Anglicisms in Spanish
UniversityPressScholarshipOnline
OxfordScholarshipOnline
AHistoryoftheSpanishLexicon:ALinguisticPerspective
StevenN.Dworkin
Printpublicationdate:2012
PrintISBN-13:9780199541140
PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:September2012
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541140.001.0001
AnglicismsinSpanish
StevenN.Dworkin
DOI:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199541140.003.0011
AbstractandKeywords
ThischapterexaminesAnglicisms,themostrecentlexicalstratuminSpanish.Mostsuch
itemsenteredSpanishonlyafter1950.Inthecontemporarylanguage,Englishconstitutes
themostfrequentsourceofneologismsinEuropeanandAmericanSpanish.Manyhave
nothadtimetoadapttothephonologicalandorthographicnormsofSpanish,andthus
remainasunintegratedborrowings.Anglicismsoftentaketheformofsemanticloansor
calques.MostAnglicismsenteredthroughwrittensources.Inthespokenlanguage,they
enteredSpanishnotonlythroughdirectcontactbetweenspeakersofthetwolanguages,
butalsothroughmovies,lyricsofpopularAmericanmusic,andtheInternet.Theinfluxof
AnglicismshasworriedspeakersandwritersconcernedwiththeintegrityofSpanish.
EspeciallyperniciousintheirviewarethoseAnglicismsthatcoexistalongsideand
threatentodisplacesignifiersalreadypresentinthelanguagefortheconceptsatissue.
Keywords:Anglicisms,unintegratedborrowings,semanticloans,calques,writtenversusoral
transmission,reactionstoAnglicisms
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Anglicisms in Spanish
11.1Historicalbackground
Forapproximatelythelastsixtyyears,English(especiallyitsAmericanvariety)hasbeen
themainsourceofnewloanwordsinPeninsularandNewWorldvarietiesofSpanish.
Priortotheeighteenthcentury,few,ifany,EnglishwordsenteredSpanish,despite
Anglo-Spanishcontacts,oftenofabelligerentorbellicosenatureinvolvingpoliticaland
militaryconflictonthecontinent,onthehighseas,andintheNewWorldcolonies.Inthe
MiddleAges,AlfonsoVIIIofCastilemarriedLeonora,daughterofHenryIIofEngland.
AlfonsoXmarriedoffhissisterLeonoratothefutureEdwardI.Inthefourteenth
centurytheBlackPrinceandhissoldierscametoSpaintoaidPedrotheCruelinhis
strugglewithEnriquedeTrastámara.EnglishmerchantsandtradersvisitedSpain,as
perhapsdidsomescholars.However,therewasnosignificantpresenceofspeakersof
EnglishintheIberianPeninsula.OnlyoneEnglishworkofliteraturewastranslatedinto
SpanishintheMiddleAges,namelyJohnGower’sConfessioamantis(1390),butthesole
extantSpanishversionwasbasedonaPortugueseintermediary,onlyrecently
discovered.1
Inthesixteenthcentury,CatherineofAragon,wifeofHenryVIII,learnedEnglishvery
well.ThemarriageofPhillipIIofSpaintoMaryTudorledtothepresenceofasizeable
SpanishpopulationinLondon,someofwhommusthavemasteredthelanguageoftheir
newcountry.CommercialrelationsbetweenEnglandandSpain(p.213) continuedto
flourish.Nevertheless,therewaslittledirectcontactonaregularbasisbetween
sufficientnumbersofspeakersofEnglishandSpanishforEnglishwordstoenterandtake
rootinwrittenorspokenSpanish.AhandfulofworksweretranslatedfromEnglishinto
Spanishintheperiod1500–1700.Suchbookswouldnothavebeenaccessibletothe
largelyilliteratepopulationandwouldhavehadnoinfluenceonwrittenSpanish.Whereas
manualsforlearningSpanishandbidirectionalSpanish–Englishdictionarieswere
producedinEnglandduringthesixteenthandseventeenthcenturies,similartoolsdid
notappearfortheteachingofEnglishinSpainuntilthelateeighteenthcentury,priorto
whichSpaniardshadtorelyonthepolyglotmanualsandlexicaproducedintheLow
Countries(Martín-Gamero1963:25–128;alsoFernándezUrdaneta2010).
TheinfluenceofBritainbegantobefeltinSpain(andelsewhereinEurope)inthe
eighteenthcentury.TheBritishconstitutionalmonarchybecameamodelformanypolitical
thinkers.Englishadvancesinagriculture,themedicalsciences,andeconomicsspread
throughoutEurope,andrivaledFrenchprogressandinfluenceinthosefields.Therewas
amarkedincreaseinthenumberofEnglishworkstranslatedintoSpanish.Menofletters
suchasGasparMelchorJovellanos(1744–1811),JuanMeléndezValdés(1754–1817),
andJoséCadalso(1741–82)masteredEnglishandpromoteditsteachinganduse.The
languagebegantobetaughtinclassesofferedbythelocalSociedadesEconómicasdelos
AmigosdelPaís;JovellanosinstitutedtheteachingofEnglishinthenewlyfoundedReal
InstitutoAsturiano(1795).TheburgeoningnumberoftranslationsfromEnglishsources
begantointroduceEnglishscientificandtechnicalterminologyintowrittenSpanish.
11.2EarliestAnglicisms
TherearenosureinstancesofEnglishloanwordsinSpanishpriortotheeighteenth
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Anglicisms in Spanish
century.RodríguezGonzález(2002:128)suggeststhatthenamesforthecardinalpoints
norte‘north’,sur~sud‘south’,este‘east’,andoeste‘west’representthefirstSpanish
Anglicisms(althoughheconcedespossibletransmissionthroughFrench,ashadalready
beensuggestedinDCECH:s.v.norte,andinDHLF:(p.214) s.v.nord).2Allfourterms
appearinmedievalsources,withnorte(usuallyemployedwithreferencetothenorth
star)goingbacktothethirteenthcentury(CORDE),atimeofnodirectcontactwith
MiddleEnglish.TwoOldSpanishshipdesignations,ballener(alsoPtg.barinel,Cat.
balener)andhaloque,maygobacktoEnglishbasesthatenteredSpanishthroughFrench
andGasconrespectively(Eberenz1975:27–34,205–8).
