A Literacy of One's Own: Choosing Texts for Today's Learners
Elizabeth Sweeney
Fulbright Teacher, United States- Argentina
Fall,2013
Capstone Project
January 12, 2014
Background and Current Status
Argentina and the United States share numerous characteristics: both countries have high
literacy rates, both are nations made up of descendants of immigrants, and both countries have
rich literary traditions with authors born and raised in the lands about which they write.
Likewise, both Argentina and the United States are confronting efforts to overhaul their
respective educational systems, though with different methods.
In Argentina, the educational system is nationalized. Until quite recently, such centralization
was only loosely enforced in the capital district of Buenos Aires. In the United States, federal
education laws only reach so far, as most rights are reserved for the states so that local school
districts determine the bulk of the curriculum. In both countries, however, recent efforts to
determine what schools should teach have found new allies, namely the Argentine Ministry of
Education in the Southern hemisphere, and the National Governors' Association here at home.
Such efforts have resulted in an overhaul of the Buenos Aires public school system and a hotlycontested adoption of the Common Core Standards by 45 of the states.
Despite being roundly criticized by many educators for the lack of transparency in shaping the
Common Core State Standards, these standards will be crucial in shaping education policy in
the United States for years, decades even. While not specifically a curriculum in that they do
not prescribe what to teach, the Common Core State Standards do provide an outline for the
skills and competencies American students should master. According to the Common Core
State Standards Initiative website:
These standards define the knowledge and skills students should have within their K-12
education careers so that they will graduate high school able to succeed in entry-level, creditbearing academic college courses and in workforce training programs. The standards:
•
Are aligned with college and work expectations;
•
Are clear, understandable and consistent;
•
Include rigorous content and application of knowledge through high-order skills;
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Build upon strengths and lessons of current state standards;
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Are informed by other top performing countries, so that all students are prepared to
succeed in our global economy and society; and
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Are evidence-based.
When considered objectively, the Common Core Standards seem like common sense standards.
Who, after all, would challenge the notion that high school should prepare students for postsecondary education? Yet like so many other issues, there are multiple perspectives from which
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to consider these new standards, and as a teacher of literature, I am concerned at the idea that
70% of reading in the upper grades of high school should be non-fiction.
This notion has alarmed teachers throughout the country, as we need to continue to challenge
our students with a wide array of literary selections from multiple genres. It is difficult not to
see this emphasis on informational materials as a threat to a curriculum that has proven
successful for so many students, a curriculum that we know works. However, it is not enough to
argue that what worked in the past will continue to work today. The world is differentcommerce, manufacturing, science, economics, have evolved, and education is no exception.
Technological skills are necessary, and teachers are no longer in the business of transmitting
information.
Where, then, does the study of literature make itself valuable? Why do we teach literature?
Does it still have a place of honor in today's curriculum, or should it be relegated to the
relatively insubstantial 30% of reading called for by the Common Core Standards? Intuitively, I
knew that literature was important in high school. But I did not know why, could not have
defended reading novels and poems and short stories in my classroom, simply because it was
just something I had always done; it worked well. Yet reflecting on my practice in light of the
new standards, I realized I had to be more deliberate and to be able to justify reading literature
in school. These ideas were at the forefront of my thoughts as I began developing my Capstone
Project, and while my research has not yielded the results I expected, it is with a much clearer
sense of purpose and a definite awareness ofthe importance of literature that I move forward
within my classroom, community, and the larger world.
Methodology
When considering the purpose of literature, I deemed it best to look not only at what the
research says, but also to consider current student opinions about reading in school. If we keep
student needs and preferences in mind always when developing curricula, then our actions will
necessarily reflect those needs, and we can tailor our teaching to include best practices and
integrate modern procedural knowledge with old-fashioned declarative knowledge to prepare
students for post-secondary opportunities.
