Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
Land Preparation: An Integral Part of Farming
Systems in the Mid-Hills of Nepal
R. M . Bajracharya
Faculty of Science, Kathmandu UniversiQ Dhulikhel, K a b h ~
Received December 2000; accepredAugust 2001
Abstract
Land preparation is an integral and, as yet, indispensable component of the farmingpractices followed by inhabitants
of the middle hills of Nepal. Most farmers continue to follow age-old traditional soil tillage practices using
locally fabricated ploughs and hand implements. Farming in the mid-hills involves a huge labour investment due in
part to the nature of the land and part to the lagely manual methods used by the 'fanners. Recent years have seen
substantial increases in land-use intensification in the agricultural sector throughout the mid-hill areas of
Nepal. Such intensification is mainly in the form of increased off-season vegetable and horticultural
production. The development and adoption of new technologies for increased labour eficiency, reduced costs, and
minimised soil tillage and exposure to erosion are required to ensure the sustainability of farming in the middle hills
of Nepal. An integrated approach involving soil and water conservation practices, as well as, diversified, carefully
managed cropping, soil fertility, organic matter; and weedfpest control systems are needed. This paper provides a
preliminary review of existing traditional practices and innovative techniques for land preparation in the mid-hills
of Nepal.
Key words: Soil tillage, Sustainable agriculture, Erosion, Land use intensification, Indigenoa practices
Introduction
Resource poor hill farmers of the mid-hills of Nepal
rely mainly on manual and animal draught
techniques for agricultural land preparation. Soil
tillage or land preparation of some form is an
essential part of low-input hill farming serving to
facilitate a variety of functions including water and
weed management, pest control, seed-soil contact
and seedling germination and establishment. While
reduced and minimum tillage alternatives are
desirable from an environmental and soil
conservation point of view, particularly on sloping
lands, their practicability and adoption under the
socio-cultural and economic conditions of the midhills, however, remains to be seen. This paper
provides a preliminary review of existing traditional
practices and innovative techniques for land
preparation in the mid-hills of Nepal.
Most hill farmers still follow age-old
traditional soil tillage practices using locally
fabricated ploughs and hand implements. Only
subtle variations in these practices can be found in
different parts of the country. The vast majority of
hill farmers have not adopted many new practices
due to a variety of reasons, the most important of
which include geographical, economic, financial,
risk-avoidance, and socio-cultural factors. Most
subsistence-level farmers who struggle to merely
grow enough for survival naturally seek to avoid
any changes that involve the risk of yield reduction
or crop failure. The practices used are often
intended to maximise yields over the short-run and
minimise the risk of crop failure.
The rugged terrain and steep slopes that exist
throughout the Nepal mid-hills severely limit the
options available to farmers, and restrict the
development of modem, mechanised technologies
for farming operations. Successful crop production
under these conditions involves labour-intensive
and meticulous management of the agricultural
land. Increasing population pressures and the recent
trend of temporary or seasonal migration of
segments of the rural population (i.e., young males)
to urban areas for employment, education or due to
land fragmentation, terid to create a labour shortage
for hill agriculture. This is evidenced by neglected
R.M. BajracharyaINepal Journal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
or abandoned agricultural fields, poorly maintained
terraces and irrigation channels, increasing erosion,
frequent small landslides, and declining soil
fertility (Banskota & Jodha 1992, Shrestha &
Katwal 1992).
Over the past decade or so substantial increases
in land-use has primarily taken the form of
increased off-season vegetable and horticultural
production due to the finite nature of productive
agricultural land. With expanded road access and
irrigation facilities, some pockets of the mid-hills,
especially clq,se to urban markets, have seen
dramatic increases in production of vegetables,
fruits and other cash crops. This is achieved mainly
by multiple cropping, both relayed and
intercropped, of vegetables along with staple food
crops, and in some cases, instead of less profitable
food crops like wheat and millet. Such commercial
cropping intensification usually involves increased
frequency of soil tillage and may not be sustainable
due to soil fertility and organic matter status
decline (Jodha 1992, Vaidya et al. 1995). For the
most part, hill farmers are unable to adequately
replenish soil nutrients or organic manure/compost
to meet the increased crop demands, thus leading
to soil degradation (Shrestha & Katwal, Vaidya
et al. 1995). Land-use intensification, therefore,
necessitates a careful and integrated approach to
soil organic matter and nutrient management
(Jodha 1992, Nicholas-Wallis 1997), through
such practices as improved composting,
mulching, green-manuring, crop rotation
management and supplemental fertilisation to
overcome deficits.