PáramoGarcía(2003)surveysandcommentsonAnglicismsfoundin69translationsfrom
EnglishtoSpanishmadebetween1767and1800.Almostallthesewordsappearintheir
EnglishgarbandexpressconceptsthatarespecificallyBritishandforwhichSpanish
lackedasignifier.Theseitemsareclearlyunintegratedforeignwords,andwouldnot
havediffusedtothespeechofthegeneralpopulationofthetime;infact,manyofthem
havefailedtotakerootinSpanish.AmongthefewexceptionsidentifiedbyPáramoGarcía
thathavesurvivedandtakenonaSpanishformaresuchitemsasbote‘smallboat,skiff’,3
cuáquero‘Quaker’,pingüino‘penguin’,ponche(alongsidepunch)‘punch(drink)’andron
(alongsiderum)‘rum’.Oneinstanceofdogo‘bulldog’(aBritishbreed)appearsinPadre
Isla,FrayGerundio(1758).4Insomecasesitisdifficulttodeterminewhethertheitemin
questionenteredSpanishdirectlyfromEnglishorwhetheritcrossedthePyreneesasa
Gallicism.Furthercomplicatingtheanalysisisthefactthatinsomecasestheworditself
firstenteredEnglishfromFrenchbeforemakingitswaybacktotheContinent.Thefact
thatanAnglicismisfirstdocumentedinFrenchearlierthaninSpanishdoesnot
automaticallymeanthatFrenchistheimmediatesourceoftheSpanishform.TheEnglish
wordcouldhaveenteredbothlanguagesasseparateAnglicisms,orSpanishas
independentborrowingsfrombothEnglishandFrench.PáramoGarcía(2003:291)
presentsoneexampleoftren‘retinue’takenfromJosefAlonsoOrtiz’stranslation(1794)
ofAdam(p.215) Smith,Investigacióndelanaturalezaycausasdelariquezadelas
naciones.5Doestren‘train’asameansoftransportation,abundantlydocumentedinthe
nineteenthcentury,comedirectlyfromEnglish(wheretransportationbyrailinminesand
collierieswasfirstpracticed),orfromFrench,wheretrainsousedisanAnglicismfrom
thefirsthalfofthenineteenthcentury?TheAnglicismrailwasusedin1858byPedro
AntoniodeAlarcóninhisDeMadridaSantander(CORDE),butwasdisplacedbyriel(a
possibleborrowingfromFrenchorCatalan,firstdocumentedin1498withthemeaning
‘narrowlongbarofsmeltedmetal’).IsSp.té‘tea’,recordedonceintheseventeenth
centurywithdirectreferencetotheChineseplant,andthenabundantlydocumentedin
theeighteenthcentury(CORDE),aborrowingdirectlyfromEnglishorfromFrench,
whereitisdocumentedintheseventeenthcentury(DHLF:s.v.thé)?PáramoGarcía
(2003:289–90)recordsasanAnglicismthenauticaltermtope‘topofthemast’.Thisnoun
isabundantlydocumentedintheseventeenthcenturyasanauticaltermandisa
borrowingofOFr.top(VarelaMerino2009:2003–10).6ThecompilersoftheRoyal
Academy’sfirstdictionaryspecificallyderivedSp.parque,definedas‘anenclosed
woodedareanearapalaceorroyalhome’,fromEnglishpark.7Inhisfour-volume
Diccionariocastellanoconlasvocesdecienciasyartes…(concludedc.1765,butnot
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Anglicisms in Spanish
publisheduntil1786–1793),EstebanTerrerosyPandocommentedontheAnglicismclub
astheEnglishnameforwhatiscalledinMadrid“tertuliaojuntadepersonasdegusto”
(quotedinSalvador1985:156).
11.3Anglicisms1800–1950
AhandfulofAnglicismsreflectingBritishrealitiesandfashionsenteredSpaininthefirst
halfofthenineteenthcentury.Theexile(p.216) inBritainofliberalwritersandthinkers
duringtherepressivereign(1813–33)ofFernandoVIIledtotheincorporationof
certainborrowingsfromEnglishintheirwritings,e.g.dandy,8bistec.9Thesecondhalfof
thecenturysawthedefinitiveincorporationofsuchAnglicismsascheque,club,rifle,
revólver,túnel(allabundantlydocumentedinCORDEforthatperiod),andturista.10Itis
atthistimethattheDiccionarionacionalograndiccionarioclásicodelalenguaespañola
ofRamónJoaquínDomínguez(1849)andDRAEinits1869editionfirstrecordanglicismo
asatermreferringtotheuseofEnglishwordsandphrasingandcharacterizingsuch
practiceasa“defect”.11 GarcíaGallarín(1998:171–7)recordsAnglicismsinwritings
fromthefirstthirdofthetwentiethcenturyofthreemembersoftheGenerationof’98,
PíoBaroja(1872–1956),RamóndelValle-Inclán(1866–1936),andMigueldeUnamuno
(1864–1936).HereIofferselectedexamplesidentifiedbyGarcíaGallarínfromtheworks
ofBaroja:bluff,boby,boyscout,browning,buflista/blufista,clubman,comradeship,
coolie,curman(acombinationofcurandman),dancing,dock,fashionable,fútbol,
gentleman,groom(asanequestrianterm),jailaif,jazz-band,máster,mail-coach,musichall,partner,pemmican,pick-pocket,puzzling,runner,sandwich,skipper,slogan,smart
(set),speech,sportsman,square,thug,toast,tory,trust,tubo‘subway’,turf,whist.
AlmostalltheexamplesareunintegratedEnglishwords,mostofwhichhavenotremained
inSpanish.GarcíaGallaríntreatsasborrowingsfromEnglish,wordsthatenteredSpanish
asGallicisms.FernándezGarcía(1972)recordsnumerousAnglicismsfoundintheweekly
magazineBlancoyNegrointhoseissuesthatappearedbetween1891and1936.Once
again,theoverwhelmingmajorityoftheseitemsareunintegratedAnglicisms.