My first survey questions for high school students asked whether they enjoyed reading for
pleasure and whether they enjoyed reading for class. Reactions were both positive and
disappointing: 80% of Argentine students and 90% of US students reported that they enjoyed
reading for pleasure, yet fewer students reported enjoying class reading: 44% of Argentine
students and 56% of US students said they like reading for school. While such high numbers of
students who enjoy reading for pleasure indicate that reading is a source of pleasure, the
comparative few that enjoy reading for school is worrisome. What are we doing wrong? Is it
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our choice of texts? Our teaching methods? Are students even supposed to enjoy reading in
school?
These questions led me to an additional component of my project: I surveyed 42 professional
and pre-service teachers in Argentina and the United States to learn current and future teacher
attitudes towards reading. I asked teachers to rate in importance the purpose for reading in a
classroom setting. The results were startling, particularly given that we, as language and
reading teachers, are so often called upon to justify the relevance of literature as a teaching
tool.
Reading to Develop Technical Abilities
I expected that most teachers would respond by rating "To develop abilities such as supporting
thesis with evidence and deriving vocabulary through context)," as highly important. Such was
not the case. In fact, only 15% of teachers ranked this reason as high, and none ranked it as
very high. The results of this ranking are illustrated in figure T1:
0%
• very High
• High
• High Medium
• Low Medium
• Low
• very Low
Figure Tl: Teach literature to develop other abilities.
These results were startling. For years, I have conceived of literature as a multi-purpose tool
with many uses, not the least of which is developing vocabulary and supporting one's thinking
and ideas with textual evidence.
Further, these results contrast with students' own ideas about reading and vocabulary: 81% of
Argentine students and 47% of US students ranked reading as a means to develop vocabulary
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high or very high. (The survey included reading in both Spanish and English). The results of the
survey question which asked students to rank the importance of vocabulary acquisition and
development as a purpose for reading are illustrated in figures Sl and 52:
• High to very high
• Medium
• Low to very low
Figure 51: Argentine student attitudes towards the importance of vocabulary development as
a purpose for reading in school.
• High to very high
• Medium
• Low to very low
Figure 52: US student attitudes towards the importance of vocabulary development as a
purpose for reading in school.
Clearly, this disconnect between student and teacher attitudes is a problem that merits further
research. James Barton, writing about the importance of vocabulary instruction for the
National Council of Teachers of English (NCTE) contends that:
In addition to gaining fluency with new words, vocabulary instruction can help students
learn how these words relate to difficult ideas and concepts in the stories they read ... That's
right; learning words can improve comprehension. In certain conditions, your efforts to teach
vocabulary have a double payoff-your students learn new words and gain a better
understanding of the literature you read together in your classroom.
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Here, Barton 's opinion is more in line with that ofthe students than ofthe teachers, though
this may be because vocabulary instruction is not an end for him, but a means to an end,
namely, reading comprehension and development of advanced ideas and concepts. The results
of this survey indicate that we must emphasize vocabulary not just for its own sake, but as a
method for grasping higher-level concepts.
Reading to Develop Critical Thinking Skills: Cognitive Ability
This notion of high-level concepts is explored in questions administered to both teachers and
students. I asked groups in both countries to rate the importance of developing critical thinking
skills as a purpose for reading literature in the secondary language arts classroom .
• High to very high
• Medium
• Low
Figure 53: US student attitudes towards the importance of critical thinking development as a purpose
for reading in school.
• High to very high
• Medium
• Low
Figure 54: Argentine student attitudes towards the importance of critical thinking development as a
purpose for reading in school.
Student awareness of the importance of critical thinking is mirrored by that of both teachers
and prospective employers. A national survey of business and non-profit leaders recently
published by the Association of American Colleges and Universities indicates that most of those
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surveyed (93 percent) say that "a demonstrated capacity to think critically... is more important
than [a candidate's] undergraduate major." This indicates that those doing the hiring need
candidates who can adapt to the evolving needs of the workplace, be it private sector or public
domain. Consequently, educators must emphasize critical thinking as a goal for the language
arts classroom. Fortunately, teachers in both countries acknowledge the significance of
developing critical thinking in their classrooms as illustrated by figure T2:
0%
• very high
• High
• High medium
• Low Medium
• Low Medium
• Very low
Figure T2: Reading to develop critical thinking skills.
