitoplankton, sebanyak 58 genera telah di kenalpasti di
mana Rayang mencatatkan jumlah genera yang terbanyak iaitu 49 genera. Keputusan daripada setiap air terjun
dibandingkan dengan Index Kualiti Air (DOE) di mana Ranchan, Giam dan Rayang telah dikenalpasti sebagai
sedikit tercemar berdasarkan nilai BOD.
Kata Kunci: Kualiti Air, air terjun, fitoplankton, Index Kualiti Air
viii
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Water, a great gift from God is a very complicated and vitally important substance. It covers two
thirds of the Earth’s surface while the human body consisting 75 percent of this substance (Chin,
2006). Without water, living organisms could not survive because water plays an important role
in living organisms as it important to maintain health state, apart from oxygen and other
necessities of life.
Water pollution occurs when the water body is adversely affected due to the addition of large
amount of materials to the water (Kumar and Bohra, 2006). The term water pollution is referred
to any excessive addition to water in the form of materials (or heat) that are harmful to humans,
animals, and aquatic life, that also causes significant departures from the normal activities of
various living communities in or near the water bodies (Trivedi and Raj, 1992).
Waterfall is one of the famous destinations for the public and tourists during leisure time. As a
recreational destination, waterfall typically developed with essential services and facilities
including food outlets. While most waterfalls remain more or less in their natural state, many of
the more popular ones have undergone some development which may include refreshment
outlets of different kind and various accommodations (Hudson, 1998).
As the largest state in Malaysia, Sarawak has numerous waterfalls that are popular among
tourists and some are unexplored as they are lack of publicity and isolated in rural areas. There
are many waterfalls found in Serian District. Apart from Ranchan waterfall, another waterfall
1
that is well known is Simuja waterfall. It is accessible by road which is located about 7km from
the town of Serian. Besides Giam waterfall, some waterfalls that can be found in Kuching
District including Santubong Falls, Bobak Falls, Skedu Falls, Ban Buan Kukout and Mabi
waterfalls. In terms of isolated waterfall, another waterfall that can be found besides Rayang
waterfall (Borneo Height) is Ba’an Gong waterfall which is a hidden waterfall located in
Penrissen area (Kuching). To gain access to this waterfall, one has to track about half an hour of
cocoa gardens, paddy farms and rubber garden.
Water Quality can be defined as the state of the suitability of water based on their physical,
chemical or biological characteristics to sustain various uses or processes (Meybeck et al., 1996).
Besides, Prakash (2005) defined water quality as the physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water that indicates the condition of water bodies whether it is healthy or
polluted. Moreover, the quality of water may be described in terms of the concentration and state
(dissolved or particulate) of some or all of the organic and inorganic material present in the water,
together with certain physical characteristics of the water (Meybeck et al., 1996).
Water quality monitoring is very important which it can give updated data of water bodies
determining the health of monitored area. From the crucial need of water in our ecosystem, it is
evidently clear that water is one of the prime elements responsible for life in Earth.
Not much water quality study had been done previously, especially in waterfall areas, have been
conducted in Sarawak. It is important to assess the water quality in waterfall particularly in the
area that water utilization from waterfall by the local community’s as daily water supply are high
2
and waterfalls that are opened as recreational destination. Besides that, the waterfall area that is
located near the potential water-polluting activities such as agriculture and housing area needs to
be examined.
Realizing the importance of waterfalls study in Sarawak, and lack of them, the main objective of
this study is to assess the water quality in three different waterfalls sites in Kuching and Serian
Area. Apart from that, the assessment is aimed to compare water quality levels in dry and wet
seasons. Also, this study is conducted to relate the water quality data of each site based on the
main activities practices at the area such as recreational, local utilization for bathing and washing,
human settlement and agriculture activities. As well, the study is conducted to list and identify
the phytoplankton as bioindicator for the water quality at the selected waterfalls. This study also
aims to provide baseline data on water quality status and phytoplankton composition of the
selected waterfalls for future study and research.