The information presented in this paper is
based on review of the limited available literature
related to the topic and informal field survey
(RRA) of farmers and local residents in numerous
parts of 12 districts in the above three regions
of Nepal. In addition, a number of key informants
and researchers in several government and
non-government organisations were contacted
for information regarding new and innovative
developments in land preparation techniques.
The information has been analysed and categorised
into practices that are indigenousltraditional,
modern tillage practices and other related practices
that are not considered tillage practices in
themselves.
Traditional Tillage Practices Used by
Mid-Hill Farmers
Cultivation Using Ox-drawn Wooden Plough
The most widely used means of soil cultivation
practiced by the vast majority of mid-hill farmers
involves the use of an ox-drawn wooden plough.
Due to the largely marginal, fragile, inaccessible
and diverse nature of the Himalayas, draught animal
power and manual farming are the most appropriate
and economical options available to farmers in this
mountain region (Singh 1998). The wood plough
is a locally fabricated farm implement often fitted
with a strip of metal (20-30 cm long flat iron piece),
for reinforcement, along the inner edge to the tip
of the pointed plough. The plough is drawn by two
oxen and guided from the rear by the farmer who
controls the depth and direction using an extended
handle connected to the top of the plough. This
method is commonly used across the country, to
cultivate both lowland (khet) and upland (bari)
areas. It can be used under both the semi-dry
conditions of upland terraces and the flooded,
puddled conditions of lowland terraces. For most
mid-hills farmers, this method is the most
affordable, efficient and practical means of
cultivating their fields. The ox-drawn wooden
plough is used on uplands with slopes as steep as
50 to 60%, and on terraces that are as narrow as 1.5
to 2 m width (the minimum width required to turn
the oxen around; B. Shrestha, B.P. Tripathi, B.
Luitel, personal communications). Tillage is done
to between 10 and 15 cm depth with this implement.
Manual Cultivation with Hand Hoe
On terraces that are narrower than about 1.5 m, or
for those farmers who posses only small parcels of
land (less than 0.1 ha) and do not own oxen,
cultivation is mostly done by hand-hoe. These come
in a number of different blade widthslsizes and
handle lengths for use by men and women alike,
and for various functions. This manual tillage
technique is typically done to depths of less than
10 cm and generally does not involve complete
over-turning of the soil. The hand hoe is also used
for secondary tillage purposes, clod-breaking and
smoothing after ox-ploughing, and post-emegence
weeding.
In areas that are predominantly inhabited by
Newar communities, the primary method o f
R.M.BajracharyaMepal Journal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
cultivation is by means of the Newar hand-plough,
which involves over-turning of the soil in lowland
and upland paddy fields. This technique is used
extensively within the Kathmandu valley, due to
religious belief, which does not permit use of oxen
(Pandey 1993), and parts of Kabhreplanchok,
Lalitpur and Makwanpur districts. It is also used
occasionally by non-Newars for purposes such as,
terrace side trimming, bund repair, drainage1
irrigation ditch work, and for kitchen gardening.
Secondary Tillage Operations
'
Differences in local traditional tillage practices
across the country are found mainly associated with
such factors as the number of cultivations, type of
implement used for post-tillage clod-breaking,
levelling and smoothing of the soil surface, type
and use of hand tools, and timing of these
operations. The number of cultivations, timing of
operations and type of hand tools used depend in
large measure upon factors such as, soil type and
texture, nature of land, terrace width, irrigation
availability, rainfall, cropping pattern and other
socio-culturallreligious influences (Turton et al.