Here, we see that a full67% of teachers surveyed rated "Develop critical thinking skills" as one
of their top reasons for teaching literature. Another nine percent ranked this as high medium,
bringing the total of teachers who place critical thinking skills to 76%. Why is this so important?
According to
English Department Chair at
High School
, "Critical
thinking helps students lead examined lives, lives that contribute to the whole of human
experience."
Shaheera Jaffar, in the 2004 Journal of Research (Faculty of Language & Islamic Studies,
Bahauddin Zakariya University, Pakistan) says that, "Critical thinking involves the use of
different cognitive skills, which do not come automatic and have to be taught and developed."
Literature provides us a perfect venue for developing these cognitive skills. Through questions
and discussion, we lead students to asking their own questions and placing themselves in
various situations, predicting what will come and contextualizing the various scenarios in which
they locate the characters.
"I think it's important to read ... and encourage open-mindedness and critical thinking," wrote
one Argentine pre-service teacher, who ranked this as her number one reason for the teaching
of literature. While literature is certainly not the only domain within education to help hone
students' critical thinking skills, as a mandatory subject throughout one's secondary education,
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it is uniquely well-placed to have a direct and cumulative effect on student abilities. As
literature teachers, we must emphasize critical thinking through the questions we pose, texts
we choose, and assessments we give.
Reading to Understand Oneself and One's Place in the World: Identity
When I have my students read novels, I am continually asking them to make connections with
the text, with characters and situations that may reflect their own lives or the lives of those
around them. We use literature as a lens through which to view the world and find our places
in it. As a teacher, I think it is especially important to encourage secondary students to explore
issues of identity, for it is during adolescence that our selves are formed as separate entities
from our parents. Poet Maya Angelou captures the importance of literature as a tool for
understanding:
"When I look back, I am so impressed again with the life-giving power of literature. If I were a
young person today, trying to gain a sense of myself in the world, I would do that again by
reading, just as I did when I was young."
• High to very high
• Medium
• Low to very low
Figure SS: Argentine student attitudes towards reading as a tool for developing understanding of
oneself.
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• High to very high
• Medium
D Low to very low
Figure 56: US student attitudes towards reading as a tool for developing understanding of oneself.
When we view this data, the number of students who view this as a low priority is significant, as
it illustrates that students are either unaware of teachers' motives in reading literature or
disagree with these motives. While much of this data is relatively balanced among the
students, teachers seem to have a far different attitude towards the importance of reading
literature as way to help one understand oneself. Well over one third of students view this as
low or very low, yet such a purpose has long been at the forefront of teaching literature.
Of course, we do not separate reasons for reading into discrete strands in the real classroom.
Author and educator Jim Burke, in his The English Teacher's Companion (2003) exhorts teachers
to "Explore ... a range of interpretations and responses, developing students' abilities to
generate and even ask their own questions through discussions with each other, the author,
characters, and even themselves that lead to a deeper understanding of the work, the world,
and themselves." As Burke points out, literature can invite students to be active learners as
long as they are willing to participate in the conversation. It is through our praxis as teachers
that students feel welcome or shunned, and it is up to each individual teacher to emphasize
how reading literature can provide a mirror for our students as well as a lens with which to view
the world.
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0%
• very high
• High
• High medium
• Low Medium
• Low Medium
• very low
Figure T3: Teach literature as a means to developing an understanding of oneself.
This graph illustrates teacher attitudes towards the function of literature as way to understand
oneself. A full 50% of teachers reported that this goal of reading in school way of high or very
high importance. When we also consider those who rate this goal as high medium, we see that
nearly 70% of teachers rank it as among the most important reasons for teaching literature.
Only 19% of teachers thought it was of low or very low importance, while an average of 38% of
students viewed understanding oneself as an important reason for classroom reading.
Such results indicate that teachers must make explicit our reasons for teaching reading and
emphasize that students strive to develop empathy and personal connections with characters
in the texts we choose. While this might indicate that teachers are choosing texts with oldfashioned characters and outdated situations, this is decidedly not the case. The chart below
lists some ofthe types oftexts teachers use or plan to use in their classrooms, with every
teacher selecting multiple types of resources, everything from the canonical novels and plays
long-taught in American and Argentine schools to personal blogs to non-fiction from sources
such as the internet, newspapers and magazines. In addition to these sources, teachers also
reported use of comics (8%L graphic novels (10%), mini-sagas (4%), and other sources.