3
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
Water is an essential component in daily life, but nowadays the condition of water is in the
unhealthy level due to pollution that is mostly cause by human activities. Water pollution can be
resulted from natural runoff, dissolved chemicals in water that percolates through the soil, and
human sources such as; agriculture, mining, construction, industry, homes and businesses
(Trivedi and Raj, 1992). However, there are only few publications on water quality study in
Sarawak, particularly in waterfalls area.
In order to determine the quality of the water body, different parameter which consist of physical,
chemical and biological qualities were analyzed. Water quality parameters are one of the matters
which can be measured to find out the quality of the water in a water body (Prakash, 2005).
Several important parameters that are commonly used in monitoring and determining water
quality including temperature, pH, current, turbidity, Total Suspended Solid (TSS), Total
Dissolved Solid (TDS), Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD), Nitrate
(NO3-N), Nitrite (NO2-N), Ammonia Nitrogen (NH3-N), Orthophosphate (PO43-), Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD) and Chlorophyll a (Chl a) (Meybeck et al., 1996 and USEPA, 1997).
4
2.1 Physical Parameter
2.1.1 Temperature
Temperature is one of the most important parameters for aquatic environment because almost all
the physical, chemical and biological properties are governed by it (Trivedi & Raj, 1992). Nearly
all aquatic life depends on water temperature for their optimal health. As only a few aquatic
organisms are warm-blooded, the metabolic rate of virtually all organisms and overall system
productivity are strongly influenced by water temperature (Cushing & Allan, 2001) adding that
different organisms give response in a different way to temperature. Water temperature is first
affected by air temperature, followed by the mixture of surface and groundwater, degree of
shading and stream size (Kalff, 2001). Furthermore, the rates of biological and chemical
processes depend on temperature which may affect other parameter such as Dissolved Oxygen
(USEPA, 1997).
2.1.2 pH
“Potential of hydrogen” or commonly known as pH is a measure of the concentration of
hydrogen ions in the water. This parameter will determine the acidity or alkalinity of the water.
Neutral water (distilled) has a pH of 7, acidic less than 7 and alkaline has pH more than 7. The
desirable pH for freshwater aquatic life is in the range 6.5 to 9 and 6.5 to 8.5 for marine aquatic
life (Chin, 2006). It is important to monitor the pH of the water body because it is closely related
to the aquatic organisms. Changes in acidity can be caused by atmospheric deposition (acid rain),
weathering of surrounding rock, wastewater discharges and organic matters (USEPA, 1997).
5
2.1.3 Turbidity
Turbidity is a measure of water clarity or the light scattering properties of water cause by
presence of particles and microscopic biota in water column which is measured in Nephelometric
Turbidity Units, NTU (Chehalis River Council, 2007). Increase in the turbidity of the water
decreases the amount of light that penetrates the water column, which may alter the aquatic
ecosystem. As a result, reduction in photosynthetic activity of phytoplankton, algae and
macrophytes will occur. Consequently, primary productivity and dissolved oxygen declines
(Hauer & Hill, 2006).
2.1.4 Total suspended solid (TSS)
TSS are discrete particles in water that can be trapped by a filter. TSS can include wide variety
of materials such as silt, decaying plant and animal matter, as well as industrial wastes and
sewage (Murphy, 2007). High concentrations of suspended solid can affect the water quality and
can cause many problems in stream health and aquatic life. TSS refers to the dry weight of the
material that is removed from a measured volume of water by filtration through a standard filter
(Ballance, 1996). High amount of suspended solid indicate that the water bodies are
contaminated with particles which causes low clarity of water (Trivedi & Raj, 1992).
2.1.5 Total Dissolved Solid (TDS)
The substances remaining after evaporation and drying of a water sample are termed as ‘residue’.
Non-filterable residue corresponds to the total suspended solid and the filterable residue is the
Total Dissolved Solid (TDS).