1995; Amatya et al. 1997). Clod-breaking, levelling
and smoothing operations are done using ox-drawn
local wood-harrow and wooden plank in some parts
of the country, particularly the lower elevation areas
of the Eastern, Central andwestern Regions. These
are well suited for broad terraces and lowlands with
ready access and manoeuvrability of oxen. In other
areas, such operations are done mainly by hand hoe
or wo.oden clod-breaker, often by women (Adhikari
& Karmacharya 1988, Turton et al. 1995).
Another secondary cultivation practice
done mainly on uplands under maize or millet,
involves ridging or "earthing-up" ("dohryaune") of
the soil in-between crop rows. This is done by
means of the ox-drawn wooden plough or tineharrow where conditions permit, i.e., when the crop
is planted in rows and on fairly broad and flat areas.
This tends to serve a dual purpose of weeding and
providing support to easily lodged crops like maize
(Zea mays). Where it is not possible or practical to
perform such ridging by plough or harrow, it is done
manually using hand hoes.
Shifting Cultivation ("Khoria" and "Bukma"
Systems)
Shifting cultivation, also termed slash-and-burn
agriculture, is an old practice that is still continued
in small pockets of the mid-hills of Nepal, such as
in Gorkha, Chitwan, Dhading, Makwanpul;
Tanahun, Nawalparasi districts and in the MakaluBarun area. In the central region of Nepal, the area
under shifting or fallow cultivation ("Khoria") has
diminished due to the decline in productivity of the
lands. Only very poor landless peasants who, nonethe-less, fail to make a successful living from
shifting cultivation alone now generally practice it.
The practice involvesinitial clearing of the shrub
and tree vegetation on a hillside patch of land and
burning of the remaining stubble and residues. The
soil is then tilled by hand hoe, incorporating the
ash and removing large stones. The land is then
planted to maize or finger millet (Eleusine
coracana) with some intercropping of beans
(soybean, Glycine max; horse gram, Dolichos
biflorus; or rice bean) or Niger (Guizotia
abyssinica) and sesame (Sesamum orientale). Such
a patch of land is cultivated and cropped for a
maximum of two or three successive crops (1 to 2
years) and then returned to fallow growth for
between three and six years. The ever-decreasing
length of fallow period and steep slopes on which
the shifting agriculture is practiced renders it an
unsustainable and land-degrading practice.
A similar, closely related practice used in the
high hills (above 1800 m) is the "Bukma" system
or "buk" fertilization method of growing potatoes.
This practice is generally found in the north-central
and northeastern parts of Nepal (Dhaka1 1993). It
involves scrapping or slicing layers of sod (soil and
grassy vegetation) on natural slopes and piling them
in groups of four to eight piles. After drying the
piles consisting mostly of dried grass roots and
surface vegetation, they are burnt to minimize soil
borne diseases. Potatoes (Solanum tuberosum) are
then sown into the piles and grown without addition
of other manure or fertilizers. Sometimes barley
(Hordeurn vulgare) is planted in the tilled soil
following potato harvest. The land is then left fallow
for 4 to 6 years to allow re-growth of the grassy
vegetation (mostly Dubo, Cynodon dactylon). As
with Khoria, this system, too, faces increasing
pressures of population growth and over-grazing,
leading to shortened fallow period and declining
productivity. Soil erosion is also a major problem
with both of these shiftinglfallow cultivation
R.M. BajracharyaMepal Journal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
practices, which renders them unsustainable.
Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation
Practices
A variety of tillage-related practices involving soil
manipulation are indigenously used by farmers
throughout the middle hills for soil and water
conservation purposes, as well as, for enhancing
productivity. These include such works as, ditches
(both for drainage and soillwater retention), silt
traps to conserve soil or prevent loss from fields,
and a number of types of bedlfurrow systems
depending upon moisture requirements of specific
crops. Ditches for drainage are constructed along
the back walls of terraces with a slight slope to
channel water onto lower terraces or waterways.
