Enforcing the Borders: Chinese Exclusion along the U.S. Borders with Canada and Mexico,
1882-1924
Author(s): Erika Lee
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 89, No. 1 (Jun., 2002), pp. 54-86
Published by: Organization of American Historians
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Enforcingthe Borders:Chinese
Exclusionalong the U.S. Borders
withCanada and Mexico, 1882-1924
ErikaLee
border]overwhicha Chinamanmaynot pass
Thereis no part[ofthenorthern
anypartsofitwhere
intoourcountry
therearescarcely
withoutfearofhinderance;
he maynotwalkboldlyacrossit at highnoon.
-JournalistJulianRalph,1891
Thereis a broadexpanseoflandwithan imaginary
line,all passable,all beingused,
stationedalongthe
all leadingto theUnitedStates.The vigilanceofyourofficers
borderis alwayskeen,butwhatcan a handfulofpeopledo? It is a deplorableconwe seemto be compelledto bearit; theChinesedo comein from
ditionofaffairs;
Mexico.
-U.S. Immigrant
MarcusBraun,1907
Inspector
In September1924 a Chinese male immigrantnamed Lim Wah enteredthe United
StatesillegallyfromMexico. His goals wereto findworkand to join his father,a farm
laborerin northernCalifornia.Legallyexcludedfromthe United States,Lim paid an
American$200 to bringhim fromMexicali, Mexico, to Calexico, California.They
waited untilnightand thencrossedthe border,endingup in San Franciscothreedays
later.The Chinese exclusion laws (in effectfrom 1882 to 1943) greatlyhindered
Chinese immigrationto the United States,but as Lim Wahs case demonstrates,they
did not serve as the total barriersthat exclusionistshad hoped for. Deteriorating
political and economic conditions in south China, the availabilityof jobs in the
United States, the U.S. Bureau of Immigration'sharsh enforcementproceduresat
regularportsof entrysuch as San Francisco,and the Chinese beliefthatthe exclusion
laws were unjust-all had the unintendedconsequence of turningillegal immigration via the bordersinto a profitableand thrivingbusiness.1
ofhistory
ofMinnesota,TwinCities.
ErikaLee is assistant
at theUniversity
professor
MarianSmith,PatrickMcNamara,
I would liketo thankMatthewFryeJacobson,Claudia Sadowski-Smith,
was proand suggestions.
Valuableresearch
assistance
RobertG. Lee, and GraceDelgado fortheirencouragement
RichardWhite,the editorialstaffof,and the fouranonymous
vided by JosephineFowler.JoanneMeyerowitz,
reviewers
History
providedinvaluablefeedbackand assistancein revisions.
for,theJournalofAmerican
ReadersmaycontactLee at <[email protected]>.
I The ChineseExclusionAct of 1882 prohibited
theimmigration
ofChineselaborersfora periodoftenyears
fromnaturalized
Act of May 6, 1882, 22 Stat.58; Testimonyof
citizenship.
and barredall Chineseimmigrants
54
The Journal
ofAmerican
History
June2002
Chinese
Exclusion
attheBorders
withCanadaandMexico
55
It is estimated
thatat least17,300Chineseimmigrants
enteredtheUnitedStates
through
the"backdoors"of Canada and Mexicofrom1882 to 1920.2The number
of Chineseentriespalesin comparison
withthatof contemporary
bordermigrants
fromMexico,and recentscholarship
hasall butignoredthisearlyhistory
ofChinese
exclusionin thenorthern
and southern
borderlands.
Nevertheless,
I arguethatChineseimmigration
to and exclusionfromtheUnitedStateshad transnational
consequencesthattransformed
the northern
and southernbordersinto sitesof contest
overillegalimmigration,
race,citizenship,
immigration
policy,andinternational
relations.Considering
Chineseimmigration
and exclusionfromthevantagepointofthe
bordersillustrates
boththeracialization
of U.S. immigration
policyand theimportanceoftheChinesediasporain theAmericas.It also demonstrates
howa seemingly
nationalissuecan sometimes
be understood
onlyin a wider,transnational
context.
Race, borders,and immigration
policyin the UnitedStates,Canada, and Mexico
becameintertwined
at theturnof thetwentieth
centuryovertheissueof Chinese
immigration
and exclusion.3
Priorto the 1870s,Americanimmigration
lawswereaimedat recruiting,
rather
thanrestricting,
foreign
immigration.
The ChineseExclusionAct (1882) marksthe
firsttimein Americanhistorythatthe UnitedStatesbarredan immigrant
group
basedon raceand class.It excludedChineselaborersand allowedonlya fewselect
classesofChinesemerchants,
students,
teachers,
travelers,
and diplomatsto applyfor
admissionto thecountry.
The actalso represents
thefirsttimethatillegalimmigrationwas definedas a criminaloffense
in U.S. law.The newpolicyalso providedfor
the deportation
of Chinesein the countryillegally.
When Chineserespondedto
exclusionby takingadvantageof legal loopholesand cracksin the government's
both in
enforcement
firstillegalimmigrants,
practices,
theybecamethe country's
technical,legal termsand in the contextof popularand politicalrepresentations.
suchas conAmerican
lawsbarredcertainexcludablealiens,.
Subsequent
immigration
tractlaborers,convicts,idiots,and personslikelyto become public chargesor
Resultingin WarrantProceedings
Lim Wah, Dec. 2, 1932, file 12020/22130,Case Files of Investigations
and Naturalization
Service,RG 85 (National
(12020), 1912-1950, San Francisco,Recordsof the Immigration
Archives,
PacificBranch,San Bruno,Calif.).
2 Sinceillegalimmigration
It is drawnfrom:U.S.
is difficult
to quantify
and detect,thisestimateis speculative.
totheSecretary
of
ofImmigration
DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
1903), 102; GeorgeE. Paulsen,"The
30, 1903 (Washington,
Commerce
and Labor:FortheFiscalYearEndedJune
YellowPerilat Nogales:The Ordeal of CollectorWilliamM. Hoey,"Arizonaand theWest,13 (Summer1971),
113-28; C. LutherFry,"IllegalEntryofOrientalsintotheUnitedStatesbetween1910 and 1920,"Journalofthe
23 (June1928), 173-77.
American
StatisticalAssociation,
oftheU.S.-MexicoBorder,
3 On thenorthern
and southernborders,see TimothyJ. Dunn, TheMilitarization
Conflict
DoctrineComesHome(Austin,1996); PeterAndreas,BorderGames:Policingthe
1978-1992: Low-Intensity
fromCanada to the
the49thParallel:Migration
U.S.-MexicoDivide (Ithaca,2000); and BrunoRamirez,Crossing
and exclusion
theroleofChineseimmigration
UnitedStates,1900-1930 (Ithaca,2001). Studiesthatacknowledge
1900andAcculturation
in ChicanoLosAngeles,
MexicanAmerican:
Ethnicity
includeGeorgeJ.Sanchez,Becoming
in the
1945 (New York,1993); and GraceDelgado,"In theAge ofExclusion:Race,Region,and ChineseIdentity
of California,Los Angeles,
Making of the Arizona-SonoraBorderlands,1863-1943" (Ph.D. diss.,University
and hemispheric
frameworks,
thatuse transnational
and southernborderlands
2000). Forstudieson thenorthern
in theNorthAmericanWest,1880Workers
FreeLabor:Padronesand Immigrant
see GuntherPeck,Reinventing
of Land and
1930 (New York,2000), esp. 1-7; and SamuelTruett,"Neighborsby Nature:The Transformation
1997), esp. 3. See also David
Lifein the U.S.-Mexico Borderlands,1854-1910" (Ph.D. diss.,Yale University,
Hison UnitedStatesHistory,"
JournalofAmerican
Perspectives
Thelen,"The Nationand Beyond:Transnational
86 (Dec. 1999), 965-75.
tory,
56
TheJournalofAmericanHistory
June2002
afflictedwith a contagious disease. But until both illegal immigrationand border
enforcementchanged in responseto the 1924 immigrationact, Chinese immigrants
remainedthe main practitionersof illegal immigrationand the main immigranttargetsof governmentscrutiny.4
Chinese bordercrossershighlightedthe weaknessesin American immigrationlaw
and testedthe sovereignty
of the United Statesin relationto immigrationforthe first
time. They forcedU.S. immigrationofficialsto deal with two interrelatedproblems:
stoppingillegal immigrationat the nation'sbordersand expellingillegal immigrants
alreadyresidingin the country.The U.S. reactionsignaleda new imperialistassertion
of national sovereignty
in the formof bordercontroland the impositionof American
nativism,immigrationlaws, and enforcementpracticeson both Canada and Mexico.
The ways in which this played out in the northand south, however,differed.In the
north,U.S. effortscenteredon "borderdiplomacy" based on a historicallyamicable
diplomaticrelationshipand a sharedantipathyforChinese immigration.In contrast,
controloverthe southernborderreliedless on cooperationwith Mexico and more on
border policing, a systemof surveillance,patrols, apprehension,and deportation.
Both methodseventuallyprovedsuccessfulin closingthe northernand southernborders to Chinese immigration.In doing so, they laid the foundationsfor racialized
understandingsof the "illegal immigrantproblem" and of Americanborderenforcement and nation buildingat the beginningof the twentiethcentury.
Border Crossings along the NorthernBorder
The most numerousand earliestbordercrossingsoccurredalong the Canadian border. Some of the firstillegal bordercrosserswere most likelyChinese residentsof the
United Stateswho had immigratedto Canada to work forthe Canadian PacificRailway Company (CPR) in the 1870s and then found themselvesexcluded from the
United Statesafterthe 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act. Others went straightto Canada
fromChina with the intentionof eventuallyenteringthe United States. The largely
unguarded boundary between the United States and Canada made such border
entriesfeasible and relativelyeasy to execute.5Moreover,although Chinese immigrantsin Canada were targetsof racial hostility,Canada's Chinese immigrationlaws
4 Priorto 1875 some statelaws barredtheentryof foreignpaupersor fugitive
slaves,but the 1875 Page Law
(whichforbadethe entryof Asian laborersimmigrating
involuntarily
and of prostitutes)
and the 1882 Chinese
ExclusionActwerethefirstfederallawsto excludegroups.The latterdeclaredthatanypersonwho securedcertificatesofidentity
fraudulently
or throughimpersonation
was to be deemedguiltyofa misdemeanor,
fined$ 1,000,
and imprisonedforup to fiveyears.Anyonewho knowingly
aided and abettedthelandingof"anyChineseperson
not lawfully
entitledto entertheUnitedStates"could be chargedwitha misdemeanor,
fined,and imprisonedfor
up to one year.The act declaredthat"anyChinese personfoundunlawfully
withinthe United Statesshall be
causedto be removedtherefrom
to thecountryfromwhencehe came." On pre-1875immigration
law,see Gerald
L. Neuman,"The Lost Centuryof AmericanImmigration
Law, 1776-1875," ColumbiaLaw Review,93 (Dec.
1993), 1834-38. FortheprovisionsoftheChineseExclusionAct,see Act of May 6, 1882, sec. 7, 11, 12, 22 Stat.
58. Forpost-1882generalimmigration
laws,see Act ofAug. 3, 1882, 22 Stat.214; Immigration
Actof 1891, 26
Stat. 1084; Act of Feb. 5, 1917, 39 Stat.874; Act of May 26, 1924, 43 Stat. 153. On the 1924 changein immigrationlaw,see Mae M. Ngai, "The Architecture
of Race in AmericanImmigration
Law: A Reexamination
ofthe
Immigration
Act of 1924,"JournalofAmerican
History,
86 (June1999), 67-92.
5
ResidentChineselaborerswho had been in the UnitedStatesat thetimeof theact wereallowedto reenter.
David ChuenyanLai, Chinatowns.TownswithinCitiesin Canada (Vancouver,1988), 52. The earliestreportsof
withCanadaandMexico
attheBorders
Chinese
Exclusion
57
theU.S. pracwiththoseoftheUnitedStates.Insteadofimitating
sharply
contrasted
immiChinese
to
restrict
efforts
laborers,
Canada's
ticeofdirectexclusionofChinese
Act imposeda fiftygrationwereindirect.In 1885 Canada'sChineseImmigration
Thus,
dollarheadtaxto be collectedbyeach shipcaptainat thepointofdeparture.
singledout all Chineselaborers(and, forall
thoughthe UnitedStatesexplicitly
Canada'searlymeasuresallowed
intentsand purposes,mostChineseimmigrants),
entryto everyChineseprovidedthathe paid thelandingfee.6
Chineseimmigration,
Canada'sheadtaxsystem
Althoughtheintentwasto restrict
back door into the
deterrent.
Canada was such a convenient
was not a sufficient
toCanada butdid not
UnitedStatesthatthetaxreducedtheappealofimmigration
Canada.
to the UnitedStatesthrough
reducetheappealof secondaryimmigration
Chineseillegal
laws seemedto facilitate
Other aspectsof Canadian immigration
destinedfortheUnitedStates
acrosstheborder.Chineseimmigrants
immigration
in
for
ninety
dayswithoutpayingthehead
werepermitted
to remain thedominion
crosstheborderat willduringthattime.Those who had
taxand couldpresumably
lenientCanadian
paid thehead tax could also easilyleaveCanada.7The relatively
U.S. Chinese exclusionlaws led
stringent
laws combinedwith the increasingly
to a risein illegalborderentries.
AftertheUnitedStatespassedtheScottAct
directly
(1888), whichnullifiedthe U.S. returnpermitsof an estimated20,000 Chinese
to Canada. In 1892, 3,264 moreChineseimmi773 Chineseimmigrated
laborers,
theU.S. passageof theGearyAct,whichextendedthe
gratedto Canada following
exclusionofanyadditionalChineselaborersfromtheUnitedStatesforanotherten
withthefederalgovernyearsand requiredthosealreadyin thecountryto register
in 1890 and 1891 estimated
that300
hearings
ment.Witnesses
at U.S. congressional
eachyear.8
EvenafterCanada raiseditsheadtaxto
to 2,000 Chineseenteredillegally
complainedthatthe Canadianlaws "practically
$100 in 1900, Americanofficials
workdonebytheborderofficers."9
... theeffective
nullified
networks
involvtookadvantage
ofestablished
smuggling
Chinesebordercrossers
ing opiumand othercontrabandsubstancesalongthe U.S.-Canadianborder.The
Sound area was knownas a "smugglers'
paradise"in the opium
Vancouver-Puget
trade,and Chineseand theirAmericanor Canadianguidesusedthesamesmuggling
the
boatsand routesto makethejourneyto theUnitedStates.The costof crossing
newspapersin Juneand July1883. See "Chinesein
illegalbordercrossingsby Chineseappearin northwestern
June15, 1883; "MoreabouttheChinese,"ibid.,July9, 1883.
PugetSoundArgus,
B.C.," PortTownsend
E. Roy,A WhiteMan'sProvince:British
6 Act of July20, 1885, ch. 71, 1885 S.C. 207-12 (Can.); Patricia
and ChineseandJapanese
ColumbiaPoliticians
1858-1914 (Vancouver,1989), 59-63.
Immigrants,
... 1903,
ofImmigration
oftheCommissioner-General
7Department of Commerceand Labor,AnnualReport
97.