(p.217) EnglishbegantohaveagreaterlexicalimpactonNewWorldvarietiesof
SpanishinthenineteenthcenturyasaresultofUSactivityinLatinAmericaandthe
politicalmodelitprovidedforthenewlyindependentrepublics.12ThegreatLiberator,
SimónBolívar,knewEnglishandscatteredlexicalandsemanticAnglicismsappearinhis
writings(Hildebrandt1961:148–73):bote,paquebote,papel(usedwiththemeaning
‘newspaper’),esplín,boxear,rifle,editor(usedwiththeEnglishmeaning‘newspaper
editor’),comodoro,congreso,receso,corporación,federación,protectorado,retaliación,
suramericano,norteamericano,americano(referringtotheUnitedStates).Direct
referencetoBritishinstitutionsledtohisuseoflibraesterlina,chelín,penique,guinea,
andyarda.AnglicismsenteredtheSpanishofCubaatanearlystage,whileitwasstilla
Spanishcolony,tojudgebythefollowingentriesinthevariouseditionsofPichardo
(1836),theoldestdictionaryofalocalvarietyofNewWorldSpanish:ténder‘coalcar’;
bifteq(sospelled),bloque(usedasabilliardterm),brandi‘aguardiente’,bul-dog,
check/cheque,chequear,chequeo,jalfnajalf‘somewhatdrunk’.Inhisobservationson
thelate-nineteenth-centurySpanishofBogotá,RufinoJoséCuervoviewednegativelythe
usebyjournalistsofreporterandinterview,notedwithsomedisapprovalbudínand
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Anglicisms in Spanish
bistec,declaredcompletelyunnecessarytiqueteinplaceofbilletedeferrocarril,and
condemnedguafeandsaiborasdeformationsofEnglishwharfandsideboard(Cuervo
1914:676).
11.4TheinfluenceofAmericanEnglish1950–
Asnotedabove,untilc.1950mostEnglishloanwordscamefromBritishEnglishandwere
culturallyspecificborrowings,reflectingrealitiesofBritishlife,sports,politics,and
society.Therewasadrop-offintheentryofnewAnglicismsduringtheSpanishCivilWar
(1936–39)andinthedecadeimmediatelyfollowingthisfratricidalconflict,aperiodduring
whichSpainhadlittlecontactwiththeEnglish-speakingworldandinwhichthe
governmentofthedictatorFranciscoFrancoadoptedapolicyagainstnon-Castilian
elementsin(p.218) thenationallanguage.TheFrancogovernmentlegislatedagainstthe
useofforeignwords,especiallyintherealmofsports.Sucheffortsmetwithmixed
success.RodríguezGonzález(2002:132)reportsthatatthattimematch,back,and
speakergavewaytoencuentro,defensa,andlocutor.Onlyinthesecondhalfofthe
twentiethcentury,withthepost-warpoliticalandculturalhegemonyoftheUnitedStates
andtheendoftheisolationoftheFrancoregime,didAmericanEnglishbegintohavea
significantimpactonEuropeanSpanish.AnglicismsenteredSpanishthroughoraland
writtenchannels.Alreadyin1955(asreprintedinLorenzo1996:81–107)EmilioLorenzo
spokeofthefloodofAnglicismsinEuropeanSpanish,asdidStone(1957).
ThesocioculturalbackgroundfortheintroductionofAnglicismsinSpanishisvery
differentfromthatoftheearlierlexicalstrataoftheSpanishlexicon.Thepresenceof
Americanmilitarybases,increasedtourismfromBritainandtheUnitedStatestoSpain
startinginthe1960s,thelyricsofBritishandAmericanpopularsongsandrockandroll,
greateraccesstoEnglish-languagepressandtelevision,noweasilyavailablethrough
cableandsatelliteservices,andtherecentwiderdiffusioninurbanSpainofundubbed
English-languagefilms13contributedtotheinfluxofAnglicismsintobothspokenand
writtenSpanish.Theseroutesoftransmissioninvolvethespokenlanguage,butwithout
directcontactbetweenspeakersofSpanishandEnglish.Thislanguagehasnowdisplaced
Frenchasthefavoredforeignlanguagetaughtinhighschoolsanduniversities.Spanish
journalisticprosealsocontributedtolexical(andsyntactic)Anglicisms,especiallythrough
translations,oftenhastilyandcarelesslydone,ofnewsstoriesdistributedinEnglishby
themajorwireservicessuchasTheAssociatedPress,UnitedPressInternational,and
Reuters.ManyoftherecentAnglicismsthatcamethroughwrittensourceswere
absorbedvisuallyratherthanorally,whichmayaccountfortheirslownesstoadapttothe
normsofSpanishphonotacticsandmorphology.Asaresultofthemuchhigherlevelsof
literacyintwentieth-centurySpain,suchAnglicismshadabetterchanceofspreading
throughthegeneralpopulationtothespokenlanguage.Spanish,(p.219) likemanyother
languages,hassufferedthelexicaleffectsofEnglishastheinternationaltongueofscience,
technology,medicine,business,management,andtheInternet.Anglicismsseemtohave
hadgreatestimpactonthespeechoftheyoungurbanandeducatedSpaniards.