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120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Canonical Young adult
literature
literature
Dramas
Non-fiction
Slogs
Poetry
Figure T4: Types of texts most commonly used in language arts classrooms.
Instead of teaching just a few, well-known and traditional texts, this data indicates that
teachers are reaching out to students with numerous media. If we read merely canonical
literature with little apparent relevance, then it would be easier to understand why students do
not see literature as a path to self-awareness. Instead, we see 100% of teachers using nonfiction sources, and some 90% using young adult literature. Perhaps, then, we can infer that it
is the methods used to teach, rather than the actual material taught, that needs to be brought
into the 21 5t century, for clearly, teachers are adjusting their curricula to meet the evolving
needs of today's learners.
Reading and Theory of the Mind: Developing Empathy
Another aspect of reading literature also involves developing understanding, though this
understanding is of others rather than oneself. Scholars and proponents of the liberal arts
education have long supported reading literature as a way to develop empathy. Known as
Theory of Mind is the ability to acknowledge that others have mental states- hopes, desires,
fears- distinct from one's own. For some, this ability is innate; for others, it is not, yet it is
incumbent upon teachers to develop such empathy. Through literature, we learn to view life
through the perspective of another. This sentiment is perhaps best expressed in Harper Lee's
devastating Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, To Kill a Mockingbird, when Atticus Finch tells his
daughter Scout, 11You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point
of view ... Until you climb into his skin and walk around in it."
As teachers, we hope to help our students to do this with our choices of literature, selecting
texts that explore universal themes and have characters as relatable and timeless as Scout
Finch from Lee's classic. Empathy is an important aspect of one's education, and reading
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literature is a wonderful way to learn it. However, not all students see this as a purpose for
reading literature, as illustrated in the graphs below:
• High to very high
• Medium
Low to very low
Figure 56: US student attitudes towards reading as a tool for understanding others.
• High to very high
• Medium
• Low
Figure 57: Argentine student attitudes towards reading as a tool for understanding others.
This data indicates that there is a substantial difference between US and Argentine students
regarding use of literature as a tool for developing an understanding of others: where as nearly
20% of US students view this as important, nearly the same number of Argentine students feel
the opposite, rating "understanding others" low relative to other purposes for reading.
Teachers, on the other hand, seem to view developing understanding of others as an important
aspect of the reading curriculum, with well over half (63%) ranking "developing an
understanding of others" in the top half of purposes for reading, and only nine percent ranking
it in the bottom third:
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• Very high
• High
• High medium
• Low Medium
• Low Medium
• very low
Figure TS: Teach literature as a means to develop understanding of others.
The concept of literature as a means to develop empathy is even now being explored. A recent
study published in the October, 2013 issue of Science and reported by The New York Times
found that after reading literary fiction (as opposed to formulaic, pop-culture fiction and nonfiction), people "performed better on tests measuring empathy, social perception, and
emotional intelligence." Through their experiment, researchers Emanuel Castano and David
Comer Kidd from the New School in New York were able to quantify the results of reading
literature, though not able to prove whether the results would endure. It stands to reason,
however, that the more one practices a skill, the more refined it will be.
As with other skills, then, as we make evident to our students the importance of walking in
another's shoes, it will eventually become habitual, a way of life instead of just an occasional,
teacher-directed act. As one pre-service US teacher explained, "I do hope students develop a
love for reading, but more important to me is that they realize its value in their life and
learning."
Reading to Become Culturally Literate: Knowing What "Educated" People Know
Another purpose for reading posed to both teachers and students in both countries was a more
tangible "learning," that is, development of cultural literacy, presented by Hirsch as the main
purpose for education in general. Of course, none of us want to send our students out into the
world in a shroud of ignorance, but is becoming "educated" a primary concern? It is not for a
staggering majority of teachers, 72% of whom ranked it as low or very low.
