PUBLIC HEALTH
REPORT ON:
Health
and the
Physical
Environment
November 2009
ACKNOWLED G E M E N T S
The Health and the Physical Environment Report was conceptualized and primarily written by
Region of Waterloo Public Health staff, but also involved authors from Region of Waterloo
Planning, Housing and Community Services and the Grand River Conservation Authority. Joint
Advisory and Working Committees were established to guide the development of the report.
Consultation and review of the Health and the Physical Environment Report was undertaken by
representatives from: Region of Waterloo Public Health; Region of Waterloo Planning, Housing
and Community Services; Region of Waterloo Transportation and Environmental Services; Region
of Waterloo Water Services; Region of Waterloo Waste Management; Grand River Conservation
Authority; and Environment Canada.
Authors
Lindsay Blashill, Rob Bromley, Linda Dimock, Popy Dimoulas-Graham, Ken Diplock,
Stephen Drew, Peter Ellis, Pat Fisher, Chris Gosselin, Maria Hatzipantelis, Andy Hong,
Jessica Keithlin, Brooke Lambert, John Lubczynski, Kelly Greenland, Doug Quibell,
Anne Marie Ramsay, Marla Rocca, Mary Sehl, David Siladi, Amanda Tavares, Ethylene Villareal
Editors
Amanda Cliff, Ryan Kennedy, Bethany Mazereeuw, Daniela Seskar-Hencic, Popy Dimoulas-Graham
Support staff
Cheryl Lamondin, Jenna Van Draanen
Suggested Citation
Region of Waterloo Public Health. (2009).
Health and the Physical Environment. Waterloo, ON: Author.
PUBLIC HEALTH
For more information about
this report please contact:
Region of Waterloo Public Health
99 Regina Street South, 3rd floor
Waterloo, Ontario N2J 4V3
Phone: 519-883-2008 ext. 5147
Fax: 519-883-2241
www.region.waterloo.on.ca/ph
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
3
TABLE OF CO N T E N T S
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.0
INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.1 Physical Environment in the Context of Human Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2 Purpose of the Health and The Physical Environment Report . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.3 History of Region of Waterloo and Environmental Health Reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.0 GEOGRAPHY AND POPULATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.1 Geography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2 Population. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Population Growth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.0
LAND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.1 Land Contamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2 Solid Waste Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.3 Pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.4 Agricultural Land and Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.5 Brownfield Development. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.0
WATER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.1 Drinking Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.2 Water Source Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.3 Drinking Water Treatment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
4.4 Lead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.5 Treatment of Wastewater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.6 Health of Rivers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
4.7 Private Well Water Supply and Septic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.8 Recreational Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.0
AIR. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.1 Outdoor Air Quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.2 Indoor Air Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.3 Tobacco Smoke. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.4 Odours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
6.0
ENVIRONMENT AND THE COMMUNITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.1 Alternative/Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.2 Built Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
6.3 Consumer Products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
6.4 Food Safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.5 Food Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.6 Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
6.7 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
6.8 Electromagnetic Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
6.9 Ultraviolet Radiation & Sun Protection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
GLOSSARY OF TERMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Over the last two decades, Region of Waterloo has prepared several
reports related to the state of the environmental health in our community.
The first State of the Environment report was produced in 1991, followed
by the 1998 Environmental Health Report, describing how environmental
factors affect human health. The current report on Health and the
Physical Environment reflects our commitment to regular monitoring and
reporting on the status of the environment in our community, and profiles
environmental risk factors related to human health. This report also
partially fulfills the requirements of Policy 3.5.1 of the Regional Official
Plan, which mandates the Region to update the State of the Environment report, raise awareness
of the environmental issues, and explore policies and practices that lead to environmental
enhancements. This report is also complementing the current Region of Waterloo strategic
priorities which look at the integrated approach to environmental sustainability.
The Health and the Physical Environment Report describes a range of environmental factors that
influence or determine human health. Our air, water, and land are the essential elements that
compose and sustain our environment, and the way we use them has an effect on our health.
This report highlights and interprets information about the health impacts of environmental risk
factors in Waterloo Region, describes what we at the Region are currently doing to minimize the
negative impacts, and provides advice to you on ways that you can contribute to protect both our
environment and your health.
This report is a collaborative effort between Region of Waterloo Public Health and several other
Region of Waterloo departments. It reflects the knowledge, policies, programs, and other efforts
in which we have been involved toward promoting and protecting health of the environment and
our community. We hope that this report provides an additional source of information for further
improvements of our policies and practices toward achieving environmental sustainability and
optimal health of the citizens of our community.
Dr. Liana Nolan
Commissioner/Medical Officer of Health
Region of Waterloo Public Health
REPORT ON:
HEALTH AND THE
PHYS ICAL ENVIRO N M E N T
EXECUTIVE
SU MMARY
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The purpose of the Health and the Physical Environment Report is to use our current knowledge to
explore, describe, and interpret information about Waterloo Region’s physical environment and how
that physical environment may influence human health. The report also looks at what actions are
being taken and what residents can do to positively impact human health through factors related to
the physical environment.
The physical environment is both the natural environment around us as well as the planned
environment, including all human-made structures and systems. Our decisions and practices around
transportation, housing, industry, water use, waste management, and other design decisions
influence the health of a community. There is an abundance of evidence to suggest that the
environment affects population health. However, it is often difficult to state the exact impact that
specific environmental factors have on the health of individuals.
LAND
There are a variety of factors related to land and land use that can impact human health. These
factors include: land contaminants, solid waste management, pesticides, agricultural practices,
and brownfield development. To help reduce negative health impacts related to land, residents
of Waterloo Region can: take precautions to prevent toxic substances from entering the land
or general environment; inform the Spills Action Centre and Region of Waterloo Environmental
Enforcement Officers in the event of a chemical spill; respect landfill requirements and dispose of
waste according to guidelines (especially paints, oils, and gases); use alternatives to pesticides or
use, store, and dispose of them properly.