11.5ReactionstoAnglicisms
JustasintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturieswithrespecttoGallicisms(cf.Chapter
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Anglicisms in Spanish
6),someintellectualsandwritersintheSpanish-speakingworldhaveprotested,ina
puristicvein,thegrowingswellofAnglicisms,especiallyinthosecaseswhereanadequate
signifieralreadyexistedinSpanishorinwhichspeakerscouldhaveadaptedrawmaterial
presentinthelanguagetonewuses.Inhisposthumous1922bookLimpiayfija(echoing
themottooftheRoyalSpanishAcademy),thejournalistMarianodeCavia(1855–1920)
advocatedreplacingtheAnglicismfútbolwithbalompié(Lebsanft1997:28),aformthat
hasfailedtofindfavor,tojudgebythematerialsavailableintheCORDEdatabase.14
Overtheyearsotherproposedsubstitutesforfútbolhaveincludedbolopié,bolapié,and
piebalón.NotallSpanishsubstitutesforAnglicismshavemetwithapproval.Although
azafataisstillthewordusedinSpainforwhatistodaycalledinEnglish‘flightattendant’
(agender-neutraldesignation),itsrevivalin193515asareplacementforthespecifically
feminineAnglicismstewardesswasroundlycriticizedbythephilosopherSalvadorde
MadariagaandthenovelistFranciscoAyala.Variouswritershaveusedsuchstrongly
negativelabelsasinvasiónorplagatodescribetheinfluxofAnglicisms.16Manyhave
beenopenlycriticaloftheadmissionofmanysuchitemsinthelatesteditionsoftheRoyal
SpanishAcademy’sDiccionariodelalenguaespañola,anactionthatappears(p.220) to
conferwhatisperceivedasofficialsanctionfortheiruse(especiallyinthewritten
language).GonzálezMonllorandTroyaDéniz(1997:151–4)listthefollowinglexicaland
semanticAnglicismsacceptedforthefirsttimeinthe1992editionoftheDiccionariodela
RealAcademiaEspañola:17aerobic,anfetamina,auditar,autostop,aviónica,bádminton,
baffle,basquetbol,behaviorismo,beicon,best-seller,birome,blister,blues,boxer,
brandy,bungaló,buster,cadi,campus,cazatalentos(acalque),cello,charter,chequear,
chinchín,chip,clip,closet,clown,comic,concreto,contracultura,contrainteligencia,
córner,cross,debutante,delfinario,derbi,descharchar,discapacitado,dopar,
dravidiano,drogadicción,ecualizar,escultismo,eslogan,esnifar,esnob,extraditar,flas,
fólder,gangster,glycol,grogui,hamburguesa,interviú,krill,legui,licopeno,linier18,
magacín,magnetostricción,marine,marketing,ocupacional,parsec(aunitof
measurementemployedinastronomy),penalti,piolet,19pipermín,polyester,pop,
póster,pulsar,puzzle,quark,quásar,récord,relax,sandwich,sida,silicona,suspense,
tamil,teletexto,test,trailer,transfocador,trial,váter.Thislistincludesalargenumberof
itemsthatappearinEnglishgarbandhaveretainedtheirEnglishwordstress(as
indicatedbytheuseinSpanishofwrittenaccentmarks).TheformerDirectoroftheRoyal
SpanishAcademy,VictorGarcíadelaConcha,hasdescribedAnglicismsasan“injuriaal
español”(‘anoffensetotheSpanishlanguage’,quotedinÁlvarez2001:49).
11.6SemanticAnglicismsandloan-translations.
EquallyperniciousformanySpaniardsconcernedwiththequalityoftheirlanguageare
semanticAnglicisms,theacquisitionbySpanishwords,regardlessoftheirhistoricalnative
ornon-nativeorigin,ofmeaningsthatcomedirectlyfromtheword’sEnglishcognatesor
translationequivalents.Examplesincludeignorarforhacercaso(p.221) omisode,
removerforquitar,anticiparforprever,audienciaforauditorioorpúblico,editarfor
redactar,opcionalforoptativo,regulaciónforreglamento,versatileforadaptable.
AccordingtoÁlvarez(2001:51)theAcademyhasadmittednumeroussemantic
AnglicismsinDRAEwithoutindicatingtheoriginofthesemeanings,e.g.década‘any
periodoftenyears’(cf.decenio),emergencia‘emergency’(cf.urgencia),nominar‘to
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Anglicisms in Spanish
nominate’(cf.nombrar).Thelinguistisinnopositiontopredictwhetherthesenew
meaningswillovertimebecomeanintegralpartoftheword’ssemanticload,withthe
foreignsourcenolongerbeingrecognizabletofuturegenerationsofspeakers.
ManyAnglicismshaveenteredthe(written)language,despitethepresenceinSpanishof
anadequatesignifierfortheproductorconceptatissue.Severalessayistsconcerned
withlanguagemattershavedrawnattentiontopertinentexamples.Grijelmo(1998:133)
offersthefollowingexamples:babysitter/canguro/niñera;(e)spray/pulverizador;
trailer/avance;match/partido;show/espectáculo;cassette/cinta/grabadora;
stocks/reserva;discjockey/pinchadiscos;interview(interviu)/entrevista;best
seller/éxito;overbooking/sobreventa;script/guión;marketing/mercadotecniaand
mercadeo(thelatterbeingpreferredinLatinAmerica);estresado/agobiado.Some
additionalexamples:airbag/bolsadeaire~bolsadeseguridad~colchóndeaire;
alien/extraterrestre~alienígena;antitrust/antimonopolio;background/experiencia~
historial~trasfondo;basquetbol/baloncesto(withthelatterdominatinginSpain,whereit
issupportedbytheRoyalSpanishAcademyoftheLanguage;theAnglicismisfavoredin
NewWorldvarietiesofSpanish);bearmarket/mercadobajista.Overtheyears,readers
ofElPaís,oneofSpain’sleadingnationaldailiesofthepost-Francoperiod,havewritten
letterstotheeditor,criticizingtheexcessiveuseofAnglicismsinitsarticlesandreports
(forexamples,seeLebsanft1990).Thepaper’sstyleguidecounselsagainsttheuseof
foreignwordswhenaSpanishequivalentisavailable(althoughhistoricallythatwordmay
beaborrowinginthedistantorevenrecentpast).AnexceptionismadeforAnglicisms
relatedtotherealmsoftechnology,informationsciences,sports,andeconomics,thelast
afielddominatedbytheEnglish-speakingworld.TheManualdeespañolurgenteissued
bytheSpanishpressagency(p.222) EFE,recordsscoresofAnglicismswhichshould
beavoidedinfavorofexistingSpanishequivalents(187–307),e.g.account
manager/directordecuentas,accruedinterest/interésacumulado,adherencia/adhesión,
altaprioridad/prioridadmáxima,aterrizajedeemergencia/aterrizajeforzoso,bank
rate/tipodedescuento,behaviorismo/conductismo.InitsrecentDiccionariopanhispánico
dedudas(2005),theAcademyhasspecificallycondemnedtheuseofAnglicismsunder
suchcircumstances.FernandoLázaroCarreter,aformerDirectoroftheRoyalSpanish
AcademyoftheLanguage,isquotedintheOctober26,2003issueofElPaísasstating
thatthebattleagainstAnglicismsisessentiallyalostcause.