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• very high
• High
4%
• High medium
• Low Medium
• Low
• very low
Figure T6: Teach literature to develop cultural literacy
An Argentine pre-service teacher who ranked "to become culturally literate" as number one
asserted that all students should read " ... texts connected with our cultural values, traditional
authors, so as to develop a sense of our history and identity." Another teacher,
stated that students should be encouraged to read "any text that
has effected change in our culture. She makes the case for dystopian novels which "make
students see what the future could be if they are not involved."
A contrary viewpoint was expressed by Argentine teacher,
who asked, "Who are
we to be so posh that we are the ones who decide what educated is? I think we've just become
too posh about it all. Education is different for everybody and people need to know what they
are interested in."
Students in both countries were somewhat more likely to rank developing cultural literacy as an
important component of the reading curriculum. A third of US students and a mere eleven
percent of Argentine students ranked this as low, significantly below their teacher
counterparts. Both groups were close in their ranking of cultural literacy as of medium
importance, though Argentine students were more likely to rate it high (33% vs. US 23%). The
reason for these differences is beyond the scope of this inquiry, though one might surmise that
the diversity within the United States especially makes it difficult to pay homage to one,
particular culture.
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• High to very high
• Medium
• Low to very low
Figure 57: Argentine student attitudes towards reading as a tool to develop cultural literacy.
• High to very high
• Medium
• Low
Figure 58: US student attitudes towards reading as a tool to develop cultural literacy.
Clearly, there is passion on both sides of the issue, but perhaps cultural literacy is not an end in
itselffor teachers, merely a by-product of a well-designed program of curriculum and
instruction. Additionally, in both Argentina and the United States, the pluralistic population
begs for a broad definition of culture, and the cultural literacy advocated by Hirsch and other
traditionalists posits a narrow definition, dominated by Western European and North American
authors, largely male. The concept of cultural literacy begs the question: whose culture?
Reading to Love Reading
The NCTE advocates developing a love for reading among our learners as an important factor in
reading instruction, yet this was not at the forefront of teacher responses. While it is
impossible to instill a love for reading in each of our students, this goal is nevertheless an
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important one for many teachers, forty-two percent of whom rated this in the top half of their
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goals. Curiously, however, not a single teacher ranked to develop a love for reading" as their
number one reason for teaching literature. Additionally, over half of teachers (54%) ranked this
goal in the bottom half:
• very high
• High
4%
• High medium
• Low Medium
• Low
• very low
Figure T7: Teach literature to develop a love for reading.
Perhaps this lack of emphasis on loving literature and the very act of reading is why relatively few
students report enjoying reading for school compared with reading self-selected texts. Does such an
insight mandate a sea change in the way we choose texts and the very texts we choose?
What to Teach: Selecting Texts for the Classroom
Another aspect of the teacher survey examined how teachers choose which books to read within a
secondary classroom. I asked teachers to select which reasons guided their selection of texts. The
results were interesting, for of the many teachers surveyed, only four percent of them chose "tradition"
as a reason for including a specific text.
Of those teachers (47% of total surveyed) who ranked "developing a love for reading" in the top half of
purposes for reading literature, every one listed "student interest" as part of the criteria for choosing
which texts to incorporate into the curriculum. Likewise, of these same teachers, nearly all of them
checked "personal favorite of teacher," as a reason for including a particular text. While impossible to
gauge which teacher is effective within the parameters of this research, it would be an intriguing followup to determine whose passion is made evident by the reading in the classroom.
a teacher
explained the process by which she decides what to teach: In
order to choose a text for extensive reading, we bear in mind students' likes, needs, level, and whether
the topic would be appealing and suitable for their age."
Another teacher commented, one of the few who chose "tradition" as a criterion asserted that, "Classics
are good because they allow many interpretations and deconstructing them is very interesting," thus
making a valid argument in support of more canonical literature. Yet it is not just classics that invite
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multiple interpretations. As educators, we must encourage various perspectives with all stories and
texts, not just those ensconced safely in the canon.