Ditches and bunds along the outward edges of
terraces are used to check soil erosion and retain
water on outward sloping terraces. Silt traps
consisting o f stone walls are constructed
on lands adjacent to streams and rivers s o
that sediment-laden flood waters leave behind
nutrient-rich silt when waters recede. This type of
"soil-harvesting" allows sufficient silt t o
accumulate over 3 to 4 years enabling crop
production (Tamang 1993). Bed and furrow systems
are traditionally used to control/regulate moisture
for sensitive crops. Sunken beds are used for high
moisture demanding crops like cress (Lepidium
sativum), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), garlic
(Allium sativum), onions (A. cepa), coriander
(Coriandrum sativum), etc. Raised beds are used
for crops unable to withstand water logging, such
as, cabbage (Brassica cleracea), cauliflower (B.
oleracea), broadleaf mustard (B. juncea), potato,
radish (raphnus sativa), tomato (Licopersicon
esculentum), etc. (Pandey 1993).
Other Related Farming Practices
Farmyard Manure Application
Local compost or farmyard manure (FYM)
application is a long-standing traditional practice
and in the past, was the sole source of plant nutrient
and organic matter additions to replenish the soil.
Typically, the FYM is comprised of animal wastes,
old bedding material from livestock stalls, leaf-litter
and twigs collected from nearby forests and
otherwise unused plant residues such as weeds and
stubble. The traditional composting technique
simply involves mixing-up the above materials and
allowing decomposition to take place in a heap or
pile, preferably located close to the animal stall for
ease of incorporating new material. The compost
heap is allowed to ripen for periods ranging from
just a couple of months to several months with or
without occasional mixing. A common disadvantage
of this method is the length of time required for
adequate decomposition of plant residues, and
frequently, the FYM is applied to fields only
partially decomposed.
Mulching
Mulching is a practice not widely used by hill
farmers traditionally, although it is used quite
commonly on a small scale for specialty crops ayd
vegetable nursery beds. This may be in part due to
the shortage of mulching materials, which are
required for other purposes, and also due to the fact
that previously farmers have generally not grown
crops that require mulching specifically With a shift
in cropping pattern, in recent years, to include more
cash and high-value crops such as vegetables and
other horticultural crops, the practice of mulching
appears to be gaining significance in the mid-hills.
Mulching is now done for crops such as ginger
(Zingiber offieinale), colocasia, around fruit trees,
and to cover fine nursery seedbeds prepared for
vegetable production.
Burning
Burning is a practice followed sporadically, as
needed, in some parts of the middle hills. While
burning of entire fields is generally associated with
shifting cultivation, it is infrequently done on farm
fields that have been left fallow for some years.
More common is the practice of burning thick
stubble and root mass (as with maize) and other
litter (weed residues) including old livestock
bedding materials (if available) gathered in to piles.
The ashes are subsequently scattered and
incorporated into the soil. In some areas, burning
of dried weeds and plant residues across the field
is done prior to tillage and seedbed preparation for
vegetables as a means of sterilizing (for disease and
pest control) and nutrient addition to the soil as ash
(Budhathoki e t al. 1992). From the perspective of
OM loss, however, burning is not a useful practice,
which could be replaced by other alternatives such
as composting and mulching instead.
R.M.Bajracharya9Nepal Journal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
Terrace-riser Slicing
Terrace side slicing is another traditional practice
with benefits and some disadvantages. The main
reasons for the practice is to improve the quality of
the soil through incorporation of fresh soil and
grasdweed material, to control disease and pests
that may be transmitted due to the weed and grass
growth on the terrace sides, and for cleanlaesthetic
appearance. The primary disadvantage is the
potential for enhanced soil erosion due to exposure
of the soil, particularly during the intense
pre-monsoon rains and on sloping terraces.
In-situ Manuring
In-situ manuring involves the grazing of livestock
on fallow farm fields, thereby, allowing their
droppings to be left dispersed over the field. This
is a practice commonly done by farmers across the
middle and high hills. It is generally done prior to
tillage during the winter months where crops cannot
be economically grown and between successive
crops both in the spring and autumn (Budhathoki
et al. 1992). Where intensive manuring is to be
done, farmers occasionally build temporary shelters
on farm fields and tether the animals at different
spots across the field over a period of 2 to 3 weeks
(Subedi et al. 1995). The dung deposited by the
animals (sheep, goats or cattle) is subsequently
incorporated into the soil through tillage and serves
to replace or supplement FYM application for
improving the soil nutrient status.