Inadditiontoloantranslationsbasedonindividualwords,theoverlappingofcultural
modelsinWesternEuropeledtotheformationinmodernSpanishofnumerousphrasal
calquesbasedondirecttranslationofEnglishmodels.Mostsuchneologismsare
compoundsinvolvingtwonounsinvaryingsyntactico-semanticrelations,acombination
historicallymoretypicalofGermanicratherthanRomancelanguages.Manyseemtobe
creationsofjournalisticlanguage.Selectedexamplesincludeacuerdosorpresa‘surprise
agreement’,añoluz‘lightyear’,buquefactoría‘factoryship’,canciónprotesta‘protest
song’,ciudaddormitorio‘bedroomcity’,cochebomba‘carbomb’,fechalímite‘expiry
date’,hombrerana‘frogman’,horapunta,‘peakhour’,madrepatria‘mothercountry’,
misiónrescate‘rescuemission’,momentoclave‘keymoment’,perroguardián
‘watchdog’,pruebasorpresa‘surprisetest,popquiz’,reunióncumbre‘summitmeeting’,
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Anglicisms in Spanish
sectoragricultura‘agriculturalsector’.Verb+nounnominalcompoundshavealong
historyinRomance;however,manysuchformationscoinedinthemodernlanguageare
calquesofEnglishmodels,e.g.calientaplatos‘platewarmer’,cortacésped‘lawnmower’,
exprimelimones‘lemonsqueezer’,guardacostas‘coastguard’,lanzacohetes‘rocket
launcher’,lanzallamas‘flamethrower’,limpiaparabrisas‘windshield(Brit.windscreen)
wiper’,portaaviones‘aircraftcarrier’,rascacielos‘skyscraper’(unlessitisacalque
basedonFr.gratte-ciel),tocadiscos‘recordplayer’(Pratt1980:207).Spanishhasalso
createdonEnglishmodelssuchhybridcompoundsastopdiez‘topten’,managerde
carretera‘roadmanager’,rockduro‘hardrock’,tenisdemesa‘tabletennis’.
(p.223) Englishmayhaveplayedaroleintherevivalofahandfuloflexicalitems
documentedonlysporadicallyinearlierstagesofSpanish.Althoughdocumentedasearly
astheseventeenthcenturyinworksbyLópezPincianoandQuevedo,theLatinism
obsoletoonlybegantoshowsignsofvitalityinthefirsthalfofthetwentiethcentury,
possiblyundertheinfluenceofEnglishobsolete.ThemodelprovidedbytheEnglish
sport(s)ledtotherevivalintheearlytwentiethcenturyoftheOldSpanishnoun
deporte20(var.depuerto)withitsmodernmeaning;asanunintegratedAnglicismsport
todayreferstoacasualstyleofclothing;sportisfirstdocumentedinthemidnineteenth
centurywiththemeaning‘distinguished’inthephrase“algunoscaballerossport(see
ÁlvarezdeMiranda2008:6–8,28–31,andthereferencestherein).
11.7Integrationandderivationalproductivity
AnglicismshavehadcomparativelylittletimetobecomeintegratedtoSpanish
phonological,morphological,andorthographicnorms.Consequently,mostofthe
hundredsofAnglicismsrecordedinsuchcompilationsasPratt(1980),Lorenzo(1996),
RodríguezGonzálezandLilloBuades(1997)appearinEnglishgarb,withwordfinal
consonants(especiallystops,e.g.club,clip)andpluralsinconsonant+s(clubs,clips)
completelyalientomodernSpanishphonotactics.OtherAnglicismsexistinvaryingforms,
someshowingagreaterdegreeofadaptationtotherecipientlanguage:club/clube,
film/filme,repórter/reporter/reportero,snob/esnob,stress/estrés,truck/troc/troque.
SomeAnglicismshavebecomeformallyintegratedintothelanguageandhaveproduced
nativederivatives:líder‘politicalleader’(firstattestedin1900inthewritingsofVicente
BlascoIbáñez)castoffliderar,liderazgo;mitin‘politicalrally’hastakenthepluralmítines
andhasproducedmitinero.Thenounturista‘tourist’(usedbyJuanValerainthemiddle
ofthenineteenthcentury)adaptedeasilytoSpanishnorms,giventhepresenceinthe
languageofnumerous(p.224) Latinisms,Hellenisms,andGallicismsin-ista.Rodríguez
GonzálezandLilloBuades(1997)listthefollowingcontemporaryderivativesin-ista
formedonbasesborrowedfromEnglish:(auto)stopista,bestsellerista(alongside
bestselleriano),blu(e)sista‘bluessingerorperformer’,cartoonista,clubista,junglista
‘performerorfanof“junglemusic” ’,rockista(alongsidemorefrequentroquero),
sportinguista,stopista,tradeunionista,warrantista,windsurfista;seealsoMuñozArmijo
(2010).ThemodelprovidedbyEnglishoftheuseofthepseudo-suffix-gatetoindicate
somesortofscandalhasspreadintoSpanish,leadingtothecoiningofsuchjocular
formationsasbocadillogate,braguetagate,campañagate,codornizgate,espíagate,
Zapaterogate(MéndezSantos2011).
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Anglicisms in Spanish
Varioussportsterms21 havebecomewellintegrated:boxearisthesourceofboxeo,
boxeador(earlytwentiethcentury);fútbol‘(BritishorUS)football’(firstdocumentedin
the1920s)hasproducedfutbolero,futbolista,futbolín,futbolístico,futbol(o)mania.