Reportof
8 Statistics
arecompiledfromCanadian RoyalCommissionon Chineseand JapaneseImmigration,
on Chineseand Japanese
theRoyalCommission
(1902; New York,1978), 271, as citedin Qingsong
Immigration
Zhang,"Dragonin theLand oftheEagle:The ExclusionofChinesefromU.S. Citizenship"(Ph.D. diss.,Univerand Naturalization,
sityofVirginia,1993), 238; and U.S. Congress,House, SelectCommitteeon Immigration
51 Cong.,2 sess.,1890, H. Rept.4048, serial2890, p. 1.
ofChineseImmigration,
Investigation
9 Act ofJuly18, 1900, ch. 32, 1900 S.C. 215-21 (Can.); U.S. Department
ofCommerceand Labor,Annual
and Labor:FortheFiscalYearEnded
ofCommerce
totheSecretary
ofImmigration
oftheCommissioner-General
Report
1910), 143; U.S. Departmentof Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheComJune30, 1910 (Washington,
to theSecretary
and Labor:For theFiscal YearEndedJune30, 1911
ofCommerce
ofImmigration
missioner-General
1911), 159.
(Washington,
58
The Journal
ofAmerican
History
June2002
borderalongthisrouterangedfrom$23 to $60 in the1890s.One decadelater,borStatecouldcostup to $300.10Otherpopularentry
Washington
through
dercrossing
border.The completionof theCanadianPacific
pointswerealongthenortheastern
BritishColumbia,
whichstretched
severalthousandmilesfromVancouver,
Railway,
in Canada
at
a
seaport
to enter
western
to Montreal,Quebec, allowedimmigrants
to theeast,whereentryintotheUnitedStateswas
and thentravelacrossthecountry
evenlessguarded.Aidedby Chinesealreadyin theUnitedStatesand whiteAmeriChinesethrough
Buffalo,
thebusinessoftransporting
canslookingfora readyprofit,
In 1909 one
New York,forexample,becamewell organizedand veryprofitable.
newspaperreporterfoundthat two to fourChinesewere broughtinto Buffalo
at a priceof $200 to $600. Chinesewerealso commonlybroughtfromthe
weekly,
Canadianborderto Bostonand New YorkCityin groupsrangingfromtwoto sevofficials
in number.Corruptimmigration
andjudgesalongtheborderfacilenty-five
theroutesor admitting
itatedtheillegalentryof Chinesebyeithermasterminding
in exchangeformoney."1
intothecountry
Chineseimmigrants
Thus, until 1923, when Canada passed a more completeexclusionbill, it
routeintotheUnitedStatesforanyonewillingand able to
remaineda convenient
one Oregonmagazine
acrosstheborderprompted
paytheheadtaxes.Thismigration
editorto complainthat"Canada getsthemoneyand we getthe Chinamen,"and
wroteaboutthegrowing"Chineseleak"comingin fromCanada.As U.S.
reporters
oftheproblemfacingthem
themagnitude
officials
beganto understand
immigration
alongtheU.S.-Canadianborder,theyalso lookedwarilyto thesouthand correctly
be the nextpoint of
predictedthatthe Mexicanboundarywould "undoubtedly
attack."12
ChineseBorderCrossingsfromMexico
Chinesecontrasted
sharply
policiesregarding
As in Canada,in Mexicoimmigration
When
the
into
the
States.
back
door
United
American
another
with
laws,creating
were
UnitedStatespasseditsexclusionlaw,bothChineseand Mexicanauthorities
believedthat
Chinesemigration
to Mexico.The Chinesegovernment
encouraging
to the
Mexico and otherLatin Americancountrieswereconvenientalternatives
10Lai, Chinatowns,
Magazine,82 (March1891),
23; JulianRalph,"The ChineseLeak,"Harper'sNewMonthly
520-23; Roland L. De Lorme,"The UnitedStatesBureauof Customsand Smugglingon PugetSound, 18515 (Summer1973), 77-88; Hyung-chanKim and RichardW. Markov,"The ChineseExclusion
1913," Prologue,
Laws and SmugglingChineseintoWhatcomCounty,Washington,1890-1900," AnnalsoftheChineseHistorical
oftheCommis(1983), 16-30; DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReport
Society
ofthePacificNorthwest
... 1903, 98-99.
ofImmigration
sioner-General
11U.S. Congress,Senate,Reports
ofChinese,49 Cong., 1 sess.,1886, S.
on ChargeofFraudulent
Importation
of theChineseExclusionLaw,"AnnalsoftheAmerican
Doc. 103, p. 8; JamesBronsonReynolds,"Enforcement
Academy
ofPoliticaland SocialScience,34 (no. 2, 1909), 368; U.S. DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,Annual
ofCommerce
and Labor:FortheFiscalYearEnded
totheSecretary
ofImmigration
Report
oftheCommissioner-General
Americans
(New York,1974), 106. On corLyman,Chinese
1904), 137-41; Stanford
June30, 1904 (Washington,
Listof ChineseCases
Certificates:
ruptfederaljudges,see U.S. Departmentof Commerceand Labor,McGettrick
fromDecember11, 1894, to
FelixW McGettrick,
fortheDistrictofVermont,
FormerU.S. Commissioner
Triedbefore
1906).
June24, 1897 (Washington,
12 Ralph,"ChineseLeak,"515; Department
oftheCommissioner-GenofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReport
eralofImmigration...1903, 101.
ChineseExclusionat theBorderswithCanada and Mexico
59
lawsplacedChineseat risk.
and discriminatory
UnitedStates,whereracialhostility
was an essentialingreimmigration
believedthatforeign
Likewise,Mexicanofficials
during
infrastructure
of thecountry's
and modernization
dientin thedevelopment
to
Diaz from1876 to 1911. Attempts
Porfirio
the ruleof President
thePorfiriato,
group failed.Instead,
immigrant
themostdesirable
attract
Europeans considered
movedintolocal tradeand
numbersand increasingly
Chinesecame in significant
commerce,
meetingnew demandsforgoods and servicesin the newlyexpanding
AfterChinaand MexicosignedtheTreatyofAmityand Commercein 1899,
society.
in thenorth,
to Mexicoincreased.Like theirfellowmigrants
Chineseimmigration
and an organizedanti-Chinese
the Chinesein Mexico also facedracialhostility,
a climaxduringthe 1930s.Howdevelopedin theearly1900s,reaching
movement
One reasonwas
ofChineseimmigration.
ever,itdid notresultin thelegalrestriction
theyalso
"undesirable,"
foundChineseimmigrants
thatthoughMexicanofficials
in
sentiment
Anti-Chinese
and necessary.
thatChineselaborwas beneficial
admitted
to theUnitedStates.The openborMexicoalsodid nothindersecondary
migration
to the United
bothMexicanand Chineseimmigration
der continuedto facilitate
13
States.
attemptsto curb Chineseillegalentriesalong the
By 1906 U.S. government
enoughthatthebusinessofillegalimmigration
borderhad provedeffective
northern
thegreatest
troutheMexicanborderwas considered
south.Soon thereafter,
shifted
wentso
to Chineseillegalimmigration.
One immigrant
inspector
blespotin relation
via Mexicowas "a joke,a hollowmockery."
immigration
faras to saythatlegitimate
at Mexicanseaportseventuthat80 percentoftheChinesearriving
It was estimated
by U.S.
allyreachedtheborder.From1907 to 1909, 2,492 Chinesewerearrested
on Chinese
forillegalentryalong the Mexicanborder.Mexicanstatistics
officials
to the
illegally
also suggestthatfrom1,000to 2,000 Chinesemigrated
immigration
UnitedStatesperyearduringthePorfiriato.14
Mexicousuallydisemroutethrough
Chineseimmigrants
choosingthecircuitous
barkedin Ensenada,Manzanillo,Mazatlan,or Guaymasand then took either
wellbefore
anothersteamergoingnorthor therailroad,makingsureto disembark
officials
weretracking
thetrainshad reachedtheUnitedStates,whereimmigration
popularforthosewishingto
EntrywestofEl Paso,Texas,was especially
passengers.
13 Ching-HwangYen, Cooliesand Mandarins:ChinasProtection
of OverseasChineseduringtheLate Ch'ing
in Porfirian
Mexico:A
Period(1851-1911) (Singapore,1985), 292; RaymondB. Craib III, ChineseImmigrants
(Albuquerque,1996), 8, 22, 24;
Sentiment
and Anti-Chinese
EconomicActivity,
StudyofSettlement,
Preliminary
9
Journal,
in Sonora,Mexico,1876-1932," Amerasia
Persecution
EvelynHu-DeHart,"Racismand Anti-Chinese
(no. 2, 1982), 2-4, 13.
see U.S. Departmentof Com14 On thenew threat
estimates,
to theMexicanborderand U.S. government
and
of Commerce
to theSecretary
ofImmigration
merceand Labor,AnnualReportof the Commissioner-General
1906), 98; "Reportby MarcusBraun,U.S. ImmiLabor:For theFiscal YearEndedJune30, 1906 (Washington,
Dept. of ComNew York,to Hon. FrankP. Sargent,CommissionerGeneralof Immigration,
grantInspector,
Recordsof the
DC, datedFeb. 12, 1907," file52320/1,SubjectCorrespondence,
merceand Labor,Washington,
estiD.C.). U.S. government
Washington,
Service,RG 85 (NationalArchives,
and Naturalization
Immigration
April16, 1910, file52142/6,
of Immigration,
to Commissioner-General
matesare includedin J. W Berkshire
see EvelynHu-DeHart, "Immiibid.; Zhang, "Dragon in the Land of the Eagle," 372. For Mexicanstatistics,
21
grantsto a DevelopingSociety:The Chinesein NorthernMexico, 1875-1932," JournalofArizonaHistory,
(Autumn1980), 275-312, esp. 282-83.
60
History
ofAmerican
The Journal
June2002
ofChigo to theWest.In fact,thetownwas knownas a "hot-bedforthesmuggling
statesmighttakea sea routeto Florida,Louisiana,
nese."Thoseheadedto theeastern
and otherGulfCoaststates.SomeChinesesimplywalkedacrosstheline
Mississippi,
a ridenorthward.
Law Ngim,forexample,foundhis
or hitchhiked
by themselves
restedon thesideoftheroad,and thenwaveddowna
waynorth,crossedtheborder,
carto takehimto San Franciscoin the 1920s. Othershiredguidesand engagedin
to twentyChinamen"was
highlyorganizedplans.In 1903 one "band of fifteen
ofSan Diego.
milessoutheast
foundcampedout in a "safehouse"aboutseventy-five
WhiletheChinesehid insidethebuilding,theirMexicanguideswentintotownto
The averagecostfora guideranged
and makefurther
preparations.
buyprovisions
from$25 to $75 in the 1890s,dependingon wherethecrossingtookplace.By the
to $200.15
1930s,ithad increased
in thesouthwas builton an established
As in Canada,Chinesebordermigration
networks
thatthrivedin southfoundationof U.S.-Mexicantradeand smuggling
werean "opensecret,"and
westernbordertowns.ThereChinesebordercrossings
officials
alongthesouthernboundarycomplainedthatChiAmericanimmigration
was "carriedon withthe cognizanceif not withthe connese illegalimmigration
Chineseillegalimmigration
cealedcooperationof thelocal [Mexican]authorities."
and Chineseon bothsidesof the border
networks,
dependedon thoseestablished
in
could be countedon to provideassistance.NewlyarrivedChineseimmigrants
Chinese
dictionaries,
MexicowereprovidedwithAmericanmoney,Chinese-English
guidebooksto MexAmericannewspapers,
andAmericanrailroadmaps.Immigrant
in Mexico
manufactured
documents
immigration
ico also circulated,
and fraudulent
report
arrivedat theEl Paso postoffice"almostdaily."One Bureauof Immigration
El
of Paso
in theChinesecommunity
complainedthatbothlaborersand merchants
as one manforthepurposeofconcealing. .. thoseChinesecoolies
"bandedtogether
chambersor rooms
who have crossedthe line." Rumorsof hidden,underground
spreadamongEl Paso
builtbetweentheceilingsand roofsof Chinatownbusinesses
officials
alike.16
and immigration
residents
15 Berkshire
Oct. 17, 1907, file52212/2,part1, SubjectCorreof Immigration,
to Commissioner-General
ofLaw Ngim,May
D.C.); Testimony
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
spondence,Immigration
ServiceRecords(San
and Naturalization
Immigration
17, 1931, file12020/19153,Case Filesof Investigations,
ofImmisee CharlesW. Snyderto Commissioner-General
attempts,
Bruno,Calif.).On theorganizedsmuggling
University
of California,
gration,Nov. 11, 1903, folder22, box 2, Hart HyattNorthPapers(BancroftLibrary,
Berkeley).On the cost of bordercrossing,see "Reportby ... Braun... Feb. 12, 1907"; U.S. Departmentof
and
totheSecretary
ofCommerce
ofImmigration
Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
Labor:For theFiscal YearEndedJune30, 1902 (Washington,1902), 75; U.S. Departmentof Commerceand
and Labor:For the
ofCommerce
to theSecretary
ofImmigration
Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
1907), 110; Ralph,"ChineseLeak,"524; Paulsen,"YellowPerilat
FiscalYearEndedJune30, 1907 (Washington,
Nogales,"113-28; and Testimonyof Lim Wah, Dec. 2, 1932, file12020/22130,Case Files of Investigations,
ServiceRecords(San Bruno,Calif.).
and Naturalization
Immigration
oftheCommissioner-GenofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReport
16 Ralph,"ChineseLeak,"524; Department
netin Porfirian
Mexico,"8. On cross-border
. .. 1907, 111; Craib,"ChineseImmigrants
eralofImmigration
...
ofImmigration
works,see Departmentof Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
InspectorMarcusBraun,datedSeptember20,
1907, 110; "Digestof,and CommentUpon, ReportofImmigrant
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
1907," file51630/44D, SubjectCorrespondence,
of theTreasury,
June5, 1909, file52516/7,ibid.On Chinesein El Paso,
D.C.); and BurtonParkerto Secretary
to the
ofImmigration
see U.S. Departmentof Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
1905), 95-96.
30, 1905 (Washington,
and Labor:FortheFiscalYearEndedJune
ofCommerce
Secretary
ChineseExclusionat theBorderswithCanadaand Mexico
61
Crossingsand ContactZones in theBorderlands
The "bandingtogether"
oftheChineseofEl PasowiththeChinesecomingin from
CiudadJuarez,
Mexico,reflects
notonlythetransnational
connections
betweenand
amongChineseimmigrant
communities
in theUnitedStatesand Mexicobut also
thefluidity
of theborderregionforChineseillegalimmigrants.
Indeed,muchlike
contemporary
migratory
activity
in theU.S.-Mexicanborderlands,
Chineseimmigrationand exclusionalongboththe northern
and southernbordersresembled"a
worldin motion"madeup ofshifting
and multipleidentities
conand relationships
forthepurposeofillegalmigration.17
structed
One ofthebestexamplesofthatmultiplicity
involvesracialcrossings,
attempts
by
Chineseto passas members
ofanotherracein orderto crosstheborderundetected.