Land Contaminants
Human health may be affected by contaminants in the land base or soil; the source of these
contaminants can be naturally occurring or due to human activity. Most often, concern centres on
land contamination that is due to either a) an accidental spill, or b) routine industrial discharge
of contaminants that occurred in the past due to a lack of adequate information and regulation
regarding risks and health effects. The Region of Waterloo works with federal, provincial, and local
regulatory bodies to carefully monitor and remediate sites with chemical contamination according
to guidelines. In addition, the Water Services Department educates the public to prevent spills from
entering the region’s groundwater.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Solid Waste
Solid waste generated by households and commercial and industrial enterprises may contain
substances that are hazardous or harmful to human health. Although the probability of health
impacts from solid waste is low, The Region of Waterloo employs waste management practices
designed to prevent harmful substances from leaking into water or air. The Region is also
expanding its Household Hazardous Waste program to divert more and more residential hazardous
waste (including tires, white goods, and e-waste) from entering the landfill.
Pesticides
Pesticide products are used to control pests such as insects or weeds. Due to the potential risk
to human health posed by pesticides, the Medical Officer of Health for the Region of Waterloo
released the following statement in 2004 to support pesticide use reduction: “Due to the possibility
of harm to human health, we should follow the ‘precautionary principle’ and avoid the nonessential
use of pesticides.” This precautionary approach led to the development of a Regional Pesticide
By-Law and to a pesticide reduction education campaign called Let’s Curb Pesticides. In addition to
this Regional approach, there is also a federal Pest Control Products Act, which came into effect in
June 2006, with the goal of strengthening health and environmental protection. And in April 2009,
the provincial legislature effected the Cosmetic Pesticides Ban Act which regulates the cosmetic
use of pesticides.
Agriculture
Health risks from the agricultural sector depend on the farm type and how the land is used
and managed. In Waterloo Region, the number of farms has been declining since 1986, but
agricultural production has been rising, signalling an intensification of farming. Red meat farms
and dairy farms, which currently represent approximately 34 per cent and 20 per cent of all farms
(respectively) can cause waterborne diseases linked to excessive livestock manure. Field crops
that require higher amounts of fertilization and pesticides (e.g. corn) tend to pose greater health
risks than those requiring only moderate inputs (e.g. wheat, barley, oats). The Region is involved
in several initiatives regarding agriculture and the environment: the Rural Water Quality Program
(supports farmers wanting to upgrade their practices with respect to groundwater protection); the
Bio-Solids Master Plan (long-term strategy for the use and management of bio-solids on farmlands);
and the Environmental Farm Plans (supports environmentally sustainable agricultural practices).
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
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WATER
There are a variety of factors related to water use that can impact human health. Areas where
water and human health interact include: drinking water supply, wastewater treatment, and lead
and other contaminants in water supplies. To help reduce potential risks to human health posed
by water, residents can dispose of hazardous waste properly, use natural cleaning products, return
unused medications to the pharmacy for disposal, use de-icing salt only when necessary, reduce
or eliminate the use of pesticides, reduce, repair, and retrofit water fixtures and appliances to
conserve water, regularly test well-water quality, and maintain their septic systems.
Drinking Water Supply
Approximately 80 per cent of Waterloo Region’s municipal water supply comes from groundwater
sources and the remaining 20 per cent from the Grand River. These water sources need to be
protected and conserved in order to meet the demands of a growing population. The residential
sector of Waterloo Region accounts for 72 per cent of water use, and water leaks around the
home account for as much as 21 per cent of this consumption. To help conserve water, the Region
enforces a water conservation by-law, distributes tools and products such as rain barrels that help
households reduce water consumption, and encourages residents to reduce, repair, and retrofit
water fixtures and appliances.
Drinking Water Treatment
Municipal water supplies are regularly monitored and consistently meet or exceed provincial
water quality standards. Microbial, radiological, or chemical contamination of drinking water may
create the potential for waterborne diseases. Lead and high concentrations of sodium can also
present health risks. Because of these factors, the Region uses extensive systems for cleaning,
purifying, and transporting drinking water to ensure that the water available for residents is safe
to drink. Unless water treatment systems are compromised, there is little, to no, health risk due
to drinking water. The Region tests drinking water for bacteria, organic and inorganic content, pH,
and turbidity. Various treatments used by the Region include: chlorine, chloramines, and ozone. The
Region monitors sodium levels in drinking water and uses various salt-reduction strategies. The
Region also tests drinking water for lead, and takes immediate remedial action if it is detected. In
addition, Region of Waterloo Public Health offers testing of private wells (free for bacteria testing;
nominal fee for testing of nitrate, nitrite, and fluoride).
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Treatment of Wastewater
The Water Services Department of the Region of Waterloo owns and operates 13 wastewater
treatment plants where 190 million litres of wastewater are treated every day. The four-step
process for treatment includes: removing grease, oil, and large objects (e.g., rags or sticks); treating
organic material (such as waste, food, and soap) with micro-organisms; removing phosphorus and
ammonia (with micro-organisms or adding chemicals); and destroying potential pathogens with
chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet radiation. The Region is ensuring future capacity to treat wastewater
via the Wastewater Treatment Master Plan and the Bio-Solids Master Plan. The Region also
encourages water conservation through a number of programs (e.g., toilet replacement rebates) to
reduce the amount of wastewater that needs to be treated.