Englishbat(asusedinbaseballandcricket)wasadaptedasbate,thesourceofbatazo,
batear,bateo,bateador.Thesportnamesbéisbol/beisbolandbásquetbol/basquetbol
showvaryingstresspatterns;theformerpairspunoffbeisbolero,beisbolista,
beisbolístico.Thesoccertermgol‘goal’(cf.nativetanto)hasacquiredanativeplural
golesandgaverisetogolazo,goleada,golear,goleador.Britishsoccerhasalsoprovided
chut,chutar22(cf.reflexivechutarseadrugtermmeaning‘toshootup’;deverbalchute
isusedintherealmsofbothsportsanddrugs),córner,linier,penalty,hattrick,andthe
calquesaquedeesquina;foradditionalAnglicismsinSpanishfootballvocabulary,see
Nomdedeu(2009).Spanishalsocontainsexamplesofpseudo-Anglicisms,wordsactually
borrowedfromFrench,butconsistingofEnglishwordsthatarenotusedinthedonor
languagethewaythattheyareinFrenchandSpanish:e.g.autostop‘hitchhiking’,footing
‘jogging’,smoking/esmoquin‘tuxedo’(basedonthenowarchaicsmokingjacket).
(p.225) 11.8Gaysex,drugs,andtheInternet
Owingtothemodelprovidedbylifestylesandtechnologicalinnovationsassociatedwith
theUnitedStates,AnglicismshavecometoplayamajorroleintheSpanishlexicondealing
withthegayculture,thedrugculture,andtheInternet.Thekeytermgayentered
Spanishinthe1970sasapositive(oratleastneutral)counterparttonegativelytinged
maricónandmarica.IncontemporarySpanishgayreferstobothmenandwomen(asin
English),althoughitmayhaveoriginallydesignatedonlygaymales.Thisneologismhas
becomesorootedthatithasspunoffahostofderivatives(RodríguezGonzález2008:
252–3):gaidad~gayedad,gayismo,gayicidad,gayesa,gayez,gay(h)etero,heterogay,
criptogay,gayby‘childadoptedbyagaycouple’,andtaligay‘radicalgay’(basedon
taliban+gay).23Mostofthetermsusedtorefertohomosexualpracticesandsexual
actsareunintegratedAnglicisms.Onlyahandfuloftermshavebeenadaptedtosome
degreetoSpanishorthographical,phonological,andmorphologicalnorms,e.g.quin,
dragcuin,tinajera‘homosexualwholikesyoungboys’〈E.teenager,léder‘leather
(fetish)’,lederón/lederona,lederina,andthepejorativeledronga.Othersappearasloan
translations:salirdelarmario‘tocomeoutofthecloset’,nominalsalidadelarmario
(usedalongsiderevelaciónandtheunintegratedelcomingout);notealsoarmario‘closet
gay’,itsfemininecounterpartarmaria,andthenewlycoinedderivativesarmariazo,
armarismo,armariado,armariazarse,armarizante,andarmarización(Rodríguez
González2008:261).24Tojudgebytheanswersgiveninresponsetomyquestionsby
variousnativespeakersofSpanish,manyofthesetermsarenotwidelyknown,muchless
used,outsidethegaycommunity.
(p.226) AnglicismshavealsoinvadedthelanguageoftheSpanishundergrounddrug
culture,intheformofoutrightborrowings,semanticloans,andcalques:join,joint/yoin
(alongsideporro,canuto),chutarse,esnifar,esnifada,esnifador,esnife,esnifota,esnó,
espit,espitar,espitoso,flash‘intensesensationofwell-beingandeuphoriaproducedby
drugs’,flipar‘toflipout’,flankedbyflipante,flipero,flipeta,andflipe,25rifer,trip/tripi,
tripante,tripar,triposo,caballo‘heroin’(basedonthesimilaruseofE.horse;cf.alsoFr.
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Anglicisms in Spanish
cheval,soused),blanca,blancadama,nieve,polvo,talco(alldesignating‘cocaine’,
modeledonE.white,whitelady,snow,powder,andtalcum),subir,ponersealto‘toget
high’,tenerelmono‘tohaveamonkeyonone’sback’.Doesthefamilyofalucinar,
alucinante,alucine,asusedinthedrugculture,gobacktoE.hallucinateorFr.
halluciner?
Inlikefashion,AnglicismsaboundincurrentSpanishterminologyreferringtothe
Internet.Theneologismsagaintaketheformofoutrightborrowingsthat,forthemost
part,haveretainedtheirEnglishgarborappearascalques/loantranslations.Inthe
formercategoryonefindssuchitemsasaccesspoint,bloguero/bloguera,browser,
chat/chatear,cookie,e-mail/emilio,firewall,hacker,homepage,internet,mail,server,
site,webmaster,website(Jansen2005:301).Examplesofloantranslationsinthis
semanticfieldincludearchivoadjunto‘attachedfile,attachment’,administrador
‘administrator’,arrastrar‘todrag’,autopistadelainformación‘informationhighway’,
charla‘chat’,correo‘email’,correobasura‘junkemail’,cortafuegos‘firewall’,dominio
‘domain’,explorador,foro,galleta‘internetcookie’(alongsidecuqui,anintegrated
Anglicism,andespía(Jansen2005:405),26grupo‘emailgroup’,hojeador‘browser’,lista
‘list(serve)’,navegador‘navigator,browser’,páginaweb‘webpage’,pasarela‘gateway’,
proveedor‘provider’,ratón‘mouse’,servidor‘server’,sitio‘site’,ventana‘window’
(Jansen2005:305–6).
(p.227) Quilis’sstudy(1984)ofAnglicismsintheeducatedspeechofMadridfound291
suchitemsusedintheresponsestothelexicalquestionnaireemployedintheEstudio
coordinadodelanormalingüísticacultadelasprincipalesciudadesdeIberoaméricay
delaPenínsulaIbérica.Inmanycasesspeakersalsousedanothertermforthesame
concept,whichgivesthereaderachancetoobservetherivalrybetweenAnglicisms(be
theylexical,semantic,orloancalques)andtheirrivals.Thefollowingitemswereusedby
allinformants:bar(inreferencetothecounter),béisbol,boxeador,boxear,boxeo,canal
detelevisión,champú,cheque(vstalón),dólar,esmoquin,esquijama,fútbol(vs
balompié),gasoline,gol(vstantoandpunto),linotipista,penalty,pijama,set(vsjuegos),
tenis,tocadiscos(vsgramófono,gramola,andpick-up,todayrarelyused),trolebús,
túnel,vagón(vscoche),wisky.