EventhoughChinesemigration
to bothCanada and Mexicodatedfromas farback
as themiddleofthenineteenth
century,
Chinesewerenotviewedas "natural"
inhabitantsofthenorthern
and southern
borderlands
likeMexicansor NativeAmericans.
Indeed,themerepresenceof Chinesealongthebordercouldraisesuspicionamong
SomeChineseimmigrants
government
officials.
and theirguidesthuslearned,beginningin theearly1900s,to tryto passas MexicanorNativeAmericanas theycrossed
the border.Althoughsuch elaboratestrategies
wereby no meansthe onlyway to
crosstheborderundetected,
In 1904 theBuffaloTimes
theywereindeedeffective.
thatitwasnotuncommonforwhite"smugglers"
reported
to disguisetheChineseas
NativeAmericanscrossingfromCanada to the UnitedStatesin pursuitof trade.
Theywouldbe dressedin "Indiangarb,"givenbasketsofsassafras,
and rowedacross
the borderin boats.18
Racialcrossings
werecommonalongthesouthern
borderas well.In 1907 special
government
inspectors
reportedon a highlyorganized,Chinese-and Mexican-run
businessheadedby the ChineseMexicanJoseChangin Guayillegalimmigration
mas.Chineseimmigrants
landedin Mexicoon thepretense
thattheyhad beenhired
to workin thecottonfieldsthere.Changthenbroughtthemto hisheadquarters
in
fromtheimmigrants'
UnitedStatesrelatives
weredistributed
Guaymas,whereletters
fortheborderjourneyweremade.One ofthemostimporand further
preparations
tantstepsin Chang'soperationinvolveddisguisingthe newlyarrivedChineseas
Mexicanresidents.
The Chinesecuttheirqueuesand exchanged
their"bluejeansand
feltslippers"for"themostpicturesqueMexicandress."They receivedfraudulent
Mexicancitizenship
papers,and theyalsolearnedto saya fewwordsofSpanish,especially"Yo soymexicano"(I am Mexican).As in thecaseoftheNativeAmericandisguise,theMexicanone was supposedto protectChineseshouldtheybe "heldup by
someAmericancitizen"whileattempting
to crosstheborder.The Mexicandisguise
In 1907 theimmigrant
wasapparently
MarcusBrauntravquitesuccessful.
inspector
to Mexicoto investigate
eledundercover
and EuropeanimmigraChinese,Japanese,
tionthroughMexicoto theUnitedStates.In MexicoCityhe uncovered
theuse of
certificates
fraudulent
Mexicancitizenship
and photographs
byChineseto facilitate
17
18
TheNewMestiza(San Francisco,1987), preface.
GloriaAnzaldu'a,Borderlands/La
Frontera:
BuffaloTimes,
Jan.18, 1902, p. 5. See alsoNew YorkTimes,Nov. 29, 1896, p. 1; ibid.,June10, 1891, p. 1.
62
History
TheJournalofAmerican
June2002
Braun
theirentryinto the United States.On examinationof the photographs,
theseChinamen
to distinguish
difficult
amazement
thatitwas "exceedingly
expressed
fromMexicans."To make his point even clearer,he includedin his reporttwo
ofChineseon a
papersas wellas photographs
citizenship
"exhibits"
ofthefraudulent
thatthe Chinesein questioncould easilypass as Mexican
emphasizing
steamship,
withoutdetection.19
and southernborders.One
werenot confinedto the northern
Racial crossings
via Cuba
reporton theillicitentryofAsianand Europeanimmigrants
government
of"painting
theChineseblack"to disguise
a particularly
strategy
successful
described
in New
"walkedoffthesteamer
crew.Theyapparently
themas partofthesteamship's
a
inspectorreported
Orleanswithouttrouble."In Mobile,Alabama,an immigrant
theChinaChinesefromMexicoandthen"disguise
projectto bringin newlyarrived
pointbecauseit was
a populardestination
menas negroes."Mobilewas apparently
to by fellowChineseas "CrookedFace" whosespehometo one man referred
Americans.20
as African
Chineseimmigrants
cialtywasdisguising
whichelicitedsusin effect
Chineseimmigrants
tradedtheirownracialuniforms,
forothersthatwouldallowthemto blendintoparticular
picionin theborderlands,
wereAmerregionaland raciallandscapes.In thenorth,thedominantracial"others"
theywereMexicansand American
ican and CanadianIndians.In the Southwest,
Americans.
Chineseillegalimmigrants
Indians,and in theSouth,theywereAfrican
regionallandscapeto theirown
learnedto use thewaysracemarkedeach particular
in orderto enterthecountry
undetected.
advantage
themultiple,
natureoftheborderlands,
reflected
IfChineseracialcrossings
hybrid
businessdefinedthe
character
oftheChineseillegalimmigration
thenthemultiracial
races,classes,and
borderas a contactzonewherepeople-mostlymen ofdifferent
smugalliances.The mostnumerous
metand sometimes
formedfragile
nationalities
men workingwith Chinese
glerswerewhiteAmericanor Europeanimmigrant
Many wereoftenalreadyinvolvedin illegalactivities.
accomplicesand organizers.
occuin thebusinesson theside.Eithertheirregular
Othersapparently
participated
In Seattlethelococovertactivities.
locationsfacilitated
pationsor theirgeographical
motiveengineerBillieLow and the firemanBat Nelson took advantageof Low's
and opiumintotheUnited
to bringbothChineseimmigrants
railroadconnections
informant
StatesfromVancouver.In Bay St. Louis, Mississippi,a government
were"running
"a certainringof Greeks"who owneda storeand factory
reported,
substantial
Mexico.The storeand factory
housingforthe
Chinese"through
provided
Eventhose
activities.
as wellas coverfortheillegitimate
newlyarrivedimmigrants
wereinvolvedin the businessof
workingin thehighestlevelsof law enforcement
informants
and government
In 1908 severalwitnesses
Chineseillegalimmigration.
ofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReport
ofthe
19 "Reportby... Braun... Feb. 12, 1907,"30-33; Department
. . 1907,110-11.
ofImmigration.
Commissioner-General
20 "Report
April
In re:Cuban Smugglers,"
ofImmigration
ofInspectorFeriF.Weissto Commissioner-General
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
4, 1925, file55166/31,SubjectCorrespondence,
Feb. 25, 1925, ibid.My thanksto LibbyGarland
ofImmigration,
D.C.); FeriF. Weissto Commissioner-General
Aug. 15, 1911, file53161/2-A,ibid.
ofImmigration,
forthesesources.P. H. Sheltonto Commissioner-General
ChineseExclusionat theBorderswithCanada and Mexico
63
chiefofpoliceEdwardM. Finkwas "the
withevidencethattheformer
cameforward
El
in
of
one
of
of
Paso.21
smugglers"
leader
thegangs
especially
AmericanIndianswerealso knownto guideChineseintothecountry,
thePapago Indians"seemedto
border.In thesouth,however,
acrossthe northern
inspector
Clifford
to theimmigrant
forChinese,"according
havea naturalantipathy
to helpapprehend
informants
hiredas government
and thuswereroutinely
Perkins,
border,
guidesacrossthesouthern
Chineseillegals.Mexicanswereoftentheprimary
to Chineseand guiding
and theymade a handsomeprofitfromsellingprovisions
JordanFelize,and Wong Gong Huey of Mexicali
them.In 1912 Luis Fernandez,
Lin
Fat,and Chin Man of San Franciscoin a transnajoinedEthelHall, Muy Fat,
scrutiny.
Multiracial
ring"thatcameundergovernment
smuggling
tional"notorious
could
businessof illegalimmigration,
however,
alliancesforgedin theunderground
be fragile.
Forexample,Mexicanswerenot alwaysworkingon thesameside as the
oftheU.S. Bureauof
employees
Chinese.SomeMexicansmightbe paidinformants,
in courts,whileothersrefused
to assistChineselest
or evenwitnesses
Immigration,
to themselves.
themultiracial
Fragileor formal,
theiractionscallunwantedattention
possibleand profitand alliancesmade Chineseillegalimmigration
relationships
able.22
theChineseIllegalImmigrant
Constructing
"JohnChinamanand His Smugglers":
beyond
reliedon an abilityto function
Thoughthebusinessof illegalimmigration
became
authorities,
illegalChineseimmigration
and belowthesightof government
"Chineseproblem"thathad inspiredthe
theverypublicsymbolof thecontinuing
passageof theChineseExclusionAct in thefirstplace.As a result,Chineseborder
crossersbecamethe publicimageof a new typeof immigrant-the"illegal."The
Americanpublic learnedabout Chinese bordercrossingsthroughsensationalist
investiand government
magazinearticles,
reports,
regionaland nationalnewspaper
of Chiracialstereotypes
fromexisting
borrowedextensively
gations.The reportage
chargesthat
withcoexisting
theillegalaspectoftheirmigration
nese,oftenmerging
a
or "coolies"whoseimmigration
constituted
Chinesewereeithercunningcriminals
aliens.As RobertG. Lee has illusand unassimilable
harmfulinvasionof inferior
trated,beginningin the 1850s, the racializedcharacterof "JohnChinaman"in
Americanplays,songs,minstrel
thepopushows,and fictioncreatedand reinforced
who endangered
of Chinese immigrants
as both "pollutants"
lar representation
21
May 7, 1917,file
ofImmigration,
seeThomasM. Fisherto Commissioner-General
On theSeattleactivities,
throughMississippi,see M. R. Snyderto S. E. Redfern,Feb. 2,
53788/3,ibid. On Chineseillegalimmigration
of
1911, file53161/2,ibid.On thecorruptEl Paso policechief,see RichardH. Taylorto Commissioner-General
Immigration,
Oct. 24, 1908, file52212/2,ibid.
22 On American
Serviceon the
Allan Perkins,BorderPatrol:WiththeU.S. Immigration
Indians,see Clifford
MexicanBoundary,
1910-54 (Washington,1978), 23. On Mexicans,see Departmentof Commerceand Labor,
... 1910, 146; and Berkshire
to Commissioner-General
ofImmigration
AnnualReport
oftheCommissioner-General
Service
Immigration
and Naturalization
ofImmigration,
Sept. 19, 1912, file53507/32,SubjectCorrespondence,
Immigration
ofChineseLaborfromCanada
see Preventing
Records(Washington,
D.C.). On Mexicaninformants,
andMexico,1891, H. Rept.2915, citedin Leon C. Metz,Border:The U.S.-MexicoLine (El Paso, 1989), 365; and
Perkins,
BorderPatrol23.
64
June2002
The Journal
ofAmerican
History
.....
.............
...........
.......
......
..............
.....-
.
00
'4s
'4
I4-0
0
S
.II
thir alen prsenceand ufreeservie cooies wo thratene
Americnsocety wth
the hit wokingclas. y th 1 80s"Joh Chnamn" aso ameto b th prmar
withCanadaandMexico
Chinese
Exclusion
attheBorders
65
was explainedin both popular
imagethroughwhichChineseillegalimmigration
magazinesand politicaldiscourse.23
The San Francisco-based
journalthe Waspwas one of thefirst
weeklyillustrated
from
fearsof Chineseillegalimmigration
publicationsto articulateand illustrate
entitled"And StillThey
Canada and Mexico witha two-page,color illustration
Come!"Printedin 1880,whileanti-Chinese
politicians
werestilllayingthegroundworkfortheeventualpassageofthe1882 ChineseExclusionAct,thecartoonplayed
on fearsoffuture
Chineseillegalimmigration
fromthenorthand south.Havingjust
Billthatwouldhavelimitedto fifteen
the
failedto enactthe1879 Fifteen
Passenger
on anyshipcomingto theUnitedStates,thesupportnumberofChinesepassengers
ersof Chineseexclusionworkedtirelessly
to keep the specterof an alien Chinese
invasionaliveand well. "AndStillThey Come!" articulated
the Chineseexclusion
streams
of
It
two
endless
slant-eyed
"Johns"or Chinese
messageperfectly. portrays
coolies disembarking
fromovercrowded
steamshipsand flowinginto the United
is clearlymarkedand communicated
States.Theirracialdifference
through
exaggeratedracialfeatures
inscribed
ontothebodiesoftheChinesefigures
and through
alien
Chinesedressand hair.The darkslitsthataresupposedto be eyesaremerephysical
manifestations
ofthesurreptitious,
sneakynatureoftheChinese.Theirloose-fitting
and shoesemphasizethealiencustoms
garments,
broadcooliehats,Chinesebaskets,
thatwillpolluteAmerica.Finally,
thelong,rattail-like
braidedplaitsofhairwornby
the Chinesemen represent
a culturalanomalythatis both sexuallyand racially
twobackdoorslabeled
surreptitiously
through
ambiguousand threatening.
Entering
to bar
"BritishColumbia"and "Mexico,"theChinesegleefully
floutU.S. attempts
in vainto shutAmerthem.Theyeasilyevadean eaglelikeUncleSam who is trying
ica'smaingatesto a thirdwave of Chinesecooliesentering
by sea. Withhis back
fromthenorthand south,UncleSam is obliviturnedtowardtheChineseentering
ous to thelargerthreats
posed by theopen bordersand failsto noticetheChinese
oftheAmericannation.
theirnosesat him,U.S. law,and thesovereignty
thumbing
As a symbolof the imminentinvasionof Chinese,the two steamships
dockedin
British
ColumbiaandMexicosagwiththeweightofcountlessChinesehangingfrom
thesparsand streaming
intotheUnitedStates.On thedistant
downthegangplank
horizon,dozensof Chinesevesselsand evenair balloonsfilledwithChineseleave
China and maketheirwayto theshoresoftheUnitedStates.Each shipand balloon
Bill
FifteenPassenger
is markedbythenumberfifteen,
alludingto theunsuccessful
how the cunningChinesewould undoubtedly
evade and take
and demonstrating
ineffectual
and borderpoliciesthroughan outimmigration
advantageofAmerica's
rightinvasion.24
23 On theconstruction
of "JohnChinaman,"see RobertG. Lee, Orientals:
AsianAmericans
in PopularCulture
becamea raciallyinscribedcategory
forMexicansin the 1924 Immigra(Philadelphia,1999), 9, 22, 32. Illegality
ofRace in AmericanImmigration
Law,"67-92.
tionAct,accordingto Ngai, "The Architecture
24 BoththeSenateand theHouse passedtheFifteen
supBill,demonstrating
nationaland bipartisan
Passenger
vetoblockeditsenactment.
See AndrewGyory,ClosingtheGate:Race,
portforChineseexclusion.A presidential
Act(Chapel Hill, 1998), 3-6. "AndStillThey Come!," Wasp,Dec. 4, 1880, p.
Politics,
and theChineseExclusion
280.
History
ofAmerican
The Journal
66
June2002
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i
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2'i. -j^-;
DYING
OF THIRST
IN THE
DESERT.
Chinese
acrossthesouthern
illegalimmigrants
ofcontemporary
border,
Muchlikethejourneys
in
oftenresulting
wererisky
century
endeavors,
border
at theturnofthetwentieth
crossings
March1891.