6
2.1.6 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
DO refers to the amount of molecular oxygen dissolved in water and is one of the most important
parameters affecting the health of aquatic ecosystems (Chin, 2006). It is an important parameter
because its content shows the health and ability of the stream to purify itself through biochemical
process (Trivedi & Raj, 1992). Changes in DO concentrations can be early sign of changing
conditions in water body and its measurement provides a good indication of water quality
(Ballance, 1996). There are many factors affecting the DO level in water such as; water current
and turbulence, biological activities such as respiration and decomposition, and physical factor
such as temperature (USEPA, 1997).
2.1.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
BOD is a measure of the oxygen consumed by micro-organism such as bacteria whilst breaking
down the organic matter and shows the amount of molecular oxygen required by bacteria to
reduce the carbonaceous materials (Trivedi & Raj, 1992). There are several factors that might
affect the rate of oxygen consumption in a stream including; temperature, pH, type of organic
and inorganic material such as leaves, woody debris, dead plants and animals in water and the
presence of certain kinds of microorganisms in the water (USEPA, 1997). Waste discharges that
contain significant amounts of biodegradable organic matter have high BOD levels and consume
significant amounts of oxygen from the receiving waters, thereby reducing the level of DO and
producing adverse impacts on aquatic life (Chin, 2006).
7
2.2 Chemical Parameter
2.2.1 Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
COD is a measure of the oxygen equivalent of the organic matter content of a sample that is
subject to oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant such as potassium dichromate in sulphuric acid
condition (Trivedi & Raj, 1992). It provides a measure of the oxygen equivalent of that portion
of the organic matter in a water sample that is susceptible to oxidation under the conditions of
the test. It may be defined as the amount of oxygen required by organic matter in a sample of
water for its oxidation by a strong chemical oxidant (Ballance, 1996).
2.2.2 Ammonia nitrogen (NH3-)
Nitrogen is an important element in water monitoring since biological reaction can only proceed
in the presence of sufficient nitrogen. NH3- is nitrogen in the form of ammonium salts which is in
the form of non-colour gas that can produce weak base when react with water. Higher
concentrations occur in water polluted by sewage fertilizers, agricultural wastes or industrial
wastes containing organic nitrogen, free ammonia or ammonium salts (Ballance, 1996). Freshly
polluted system especially by sewage contamination shows higher concentration of NH3- which
changes to nitrites and nitrate in an aerobic environment (Trivedi and Raj, 1992).
2.2.3
Nitrate (NO3-)
NO3-, the highly oxidized form of nitrogen compounds, is commonly present on the surface and
in ground waters, because it is the end product of the aerobic decomposition of organic
nitrogenous matter (Chin, 2006). Unpolluted natural waters usually contain only a minute
amount of NO3-. In surface water, NO3- is the nutrient taken up by plants and assimilated into
8
cell protein (Ballance, 1996). The natural level of NH3- or NO3- in surface water is typically low
(less than 1 mg/L) and in the effluent of wastewater treatment plants, it can range up to 30 mg/L
(USEPA, 1997).
2.2.4 Nitrite (NO2-)
Other form of nitrogen is NO2- which is in unstable form and intermediate stage in the nitrogen
cycle which is formed in water either by the oxidation of NH3- or by reduction of NO3- (Chin,
2006). Consequently, biochemical processes can cause a rapid change in the NO2- concentration
in water samples (Kalff, 2001).
2.2.5 Orthophosphate (PO43-)
Organically combined phosphorus and all the phosphates are first converted to PO43- (Ballance,
1996). Both phosphorus and nitrogen are essential nutrients for the aquatic plants and animals
(Kalff, 2001). Small increment of the phosphorus in the water, under right condition set off a
whole chain of undesirable events in a stream including accelerated plant growth, algae blooms,
low dissolved oxygen, and the death of certain fish, invertebrates, and other aquatic animals
(USEPA, 1997).
9
2.3
Biological Parameter
2.3.1 Chlorophyll a (chl a)
Analysis of the photosynthesis chlorophyll pigment present in aquatic algae is an important
biological measurement which is commonly used to assess the total biomass of algae present in
water samples (Ballance, 1996). The analysis of chl a concentration is much easier and provides
a reasonable estimate of algal biomass.