AIR
There are a variety of factors related to air that can impact human health. Areas where air and
human health interact include: outdoor air pollution, indoor air quality, and tobacco use. To
minimize health impacts of poor air quality, residents can: decrease the use of cars by walking,
cycling, using buses, and carpooling; avoid letting vehicles idle; maintain vehicles properly;
conserve electricity; avoid using oil-based paints and solvents; provide adequate ventilation and
carbon monoxide detectors in the home; and refrain from smoking, especially indoors or in vehicles.
Outdoor Air Quality
Natural sources of air pollution include forest fires or dust storms. Human activities resulting in air
pollution include burning gas and oil for heat, transportation, and industrial processes. Although
everyone is at risk of the negative health effects associated with air pollution, certain populations
(unborn and very young children, elderly, those with cardiovascular or respiratory disease, and
those who are exposed to other toxic materials that add to or interact with air pollutants) are
more susceptible. Air quality in Ontario has improved significantly over the past 35 years due to
a reduction in nitrogen oxide, carbon monoxide, and sulphur dioxide. On the other hand, the rise
of ozone and particulate matter levels presents a growing health concern. In Waterloo Region,
the Air Quality Index was in the poor to moderate range approximately 10.4 per cent of the time
between 1998 and 2007; it rose above this 10-year average during the years 2002, 2003, 2005,
and 2007. The Ontario Medical Association estimates that in 2005, the overall economic losses
associated with air pollution exposure were expected to be approximately $7.8 billion in Ontario
and $19.9 million in Waterloo Region. The Region of Waterloo Strategic Plan emphasizes two key
objectives: to improve air quality in Waterloo Region, and to effectively use and manage energy
resources. Specifically, the Region is assessing and improving conditions for sustainable and active
forms of transportation, such as walking, cycling and public transportation, increasing affordable
transportation options, and improving bus service.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
13
Tobacco Use
While the most serious health effects come from smoking directly, second-hand smoke is also
known to have significant health impacts. The degree of risk from second-hand smoke is relative
to the concentration of second-hand smoke in an area, how long an individual is exposed, and the
sensitivity of the individual to second-hand smoke. In Waterloo Region, exposure levels to secondhand smoke decreased slightly between 2003 and 2007, and 73 per cent of households in the
region report being totally smoke-free between 2003 and 2006. Region of Waterloo Public Health
officials and health advocacy groups focus education efforts on increasing public awareness of
the health risks associated with exposure to second-hand smoke and encouraging smokers who
are unable to quit smoking to smoke outdoors. They also enforce the Smoke-Free Ontario Act,
legislation which was based on municipal by-laws, such as that of the Region. The Region has also
recommended a smoke-free policy for inclusion in all new leases with Waterloo Region Housing
beginning in April 2010.
COMMUNITY
There are a variety of factors related to the environment and the community that can impact human
health. Areas where these issues and human health interact include: the built environment, food
safety, vector-borne and zoonotic diseases, and UV radiation. These and other areas have been
highlighted in this report.
Alternative Renewable Energy
Wind energy, solar energy, bio, and earth energy are all examples of renewable alternatives to
fossil fuel and nuclear energy sources. The Region has demonstrated its leadership in a number
of energy-related areas such as implementing Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design
(LEED®) building policies, developing the Corporate Energy Program, establishing the Waterloo
Region Partners for Clean Air, developing the Rapid Transit proposal, researching the benefits of
urban agriculture, and the links between urban design and health. Residents can reduce energy
consumption and consider installing alternative energy components in their homes.
Built Environment
The built environment includes land use, the design of our streets, sidewalks and pathways, the
transportation system, and the shape of our communities. Factors such as the distance between
home and work, the look and feel of the neighbourhood and streets, the presence or absence of
stores, recreation facilities, and parks all affect choices to walk, cycle, take transit, or drive. The
transportation choices we make have long-term impacts on our health in terms of air quality and
physical well-being. Increased motorized vehicle use leads to poorer air quality; fewer walking and
cycling trips contribute to rising incidence of overweight, obesity, and increasing rates of chronic
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
diseases. The Region of Waterloo promotes active transportation in various ways, including the
development of a pedestrian charter and incorporating a Pedestrian Master Plan in the Regional
Official Policies Plan, and adopting a Regional Cycling Master Plan. The Region also launched
the Regional Growth Management Strategy to apply a balanced approach to planning our built
environment. Residents can walk, bike, or take transit to work, school, run errands, or meet friends.
Food Safety
Food-borne illnesses are caused by ingesting bacteria, viruses, or other parasitic organisms,
primarily by consuming contaminated food or water. Vulnerable populations (i.e. elderly, pregnant
women, and young children) are more susceptible to enteric illnesses and are at greater risk of
developing severe symptoms and chronic conditions. From 1995 to 2004, there was an overall
decrease in the incidence of the most common food-borne illnesses in Waterloo Region, generally
mirroring provincial and national trends. Despite this, there has been a rise in the number of
food-borne illness outbreaks linked to fruit and vegetables in Canada, due to the greater level
of consumption of whole and minimally processed fruits and vegetables, changes in consumer
demographics, and more intensive production, processing and handling habits. Yet, food-borne
diseases are largely preventable. Proper agricultural, manufacturing and food handling practices
can significantly reduce the spread of microbes among food items and prevent the contamination
of foods. Region of Waterloo Public Health actively participates in a comprehensive and thorough
food safety system through routine food premises inspections; food-borne illness, recall, and
outbreak investigations; food safety education; and raising public awareness. To help ensure food
safety, residents can wash hands frequently, practice proper food handling (e.g., keep and serve hot
food hot and cold food cold), and report suspected food-borne illness to Region of Waterloo Public
Health.