While I did not ask teachers to rank in importance reasons for including a text, the aggregate responses
indicated a clear trend: Teachers believe in presenting their students with a broad spectrum of literature
for a number of reasons.
Representative of a Genre
Personal Favorite of Teacher
Tradition
• Seriesl
Student Interest
Department or District
Mandate
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Figure TS: Reasons for selecting texts for the classroom.
An aspect of this data that is encouraging is that nearly every teacher surveyed included
"student interest" as a reason for choosing a particular work. This shows tremendous
mindfulness and a strong trend towards maintaining a student-centered curriculum.
Another popular rationale for choosing a specific text is that it is representative of a genre such
as the post-colonial novel (Things Fall Apart, by Chinua Achebe, for example), ancient Greek
tragedy like Sophocles' Oedipus Rex, or pure, classic Shakespearean drama. Again, this
commitment from nearly all teachers to expose students to as wide a range of literature as
possible is most heartening, as we must somehow find a way to reach all students, and not
every book will resonate with every reader.
, a teacher
, states
the case for choosing texts most eloquently: "Some texts epitomize or capture essential themes
or elements of culture and express them in fundamental ways. Some texts influence culture by
shaping the way we think about ourselves and the way later writers and artists create. Some
texts do both. It is those we must include."
further elaborated that college-bound
students must have a grounding in literary history, naming authors such as Homer, Dante,
Dickens, Austen, Fitzgerald, and Whitman among those whose works fit this criteria.
One component of these responses that surprised me was the strong response given regarding
department or district mandated material. Nearly every teacher surveyed listed departmental
mandate as a criteria for choosing texts. At first glance, the data seems to indicate a rather
prescriptive curriculum, one set forth by administrators or school boards. However, further
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interviews proved my deductions incorrect. Rather than receiving a set curriculum from which
they dare not vary, teachers receive a list from which to choose and construct their respective
curricula from that list, often in collaboration with others.
Another oft-cited reason for selecting a given text was that the text was a personal favorite of
the teacher. As those who enter the profession as language arts teachers are likely well-read,
we can assume that their favorites are well-vetted as tools for reaching students and
accomplishing other goals in the language arts classroom.
When asked which authors or specific works should be included in a curriculum for any student
in the Western world, teachers' responses were varied. No teachers unequivocally stated that
there are absolutely authors that must be taught. Yet the names that reappeared multiple
times are well-known: nearly every teacher in either country cited Shakespeare as a font of
linguistic and artistic contributions. Other authors that appeared multiple times included Julio
Cortazar, George Orwell, Ray Bradbury, Franz Kafka, Gabriel Garcia Marquez, Twain, Fitzgerald,
and Jorge Luis Borges. Yet even teachers acknowledged that these were largely suggestions,
that there is no one-size-fits-all work that will speak to all students.
Conclusions: Where to Go from Here
As with so many endeavors, this project left me with as many questions as answers: what is the
difference between tablet-delivered novels and paper-and-ink novels, for example? How did
my question on vocabulary yield such skewed results? What specific activities should we be
doing with our students to accomplish our goals? In retrospect, I could have done many things
differently to yield more definite results. Yet the results of this project give me hope that
teachers in Argentina and the United States are navigating the treacherous waters of
nationalized curricula (or threats of via the CCCS) with professionalism and aplomb. Similarly,
students in both hemispheres provide bright hope for a future in which literature continues to
play an important role in shaping our responses to the challenges of a contemporary society,
one that would be virtually unrecognizable to our grandparents, but that our children travel
with relative ease ..
While there is no consensus as to which books should be read, there is no need for such. What
we as professional educators seek to accomplish through our study of literature with our
students is shared, and that is enough. In lieu of focusing on the what, then, we need to focus
on the how: How do we engage our students? How do we foster the ability to think critically?
How do we encourage students to make connections to the world through literature? It is
critical that we avoid thinking of ourselves as the sole conduits for learning, with all the answers
at the ready, and instead, make clear to our students what we expect through clear and explicit
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directions. Education is not a mystery, but with good education, with good teacher-student
relationships, we can-we must-help students see the mysteries that life holds.
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