2.3.2 Phytoplankton
The response of biological communities or the individual organisms can be monitored in a
variety of ways to indicate effects on the ecosystem. The changed ecosystem usually been
associated with the organisms under stress or that the ecosystem has become unbalanced
(Chapman & Jackson, 1996). Phytoplankton can be defined as the photosynthesizing plankton
consisting primarily of microscopic algae, such as diatom and dinoflagellates (Oxford, 2006). It
is an important bioindicator because it forms the basis of food chain of all other forms of aquatic
life, being the primary producers that will affect the whole system if being altered.
Basically, there are eight major division of algae which are; Division Cyanophyta,
Prochlorophyta, Chlorophyta, Chrysophyta, Rhodophyta, Pyrrophyta, Cryptophyta and
Euglenophyta (Sze, 1986). Naturally, they are important in food chain, but they are harmful to
the environment if they are in the excess amount. Dense growth or blooms of algae are usually
induced by human activity which will cause eutrophication of water bodies.
10
2.4
Water Quality Monitoring in Sarawak
River Water Quality Monitoring has been started by Natural Resource and Environment Board
(NREB), Sarawak since 1998. As rapid population growth, land development along river basin,
urbanization and industrialization have subjected the rivers in Sarawak to increasing stress,
giving rise to water pollution thus the common water quality parameters measured are those
related to water pollution due to land clearing, sewage discharge and industrial effluents. Water
quality is determined by comparing with relevant standard which is the Interim National Water
Quality Standards (INWQS) for Malaysia. The State Government has directed NREB to ensure
that the water qualities in all rivers of Sarawak are maintained at least to Class IIB of INWQS of
Malaysia (Sumok, 2001).
11
CHAPTER III: MATERIAL AND METHODS
3.1
Sampling sites
Three sampling locations were selected namely Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfall. The
description and general observations were documented as follow:
Ranchan
Ranchan waterfall is located approximately 68 km from Kota Samarahan which is under Serian
district. Accessible by road, it is popular recreational area (many visitors) and well known among
tourists. Popular activities that can be found at this waterfall are picnic, swimming and bathing.
Besides that, this waterfall is shaded heavily by vegetation along the watercourses.
Giam
Giam waterfall which is located at Padawan (Kuching District) is approximately 60 km from
Samarahan. Accessible by road, it is also well known among the visitors especially local people.
However, it is not as popular as Ranchan waterfall and the visitors are not as many as at Ranchan
waterfall. This waterfall is also utilized by local people for daily washing and bathing. This
waterfall offered wider swimming and picnic area. Besides that, the waterfall channel also
provides transportation for the local area using boat (sampan) to go to their crop growing area.
The vegetation also occurs along the channel with least shading as the channel is wider along the
watercourse.
12
Rayang
This isolated waterfall located in area which is approximately 70km from Samarahan. Difficult
to access, this waterfall is not visited by tourist or local people for recreational purposes. This
waterfall however, is only used by local people where the housing area can be found along the
water channel. The agriculture activities such as small poultry farm also practiced near the
watercourse. The vegetation is not heavily shading the water channel as the channel side is
mostly built with houses.
Three sampling stations have been assessed at each site comprising different sections of waterfall
which are upper, middle and lower section (Appendix III). Table 1 shows the reading of Global
Positioning System (GPS) that was used to determine the actual coordinates of three sampling
site namely Ranchan, Giam and Rayang (Figure 1).
Table 1 GPS reading for Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfall
Sampling Site
Ranchan
Giam
N 01º08.595'
N 01º18.970'
E 110º34.982'
E 110º16.32'
13
Rayang
N 01º06.937'
E110º19.727'
2
Padawan
1
Ranchan
2
Giam
3
Rayang
1
Borneo Height
3
Figure 1 The location of Ranchan, Giam and Rayang waterfalls
14