West Nile Virus and Rabies
People may be exposed to a number of diseases via contact with insects and animals. West Nile
Virus is a vector-borne disease, transmitted by mosquitoes, which has been found in Waterloo
Region, with rates declining between 2004 and 2008. Rabies is a zoonotic disease that one may
be exposed to after contact with an infected animal. It has been documented in domestic and
wild animals within Waterloo Region, and the number of animals testing positive for rabies has
increased between 2003 and 2008. While chance of contracting these diseases is low, measures
can be taken to minimize risk of human exposure. Protective clothing and use of insect repellant are
effective ways to reduce the risk of exposure to vector-borne disease. Avoiding contact with wild
animals and ensuring pets are vaccinated minimize the risk of infection from rabies.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
15
Ultraviolet Radiation
The earth’s ozone layer protects all life on earth from excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the sun. Over time the release of certain chemicals into the environment has
damaged the ozone layer. The earth’s ozone layer is thinning and more UV radiation from the sun is
reaching the earth. Ultraviolet radiation from the sun is classified by the International Agency for
Research for Cancer (IARC) as cancer-causing. Adequate protection from the sun is an important
health measure. Over-exposure to the sun has been linked to skin cancer and other health risks.
Region of Waterloo Public Health is involved in educating workplaces, especially outdoor workers
about their increased risk for skin cancer. Other efforts include working towards shade policy in the
region and supporting a ban on the use of artificial tanning devices for those under 18, as well as
working with the Cancer Prevention Early Detection Network to bring awareness to youth about
the dangers of artificial tanning. Residents can protect themselves from the sun with clothing,
sunglasses, sunscreen, and staying in the shade.
This report cites and references literature and scientific studies to describe
environmental health risks, who in the population may be particularly vulnerable,
and how likely it is that people will experience health impacts. The report also
describes how the Region of Waterloo manages these risks and how the residents
of Waterloo Region can try to minimize the negative effects of these environmental
risks. Throughout the report we offer solutions and specific suggestions for residents
to consider in their daily practices, which may potentially decrease the negative
impact of environmental exposures on health.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
1
REPORT ON:
HEALTH AND THE
PHYS ICAL ENVIRO N M E N T
1 . 0 INTRODUCTION
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1 PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT IN THE CONTEXT OF HUMAN HEALTH
The term ‘environment’ is used to describe a space and the contents of that space. Environments
can consider the physical aspects including both natural and built landscapes as well as the human
or social environments which include our social networks, social norms, and cultural practices.
This report focuses on physical environments, acknowledging it is difficult to fully separate any one
medium or ‘environment’ from another.
Figure 1 below is one representation of different categories of considerations for organizing
the environment. The physical environment is presented as being fully enveloped by the natural
environment.
FIGURE 1: Definition of the environment
Total environment
Behavioural, social, natural and physical environment
Social, natural and physical environment
Natural and physical environment
Physial environment
Source: World Health Organization, 2006
The physical environment may influence or determine human health in many ways. Health may be
directly impacted due to the pathological effects of chemicals, radiation, or biological contaminants
present in an environment. The physical environment can also influence or determine the health
and well-being of the “broad physical, psychological, social and aesthetic environment which
includes housing, urban development, land use and transport.”1 The physical environment can also
present physical extremes that may impact health directly, such as heat waves, or indirectly, such
as ice storms, that can increase the likelihood of injuries.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The concept of environmental health addresses all of these influences and includes the assessment
and control, mitigation or avoidance of environmental risk factors that affect health. The core
mandate of public health units is to prevent disease through the creation of healthy and healthsupporting interventions and environments.2
Over the past several decades, scientists, public health professionals, and environmental
specialists have made progress in measuring the impact of environmental hazards on human
health. Considering both the available data on levels of exposure to environmental risk factors
and also the findings of health studies has made it possible for environmental health specialists to
estimate the impact of environmental risk factors on human health.3
Poor health is generally the result of a combination of environmental, social, and behavioural risk
factors. While eliminating these risk factors may be desirable, it is often very difficult. For example,
motor vehicles contribute to poor air quality which is an environmental health risk. This risk could
be removed by banning cars from cities, however such a solution would be very difficult given how
important motor vehicles are to moving people and goods. Incremental changes in technology, such
as the adoption of cleaner motor vehicle technologies and political actions such as supporting the
expansion of less polluting modes of transport (e.g. bus, cycling, walking) would also improve air
quality and likely be considered more viable by policymakers and the public alike.
This report will outline a variety of known environmental health risks present in the physical
environment, the exposure pathways that people may come into contact with these risks, and what
the likelihood is of this exposure resulting in a health impact. Where possible the incidence rate
for Waterloo Region will be included to further contextualize the relative risk of an environmental
health effect.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
21
1.2 PURPOSE OF THE HEALTH AND
THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT REPORT
The Health and the Physical Environment Report explores environmental health issues in Waterloo
Region and builds on the previous reports that were produced by the Region of Waterloo in 1991
and 1998.4,5
The purpose of the Health and the Physical Environment Report is to describe and interpret
information on environmental risk factors that affect human health in Waterloo Region. This will
inform Regional planning, policies, and programs, and help shape recommendations for future
actions. This report has also been written to provide information to citizens in Waterloo Region
about relative risks in this community and what actions they may be able to take to both protect the
health of our environment, and also their own personal health.
This report, in part, fulfills the requirements of Policy 3.5.1 of the Regional Official Plan which
mandates the Region to “periodically update the State of the Environment Report in order to
increase awareness, identify subject areas requiring further study, and explore policies and other
initiatives to facilitate environmental enhancement.” In addition, this report is complementary
to the Region of Waterloo Strategic Priorities which aims to develop an integrated approach to
environmental sustainability.