Magazine,
NewMonthly
Harper's
death.Reprintedfrom
in the 1890s,afterChineseborderentrieshad indeedbecomea reality,
Beginning
receivedmorenationalpresscoverage.
thespecterof theChineseillegalimmigrant
SpeakersbeforetheU.S. CongresslikenedtheinfluxofChinesefromCanada to the
NewMonthly
In 1891 Harper's
oftheHuns" in earlyEuropeanhistory.25
"swarming
Magazinepublishedan exposewrittenby the journalistJulianRalph.Titlingthe
usedbyChinese
piece"The ChineseLeak,"Ralphexplainedin detailthestrategies
to entertheUnitedStatesfromCanada and Mexico.Lax Canadianlaws,"wily"Chiand "pilots"all figured
Canadianand Americansmugglers
nese,and profit-hungry
accompanythearticle.One,
Fourillustrations
in Ralphsinvestigation.
prominently
presumably
Chinesemalewalking,
a young,disheveled
portrays
simplytitled"John,"
acrosstheborder.His queue trailsin thewindbehindhim.His dressand shoesare
Here,theimageof
Chinese,and theslantof his eyesis overemphasized.
distinctly
ofChineseimmigrants
caricature
racialized
"JohnChinaman"connectsthestandard
Ralph'stextrunning
ofillegalimmigration.
as aliencooliesto thenewphenomenon
29 Ralph,"ChineseLeak,"516. See also U.S. Treasury
AnnualReport
oftheCommissioner-General
Department,
1897), 758;
For theFiscalYearEndedJune30, 1897 (Washington,
oftheTreasury:
to theSecretary
ofImmigration
theSecreLetterfrom
oftheTreasury,
AllegedIllegalEntryintotheUnitedStatesofChinesePersons:
U.S. Department
taryofthe Treasury.... 55 Cong., 1 sess.,1897, Sen. Doc. 167, p. 153; Zhang, "Dragon in the Land of the
ofImmigration
oftheCommissioner-General
Eagle,"349-50; DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReport
... 1904, 149, 626.
ChineseExclusionat theBorders
withCanada and Mexico
67
alongsidethe imageelaborateson the connection.Readersare told thatJohnand
otherChinamenwho crossedtheborderwereespecially"impenetrable,"
"shrewd,"
and "intelligent
trickster"
members
of theirrace.The inhumanconditionsto which
Chinesesubjectedthemselves
in orderto entertheUnitedStateswerealso takenby
Ralphto be signsofChineseracialinferiority.
In 1891 Ralphwitnessed
theinterdictionof theNorthStar,a "tiny"smuggling
boat in "desperately
bad condition"that
frequently
carriedas manyas thirty
Chinesemalesin herholdfromVictoria,British
Columbia,to theUnitedStates.Notingthesmallstatureof theChineseand their
"raisin-like
. .. to compressed
adaptability
conditions,"
Ralphobservedthatitwould
havebeendifficult,
ifnotunthinkable,
to transport
"menofanyothernationality"
in
thesame fashion.A moregraphicimageentitled"Dyingof Thirstin the Desert"
accompaniesRalphsexploration
of Chinesebordercrossings
in thesouthand portraysan abandoned,parched,and dyingChinesemalein thedesolatesouthwestern
desert.His canteenemptyand his hat and walkingstickabandonedon the desert
floorbesidehim,thisJohncrawlson hisbony,clawlikehandsand kneestowardthe
U.S. border.In starkcontrast
to thecomfortable,
middle-class
livesofHarpersreaders,the shockingillustration
sensationalized
the phenomenonof Chineseillegal
immigration.
Althoughit couldbe perceived
as a somewhatsympathetic
imagethat
measuresChinesewerewillingto taketo entertheUnited
pointedto thedesperate
States,"Dyingof Thirstin theDesert"nonetheless
reinforced
racializednotionsof
Chinesecriminality,
racialinferiority,
alienness,
and difference
and thethreat
ofinvasionwiththeverysamedepictionofdesperation
and tragedy.26
Not surprisingly,
theconstruction
oftheChineseillegalimmigrant
was especially
strongin theAmerican
Westand in thenorthern
and southern
borderregionswhere
mostof theillicitmigration
tookplace. BothAmericanand Canadiannewspapers
locatedin theborderregionsregularly
and actively
ofChinese
coveredthesmuggling
fromthenorthintothesouth.All themajornewspapers
in Buffalo,
New York,for
in minutedetail.One Buffalo
example,coveredChineseillegalimmigration
Evening
Newsarticleprominently
displayeda stereotypical
imageof a disheveled,
menacing,
and subhumanChinesemaleundertheheadline"WilyTricksPlayedbyJohnChinaman and His Smugglers."
Contendingthattheevasionof exclusionlawswas common among the "wily"and "heathen"Chinese,the newspaperwarnedthatthe
business"would continueto "flourish
and defyauthorities."
"smuggling
Explicitly
thenewthreat
ofillegalChineseimmigration
connecting
withthestandard
anti-Chineserhetoric
fromthe1870s,theheadlinewasaccompaniedbya fewlinesfromBret
Harte'spopularanti-Chinese
poemfirst
publishedin 1871:
Whichis WhyI Repeat(And I'm FreeI to Maintain)That forWaysThat /Are
Dark and forTricks/ThatAreVain,theI HeathenChineeis /Peculiar.
In anotherarticle,a Chineseimmigrant
whowas caughttrying
to enterthecountry
wasdescribed
as a "Chink"whousedhis"long,talon-like
illegally
nails"in a struggle
officials.27
withlawenforcement
26Ralph,"ChineseLeak,"516-19, 522, 444.
27
Buffalo
EveningNews,Feb. 1, 1904, p. 9; Buffalo
MorningExpress,
Jan.29, 1901, p. 6; "Big ChineseHaul,"
68
The Journalof AmericanHistory
June2002
WILY TRICKS PLAYED
B Y JOHN CHINAMAN
AND HIS SMUGGLER&
"Whichis WhyI Repeat(andI'm Free
to Maintain)That forWays That
Are Dark and for Tricks
That Are Vain, the
HeathenChinee
is Peculiar,"
-Bret Harte,,
|
Al
b
Racializedimagesof"JohnChinaman"as an illegalimmigrant
builton existing
stereotypes
ofChinese as raciallyinferior,
wilytricksters
who could easilydefeatthe Chineseexclusionlaws and
endangerthenation. Such portrayals
wereespeciallypopularin bordercitieswhereillegalimmigrationwas relatively
common.Reprintedfrom
theBuffaloEveningNews,Feb. 1, 1904
Also significant
is thepersistent
use of theterms"smugglers,"
and
"smuggled,"
"imported"
bybothjournalists
and government
officials
to describeChinesecrossing
theborder.Suchterminology
invokedearlierchargesthatChineseimmigrants
were
merely"importedcoolies"and furthered
the racialization
of Chinese as inferior
immigrants
underthecontrolofpowerful,
clandestine
organizations
and individuals.
The connections
madebetweensmuggledgoodssuchas liquorand drugsand Chinese bordercrossersalso paintedChineseimmigrants
as contrabandcommodities
thatdid notbelongin theUnitedStatesand thatdisrupted
communities.
Sensationalistnewspaper
accountsfedthepublic'sappetite,butwhiletheyfocusedattention
on theChineseand usedexisting
racialstereotypes
to explainwhyChinesecrossed
theborder,
theyignoredtheroleof U.S. immigration
lawsin creating
and fostering
Chineseillegalimmigration
in thefirst
place.
Chineseimmigrants
mayhavebeenthefirst
to entertheUnitedStates
immigrants
butbytheearly1900stheywerejoinedbya muchlargernumberofimmiillegally,
grantsof otheroriginswho also chosetheborderas an alternative
to therigorous
immigration
at Americanseaports.Syrians,
inspection
Greeks,Hungarians,
Russian
ibid.,Feb. 19, 1902. On BretHarte,see Lee, Orientals,
39, 68-69, 91; and RonaldTakaki,IronCages:Raceand
Culturein Nineteenth
Century
America(New York,1979), 223.
withCanadaandMexico
attheBorders
Chinese
Exclusion
69
Jews,Italians,and some"maidens"fromFrance,Belgium,and Spainwerethemain
groupsenteringthroughCanada and Mexico.All weresuspectedof havingbeen
them
butthebackdoorofCanada offered
at theAtlanticportsofentry,
deniedentry
centuriesCanadian
and earlytwentieth
a second chance.In the late nineteenth
thanU.S. procedures
lessrigorous
wereconsiderably
processes
inspection
immigrant
BothEuropeanandAsianimmiand consistedmainlyofa limitedhealthscreening.
a border
forCanada andthenattempt
tickets
grantsquicklylearnedto buysteamship
illeofthosewhoenteredthecountry
intotheUnitedStates.Exactstatistics
crossing
reportclaimedthatas many
congressional
gallyarenotavailable.One sensationalist
entered
via thisroutein 1890 alone,butmoreaccuas 50,000 Europeanimmigrants
thousand"eachyear
at "several
placethefigure
estimates
rateBureauofImmigration
by whatthey
frustrated
wereconsistently
in the early1900s.28 Americanofficials
Robert
inspector
lawsin Canada. As theimmigrant
deemedoverlylax immigration
to
us
is
regarded
"muchthatappearsmenacing
Watchorn
explainedin a 1902 report,
As a result,
Watchorn
bytheCanadiangovernment."
indifference
withcomparative
into
claimed,"thosewhichCanada receivesbut failsto hold . . . comeunhindered
via theCanadianand MexicanbortheUnitedStates."By 1909 generalimmigration
themas gateways
identified
derswas so greatthattheU.S. Bureauof Immigration
onlyto New York.29
secondin importance
intothe
theborders
crossing
EventhoughbothEuropeansandAsianswereillegally
sharply,
groupsdiffered
United States,the discoursesconcerningthe immigrant
immigrationEuropean
that
viewed
racial
hierarchy
American
an existing
reflecting
That thecateevenillegalimmigration-asmoredesirablethanAsianimmigration.
a highlyracializedone is clear
was,fromitsinception,
goryof theillegalimmigrant
discussionof the challengesposed by
fromthe differences
betweenU.S. officials'
who crossedtheborderand theirdiscussionofthoseposedby
Europeanimmigrants
officials
werecertainly
concernedaboutthe
Chineseimmigrants.
U.S. immigration
evadinginspectionat the regularportsof
largenumbersof Europeanimmigrants
theborders.
The U.S. government
suspectedthatthoseimmigrants
bycrossing
entry
andthebackdoorEurowereparticularly
likelyto becomediseasedorpubliccharges,
unlawful
entries
fromCanada causedsomealarm.Nevertheless,
by
peanimmigration
Europeanswerenot definedas a threatto theAmericannationas Chineseillegal
oftheTreasury
WilliamWindom,whoseagency
was.In 1890 Secretary
immigration
thatdistinction
most
laws until 1903, articulated
administered
U.S. immigration
problem,
fromCanadawasnotedas a potential
IllegalEuropeanimmigration
clearly.
in generalremained
and
welcoming
buttheattitudes
towardEuropeanimmigration
still
theviewthatEuropeans-evenillegalimmigrants-were
and reflected
supportive
to
too
much
in
and
"Our
owes
Americancitizens.
greatness prosperity
future
country
28
see U.S. Conaredescribedin "Reportby... Braun. . . Feb. 12, 1907." Forstatistics,
Europeanimmigrants
51 Cong., 2 sess.,1891, S. Rept.
and Naturalization,
on Immigration
gress,Senate,ReportoftheSelectCommittee
AnnualReportoftheCommisthe49thParallel,42; TreasuryDepartment,
3472, vii, citedin Ramirez,Crossing
... 1902, 39.
ofImmigration
sioner-General
29 Treasury
. .. 1902, 40-41; U.S.
ofImmigration
AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
Department,
of
totheSecretary
ofImmigration
oftheCommissioner-General
DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReport
1909), 13.
and LaborfortheFiscalYearEndedJune
Commerce
30, 1909 (Washington,
70
History
ofAmerican
The Journal
June2002
citizensto wishto impedethe naturalmovementof suchvaluable
its naturalized
of societyto our shores,"Windomnoted.The nextyearWindommerely
members
borderillethenorthern
notedan increasein thenumberofEuropeanalienscrossing
In lateryears,
forincreasedborderinspection.
gallyand made a generalsuggestion
in govportrayed
werecommonly
crossing
theborderillegally
Europeanimmigrants
agentsin Europe"
"unfortunate
victimsofunscrupulous
ernment
reports
as "forlorn,"
in thebordermigration
scheme.In otherwords,
who weremisledand overcharged
werecominginviolationofthelaw,
via theborders
arriving
theEuropeanimmigrants
populationofEuropeanimmiacceptable
to thegenerally
buttheywerean exception
on
all
European
immigrants.30
not
a
reflection
They
were
as
a
whole.
grants
the threatof Chinese
officialscharacterized
On the otherhand, government
invatermsthatevokedan immigrant
alongtheborderin highlyracialized
migration
and castsuspicionand blameon the
to nationalsovereignty,
threats
sion,suggested
citizens"of
"naturalized
entirerace.The sameyearWindompraisedthe country's
attempts
termsofthe"organized
heritage,
he warnedin alarmist
Europeanimmigrant
... byChineselaborerstoforcetheirwayintotheUnitedStatesbywayofMexico,
was
BritishColumbia,and Canada." The nextyearhe warnedthatthedepartment
borof
Chinese
laborers
our
Canadian
along
to
withstand
the
influx
"unable...
great
thecommissioner-genSimilarly,
to invadeourterritory."
der.... Theyareat liberty
problemon the "difficulties
blamedthe borderenforcement
eral of immigration
oftheMongolianrace,"and theentriesofChinesethrough
inherent
in thecharacter
evasionofourlaws."'"
and systematic
as an "evil,constant
Mexicowerecharacterized
as "illegal"also contrasted
with
of Chineseimmigrants
sharply
The racialization
of Mexicanimmigrants
crossingtheU.S.-Mexicanbortreatment
thegovernment's
der.Comparedto theestimated17,000 Chinesewho enteredthecountryillegally
1.4 millionMexicansmigratedlargelyunrefrom1882 to 1920, approximately
argued
intotheUnitedStatesfrom1900 to 1930. Thoughsome nativists
stricted
in the1920swasjustas
thecountry
thatthelargeinfluxof"Mexicanpeons"entering
nativyears,before1924 anti-Mexican
as the"Chineseinvasion"ofearlier
dangerous
sentiment
targeting
in practice,than the anti-immigrant
ism workeddifferently,
as longAsians.Insteadofexcludablealiens,Mexicansweremoreoftencharacterized
to Mexicoafter
oras "birdsofpassage"whoreturned
oftheSouthwest
termresidents
was not whollyunregulated,
seasonended.32Mexicanimmigration
theagricultural
30 U.S. Treasury
forthe
on theStateoftheFinances
oftheTreasury
AnnualReportoftheSecretary
Department,
on
oftheTreasury
AnnualReportoftheSecretary
Department,
1891), lxxv;U.S. Treasury
Year1890 (Washington,
1891), lxii;DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,Annual
theYear1891 (Washington,
theStateoftheFinancesfor
... 1902, 40, 42.
ofImmigration
oftheCommissioner-General
Report
31 Treasury
... 1890, lxxvi.Emphasisadded.TreaoftheTreasury
AnnualReportoftheSecretary
Department,
of
. . 1891, lxiv-lxv.Emphasisadded.Department
oftheTreasury.