Modern and Innovative Techniques
The rapid growth of human population over the
past few centuries has necessitated increasing
degrees of intensification of agriculture to meet the
food and fibre demands of the world. Yet,
land resources are finite and non-renewable
and intensive cropping along with exploitation
of marginal lands for agriculture lead to soil
nutrient depletion, degradation and erosion. Thus,
farming systems must evolve towards greater
efficiency and sustainability to meet food and fibre
requirements into the new millennium (Brady 1990,
La1 & Stewart 1995, Nicholas-Mllis 1997). In the
context of the mountain ecosystem in general and
the Hindu Kush-Himalayan Region in particulag
sustainability must be reconciled among policylevel, scientific-level, and the local peoples (ethno-
cultural) view points, andthinkingneeds to be scaled
temporally, spatially and socio-demographically
(Rhoades 1997).
Mechanised Tillage
With the advent of modern technology and
mechanisation, agriculture has moved ahead into
an input intensive but labour efficient mode through
the use of tractors and heavy implements. This
trend has, however, met with only limited
applicability and adoption among the resource-poor,
subsistence farmers of Nepal. Due to economic,
social and geographic constraints, use of the tractor
in farming is limited to areas of theTerai-belt plains
region. On the other hand, lesser technologies, such
as, the hand tractor, manual seed drill, and bullockdrawn plough.dril1 (Adhikari & Karmacharya 1988)
have some applicability in valleys and level areas
of the MiddIe Mountains Region. Despite this
potential, however, their adoption and use by hill
farmers have been insignificant owing to sociocultural, financial and policy constraints. Some
small pockets of the mid-hills have adopted the
Chinese hand tractor for tillage as with the Newars
of Nala, Banepa, due to various socio-economic and
culturaYreligious reasons. The mould board plough
is also used to a limited extent in some flat areas of
valleys and plains. Other manually operated,
partially mechanised hoes, weeders and planters
have been developed but not fully tested and field
tried at the farmer level, due largely to policy and
institutional weaknesses and research budget
constraints.
Zero-Tillage
Zero-till farming is a new area of research and
field trials that holds potential for application
under certain specific conditions in Nepal. It
can be categorised into two approaches; n a m e l ~
direct hand broadcast surface seeding and
planting by means of no-till seed drills. This
technique is being farmer-adopted, to a limited
extent, only in parts of the Terai Region,
although it has been successfully tested in the
mid-hills (Kathmandu and Kabhrepalanchok
districts). Presently, no-till methods are used
primarily for wheat (Tricticum aestivum) crops
following rice (Oriza sativa) in rice-wheat systems,
and to a lesser extent for lentil (Lens culinaris) after
rice. This practice could potentially be used with
R.M.BajracharyaMepalJournal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
other crops such as rice, maize, millet, buckwheat
(Fagopyrum esculentum) and sorghum (Sorghum
bicolor).
Direct surface seeding of wheat is found to
provide economic yields under excessively wet,
lowland condition, which normally delay farming
operations and sowing of wheat after rice by the
conventional method (Giri 1998). The wheat may
be relay broadcast prior to rice harvest, or surface
seeded immediately following (1-2 days)
rice-harvest. Relay surface seeding of wheat 5 to 9
days before rice harvest has the added advantage
of early sowing and maturity as compared to
sequential cropping (Subedi et al. 1997).
Use ofthe Chinese no-till seed drill and bullock
drawn seed-drill have been successful in providing
higher wheat yields than traditional methods on wet
lowlands that would otherwise be unproductive due
to planting delays (C. Adhikari, G. Shah, personal
communications). In three years of field trials at
Birganj, yields were 40 to 70% higher through notill drilling as compared to the traditional farmer
practice of ox-drawn ploughing and subsequent
sowing of wheat after rice. The overall land
preparation costs were calculated to be reduced by
66 to 75%, thereby, offering a net benefit of
the Chinese seed-drill to be 1.7 to 1.9 times that of
t h e traditional practice (G. Shah, personal
communications). The bullock-drawn seed-drill
gave slightly lower yields than the Chinese seeddrill.