Several types of information contributed to this report including: peer-reviewed academic journals,
reports from health information organizations such as the World Health Organization, reports from
or commissioned by Canadian federal departments and provincial ministries, and conservation
authorities. Region of Waterloo Council Reports, and research and data obtained routinely and
collected by the Region of Waterloo, such as epidemiological reports were also included in the
evidence considered. The Health and the Physical Environment Report is structured into seven
chapters: Chapter 1 provides an introduction and overview of the report, Chapter 2 provides a
description of Waterloo Region’s geography and population characteristics including distribution,
Chapter 3 explores the land base and health impacts from land contamination, pesticide use,
and agricultural land and practices, Chapter 4 reviews drinking water, surface waters and
environmental contamination, its impact on the environment and related environmental health
issues, Chapter 5 assesses indoor and outdoor air quality and other indicators that affect the air we
breathe, Chapter 6 addresses the physical conditions and circumstances that surround an individual
in the community including the built environment, food safety and food security, and climate
change.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Each chapter contains several sections related to the specified topic including:
• A short Summary section or Health Impact Statement – which summarizes what the impact is,
where it is present, how it is a risk, and who (if anyone) is more vulnerable to this risk;
• A Background section providing an overview of the section topic;
• A Current Trends section which discusses environmental health trends, currently available data
and their significance to health;
• An overview of important environmental initiatives taking place in Waterloo Region entitled
‘What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect environmental health?’; and
• A description of what residents of Waterloo Region can do to protect their health and the health
of the environment called ‘What can residents of Waterloo Region do?’.
Where possible, each of these sections is addressed in each chapter. There are, however, chapters
where it was not possible to provide each section due to lack of local data or lack of clear
recommendations for resident actions.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
23
1.3 HISTORY OF REGION OF WATERLOO
AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH REPORTING
In 1991, the first State of the Environment Report was released by Region of Waterloo’s
Department of Planning and Development, currently Community Planning. This report described the
historical development and present state of the environment in Waterloo Region. Issues such as
sustainable development, land use, water resources, and waste recycling were included. The report
suggested that Waterloo Region was at an important crossroads in time, when significant and
coordinated actions by all levels of government, the private sector and individuals were required to
preserve, enhance, and manage the health of the natural environment to ensure the quality of life
for future generations.6
Also in 1991, a Report of the Citizens Advisory Committee on Quality of Life was issued. This was
the product of a citizens’ committee which was appointed in 1989 to examine public opinion on the
quality of life and broadly defined environmental issues in Waterloo Region. Committee members
were given responsibility for forming a common vision which would guide future community
development and improve opportunities for all residents to participate in community decision
making. Issues such as growth and development, economic concerns, agriculture, water resources,
transportation, cultural and heritage amenities, the natural environment and its relationship to
human well-being were explored in this report.7
Region of Waterloo’s first Environmental Health Report was released in 1998 and was the first
of its kind in Waterloo Region. The 1998 report set out to describe and interpret information
on environmental factors that affected human health. Factors influencing human health were
addressed and included the quality of the atmosphere, water, land and the environment of the
community. The current Health and the Physical Environment Report (2009) is structured in a similar
manner to the 1998 document and draws comparisons where possible or appropriate.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2
REPORT ON:
HEALTH AND THE
PHYS ICAL ENVIRO N M E N T
2 . 0 GEOGRAPHY
AN D POPULATION
2.0 GEOGRAPHY AND P O P U L AT I O N
2.1 GEOGRAPHY
Waterloo Region is located in southwestern Ontario, about one hour west of Toronto and roughly
two hours from the Canada-United States border at Niagara Falls (see Figure 2).
FIGURE 2: Southwestern Ontario, counties and regional municipalities, 2009
Source: “Map of Southwestern Ontario” [map]. 1:1,000,000. Region of Waterloo GIS Data [computer files].
Waterloo, ON: Region of Waterloo Epidemiology and Data Support, 2009. Using: ArcView GIS [GIS software].
Version 9.3. Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., 1992-2009.
Waterloo Region encompasses an area of 1,383 km2 and is covered by 14km2 of surface waters
(rivers, lakes, ponds, reservoirs).
Waterloo Region is located in the heavily urbanized area of Ontario known as the ‘Greater Golden
Horseshoe’ (GGH; Figure 3). The Greater Golden Horseshoe is the most heavily populated as well
as the most heavily urbanized region in Canada. More than 8.1 million people reside in the Greater
Golden Horseshoe representing roughly two-thirds of Ontario’s population and one-quarter of all
Canadians.9 The Greater Golden Horseshoe was first recognized by Statistics Canada in 2001, and
was later defined as a special growth management planning area under Ontario’s Places to Grow
Act of 2005.10,11,12
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
FIGURE 3: The Greater Golden Horseshoe and Greenbelt, 2006
Source: Government of Ontario. (2005). Places to Grow: Growth plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe.
Retrieved from: http://www.placestogrow.ca/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=66&Itemid=15
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
29
Waterloo Region has seven area municipalities: three urban cities including Waterloo, Kitchener,
and Cambridge, and four rural townships including Wellesley, Woolwich, North Dumfries, and
Wilmot (Figure 4).
FIGURE 4: Waterloo Region built areas and major surface water features, 2006
Source: “Map of Region of Waterloo” [map]. 1:225,000. Region of Waterloo GIS Data [computer files].
Waterloo, ON: Region of Waterloo Epidemiology and Data Support, 2009. Using: ArcView GIS [GIS software].
Version 9.3. Redlands, CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., 1992-2009.
Geographic Features
The most notable physical feature in Waterloo Region is the Waterloo Moraine, a glacial deposit
of sand and gravel that covers nearly 400 square kilometres (km2) of the region or approximately 29
per cent.13 The Waterloo Moraine is a broad area of land where considerable deposits of sand and
gravel allow for the infiltration of large quantities of rainfall and snow to melt deep into the ground.