Thefollowingwereusedbymorethanhalfoftheinformants:anorak27(vschubasquero,
cagul),aparcar(vsparar),bar(vstaberna,bodega),barman(vscamarero,coctelero,
chaval,tabernero,vinatero),bate(vspalo),batear,bikini,bistec,block‘writingpad’,
cafetería,chocar,choque,chutar,ciclón,claxon(vsbocina),clip(bothforhairandfor
papers),club,cóctel,convención,crawl/krol/,devaluación,editor(ofanewspaper),
enrolar,estacióndeservicio,inflación(economicterm),jeep,jockey,knockout,líder,
limpiaparabrisas,pantis,ping-pong,reportero,rimel,ring,ron,slip,suéter,
supermercado,televisión,televisor,transistor.Foralmostalltheseexamples,the
informantsindicatedknowledgeofandactiveuseofalternativeterms.Thepercentageof
AnglicismsusedbytheMadridinformantsislowerthanthecomparativefiguresbased
onthesamequestionnaireinsuchLatinAmericancapitalsasMexicoCity,Caracas,
SantiagodeChile,Havana,andSanJuan(PuertoRico).NotallAnglicismsfoundin
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Anglicisms in Spanish
PeninsularSpanishturnupinNewWorldSpanish,andvice-versa,althoughwithglobal
communicationandtheInternet,thatrealitymaybechanging.
ThedictionarycompiledbyRodríguezGonzálezandLilloBuades(1997)constitutesthe
mostcompleteandup-to-daterepertoryof(p.228) Anglicisms.28Thevariouseditionsof
thePanamanianRicardoAlfaro’sDiccionariodeanglicismos(1950,1964,1970)are
outdatedandfailtodistinguishbetweenAnglicismsfoundinEuropeanandNewWorld
Spanish.TheworktakesapuristicstandtowardtheuseofAnglicisms.Althoughnot
designedasdictionaries,thewordindicesinPratt(1980:247–69),Lorenzo(1996:667–
708),andRodríguezSegura(1999:231–52)willprovidethereaderwithnumerous
examplesofAnglicisms.
11.9Summary
Chronologically,Anglicismsrepresentthemostrecentlexicalstratuminthehistoryof
Spanish.Althoughscatteredinstancesturnupintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturies,
suchitemsenterthelanguageinlargenumbersonlyinthesecondhalfofthetwentieth
century.Inthecontemporarylanguage,Englishconstitutesthemostfrequentsourceof
neologismsinEuropeanandAmericanSpanish.MostAnglicismsenteredthelanguageso
recentlythatmanyhavenothadsufficienttimetoadapttothephonologicaland
orthographicnormsoftherecipientlanguage,andthusremainasunintegrated
borrowings.Perhapsmoresothanborrowingsfromotherlanguages,Anglicismstakethe
formofsemanticloansorcalquesoftherelevantEnglishlexicalmodels.
TheextralinguisticrealitiessurroundingtheentryandincorporationofEnglishloanwords
aredistinctfromtheotherlexicalstratastudiedinthisbook.MostAnglicismsfirst
enteredviawrittensources.Onthelevelofthespokenlanguage,theyhaveentered
Spanishnotonlythroughdirectcontactbetweenspeakersofthetwolanguages,butalso
throughsuchsourcesasmoviesandthelyricsofpopularAmericanmusic.TheInternet
hasalsoplayedamajorroleintheintroductionanddiffusionofAnglicisms.Thehugeinflux
ofAnglicismsintomodernvarietiesofSpanishhasraisedmuchanxietyamongspeakers
andwritersconcernedwithwhattheyperceiveasaseriousthreattotheintegrityofthe
language.Especiallyperniciousin(p.229) theviewofmanyarethoseAnglicisms,be
theyactualborrowingsofEnglishwordsorsemanticloans,whichcoexistalongsideand
threatentodisplacesignifiersalreadypresentinthelanguagefortheconceptsatissue.
SeveralquestionsposedbytheintroductionandincorporationofAnglicismsinSpanish
mustawaittheresultsoffutureresearch.Ourcurrentknowledgeofthesocial
distributionofAnglicismsdoesnotenabletheanalysttodeterminetheextenttowhich
certainsuchelementsareemployedonlyincertainsectorsofsocietyorinthespecialized
jargonofspecificprofessions.EquallyproblematicistheidentificationofEnglishloanwords
thatmaytodayberestrictedeithertoSpainortheNewWorld.Giventherealitiesof
modernglobalcommunications,thediffusionandpopularityinSpainofLatinAmerican
literatureandtelevisionsoapoperas,andincreasedlevelsofimmigrationtoSpainfrom
thatregion,AnglicismsthatoriginallyenteredonlyNewWorldvarietiesofSpanishmay
havemadetheirwayintothelanguageofSpain.Conceivablytheintimateanddailycontact
betweenthesociallyandeconomicallydominantEnglishandSpanishmayhaveledtothe
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Anglicisms in Spanish
presenceinUnitedStatesSpanish(aswellasinPuertoRicanandbordervarietiesof
SpanishspokeninnorthernMexico)ofEnglishloansandcalquesnotfoundelsewherein
theSpanish-speakingworld(e.g.lonche‘lunch’,troque‘truck’).
Notes:
(1 )TwosentencesinwhatseemstobeMiddleEnglishwereintercalatedinthefifteenthcenturychronicleElvictorial,inapassagewherePeroNiñoarrivesontheEnglishcoast.
ApoembyFranciscoImperialpreservedintheCancionerodeBaenaincludesabrief
Englishphrase(Martín-Gamero1963:22–4).
(2)TheFrenchdesignationsnord,sud,est,ouestarealldocumentedwellbeforetheir
Spanishcounterparts(DHLF).
(3)DCECHsuggeststhat,althoughofEnglishorigin,boteenteredSpanishfromOFr.or
Gasc.bot.Thehandfulofsixteenth-andseventeenth-centuryexamplesofbotefoundin
SpanishtextswrittenintheLowCountriesareprobablyephemeraladaptationsofDutch
boot;forfurtherdiscussion,seeVarelaMerino(2009:688–90).
(4)ThisnounalsoappearsafewdecadesearlierinalistofwordsinGregorioMayansy
Siscar,Abecéespañol(c.1723).