AnnualReportoftheSecretary
suryDepartment,
. .. 1902, 71. Emphasisadded.
ofImmigration
Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
"Reportby... Braun... Feb. 12, 1907."
becamecharac32 This would changedramatically
after1924. As Mae Ngai has shown,Mexicansincreasingly
MexicanAmerican,18-19. For the
Sanchez,Becoming
and "illegalimmigrants."
terizedas dangerousforeigners
see
of Race," 91. On nativismdirectedagainstMexicanimmigrants,
post-1924period,see Ngai, "Architecture
RussellBurnham,"The Howl forCheap MexicanLabor,"in TheAlienin Our Midst;or,SellingOur
Frederick
ed. Madison Grantand CharlesStewartDavison (New York,1930), 45, 48. On
fora MessofPottage,
Birthright
totheUnitedStates,1891-1931 (TucMexicansas "birdsofpassage,"see LawrenceCardoso,MexicanEmigration
withCanadaandMexico
attheBorders
Chinese
Exclusion
71
and "littleattention"
waspaid to Mexibutitdid existin a stateof"benignneglect,"
canswhocrossedtheborderintotheUnitedStates.Indeed,thoughtheimmigration
borderin 1903,
servicebeganto recordentriesand to inspectaliensat thesouthern
all.33
Mexicans
at
theprocedures
did notapplyto
relatedto theexpansion
treatment
aredirectly
The reasonsbehindthedifferential
of the southwestern
economyfromthe 1890s throughthe 1920s and the related
ofAsianand southernand eastern
needfora steadypool oflabor.The curtailment
through1924 made
in 1882 and continuing
laborbeginning
Europeanimmigrant
restrictions
directed
Mexicoa logicalsourcefornewlabor.Therewereimmigration
Actof 1917,whichimposeda literacy
againstMexicans,includingtheImmigration
but untilthelate 1920s,
head taxon Mexicanimmigrants,
testand an eight-dollar
in evadingthoserequirements.
werehighlysuccessful
companiesand agriculturalists
to avoidthe
allowedMexicanmigrants
at theborderalso consistently
U.S. officials
ofimmigratest.In 1905 HartHyattNorth,thecommissioner
headtaxand literacy
thatMexicansand Indianswere
tion in San Francisco,reportedmatter-of-factly
"crossing
at will"at Mexicaliand otherpointsalongthelinewithouteitherimmigrathegovernment's
tionor medicalinspection.
ButtheChinese,he warned,warranted
In theeyesofthegovernment
and thepublic,Chifulland "mostvigilant
attention."
ofconcerted
efforts
government
nesewerethe"illegals,"
and theybecamethetargets
in the Southwestduringthe
to controlillegalimmigration.
Americannewspapers
the
on "Chinesewetbacks"insteadof Mexicanones. In effect
early1900s reported
Chinese
bothto facilitate
Mexicanimmigration
and to restrict
borderwascontrolled
immigration.34
as thedangerous
Chineseand notEuropeanor Mexicanimmigration
Identifying
officials'
forimmigration
dealingswith
had directconsequences
illegalimmigration
blanketassociationofChiall Chineseimmigration.
The first
was thegovernment's
The merepresenceofChinesealongtheborderwas
neseimmigration
withillegality.
officials.
Chineseresidents
ofEl Paso,
to
enough raisesuspicionsamonggovernment
thattheywereroutinely
suspectedof
forexample,complainedto the government
The
with"undueharshness
and strictness."
andweretreated
beingillegalimmigrants
of Chinesein the northern
and southernborderregionsas illegal
categorization
Government
ofall Chineseimmigrants.
also led to thedehumanization
immigrants
themas "contraband,"
as iftheywerethesameas a banneddrugor
officials
described
to
referred
routinely
reports
Investigators'
productbeingsmuggledintothecountry.
thesubjectsoftheirinquiryas "thischink"or "thesetwochinks."The rewardsystem
to thosewho gaveinformation
leadingto the arrestof
offered
by the government
MexicanAmericans
20; and AbrahamHoffman,Unwanted
MexicanAmerican,
son, 1980), 22; Sanchez,Becoming
1929-1939 (Tucson,1974), 30-32.
Repatriation
in theGreatDepression:
Pressures,
33U.S. Immigration
InspectionalongtheU.S./MexicanBorder"
and Naturalization
Service,"EarlyImmigrant
(Feb. 15, 2002).
<http://www.ins.gov/graphics/aboutins/history/articles/mbtext2.htm>
34 Sanchez,Becoming
MexicanAmericans
in theGreatDepresMexicanAmerican,
19-20; Hoffman,Unwanted
Laborin theUnitedStates,1900-1940
sion,30-32; MarkReisler,BytheSweatofTheirBrow:MexicanImmigrant
Chi(Westport,1976) 8-13, 24-42; HartHyattNorthto FrankSargent,March9, 1905, file13618, Segregated
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
nese Records,ChineseGeneralCorrespondence,
365.
D.C.); Metz,Border,
72
History
TheJournal
ofAmerican
June2002
categorithedehumanizing
also reinforced
unlawfully
Chinesefoundin thecountry
In 1908 thegovernthanas individuals.
goods,rather
zationofChineseas smuggled
an establishedfee of "fivedollarsper
mentpaid G. W Edgar,a Seattlefarmer,
dollarsfor"fiftyor moreChinamen"in
Chinesehead" or two hundredand fifty
found
thatwouldlead to thearrestofChineseimmigrants
exchangeforinformation
ofChineseas illegalsgavethearguLast,thecategorization
in thecountry
illegally.35
evenmorepowerand legitimacy
and furthered
exclusionists
mentsof anti-Chinese
and now illegalimmigrants.
threatening,
theracialization
ofChineseas undesirable,
closingtheborder
theideologyand practiceofpolicing,eventually
It alsopermeated
of"Chinese"with"illegal"wasembedThat theconflation
to Chineseimmigration.
serviceestabclearwhentheimmigration
ded in borderpolicywas madeexplicitly
was to deal withillegal
whoseprimaryresponsibility
lisheda specialdepartment
aliens.ItsnamewastheChineseDivision.36
AmericanEmpireand BorderEnforcement
of Chineseas illegalimmiand institutionalized
Such sensationalist
categorizations
conceninAmericanimmigration
law.Primarily
graveweaknesses
grants
highlighted
tratingon immigrantentry throughthe seaports,United States restrictive
lackofcontroloveritsownland
largely
ignoredthecountry's
legislation
immigration
in 1924, thenation'simmigracommented
one
Border
Patrol
As
inspector
borders.
wallbetweenthem"
tionlawsprovided"lockeddoors,"buttherewasno "connecting
The UnitedStatesrespondedbydevisinga borderenforcedue to theopenborders.
borand controloverthenorthern
and southern
mentpolicyto assertitssovereignty
I
nation
The
was
within.
assertion, argue, partof
dersand to protecttheAmerican
ofcontrolto
Americanlaws,ideologies,
and systems
thelargerpracticeofextending
in thelatenineAmericanimperialism
a practicethatcharacterized
othercountries,
tradicenturies.
Indeed,theprocessofChineseexclusion,
teenthand earlytwentieth
of
or
spilled
tionallydefinedwithinthe confines domestic U.S.-Chineserelations,
policywere
overmanynationalboundaries.Borderanxietyand U.S. immigration
linkedto,and productsof,U.S. expansionism.37
directly
suggested,
If we understand
as MatthewFryeJacobsonhas recently
imperialism,
in
climes
.
.
.
and overt
of vestedinterest foreign
to encompassbotha "projection
itbecomesclearthatrestricting
Chineseimmigraofpoliticaldomination,"
practices
was inextricably
tied to the expansionof U.S.
tion via U.S. borderenforcement
35 For Chinesecomplaints
fromEl Paso,see Ng Poon Chew to Daniel Keefe,July30, 1910, folder1, box 3,
University
ofCalifornia,Berkeley).Fora description
Ng Poon Chew Collection(AsianAmericanStudiesLibrary,
Oct. 27, 1913, file
see F. H. Larned,"MemorandumfortheCommissioner-General,"
ofChineseas "contraband,"
D.C.). On
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
53371/2A,SubjectCorrespondence,
illegible]to BrotherLarned,April19, 1901, file52730/53,ibid. The
of "chinks,"see [signature
investigations
and G. W. Edgaris outlinedin Larnedto Inspectorin Charge,Seattle,Washbetweenthegovernment
agreement
ington,Oct. 26, 1908, file52214/1,partIV, ibid.
36 Perkins,
BorderPatrol,9.
37 MaryKidderRak,Border
seeAmyKaplan,"'LeftAlonewith
Patrol(Boston,1938), 1. On U.S. imperialism,
ed.
ofUnitedStatesImperialism,
America':The AbsenceofEmpirein theStudyofAmericanCulture,"in Cultures
AmyKaplanand Donald Pease (Durham,1993), 16-17.
attheBorders
withCanadaandMexico
Chinese
Exclusion
73
Chineseexclusionhad always
imperialism
fromitsinception.
At itsveryfoundation,
nationalsovereignty
thelanguageofAmerican
beenjustified
and articulated
through
American
nationbuildingand empirebuilding.U.S. immigraand self-preservation,
withthreatsto
tion law explicitly
equatedthreatsposed by Chineseimmigration
nationalsovereignty.
Two SupremeCourt cases, Chae Chan-pingv. UnitedStates
(1889) and FongYue Tingv. UnitedStates(1893), assertedthatthestateheld the
menaceofimmigration
as itdid to protect
samerights
and dutiesto curbtheforeign
its citizensin timeof war. Such SupremeCourt decisionsand domestic,federal
theAmerican
lawsas theChineseExclusionActof 1882 thusprotected
immigration
As theAmerican
ofAmericansovereignty.
nationwithinand servedas expressions
in
empireadvancedacrossthePacificOcean, colonizingHawaii and thePhilippines
ofAmericansovereignty
nativism
and assertions
1898, bothAmericananti-Chinese
all
followedtheflag.Aftertheannexationof Hawaii in 1898, Congressprohibited
In 1902
Hawaiianprotests.
ofChineseto theislandsdespitestrenuous
immigration
Chineseimmigration
thefinalChineseExclusionActincludeda sectionprohibiting
to thePhilippines
as well.In bothcasestheUnitedStatestooktheunusualstepof
prohibiting
the freemovementof certainpeoples withinthe empire,as Chinese
wereprohibited
fromentering
the
immigrants
alreadyin Hawaiiand thePhilippines
mainlandUnitedStates.Like the exportof capital,politics,religion,and culture,
and experiimmigration
lawsand immigration
controlthuscameto be understood
The "whiteman'sburden"
enced as a centralaspect of Americanimperialism.
involvednotonlyupliftand civilization
ofsavagepeoplesabroadbutalsoprotection
of Americansfromthe foreignmenacesplaguingthe mainlandUnitedStatesas
well.38
As thecasesof Canada and Mexicoillustrate,
theprojectionofAmericaninterests-in the formof anti-Chinese
beyondthe
nativismand legislation-extended
UnitedStatesand itsterritories.
rigidsetofChineseexcluThroughan increasingly
sionlaws,theUnitedStateshad protected
itselffromthemenaceof Chineseimmiofimmigration
vulnerable
becauseofthelaxsupervision
gration,
yetitstillremained
in Canada and Mexico.Increasingly,
theUnitedStatesbeganto assertits rightto
countries.
One immigration
extenditsimmigration
sovereign
agendato neighboring
official
at theborderbycitingthe"lawofself-preservation."
justified
toughmeasures
IfChineseillegalimmigration
Canadawas indeed"a threatagainstourvery
through
as the U.S. commissioner-general
of immigration
said in 1907, then
civilization,"
was a
theAmericanlegalreachintoa foreign
to controlthethreat
country
extending
theUnited
logicaloutcome.39
Thoughit couldcontrolitsnewlyannexedterritories,
38 MatthewFrye
Foreign
Peoplesat HomeandAbroad,
TheUnitedStatesEncounters
Jacobson,BarbarianVirtues:
v. UnitedStates,130 U.S. 606 (1889); FongYue
1876-1917 (New York,2000), 4, 6, 26-38, 93; Chae Chan-ping
Tingv. UnitedStates,149 U.S. 698 (1893). On theextensionofChineseexclusionto Hawaii and thePhilippines,
see Act ofJuly7, 1898, 30 Stat.750; Act ofApril30, 1900, 31 Stat. 141; and Wu Ting Fangto JohnHay,Dec.
12, 1898,NotesfromtheChineseLegationin theU.S. to DepartmentofState,1868-1906, RecordsoftheU.S.
to
Washington,
D.C.). The bestaccountofChineseimmigration
DepartmentofState,RG 59 (NationalArchives,
ChineseMigrantsin Hawaii (Honolulu, 1980). See also
and Settlers:
Hawaii is ClarenceE. Glick, Sojourners
in theHawaiianKingdom,1852-1886 (San Francisco,1975).
Movement
EdwardC. Lydon,TheAnti-Chinese
c. 1905, file52704/2,Subject
"Memorandum,"
39 "Reportby... Braun. . . Feb. 12, 1907"; FrankP. Sargent,
D.C.).
and Naturalization
ServiceRecords(Washington,
Immigration
Correspondence,
74
History
TheJournal
ofAmerican
June2002
agendaonto Canada and Mexico. Instead,
Statescould not forceits immigration
conofothermeasures
to extendU.S. immigration
U.S. officials
employeda variety
of its northern
and southernneighborsand to induceboth
trolinto the interiors
to cooperatewiththeUnitedStatesby adoptingcompatibleimmigration
countries
in modtwonewarmsofimperialism
laws.The UnitedStatesachievedthatthrough
and borderpolicing.
ernAmerica:borderdiplomacy
in theNorth
BorderDiplomacyand BorderEnforcement
the international
boundaryat
scholarswritethathistorically
Northernborderland
theforty-ninth
ignoredas bothpeopleand goods(legaland illeparallelwas largely
Afterborderdisputes
andwithoutinterference.
gal) crossedtheborderuninterrupted
the
century,
betweentheUnitedStatesand Canada wereresolvedin theeighteenth
Quebec),
or
in
the
case
of
(except
racial,linguistic
geographical,
lackof significant
barriers
betweentheAmericanand Canadianpopulationshelpedconstruct
religious
borderas "theworld'slongest
and reinforce
the notionof the Canadian-American
throughCanada does
border."The successof Chinesebordercrossings
undefended
thattheboundarylinewas nothingmorethanan
supporttheperception
partially
hassuggested
that
markin thelandscape.40
recentscholarship
Nevertheless,
arbitrary
a major
the Canadianborderwas not a raciallyneutralsiteand thatit underwent
in immigration
controlbythe1890s.41Indeed,Chineseimmigration
transformation
and
whichtheborderwasdemarcated
lensesthrough
and exclusionweretheprimary
policiesclashedwithAmericangoals of
racialized.BecauseCanada'simmigration
viewed
theUnitedStatesincreasingly
illegalentry,
Chineseexclusionand facilitated
and
and enforced.