This process sustains some of the richest sources of groundwater in the Grand River watershed.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The Waterloo Moraine serves two important functions. From an environmental perspective,
groundwater discharge from the shallow aquifers located within the moraine sustains a wide range
of aquatic habitats and ecosystems. This groundwater discharge also provides a high percentage of
the baseflow to the Grand River, its tributary rivers and cold-water streams and therefore is critical
to maintaining the health of the downstream communities. The second function of the Waterloo
Moraine is to replenish deep underground aquifers that serve as a source for a significant share of
the municipal drinking-water supply.
The Waterloo Moraine also plays an important role in both the air quality and climate of Waterloo
Region due to its elevation, positioning relative to other physical features, and the prevailing winds.
The shape and elevation of the moraines in and around Waterloo Region, in addition to our local
climate, can result in conditions where air pollution levels may reach unacceptable levels. In winter
this can be a result of what meteorologists call an inversion layer (or cap layer). The air masses
are considered inverted because normally, as one moves away from the Earth’s surface, air masses
will gradually cool; this is not the case with inversion layers where you can get a colder air mass
trapped close to the surface beneath a (relatively) warm air mass. In areas of elevation change,
such as from the heights of the moraine to the lows of the Grand River, this extreme temperature
difference between air masses, coupled with the topographical features surrounding the area,
prevent the mixing of different layers of air and the resulting dilution of pollution. This phenomenon
is more common on calmer winter days when a layer of (relatively) warm air settles over an area
and prevents the cold air below it from rising. This colder layer of air, often with high levels of
particulate matter from motor vehicles, wood burning stoves and other sources, is stagnant and
becomes increasingly polluted until a new weather system moves through the area and displaces
the thermal cap. During summer months a similar phenomenon acts to exacerbate the air pollution
or “smog” problem by again preventing convection or mixing of the air masses.
The moraine also plays a significant role in the region’s water supply; it houses considerable
volumes of groundwater in a series of large aquifers. Twelve other smaller moraines, including the
moderately sized Galt and Paris moraines in the southern and eastern portions of Cambridge, are
also important to the region’s water supply.14
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
31
FIGURE 5: Topography of Waterloo Region, 2003
Source: “Topography of Waterloo Region, 2003” [map]. 1:225,000. Region of Waterloo GIS Data [computer files].
Waterloo, Ont.: Region of Waterloo Public Health, 2008. Using: ArcMap [GIS software]. Version 9.2. Redlands,
CA: Environmental Systems Research Institute, Inc., 1992-2008.
The main hydrologic feature of Waterloo Region is the Grand River watershed which encompasses
the whole of Waterloo Region. The Grand River flows across the region in a general north to south
path. It has its headwaters north of the region, near Dundalk, in Grey County, and empties into Lake
Erie to the south. Many of the Grand River’s tributaries, including several major ones such as the
Conestogo, Eramosa, Nith, and Speed rivers, also cross into the borders of Waterloo Region. The
Grand River is the source of about 20 per cent of Waterloo Region’s drinking water while the other
80 per cent is derived from groundwater sources in the region, approximately half of which are
associated with the Waterloo Moraine.15
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.2 POPULATION
General Characteristics
In 2006, the Census population of Waterloo Region was 478,121 people in total, and the median
age was 36.4 years in comparison with a provincial median age of 39.0 years. In contrast to the
2006 Census population of 487,121, the Region of Waterloo’s population estimate for year-end
2006 is 506,800. The Region of Waterloo produces annual population estimates that additionally
include an estimate of full-time post-secondary students, accommodation of the census
undercount, building activity, vacancy rates, and adjustment from May to year-end.16
Population Distribution
The population in Waterloo Region is largely concentrated in its cities and urban areas in the
townships. The region’s population distribution, by municipality is shown in Table 1.
TABLE 1: Population distribution by municipality, Waterloo Region, 2006
Geography
Population in 2006
Per cent of total
Waterloo Region
population
Persons per
square kilometre
Cambridge
120,371
25.2%
1,066.6 km2
Kitchener
204,668
42.8%
1,495.1 km2
North Dumfries
9,063
1.9%
48.4 km2
Waterloo
97,475
20.4%
1,520.7 km2
Wellesley
9,789
2.0%
35.2 km2
Wilmot
17,097
3.6%
64.8 km2
Woolwich
19,658
4.1%
60.3 km2
Waterloo Region
478,121
100.0%
349.3 km2
Source: Statistics Canada. (2006). Census 2006. Ottawa, ON: Author.
Retrieved October 2009 from: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/index-eng.cfm
It is important to note that census population counts do not include post-secondary students
who are temporarily residing in Waterloo Region. Students are enumerated by their ‘usual’ place
of residence and not their place of residence at the time of enumeration. Region of Waterloo’s
Planning, Housing, and Community Services department estimates that there are nearly 34,690 fulltime students in the region as of year-end 2008.17
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
33
In 2006, adults aged 40 to 44 were the largest age group in Waterloo Region at 8.4 per cent of the
population; however, the fastest growing segment of the population between 1996 and 2006 was
aged 55 to 59 growing by 40.2 per cent, followed by the 85 or older age group and 80 to 84, each
growing at 37.3 per cent and 36.2 per cent respectively (Figure 6).
Environmental health is of particular concern to populations considered more vulnerable to certain
health impacts including children and older adults. These groups are more susceptible to the
effects of the environment. As a result, because the number of individuals aged nine and younger
has remained fairly stable, and the number of individuals in older age groups (65+) has increased
greatly in recent years, now representing more than 11 per cent of the total population, the net
outcome is a growing number of individuals considered to be more susceptible to environmental
health concerns (see Figure 6).