Minimummeduced Tillage
The Chinese hand-tractor with roto-tiller attachment
can be adjusted to cultivate only a narrow band of
about 10 cm width to a depth of 6 cm. It can, at the
same time, be fitted with the seed-drill so that tillage
and planting can be completed in a single pass. This
offers a means of reduced tillage for minimal
disturbance of the soil, yet somewhat better seed
germination and seedling establishment than under
zero-tillage. The k&nicpEis,
however, still in the
experimental stage of development and requires
further field trials and adaptation to determine
conditions and cropping patters under which it may
be suitable, particularly for the mid-hills. Other
methods of reduced tillage using local traditional
implements also need further research and
development.
Bed and Furrow Systems
Bed or ridge planting is suited to crops that require
careful moisture regulation and in lowland areas
that are prone to excessive moisture. Ridge planting
is commonly practiced for the production of potato,
wheat and other winter crops on lowlands where
soil remain wet after rice harvest (as in Kathmandu
valley) and on some upland areas. Single-row
ridges, and in some instances, broad ridges with
double rows of potato plants, are found across the
middle hills. Bed and furrows are also used for
high-value vegetable crops, such as cauliflowet;
cabbage, tomato, turnip (Brassica rapa), spinach
and lettuce (Lactuca sativa), which are typically
seeded in nursery beds with subsequent
transplanting of seedlings. Bed or ridge preparation
requires fine tillage of the soil.
Broad beds and permanent bed planting are
other technologies that may have value for
improved soil and water management and
agricultural production in gently sloping areas of
the mid-hills. The broad bed and furrow system is
well suited to conditions of heavy clay soils
(Vertisols) and warm-dry climates (semi-arid), but
require further research and testing for adaptation
to other climatic regions (Virmaiet al. 1989). These
have generally had limited adoption in Nepal as they
are better suited to mechanised agriculture on
relatively flat land.
Contour Bunds, Hedgerows and Agroforestry
The use of bunds or hedgerows placed along the
contour is an effective practice for soil conservation
on marginal sloping agricultural land. The bunds
should be maintained with grasses or fodder shrub
species for effectiveness. Contour hedgerows are
created by planting nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs
(Alnus nepalensis, Desmodium jloribundum, D.
rensonii, Gliricidia sepium, etc.) in double rows and
keeping them severely pruned to a height of 50-60
cm (Partap & Watson 1994). Horticultural,
vegetable or even other food crops may be grown
between the contour hedgerows using traditional
practices.
Farmers in the middle hills frequently follow
some form of tree incorporation on agricultural
land, particularly, in and around the farmstead
where fruit or fodder trees are grown. This type of
'home garden' agroforestry is common in villages
R.M.BajracharyalNepal Journal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
with dwindling nearby forest resources. Species
used include Ficus spp., Sauraria nepalnesis,Alnus
nepalensis among other fodder and fruit trees
(Amatya 1994). The more systematic agroforestry
practice of alley cropping is found only in a few
parts of the mid-hills. One such practice in
Kabhrepalanchok district involves growing food
crops between rows of Luecaena spp. Another
increasingly popular system in eastern Nepal is
planting of cardamom in the under story ofAlnus
nepalensis without maintaining rows or alleys
(Amatya 1994).
Kitchen Gardening
The maintenance of kitchen gardens on tiny plots
of land adjacent to rural dwellings is another from
of intensive cropping that is gaining attention and
popularity due to vigorous promotion by numerous
NGOs, INGOs and government agencies. Through
meticulous soil, water and nutrient management and
proper choice of vegetable, spice and leguminous
crops, this could be sustainable practice, which also
supplements household nutrition and income
(Adhikari et al. 1996). Khatiwada et al. (1998)
reported the possibility of year-round production
of some 28 different vegetable and spice crops,
yielding on average 1.5 to 2.0 kglday from a plot
of 110 sq. m area. Nutrient management is, howevec
critical under such intensive production.
Improved Composting Technologies
Under the conditions of low input agriculture as is
practiced in the middle hills of Nepal, improved
composting/manuring techniques are critical.