Initiallyfrustrated
thenorthern
borderas a siteto be controlled
officialseventually
derisiveof Canada's immigration
policies,U.S. immigration
ofCanada and theUnitedStates
The mutualantipathy
turnedto borderdiplomacy.
betweenthetwo
amicablerelations
and thehistorically
towardChineseimmigration
controlofthenorthern
border.
and finally
countries
fostered
cooperation
task.The numberofinspecwas an inherently
difficult
Earlyborderenforcement
torswas too smallto monitorthelargeexpanseofland.As a result,one of thegovalongtheborder.
ernment's
first
wasto increasethenumberofinspectors
imperatives
bormostlyalongthenorthern
In 1902 thetotalforcenumbered
only66 inspectors,
der.The nextyear,thenumberhad increasedto 116, againmostlyalongtheU.S.seroftheimmigration
Canadianborder.By 1909,300 officers
and otheremployees
was
to workalongbothborders.Anothersourceof difficulty
vicewerecommitted
fromtheillegalimmigration.
They
benefited
thattoo manypeopleand institutions
from
the
head
whichcollectedtherevenue
itself,
includedtheCanadiangovernment
40
see JohnW. Bennettand Seena B.
of theU.S.-Canadianborderas open and undefended,
For descriptions
Building(Lincoln,
theCanadian-American
Kohl, Settling
West,1890-1915: PioneerAdaptationand Community
Border,"in Borderand Border
of theCanadian-American
1995), 13; RogerGibbins,"Meaningand Significance
Regions
in Europeand NorthAmerica,ed. Paul Gansteret al. (San Diego, 1997), 315-32; Ralph,"ChineseLeak,"
on PugetSound,"77-88.
521; and De Lorme,"UnitedStatesBureauofCustomsand Smuggling
41 SheilaMcManus,"TheirOwn Country:
Race, Gender,Landscape,and Colonizationaroundthe49th Parthe49thParallel,39.
73 (Spring1999), 168-82; Ramirez,Crossing
allel,1862-1900,"Agricultural
History,
withCanadaand Mexico
ChineseExclusionat theBorders
75
of increased
the repercussions
tax imposedon Chinesebut did not have to suffer
fromtheChinese
to itsshores.From1887 to 1891, revenues
Chineseimmigration
werebluntin
headtaxequaled$95,500 orabout$3,000 a month.Canadianofficials
thattheChinesecameto Canada "mainly
theiropinions.Theypubliclyrecognized
observer
explainedto an
As one prominent
acrosstheborder."
to smugglethemselves
You can'tstop
in 1891, "Theycomehereto enteryourcountry.
American
journalist
it,and we don'tcare."42
Canada to assist
pressuring
The U.S. government
turnedto threemainstrategies:
theChineseexclusionlaws,movingtheenforcement
theUnitedStatesin enforcing
whereChinese
ofimmigration
lawbeyondtheborderto theCanadianportsofentry
lawsthatwere
Canada to adoptChineseimmigration
entered,
and encouraging
first
thenewU.S. imperialreflected
withAmericangoals.All measures
morecompatible
overits bordersand markedthe extensionof
ist assertionof nationalsovereignty
The goal,as CommissionerAmerican
controlbeyonditsownterritory.
immigration
theborder
TerencePowderly
putitin 1901,wasto reinforce
GeneralofImmigration
that no one would be able to "crawl
to the point whereit was so "airtight"
through."43
firstsuggested
thatall portsof entryalongtheCanadianborderbe
U.S. officials
concededthatsuch a drastic
but theyreluctantly
closedto Chineseimmigration,
Instead,beginmeasurewouldinterfere
withfreetradebetweenthetwocountries.
law
beganto extendU.S. immigration
ningin 1894,theU.S. BureauofImmigration
The agreeand controlinto Canadianseaportsthroughthe CanadianAgreement.
and railcompaniesand
steamship,
ment,madebetweenall Canadiantransportation,
inspectors
ofimmigration,
allowedU.S. immigration
theU.S. commissioner-general
lawson arriving
steamships
and on Canadiansoilat speto enforce
U.S. immigration
of
to conductexaminations
borderpoints.Theywereinstructed
cifically
designated
arrivingin Canada in
all UnitedStates-boundAsian and Europeanimmigrants
of
as in theexaminations
exactlythe"samemanner"and withthe"sameobjectives"
wereissueda certifiall arrivals
at Americanseaports.Those who passedinspection
when enteringthe UnitedStates.
cate of admissionto presentto borderofficers
whowere
to Canadianrailwaycompanies,
Those who failedto do so werereturned
to Canada.44
theindividual
to return
required
42 Forstatistics
in 1902, see DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommison inspectors
for1909, see MarcusBraun,"How Can We EnforceOur
ofImmigration
... 1903, 46. Forstatistics
sioner-General
and SocialScience,34 (no. 2, 1909), 140-42. Ralph,
Academy
ofPolitical
ExclusionLaws?,"AnnalsoftheAmerican
"ChineseLeak,"516.
43 Vincent
1978), 182.
V Powderly,
(Washington,
MiddleClassReformer
J.Falzone,Terence
44 The agreement
companiesto becomesignato permitadditionaltransportation
severalrevisions
underwent
beganto placeinspectors
ofitsterms.At thesametime,theU.S. government
implementation
toriesand to perfect
and Victoriabeginningin
werestationedat Quebec, Montreal,Halifax,Vancouver,
alongtheborder.Inspectors
oftheComsee DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReport
to closetheborderentirely,
1895. On threats
see MarianL. Smith,"The
... 1904, 137. On theoriginalCanadianAgreement,
ofImmigration
missioner-General
Service(INS) at the U.S.-CanadianBorder,1893-1993: An Overviewof Issues
and Naturalization
Immigration
Sept. 7, 1893, file
and Topics,"MichiganHistoricalReview,26 (Fall 2000), 127-47; "Canadian Agreement,"
D.C.);
Immigration
and NationalizationServiceRecords(Washington,
51564/4A-B,SubjectCorrespondence,
totheSecretary
ofthe
ofImmigration
AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
and U.S. BureauofImmigration,
Treasury
for theFiscal YearEndedJune30, 1896 (Washington,1896), 13. For amendedversions,see Treasury
... 1902, 46-48; and "Digest of .
ofImmigration
AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
Department,
76
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June2002
The general1894 agreement
immigration
controlforboth
initiated
transnational
the
problem
of
Chineseillegal
Asianand Europeanimmigrants
alongtheborder,
but
Evenwiththe Canadian
officials.
immigration
continuedto vex U.S. immigration
thesamelevelofcontroloverChinese
Agreement,
theyremainedunableto establish
forChinesesailing
immigration
throughCanada thattheyhad institutionalized
to
the
on
Canadian
steamship
lines,for
UnitedStates.Chinesepassengers
directly
predeparture
physicalexaminaexample,werenotrequiredto undergotherigorous
tionsthatthoseboundfortheUnitedStatesweresubjectedto. Nor weretheyautofromreceiving
mailand visitors
while
matically
placedin detentionand prevented
in
U.S.
officials
awaitinginspectionas theircounterparts the UnitedStateswere.
Chineseto
believedthatsuchgapsin enforcement
madeit easierfornewlyarriving
With studyand practice,they
be coachedfortheirU.S. immigration
inspections.
designedto ferret
outfraudutheexhaustive
interrogations
couldmoreeasilysurvive
of
to
be
into
the
United
States.45
Thus,
because
Canaadmitted
lentclaims theright
fromU.S. procedures
of Chineseimmigration
remaineddifferent
dian regulation
fromfullycontrolling
"proband prevented
U.S. officials
theChineseimmigration
and drasticremedies.
beganto considermorespecific
lem,"theU.S. government
withofficials
of the
negotiateda new agreement
In 1903 Powderly
successfully
Canadian PacificRailwayCompany,which operatedboth the transcontinental
Canadianrailway
and themainlineofpassenger
and cargoshipsbetweenChinaand
thenew initiative
Canada. Unliketheearlier1894 agreement,
placedmoreborder
The agreement
firstrequiredtheCPR to
controlson Chineseimmigrants
exclusively.
on itssteamships
to determine
"as reasonably
examineall Chinesepersonstraveling
werein fact
claimingto be admissible
as itcan"thatUnitedStates-bound
passengers
in effect
to enterunderU.S. law.CPR officials
and enforce
entitled
agreedto interpret
all
to
Chinese
U.S. immigration
law.Second,thecompanyagreed deliver
passengers
to U.S. inspectors
staseekingadmissionintotheUnitedStatesunderguarddirectly
Vermont;
tionedat fourdesignatedportsalong the Canadian border(Richford,
Byhavingthe
Malone,New York;Portal,NorthDakota; and Sumas,Washington).
CPR handovertheChineseimmigrants
to theU.S. government
and byprodirectly
stations,the U.S. Bureauof
cessingthe Chineseat the designatedimmigration
moreclosely
ofChineseimmigrants
Immigration
wasableto controlthemovements
Chinese
and to mirrorthe rigidproceduresand detentionconditionsgoverning
atAmericanseaports.46
immigrants
to its
would be detrimental
Believingthatcompliancewithsuch an agreement
trans-Pacific
steamship
business,theCanadianPacificRailwayCompany
profitable
to agreeto the U.S. government's
was at firstreluctant
demands.Threatsthatthe
Reportof ... Braun... September20, 1907."
20, 1907," 30-34.
"4 "Digestof ... Reportof ... Braun... September
46 Department
... 1904,
ofImmigration
of Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
Annual
138; "Digestof ... Reportof ... Braun... September20, 1907," 29-30; U.S. TreasuryDepartment,
For theFiscal YearEndedJune30, 1901 (Washington,1901),
ofImmigration
ReportoftheCommissioner-General
ofFactsConcerning
the
oftheBureauofImmigration
Compilation
fromtheRecords
52; U.S. BureauofImmigration,
in Response
ofCommerce
and Labor,Submitting,
Laws:Letter
fromtheSecretary
Enforcement
oftheChinese-Exclusion
1906), 94.
Laws (Washington,
as totheEnforcement
oftheChinese-Exclusion
totheInquiryoftheHouse,a Report
withCanadaandMexico
Exclusion
attheBorders
Chinese
77
totheproposed
terms,
however,
entire
border
wouldbe closedunlesstheCPR agreed
itself
The Canadiangovernment
tosigntheagreement.
eventually
ledthecompany
and
butcertainly
consented
to itsterms
wasnota formal
partyto theagreement
over
between
thetwocountries
Relations
hadbeenstrained
meansofenforcement.
noted,was
The agreement,
American
officials
theissueof borderenforcement.
"from
theevilsofunreThe UnitedStatesgainedprotection
mutually
satisfactory.
from
"theextensive
benefits"
resulting
and Canadarealized
stricted
immigration,"
The 1903agreement
wasquitesucwithitssouthern
neighbor.
thelossoffriction
theimmigration
service
hadbeensigned,
cessful.
theagreement
Justoneyearafter
couldreportthat"no ChinesepersonfromChinacan entertheUnitedStates
At
to an examination
by Bureauofficers.
through
Canadawithoutsubmitting
bywayofCanada."With
arebuta fewChinese
coming
tothiscountry
present
there
theU.S. Bureauof Immigration
officials
applaudedtheir
thoseresults
achieved,
forusandforour
fortheir
offriendship
and"cordial
spirit
cooperation
counterparts
pointshad beenestablished
exclusion
By 1908,inlandborderinspection
policy."
toregulate
allcross-border
migration.47
acrosstheboundary
Canpolicyinthenorth
wasto"induce"
border
Another
explicit
goalofAmerican
tothoseoftheUnitedStates.
Agreements
with
lawssimilar
adatoadoptimmigration
wereeffective
butcouldonlyextend
U.S. concompanies
Canadiantransportation
trolto immigrants
fortheUnitedStates.Chineseincreasingly
whoweredestined
theborder
finaldestination
Canadaas their
andthencrossed
surreptitiously.
claimed
As a result,
officials
thattherelaxed
attitudes
toward
immigraAmerican
grumbled
oftheborders
to theUnitedStates.Fullcontrol
tionin Canadaweredetrimental
restrictive,
American
lawsmight
becomeincreasingly
efforts.
required
transnational
to
ofthetreasury
outin 1891,"Anylegislation
looking
pointed
butas thesecretary
Chiso longas theCanadiangovernment
admits
willfailofitsfullpurpose
exclude
theU.S.
neselaborers
to Canada."48
To remedy
thegapsin immigration
control,
in
in numerous
withitscounterpart
negotiations
engaged
BureauofImmigration
sentiment
andpersisanti-Chinese
and"patient
Canada.In 1903bothhomegrown
from
ofJustice
officers
tent"pressure
U.S. BureauofImmigration
andDepartment
from$100 to
itsheadtaxon Chineseimmigrants
motivated
Canadato increase
a strong
topotential
Chineseborder
deterrent
headtaxproved
$500.The increased
In 1912Canadaalsoagreed
toendthepractice
ofadmitting
Chineseimmicrossers.
iftheyhadalready
intotheUnitedStates.
intothecountry
beendeniedentry
grants
47 On threats
to closetheborder,see "Digestof... Reportof ... Braun... September20, 1907," 32. Immiin "Memorandumin re ProposedMexicanAgreeof theCanadianAgreement
grationofficials
citedthebenefits
of Immigration,
Jan. 15, 1908, file51463/B,Subject
ment"includedin Berkshireto Commissioner-General
and NaturalizationServiceRecords(Washington,D.C.); Departmentof ComImmigration
Correspondence,
ofImmigration
. .. 1904, 138; DepartmentofCommerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
ofImmigration
... 1906, 94; and Departmentof
merceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
.. 1911, 159-60. On inland
ofImmigration.
Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
and Naturalization
Service(INS) at theU.S.-CanadianBorder,"
borderinspection
points,see Smith,"Immigration
127-35.
used in "Reportby ... Braun... Feb. 12, 1907." On changesin immigrants'
"4 The term"induce"was first
and Naturalizaat theborder,see Zhang,"Dragonin theLand oftheEagle,"323; Smith,"Immigration
strategies
tionService(INS) at the U.S.-Canadian Border,"127-30. On theneed forfullercooperationfromCanada, see
oftheTreasury.
. . 1891, lxv.