FIGURE 6: Population pyramid, Waterloo Region, 1996-2006
Source: Statistics Canada, Census 1996 and 2006
As published in Region of Waterloo Census Bulletin 2, available at: http://region.waterloo.on.ca/web/region.nsf/
DocID/A288897047333422852573700060C1D7/$file/Bulletin_2.pdf?openelement
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
2.3 POPULATION GROWTH
Waterloo Region is one of the fastest growing areas in both Ontario and Canada. From 2001 to
2006, Waterloo Region’s population grew by 9.0 per cent, adding nearly 40,000 people to the
region’s population over this time period (Table 2). This represents one of the largest percentage
changes in population among municipalities across Canada. In the same time period Ontario’s
population grew 6.6 per cent, while Canada’s population grew 5.4 per cent.18 By 2031, Waterloo
Region’s population is projected to grow to 729,000.a
Within Waterloo Region, Wilmot Township experienced the greatest per cent population change
growth adding 15.0 per cent to its total population from 2001 to 2006. In absolute terms, the City of
Kitchener added the most people, adding more than 14,000 individuals to its total population.
TABLE 2: Population change by municipality, Waterloo Region, 2001-2006
Population change 2001-2006
Geography
Population
Per cent
Cambridge
9,999
9.1
Kitchener
14,269
7.5
North Dumfries
294
3.4
Waterloo
10,932
12.6
Wellesley
424
4.5
Wilmot
2,231
15.0
Woolwich
1,457
8.0
Waterloo Region
39,606
9.0
Source: Statistics Canada (2006). 1976-2006 Censuses. Ottawa, ON: Author.
Available at http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/index-eng.cfm as published in
Region of Waterloo Census Bulletin 1, retrieved October 2009 from: http://www.region.waterloo.on.ca/
web/region.nsf/DocID/A288897047333422852573700060C1D7/$file/Bulletin_1.pdf?openelement
a
Population forecast by the Region of Waterloo, based on “Places to Grow” estimate for the year 2031 as
published in the “Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe”, 2006, Ministry of Public Infrastructure
Renewal. As published in Region of Waterloo Population and Households Fact Sheet (Fall 2006), retrieved
October 2009 from: http://chd.region.waterloo.on.ca/web/region.nsf/0/A288897047333422852573700060C1D7/
$file/Pop&House%20fact%20sheetR.pdf?openelement
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
35
Factors in Population Growth
In the last thirty years, Waterloo Region’s population has grown significantly. The City of Waterloo
experienced the largest increase among area municipalities with growth of 109 per cent of its
original population in the last thirty years, while Cambridge grew 66 per cent, Kitchener 55 per
cent, and the townships 45 per cent (Figure 7).
FIGURE 7: Population growth by municipality, Waterloo Region, 1976-2006
Source: Statistics Canada (2006). 1976-2006 Censuses. Ottawa, ON: Author.
Available at http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census-recensement/index-eng.cfm as published in
Region of Waterloo Census Bulletin 1, retrieved October 2009 from: http://region.waterloo.on.ca/
web/region.nsf/DocID/A288897047333422852573700060C1D7/$file/Bulletin_1.pdf?openelement
The growth in these areas has been influenced by both migration and natural growth. Migration
refers to people immigrating to the area from other regions, while natural growth is the difference
between the total number of births and deaths for the region in a given time period, or, in other
words, refers to the population growth due to the ratio of births and deaths of people already living
in the region. Natural growth and migration have each added approximately 2,500 individuals to
Waterloo Region every year between 2001 and 2004 (Table 3). Table 4 reveals that both natural
growth and international migration have been the primary components of growth, whereas internal
migration has had little influence.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
TABLE 3: Annual components of growth (counts), Waterloo Region, 2001-2004
Beginning of Period
Year
Natural Growth
NonPopulation permanent
residents
International Migration
Births
Deaths
Natural
increase
Immigrants
Emigrants
Net
Returning
temporary emigrants
emigration
Net nonpermanent
residents
Net
20012002
456,349
3,506
5,586
2,837
2,749
3,469
876
-
-
319
2,912
20022003
464,049
3,898
5,431
2,905
2,526
2,568
688
452
240
408
2,076
20032004
470,187
4,381
5,552
3,001
2,551
3,402
520
349
210
44
2,787
Source: Statistics Canada. (2005). 2005 Annual demographic statistics (91-213-XIB) [Electronic version].
Ottawa, ON: Author. Retrieved October 2009 from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/91-213-x/91-213-x2005000-eng.pdf
TABLE 4: Annual rates per 1,000 population of components of growth,
Waterloo Region, 2005-2007
Migration Rates
Years
Natural
Growth Rate
2006 - 2007
5.4
4.2
-2.3
2.9
4.7
2005 - 2006
5.0
5.5
-1.1
3.8
8.2
Net international
migration
Net inter-provincial Net intra-provincial
migration
migration
Total net
migration
Source: Statistics Canada. (2005). 2006/2007 Annual demographic estimates (91-214-X) [Electronic version].