Although the final nutrient composition appears to
be more a function of the composting materials, the
time required for adequate decomposition and
ripening of the compost can be reduced with
improved techniques (Subediet al. 1995). The type
of pit structure or enclosure, proper aeration, and
inoculating with various bacteria, fungi, yeasts and
actinomycetes (effective microorganisms, EM) can
speed up the composting process, as well as,
enhancing the quality of the soil and efficacy of
the compost (S. P. Thapa, ICIMOD; R. B.Yadav,
RARC-Parwanipur; personal communications).
Compost/FYM has been observed to be particularly
beneficial in maintaining the overall soil nutritional,
physical and chemical status of the soil. Its
application in combination with inorganic
fertilizers, has also been noted to give the highest
yields and residual benefits under both maize-millet
and rice-wheat systems (Scherchan et al. 1997,
Scherchan & Gurung 1998,Tripathi 1998, Pilbeam
et at. 1999).
Green ManuringICover Crops
Green manuring is a practice that has been used
sporadically in indigenous farming systems
throughout the country, but has failed to be
systematically incorporated into the traditional
practices of most hill farmers. This is due mainly
to the fact that most farmers tend to avoid
sacrificing a potential crop or hindering sowing1
transplanting of their primary crops. Hence
inclusion of green manures or cover crops in the
cropping cycle would require species that can be
planted early and mature quickly within the 1 to 2
month "safe window of opportunity" between
harvesting and planting dates, i.e., typically a few
weeks between April and July, depending on
location and elevation. Some introduced species
that have potential in this regard include: Viciafaba,
K villosa, K sativa, Lupinus mutabilis, and
Trifolium resupinatum (Keatinge et al. 1999). The
use of green manures has been observed to
significantly increase rice yields under rice-wheat
and maize-rice systems. A number of indigenous
species that are effective for this purpose include:
Adhatoda vasica; Melia azedarach, Eupatorium
antidysentrica, Sesbania aculsata, Guizotia
abyssinica, Vigna umbellata, Albizzia spp.,
Artemisia vulagaris (Subedi et al. 1995; Gurung &
Sherchan 1997).
Nonetheless, farmers are reluctant to adopt this
practice, particularly on upland areas where maize
is planted, as they do not wish to sacrifice or risk
losses of the main crop.
Conclusion
Land preparation is an indispensable part of local
farming practices in the mid-hills of Nepal. Soil
working is generally a very labour intensive and
time consuming component of hill farming done
mostly manually or using animal draught power
The development and adoption of new
technologies for increased labour efficiency,
reduced costs, and minimised soil tillage and
exposure to erosion are required to ensure the
R.M.BajracharyaMepal Journal of Science and Technology 3 (2001) 15-24
sustainability o f f a r m i n g i n t h e m i d d l e hills of
Nepal. A n integrated approach involving soil a n d
water conservation practices, a s well as, diversified,
carefully managed cropping, soil fertility, organic
matter, a n d weedlpest control systems are needed.
S o m e areas for research, development a n d training
include: a) m o d i f i c a t i o n o f p r e s e n t s o i l tillage
p r a c t i c e s t o i n c o r p o r a t e better s o i l and water
conservation, thus enhancing production and
environmental compatibility; b) adoption o f
reduced o r minimum tillage options, where
appropriate, thereby, d e c r e a s i n g s o i l exposure,
erosion a n d organic matterlnutrient depletion; c)
i m p r o v e m e n t of local compostIFYM techniques
enabling maintenance o f soil nutrient status with
minimal chemical fertiliser inputs; d) determining
socio-economic a n d site specific conditions f o r
suitability o f mulching, green manuring a n d covercrops for better soil, organic matter a n d nutrient
conservation; e ) application o f zero-tillage a n d
direct surface seeding techniques for a variety of
crops (wheat, rice, maize, lentils, millet, sorghum)
t o determine areas a n d conditions under which these
practices m a y b e economically a n d socio-culturally
v i a b l e ; f) a d o p t i o n o f o t h e r s o i l a n d w a t e r
conserving practices, such as, contour-hedge rows,
strip-cropping, ridgelfurrow systems, a n d
a g r o f o r e s t r y on m a r g i n a l l a n d s ; a n d g )
establishment o f productive kitchen gardens, where
appropriate, through bio-intensive gardening.
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