AnnualReportoftheSecretary
Treasury
Department,
78
History
ofAmerican
TheJournal
June2002
of Chineseimmigraitsregulation
transformed
Finally,
in 1923, Canada drastically
abolished
Act
completely
The
1923
Exclusion
more
closely.
mirror
U.S.
law
tionto
all peopleof Chineseoriginor descent
thehead taxsystemand insteadprohibited
and
childrenbornin Canada,merchants,
fromentering
Canada. Consularofficials,
wereexempted.49
students
barrier
to Chitheeffective
Unlikeearlieracts,the1923 Canadianbillwas finally
had supported.Duringthenext
officials
neseexclusionthatAmericanimmigration
ChinesepersonswereadmittedintoCanada. The bill
years,onlyfifteen
twenty-four
ofChineseimmigration
into
regulation
wasrepealedin 1947. The reachofAmerican
That
Canada's
1923
exclusion
the
1923
bill.50
complete
with
was
thus
made
Canada
was no coinciof Chineseimmigration
law closelyresembledthe U.S. regulation
activists
withinthedominionand fromtheir
frombothanti-Chinese
dence.Pressure
ofAmericanand Canadianpolito thesouthresulted
in theconvergence
neighbors
in
on
a
towardChineseimmigration
antipathy
shared
cies.Borderdiplomacybased
and finally
closedtheborder
nationprovedeffective
defenseoftheAnglo-American
to Chineseimmigration.
in theSouth
BorderPolicingand BorderEnforcement
of successful
IncreasedChineseillegalentriesvia Mexicowerea directoutgrowth
in 1906 it
in thenorth.Much to theU.S. government's
chagrin,
borderenforcement
at everyturnalong
defeated
"havingbeenpractically
foundthatChineseimmigrants,
to theopportunities
theirattention
wereincreasingly
theCanadianfrontier,"
turning
the
border,
ofentry
via thesouthern
borderoftheUnitedStates.Unlikethenorthern
betweenthe
southern
borderhad alwaysbeenmarkedbyconquestand contestation
border"liketheone to thenorth,the
UnitedStatesand Mexico.No "'undefended'
U.S.-Mexicanborderhas been describedby the borderstudiesscholarGloria
as an "heridaabierta"(an openwound).Boundarydisputeslastedwellinto
Anzalduia
that
thesiteof activities
and theborderwas routinely
century,
theearlytwentieth
States:
and
the
Indian
banditry,
between
Mexico
United
raids,
the
tested relationship
Chineseimmigration
and exclusionintroactivities.
and revolutionary
smuggling,
conas theborderregionbecamethesiteofU.S. immigration
conflict
ducedfurther
troland enforcement.51
ch. 8, 1903 S.C. 105-11 (Can.); Departmentof
Chinese Immigration,
and Restricting
49 Act Respecting
... 1904, 138. On CanadianofImmigration
Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
ofImmigration,
July16, 1912,
see,forexample,JohnH. Clarkto U.S. Commissioner-General
U.S. negotiations,
D.C.).
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
file51931/21,SubjectCorrespondence,
The Law and Its
ActofJune30, 1923, ch. 38, 1923 S.C. 301-15 (Can.); H. F. Angus,"CanadianImmigration:
ed. NormanMacKenzie(New York,1937), 63in PacificCountries,
in TheLegalStatusofAliens
Administration,"
64.
in BritishColumbia
50 PeterWard,WhiteCanada Forever:
and PublicPolicytowardOrientals
PopularAttitudes
and BritishColum(Montreal,1978), 133; RobertE. Wynne,"Reactionto theChinesein thePacificNorthwest
ofWashington,
1964), 483.
bia, 1850-1910" (Ph.D. diss.,University
the
51 Bureauof Immigration,
ofFactsConcerning
oftheBureauofImmigration
fromtheRecords
Compilation
ReflectionsLaws,12-33; LaurenMcKinseyand VictorKonrad,Borderlands
oftheChinese-Exclusion
Enforcement
3; Linda B. Hall and Don M. Coerver,
theUnitedStatesand Canada (Toronto,1989), iii;Anzaldu'a,Borderlands,
Revolution
on theBorder:The UnitedStatesand Mexico,1910-1920 (Albuquerque,1988), 7.
withCanadaandMexico
attheBorders
Chinese
Exclusion
79
borderdid, Chinese
and exclusionalongthe northern
As Chineseimmigration
ofnational
Mexicosetin motionan Americanassertion
through
illegalimmigration
immigration
laws,and
throughthe impositionof Americannativism,
sovereignty
practices
alongtheborderand in Mexico.However,due to thedifferent
enforcement
between
goalsin theUnitedStatesand Mexicoand thetenserelations
immigration
withthe
in thesouthcontrasted
them,theformand contentofborderenforcement
border.UnlikeCanada,Mexicodid nothaveextensive
practices
alongthenorthern
laws aimedat Chineseor otherimmigrants.
or consistently
enforcedimmigration
and in
of aliensentering
thecountry,
Mexicoalso did not requireanyexamination
notrestrict,
labor.Although
policiesweredesignedto recruit,
generalitsimmigration
theyplayeda vitalrolein theeconofperiodicracialhostility,
Chineseweretargets
in Mexicobeneoperating
omyfromwhichbothMexicanandAmericanbusinesses
orextenditsownimmigration
fited.The UnitedStatescouldnotsimply"piggyback"
in Mexicoas ithad in Canada.52
framework
policiesontoan alreadyexisting
eventually
compliedwithU.S. immigration
thoughCanadianofficials
Moreover,
Mexicanofficials
weremorereluctant
to do so. In 1907 the
law and prerogatives,
Porfirio
Diaz in thehopehe
initialtalkswithPresident
U.S. government
undertook
enteringthrough
would allow moreAmericancontroloverChineseimmigration
to Diaz thatit
MarcusBraunreported
Mexico.The Americanimmigrant
inspector
an agreement
similarto theCanaoftheUnitedStatesto institute
was theintention
madewithCanadiantransportation
dianAgreement
companies.As in Canada,the
in Mexico.President
Diaz
UnitedStateswanteddirectcontroloverChinesearrivals
wouldresultin a
controloverChineseimmigration
concernthatAmerican
expressed
lossofvaluablelaborneededin Mexico.53
U.S. efforts
to trackChineseimmigrants
Mexicanofficials
alsoresisted
Lower-level
over
in El Paso triedto sendinspectors
fromMexico.In 1907 U.S. officers
entering
to
to Ciudad Juairez
everyday to meetthe incomingtrains.They wereinstructed
so thattheymightbe able to
"takea good look at everyChinamanwho arrived,"
himin case he shouldlaterbe caughtin theUnitedStates.As one official
identify
of Chinesein Mexicohad to be abanthesurveillance
reportedin 1907, however,
if
"threatened
witharrest
in CiudadJuairez
ourofficers
donedbecausetheauthorities
MexiofanyChinamento comethrough."
or descriptions
theyshouldtakepictures
to assistAmericanimmigraalsoshowedlittleinclination
officials
can transportation
in thequestto barillegalChineseentries.One meetingwithan agent
tionofficials
this clearly.When
forthe Mexico-CanadianSteamshipCompanydemonstrated
thathis nextshipwould carry
remarked
askedto cooperate,the agentreportedly
about300 Chineseas farnorthas Guaymas."Forall I knowtheymaysmuggleinto
theUnitedStatesand iftheydo I do not givea d-n, forI am doinga legitimate
52
of Immigration,
June
"Reportby ... Braun... Feb. 12, 1907"; MarcusBraunto Commissioner-General
ServiceRecords(WashingImmigration
and Naturalization
10, 1907, file52320/1-A,SubjectCorrespondence,
Pioneers:The ChineseofMexicoand Peru,1849-1930,"
ton,D.C.); EvelynHu-DeHart,"Coolies,Shopkeepers,
Persecution
in Sonora,MexAmerasia
Journal,15 (no. 1, 1989), 92-98; Hu-DeHart,"Racismand Anti-Chinese
ico," 16.
53 Braunto Commissioner-General
June10, 1907, file52320/1-A,SubjectCorrespondence,
of Immigration,
D.C.).
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
80
History
TheJournalofAmerican
June2002
seemto havebeenmoresuccessful,
officials
business."After1910 U.S. immigration
in Mexicoas theywerein Canjurisdiction
althoughtheywerenot grantedofficial
ada.54
Mexicancooperaat theturnofthecentury,
interactions
Likeothercross-border
at
and inconsistent
was thusambivalent
officials
tionwithAmericanimmigration
to Mexico'sownlabor
wereseenas a threat
goalsofChineseexclusion
best.American
and thetransporneeds,and itwas simplyunclearto boththeMexicangovernment
was to be gainedbyallowingAmericanimmigration
tationcompanieswhatbenefit
Moreover,
Mexicanrelucto exerciseso muchpowerwithintheircountry.
officials
Americanpresence
tancemayhavebeentiedto largerconcernsabouttheincreased
ofthetwentieth
and thebeginning
in thecountry
overall.The endofthenineteenth
into
Americaneconomicpenetration
a periodof increasing
centuriesconstituted
activities
stateof Sonora.Mexicanstate-building
in thenorthern
Mexico,especially
economybenefited
themes.Althoughthetransnational
alsoplayedup anti-American
and exclusionsoon
bothregions,borderrelations-ofwhichChineseimmigration
becamea part-embodiedthisambivalence.55
to theU.S.
challenges
thuspresented
verydifferent
Southernborderenforcement
did and led to an alternate
servicethan its northerncounterpart
immigration
theU.S. Bureauof
approach.Insteadof usingborderdiplomacyand cooperation,
throughpolicing
closedthesouthernborderto Chineseimmigration
Immigration
at theborderwerechargedwiththemissionof
officials
Immigration
and deterrence.
thosecaughtin the
illegalentriesin thefirstplace and of apprehending
preventing
system
To accomplish
this,theyimposeda three-pronged
theborder.56
actofcrossing
withinMexicoand theUnitedStates,patrolsat theboroftransnational
surveillance
ofChinesealreadyin theUnitedStates.
and deportations
der,and raids,arrests,
in Mexicoinvolved
a largeinformal
andformal
ofChineseimmigrants
Surveillance
and Mexican,
trainconductors,
consularofficials,
officers,
networkof immigration
warned
routinely
Americandiplomaticofficers
Indian,and Americaninformants.
in
on theothersideoftheborderofnewChinesearrivals
officials
U.S. immigration
camefromClarenceA. Miller,stationedat Matamoros,
Mexico.A typicaltelegram
ofan upcoming"floodon theMexicanside"in November1909 and urging
warning
Government
surofficers
to "keepup theirvigilanceto a highpoint."57
immigration
investiin Mexicoalsoinvolved
elaborate
undercover
veillanceofChineseimmigrants
... 1907,
ofImmigration
of Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
54 Department
Immigration
112; R. L. Pruettto Braun,May 11, 1902, file52320/1-A,Exhibit"B," SubjectCorrespondence,
D.C.). For thepost-1910period,see Delgado, "In theAge of
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Exclusion,"241-42, 250-52.
55 "Memorandumin re ProposedMexicanAgreement";
Miguel TinkerSalas, In theShadowof theEagles:
(Berkeley,
1997), 16, 161; Hall and Coerver,RevoftheBorderduringthePorfiriato
Sonoraand theTransformation
11, 15; Delgado, "In theAge ofExclusion,"241-42, 250-52.
olutionon theBorder,
... 1909,
56 Department
of Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
ofImmigration
142.
... 1907,
ofImmigration
of Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
57 Department
ImmiEl Paso,Texas,Nov. 26, 1909, file52265/6,SubjectCorrespondence,
Inspector,
130; Keefeto Supervising
ofImmigrato Commissioner-General
D.C.); Berkshire
ServiceRecords(Washington,
grationand Naturalization
of State,Oct. 11, 1909, file
tion,Feb. 15, 1910, file52142/6,ibid.; ClarenceA. Millerto AssistantSecretary
52265/6,ibid.
withCanadaandMexico
attheBorders
Chinese
Exclusion
81
inspectorMarcus
serviceagents.The immigrant
gationsby specialimmigration
a "SecretService
firstsuggested
theMexicanbordersituation,
Braun,who surveyed
Squad" chargedwithwatchingtheChinesein Mexicoin 1907. By 1910 theimmiin
FrankR. Stone,praisedas "oneofthebestcriminalinvestigators"
grantinspector
the Chinese
to investigate
as a smuggler
service,wentundercover
theimmigration
operationsin El Paso. Stoneuneartheda wealthof evidence,includingfraudulent
of residence(thatis, greencards)thatChinesein theUnitedStates
U.S. certificates
sealsof
wererequiredto holdunderthe 1892 GearyAct.He also foundcounterfeit
DisandjudgesoftheU.S. DistrictCourtfortheNorthern
officials
twoimmigration
in twelveindictments
forconspiracy:
resulted
Stone'sinvestigation
trictofCalifornia.
threeagainst
of theoperation,
and masterminds
fouragainsttheChineseprincipals
who wereknownfortheirabilityto fordtheRio Grande,one
Mexican"river-men"
holdingfraudulent
and fouragainstChineseimmigrants
againsta Mexicandriver,
thefourChineseleaders(in one
Stonewas also able to photograph
U.S. documents.
theexactlocationswhereimmigrants
posedwiththesuspects),
photo,Stonehimself
and the adobe
documents,
immigration
usuallycrossedthe border,the fraudulent
and
in theearly1900s,Mexicaninformants
hutsthatservedas safehouses.Beginning
of Chineseimmigrants
trackedthemovements
witnesses
also regularly
government
The photographs
ofpotentialbordercrossers.
withinMexicobytakingphotographs
at Tucson,Arizona,to be usedto identify
offices
werethensentto theimmigration
Mexico.58
passedthrough
Chineseas oneswhohadrecently
newlyarrived
workalongtheMexicanborderlayin thedetection
The burdenof enforcement
ofthosewhoassistedin their
of"contraband
Chinese"and theprosecution
and arrest
on
borderwerecentered
to controlthesouthern
The earliest
attempts
unlawful
entry.
a muchcloserpatrol,
alongtheborder"maintaining
an increased
numberofofficers
ofChinesefound
vigorouspolicywithregardto thearrest
nightand day"and a "very
theborderwas inherin violationofthelaw."The goalofpatrolling
in thiscountry
oflandto be coveredas wellas thepaucityof
becauseofthemagnitude
entlydifficult
of immigrato patrolit.As Brauncomplainedto thecommissioner-general
officers
and mountaintrails
highways,
tionin 1907, all therivers,
carriageroads,pathways,
line,all
neededto be patrolled."Thereis a broadexpanseoflandwithan imaginary
passable,all beingused,all leadingintotheUnitedStates.The vigilanceofyourofficersstationedalong the borderis alwayskeen;but whatcan a handfulof people
do?"59
inspecserviceincreasedthenumberof immigrant
In response,
theimmigration
in
in thesouthwas Jeff
Milton,who 1887
torseveryyear.The firstpatrolofficer
resignedfromtheTexas Rangersand becamea mountedinspectorwiththe U.S.
CustomsServicein El Paso.In theearly1900s,Miltonwashiredbytheimmigration
His primary
duty
borderguardin theEl Paso district.
serviceas a U.S. immigration
58 "Reportby ... Braun... Feb. 12, 1907"; FrankR. Stoneto Berkshire,
April23, 1910, file52801/4A,Subto CornD.C.); Berkshire
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
ject Correspondence,
BorderPatrol,11, 23.
May 7, 1910, ibid.;Perkins,
ofImmigration,
missioner-General
59 Department
... 1906,
ofImmigration
of Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
June10, 1907, file52320/1-A,SubjectCorrespondence,
of Immigration,
95; Braunto Commissioner-General
D.C.).
ServiceRecords(Washington,
and Naturalization
Immigration
82
The Journalof AmericanHistory
..__
......... ......0.......
June2002
.