(5)Trenisdocumentedwithsomefrequencyintheseventeenthcenturywiththe
meaning‘retinue’andasamilitarytermtrendeartilleríaand,soused,isaGallicism
(VarelaMerino2009:2013–19).
(6)ThevarianttopoisfoundonceinColumbus’sDiario.Isthisformauthenticoranerror
onthepartofColumbus,whowasnotanativespeakerofSpanish?Tope‘top,limit’is
geneticallydistinctfromthefamilyoftheverbtopar‘tobump,knockagainst’.The
expressionatope‘filledtothetop’originallyreferredtoafullyloadedship.
(7)Inrealitythisnoun(firstattestedasparcointhefifteenth-centuryComedietade
Ponça,Andançaseviajesdeunhidalgoespañol)isaGallicism;forabundant
documentationandanalysis,seeVarelaMerino(2009:1679–90).
(8)InoneofthefirstdocumentedusesofthisnouninhernovelClemencia,Fernán
Caballero(thepseudonymemployedbyCeciliaBöhldeFaber[1796–1877])specifically
labeleddandyastheEnglishwordthatcorrespondedtoSp.perimetre.
(9)Thiswordisfirstdocumentedin1828(BretóndelosHerreros);itappearsseveral
timesinLarraandotherwritersasbeefsteak.
(10)Geckler(2004:191)liststuristaasanexampleofaEuropeanGallicism,whereas
Pratt,(1980),Lorenzo(1996),andRodríguezGonzálezandLilloBuade(1997)deemit
anAnglicisminbothSpanishandFrench.
(11 )AccordingtoCORDE,LeandroFernándezdeMoratínfirstusedanglicismowith
referencetotheimitationofBritishwaysandmannersinhismemoirViajeaItalia,
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Anglicisms in Spanish
writteninthelastdecadeoftheeighteenthcentury.
(12)Haensch(1995:244)claimsthattheuseinearlypost-colonialAmericanSpanishof
congreso‘parliament’,senado,secretario‘cabinetminister’,corte‘highcourt’and
distritofederalreflectsUSinfluence.
(13)AministerialdecreeissuedinApril1941mandatedthedubbingofallforeignfilms
intoSpanishasaprotectionagainsttheentryofforeignwords(Bravo2006:233).
(14)Thespellingfútbolbecamecurrentin1917.TheEnglishformisfoundinSpanish
textsfromthelastdecadeofthenineteenthcentury(FernándezGarcía1972:117–19).
(15)TherevivalofazafataisduetoCésarGómezLucío,DirectorGeneraloftheairlineof
theSpanishRepublicandfuturedirectorofitssuccessor,Iberia.Theadoptionofazafata
byIberiainthe1940sassureditssuccessinpeninsularSpanish.Oneothersuggestion
madeatthetimewasprovisora.Fordetails,seeÁlvarezdeMiranda(2008:28).
(16)Asearlyas1954,Mallo(1954:135)describedAnglicismsasa“plaguewhich
seriouslythreatenstheauthenticityofourlanguage”(mytranslation;original:“Unaplaga
queamenazagravementealaautenticidaddenuestroidioma”).
(17)Theirlistalsoincludeswordsrecordedinthe1984editionoftheDiccionariodela
RealAcademiaEspañola,butnotspecificallylabeledasAnglicismsuntilthe1992edition.
(18)ThewebsiteoftheRoyalSpanishAcademy(www.rae.es)indicatesintheonline
editionofDRAEthattheforthcoming23rdeditionwilllistCatalanastheimmediatesource
oflinier,whereitisanadaptationofBritishEnglishlinesman.
(19)Likewise,thewebsiteoftheRoyalSpanishAcademyindicatesthattheforthcoming
23rdeditionofitsDictionaryclassesthiswordasaborrowingofFr.piolet‘ice-axe’.
(20)Oudin’sSpanish–Frenchdictionary(1607)definesdeporteas‘esbat,recreation’;
Percivale’sEnglish–Spanishcompilationtreatsdeporteasanadjective,glossed‘contentfull
[sic],enjoying,joyful’.Siesso’smonolingualdictionary(1723)declaresdeporte
‘recreación’anItalianism(seeNTLE:s.v.deporte).
(21 )Pfändler(1954:114)showsthatAnglicismsfaroutnumberGallicismsinSpanish
sportsterminologyofthe1940s.
(22)Pfändler(1954:32)recordschutazo,notfoundinRodríguezGonzálezandLillo
Buades(1997),whoalsonotethatchutisgivingwaytotiro,disparo.Isthesametruefor
chutarvis-à-vistiraranddisparar?
(23)Gaywasadmittedintothe2001editionoftheDiccionariodelaRealAcademia
Española.TheDiccionariopanhispánicodedudasrecommendsthepluralgais(as
opposedtogays)anddiscouragesitsuseasaninvariableadjectiveasindiscotecasgay.
Sp.homosexual,inalllikelihoodanAnglicism,isfirstdocumentedinthe1930sinthe
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Anglicisms in Spanish
writingsofDr.GregorioMarañón.
(24)RodríguezGonzález(2008a:271–2)offersacompletelistofrelevanttermsclassified
bycategoriesofAnglicismsbasedonhisDiccionariogay-lésbico(RodríguezGonzález
2008b).ThetwolargestcategoriesareunintegratedAnglicismsandcalques.
(25)Thefamilyoffliparhasacquiredpositivenon-drug-relatedovertonesincolloquial
speech,e.g.estetrabajomeflipa‘Igrooveonthisjob’(RodríguezGonzález1994:151).
Similarsemanticdevelopmentscanbeseeninthefamiliesofalucinarandflashear,which
haveacquiredpositivemeaningsnotfoundintheirEnglishmodels.
(26)Winter-Froemel(2008:21,23)offerstheexampleofcuqui,aformnotfoundin
RodríguezGonzálezandLilloBuades(1997)andJansen(2005).
(27)CurellAguilà(2009:s.v.anorak)andtheDRAEconsiderFrenchtobetheimmediate
sourceofthisnouninSpanish.
(28)RodríguezGonzález(2003)discussesseveralimportanttheoreticaland
methodologicalissuesunderlyingthepreparationofadictionaryofAnglicismsinSpanish.
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