In October 1908 the undercover
government
agentFrankR. Stone reportedthe arrestof
to sneakacrossthe southernborderconcealedin
eighteenChineseimmigrants
attempting
thisTexasand Pacificfreight
car.Chineseillegalimmigration
acrossthenorthern
and southernbordershad setin motionnewU.S. borderenforcement
and policingpoliciesand procesearchof all railcarsfromMexico to the United States.
dures,includingthe systematic
#52212/2.
NationalArchives,
Courtesy
wasto "cprevent
thesmuggling
ofChinesefromMexicointotheUnitedStates."With
a territory
thevaststretches
ofborderfromEl Paso to theColoradoRiver,
covering
he was knownas the "one-manBorderPatrol."By 1904 therewerean estimated
theborderforillegalChineseentrants.
The soeightymountedinspectors
patrolling
called"lineriders"of theCustomsServicecontinuedto "pickup anysuspectsthey
raninto,"and Miltonexpandedthescopeof hisjob to "pickup Hindusand Japanese")as well. In 1908 the specialChineseDivisionwas establishedin the U.S.
whichtookovertheresponsibility
fordealingwithillegal
Bureauof Immigration,
From1907 to 1909,2,492 Chinese
aliens,includingtheworkofthepatrolofficers.
werearrested
forillegalentryalongtheMexicanborder.6
byU.S. officials
borderpatrol,theinspectors
couldnotcatcheveryChiDespitethestrengthened
to enterthecountry
neseattempting
it
thatled to
was
thisinability
Indeed,
illegally.
' JohnM. Myers,TheBorderWardens
(EnglewoodCliffs,1971), 16-17, 23; Rak,BorderPatrol,6; Perkins,
BorderPatrol,xii,9; "The U.S. BorderPatrol:The FirstFifty
Years,"I e6N Reporter
(Summer1974), 3; Immigrationand Naturalization
Service,"EarlyImmigration
InspectionalongtheU.S./MexicanBorder";Zhang,"Dragon
in theLand oftheEagle,"372.
withCanadaandMexico
attheBorders
Chinese
Exclusion
83
borderpolicy:
ofthegovernment's
and practiceof thethirdfeature
theformulation
citiesandregionsoftheUnitedStates
intotheinterior
borderenforcement
extending
of suspected
and deportations
a "vigorouspolicy"of raids,arrests,
and instituting
Frank Sargent
"Let it be known," Commissioner-General
illegal immigrants.
as in thepast,
willnotafford,
settledcitydistricts
declaredin 1906,"thateventhickly
enter."By 1909 a systemof interior
a safe harborforthosewho clandestinely
of the serviceweredirected
was in place,and manyof the activities
enforcement
serviceassigned
aliens."The immigration
ofundesirable
thecountry
toward"ridding
to findand arrestChinese
specialagents,commonlyknownas "Chinesecatchers,"
were
and deportations
in thecountry.
Thosewithhighrecordsofarrests
unlawfully
to
their
spread
the
country
throughout
in
and
transferred
"celebrated" thelocalpress
The ChineseinspectorCharlesMehan,forexample,beganhis careerin
expertise.
portof entryforChiSan Francisco,
whichwas widelyknownas themostdifficult
of Chineseexclusionforhis
nese.Recognizedwithintheserviceand bysupporters
oftheChineseexclusionlaws,Mehan
enforcement
and energetic
rigidinterrogations
in thenewspapers
and was
Chinesecatchers"
was called"oneofthemostcelebrated
from
to El Paso to deal withthe problemof Chinesebordercrossings
transferred
to Canada.61
Mexico.In 1899 he wastransferred
illein stemming
provedsuccessful
policing,and deportation
Bordersurveillance,
gal ChineseborderentriesfromMexico. The numbersof Chinesearrestedand
In 1899 theratioof
in theUnitedStatesincreased.
residence
deportedforunlawful
Chineseadmittedto Chinesedeportedwas 100:4. By 1904 theratiowas 100:61.62
In 1907 the borderstateswere
also becamemorecentralized.
Borderenforcement
Arizona,
intotheMexicanBorderDistrict,containing
consolidated
and reorganized
theimportance
of ChineseimmiNew Mexico,and mostofTexas.Demonstrating
thefirst
commissioner
hiredto mangrationin shapinggeneralborderenforcement,
all
District
immigration
foreign
the
new
Mexican
Border
(which
supervised
age
who had overseenthe Chineseservice
acrossthe border)was FrankW Berkshire,
borderand in New YorkCity.63
alongtheNew York-Canadian
antiin Mexico,includingrevolution
and increasing
At thesametime,conditions
to Chineseimmigration.
By 1911 the
Chinesesentiment,
placedadditionalbarriers
Immigrathatitwas "nolongeractinguponthedefensive."
borderdivisionreported
at entry
alsoobserved
thatbyWorldWarI, a declinein Chineseattempts
tionofficials
itsChineseinspecserviceto transfer
borderled theimmigration
alongthesouthern
In 1917 Congressprovidedthatalienswho enteredthe
torsawayfromtheregion.64
61 Department
... 1906,
ofImmigration
of Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
. . . 1909,
ofImmigration
95; Departmentof Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
ImmiEl PasoHerald,June27, 1899, in box 8, ChineseGeneralCorrespondence,
132; "New ChineseInspector,"
D.C.).
ServiceRecords(Washington,
grationand Naturalization
Theydo notincludeimmi62 Here deportation
figures
applyto thosefoundto be in thecountryunlawfully.
grantsdeniedentryupon arrival.Departmentof Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-Gen. . 1904, 148.
eralofImmigration.
63 Immigration
InspectionalongtheU.S./MexicanBorder."
Service,"EarlyImmigration
and Naturalization
64 The commissioner-general
to curbChineseillegal
reportedthatsouthernborderstrategies
of immigration
wereyieldingresultsas earlyas 1905. Departmentof Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportofthe
immigration
. . . 1905, 94. On theborderconditionsin 1911 and duringWorldWar I,
ofImmigration
Commissioner-General
84
History
TheJournal
ofAmerican
June2002
countryby land fromplacesotherthanthosedesignedas portsof entryor who
theborders
had done)couldbe
entered
withoutinspection
(as manyChinesecrossing
By 1926 thecommistakenintocustodyand deportedwithoutanylegalprocedure.
of Chineseovertheland
sioner-general
ofimmigration
declaredthat"thesmuggling
whichwasa vexatious
reduced."65
boundaries,
problemin thepast,hasbeengreatly
Conclusion
Different
Chineseimmigration
goalsand policiesin theUnitedStates,Canada,and
as
Mexicoas well different
betweentheUnitedStatesand itsneighbors
relationships
borderwas evenled to theevolutionofdistinct
borderpolicies.Whilethenorthern
tuallyclosed throughU.S.-Canadianborderdiplomacyand a mutualantipathy
borderenforcement
policiesweretheproduct
towardChineseimmigration,
southern
ofconflicting
Chineseimmigration
policiesin theUnitedStatesand Mexicoas well
as inconsistent
Borderdiplomacythusgave
cooperation
betweenthetwocountries.
wayto borderpolicingdesignedto deterand apprehendillegalChineseimmigrants
alreadyat theborderand withintheUnitedStates.Bythe 1920s,boththenorthern
closedto Chineseimmigration.
WhileChinese
and southern
borders
wereeffectively
thelevelof attention
borderentriesdid not completely
end,theyceasedto warrant
withintheimmigration
servicethattheyhadat theturnofthecentury.
and response
and exclusionalongtheU.S.From1882 to 1924,however,
Chineseimmigration
immigration
policy,theborder
CanadianandU.S.-Mexicanborders
had transformed
as perChineseimmigrants-racialized
region,and Americanborderenforcement.
thefirstgroupin thecountrymarkedas "illegalimmipetualforeigners-became
first
withillegal
The U.S. BureauofImmigration's
divisionto dealprimarily
grants."
immigration
was,afterall, calledtheChineseDivision,making"Chinese"synonymouswith"illegal"in thesameway "Mexican"is racializednow.Indeed,Chinese
and southern
bordersappearsto have
immigration
and exclusionalongthenorthern
trialrunfortheU.S. BureauofImmigration's
muchlargerefforts
beenan important
of
to controlMexicanimmigration
in lateryears.In both cases,the racialization
has been centralto the ideological,
politicaldiscourseand policyon immigration
ofnationalmembership
and nationalidentity.
legal,and politicaldefinitions
In thewakeof increasedillegalimmigration
fromMexicosincethe 1970s,attitudesand responses
to illegalimmigration
byboththeAmerican
publicand theU.S.
fromtheChineseexclusionera.
echo earlierresponsesand sentiments
government
borderenforceofwar,forexample,arecommonly
usedin contemporary
Metaphors
mentdiscourseas theywereat theend of thenineteenth
century.
Words,phrases,
suchas "invasion,"
and "saveourstate"have
and evenpoliticalinitiatives
"conquest,"
a highlyracialized
been consistently
deployedby xenophobesand others,revealing
. . . 1911,
ofImmigration
see Departmentof Commerceand Labor,AnnualReportoftheCommissioner-General
146; and Perkins,BorderPatrol 49. On conditionsin Mexico thatdiminishedChineseillegalimmigration,
see
Salas,In theShadowoftheEagles,171.
65 Act of Feb. 5, 1917, sec. 19, 39 Stat.889; Zhang,"Dragonin theLand of theEagle,"375-76; R. D. McandJudicialDecisionsuponthe
ofAmerican
Immigration
Laws,Regulations,
Kenzie,OrientalExclusion:TheEffect
on theAmerican
PacificCoast(Chicago,1927), 158.
ChineseandJapanese
withCanadaandMexico
attheBorders
Exclusion
Chinese
85
Much as "John
illegalimmigration.
especially
on thenew immigration,
perspective
werethedominantpublicimageof theillegalimmiChinamanand hissmugglers"
fromMexico
immigrants
grantduringthe Chineseexclusionera,undocumented
and publicconcernat theend of
becamethenearlyexclusivefocusof government
century.66
thetwentieth
existas well.The Chineseexclusionlawsmayhavelaid the
differences
Significant
in thelatenineteenth
beginning
ofU.S. bordercontroland enforcement
foundations
pale in comparisonwithrecentcampaignsto
but thoseearlystateefforts
century,
firstattemptsto enforcethe
In particular,
the government's
controlimmigration.
expoduringtheChineseexclusionerahaveincreased
borders
northern
andsouthern
zone designedto deter
theU.S.-Mexicanborderintoa militarized
turning
nentially,
the
and "lineriders,"
at anycost.Insteadof "Chinesecatchers"
illegalimmigration
in theformof nightscopes,motionsensors,and
relieson surveillance
government
triplefenceon the
communications
equipmentas wellas jeepsand a fourteen-mile
manU.S.-MexicanbordersouthofSan Diego. Withnewlyhiredborderinspectors
largestpolice
datedby Congress,theBorderPatrolbecameone ofthegovernment's
spends$2 billiona yearto
agenciesin thelate 1990s. The UnitedStatescurrently
DuringtheChinese
of
the
border.
patrol
a
twenty-four-hour
walls
and
manage
build
thelinewasaround80.
patrolling
exclusionera,thenumberof"mountedinspectors"
In 2001, theBorderPatrolhad 9,400 agents.67
11, 2001,
attackson theUnitedStateson September
In thewakeof theterrorist
policiesand bordercontrolhavebeenpushedto
immigration
issuesoftransnational
of U.S. and international
policy.Severalofthesuspectedhijackers
theveryforefront
thatcrashedintotheWorldTradeCenter
flights
whotookcontrolofthecommercial
D.C., spenttimein Canada and
in New YorkCityand thePentagonin Washington,
the
In the monthsfollowing
the
north.
States
from
the
United
entered
allegedly
espeattacks,policymakershaverenewedtheirfocuson increasedbordersecurity,
lax Chineseimmiborder.LikecriticsofCanada'sallegedly
ciallyalongthenorthern
blameCanada
Americanpoliticians
grationpoliciesduringthe1890s,contemporary
applyforasylum,travel
to enterwithfalseor no passports,
forallowingforeigners
arependwhiletheirasylumapplications
and raisefundsforpoliticalactivities
freely,
ing.Canada'sopen doors,it is argued,increasetheriskto Americannationalsecuof Arabsand Muslimsas "terrorists"
Likewise,the racializedcategorization
rity.68
of Chineseand laterMexicansas
characterizations
of
racialized
the
heels
followson
66 JuanPerea,Immigrants
Impulsein theUnitedStates(New
Out! TheNew Nativismand theAnti-Immigrant
Laws,and DomesticRace Relations:A 'Magic MirYork,1997), 73; KevinR. Johnson,"Race,theImmigration
"Reading
73 (Fall 1998), 1137; Claudia Sadowski-Smith,
ror'intotheHeartof Darkness,"IndianaLaw Journal,
at Land Borders,"in Globalizationon the
acrossDiaspora: Chineseand MexicanUndocumentedImmigration
(New York,forthcoming).
ed. Claudia Sadowski-Smith
at U.S. Borders,
Line: Culture,Capital,and Citizenship
Overhaul,"Migration
67 Washington
Post,Oct. 1, 1996, p. Al; ibid.,April5, 1996, p. A17; "Immigration
(Feb. 15, 2002); New
1996-Olmn.html>
News,3 (Oct. 1996) <http://migration.ucdavis.edu/mn/archivemn/oct
YorkTimes,May 27, 2001, p. A14.
Sept. 26, 2001, p. 9; New YorkTimes,Oct. 1, 2001, p. B3; Dennis Bueckert,"Canadian
68 ChicagoTribune,
Oct. 3, 2001, Canadian PressNewswire,available
Called intoQuestionin FightagainstTerrorism,"
Sovereignty
AcademicUniverse;NationalPost(Toronto),Oct. 4, 2001, pp. Al, Al5; New YorkTimes,Oct. 4,
at Lexis-Nexis
2001, p. Bl; SeattleTimes,Oct. 10, 2001, p. Al.
History
ofAmerican
TheJournal
86
June2002
alsoechoearlier
bordersecurity
forincreased
Recentsuggestions
"illegalimmigrants."
cenduringtheChineseexclusionera.In theearlytwentieth
firstarticulated
efforts
officials
soughtto induceCanada to adoptChineseimmigraU.S. government
tury,
of 2001, Paul
U.S. laws.In lateSeptember
tionpoliciesthatmorecloselymirrored
to
to Canada,publiclycalledforCanada "harmonize
Cellucci,theU.S. ambassador
GeorgeW. Bush
policieswiththoseof the UnitedStates."President
its [refugee]
inwhichtransnational
perimeter"
security
sketched
outa visionofa "NorthAmerican
As of thiswriting,
thereis littleagreement
wouldbe central.69
controls
immigration
wouldmean.Nor is it clearhow U.S. and North
on whatsucha "harmonization"
Americanborderpoliciesmightchange.Whatis certainis thatin theUnitedStates'
poliand immigration
borderenforcement
transnational
"newwar"againstterrorism,
remaincentralissuesfacingthe UnitedStates,Canada, and
cies will undoubtedly
Mexicoin thetwenty-first
century,
justas theywereoverone hundredyearsago.
69
NationalPost(Toronto),Oct. 1, 2001, p. Al0.