Ottawa, ON: Author. Retrieved October 2009 from: 0
Migration has contributed to an overall population increase between 1996 and 2006, especially
for those 10 to 24 years of age, and will continue to play a role in the future growth of Waterloo
Region.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
37
3
REPORT ON:
HEALTH AND THE
PHYS ICAL ENVIRO N M E N T
3 . 0 LAND
3.0 LAND
3.1 LAND CONTAMINATION
Human health may be affected by contaminants in the land base or soil; the source of these
contaminants may be due to naturally occurring background levels or due to human activity. Most
often, concern centres around land contamination that is due to either a) an accidental spill, or b)
routine industrial discharge of contaminants that occurred in the past due to a lack of adequate
information and regulation regarding risks and health effects of chemicals that were being released
into the environment. Human health is affected when contaminants enter a person’s body. The
health impact of contaminants is largely variable depending on the chemical contaminant in
question and the level at which it is absorbed into the body. In addition, long-term exposure to low
levels of contaminants may result in the buildup of contaminants in the body over time and result
in long-term health impacts where no short-term impacts were noted. Federal, provincial, and local
regulatory bodies carefully monitor and remediate sites with chemical contamination, as well as
setting guidelines for exposure to contaminants that are set to protect against impacts on human
health. Adhering to government guidelines regarding exposure to contaminants should protect
individuals from significant health impacts.
Background
Our lives are inextricably connected to the land; we use it to grow our food, we play in parks and
recreation fields, and we build our homes on top of it. We rely on the land to filter our water and
bury our waste. The land base and soils can contain a variety of contaminants or pollutants that
may impact human health including heavy metals, toxic chemicals, or biological contaminants.
In some cases these contaminants or toxins may be naturally occurring, while in other cases the
contaminants in our soils have been added by people either accidentally or intentionally.
In some cases, land owners have unknowingly contaminated their land with toxic chemicals such
as pesticides, solvents, or volatile organic compounds (VOCs). These chemicals may have previously
been considered to present no health risk, and therefore little care or concern was given to their
proper disposal. In other cases, land owners have knowingly dumped toxic materials into dug pits
or stored them unsafely as a means of dealing inexpensively with hazardous waste. Sometimes,
depending on soil composition and groundwater movement, contamination is contained, while
other times it spreads, polluting nearby soil, surface water, and groundwater sources. According
to the definition adopted by the Government of Canada, a site is considered contaminated if
“substances occur at concentrations: 1) above background (normally occurring) levels and pose
or are likely to pose an immediate or long-term hazard to human health or the environment; or 2)
exceeding levels specified in policies and regulations.”19
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Historically, a variety of factors have made polluting land relatively easy across Canada. Some
of these factors include: weak environmental protection laws and policies, limited enforcement
capability, minor penalties, difficulties in identifying the polluter(s), costly remediation efforts,
court precedence, boom-and-bust companies and societal ignorance of environmental degradation
and its impacts. In recent years, the federal and provincial governments have implemented
regulations guided by the ‘polluter pays principle’, modifying standards and laws backed by sound
scientific evidence such that polluters are responsible for their contamination and must fund
expensive remediation measures. These recent efforts to further regulate, monitor, and enforce
typical polluting activities as well as efforts to control the sale, use, and transport of hazardous
materials means governments are taking more significant steps to protect the environment from
contamination.20
Health risks from soil contamination vary by factors such as the pollutant type, pollutant
concentration, length of exposure, route of exposure, and the vulnerability of the exposed
population. These factors, among others, may assist in determining the probability and severity of
the health impact, if any. In longer-term exposure situations, the outcomes are often not clearly
known because of limited data.
Contaminants present in soils can enter the body in three ways: inhalation (breathing in dust-borne
contaminants from excavation or redevelopment activities, or inhaling soil contaminants that have
vaporized), ingestion (eating food or drinking water from contaminated lands), and absorption
(contact with contaminated soils from various activities such as gardening, excavating, digging,
sports, or other outdoor activities may allow harmful chemicals to be absorbed through the skin).21,22
Health authorities like Health Canada and the World Health Organization have reports,
publications, and fact sheets on many environmental contaminants and chemical substances that
may be present in the soil. Information is available online to assist in determining probability and
severity of health impacts for specific chemicals. See these reputable sites for more information:
Government of Canada, Chemical Substances website, Health Canada’s website and the World
Health Organization website.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
41
Current Trends
Reporting, Inventorying and Remediation of Contaminated Sites
Federal and provincial governments have publicly available information on the condition of sites,
which includes sites with soil contamination. The government of Canada has an inventory of
federally owned contaminated sites where there are concentrations of one or more substances in
the soil or groundwater that is higher than expected for that region of Canada. Federally owned
lands that qualify for inclusion in the inventory must also have evidence that this concentration
poses a risk to human health or the environment.23
The Ontario government also has a mandate regarding contaminated sites in Ontario. There is a
provincial registry that records the conditions of properties called record of site conditions (RSC).
While RSCs are filed for only a small percentage of properties (often for properties to document
their ‘clean’ conditions), those properties that have undergone this process are publicly filed and
available from Ontario’s Environmental Site Registry. This registry is an Internet-based, electronic
registry that can be accessed for the purposes of filing or viewing a RSC.24 The RSC process has
many steps including environmental site assessments, risk assessments, and site remediation.
The federal and provincial governments have mandates to prevent, regulate, control, and manage
releases of harmful substances into the environment. Historically, environmental legislation did
not definitively address the duties and responsibilities for spills and the costs for the spill cleanup
were left to the taxpayer.25 However, costly remediation for several significant spills in the 1970s
triggered the addition of stronger provisions to Ontario’s Environmental Protection Act (EPA).
Part X of the EPA now establishes three basic obligations for polluters: the duty to report a spill,
the duty to clean it up, and accountability, meaning every person(s) or organization involved in a
spill is accountable for their actions including individuals, municipalities, corporations and other
organizations.26
Ontario provincial law (through the Environmental Protection Act (EPA) requires that all pollutants
spilled into the natural environment must be reported to the Ministry of the Environment through
its Spills Action Centre (SAC).27 Before 2005, the obligation to report spills under the EPA only
applied to a spill of a pollutant that causes or is likely to cause an adverse effect. In 2005, the EPA
was amended by the Environmental Enforcement Statute Law Amendment Act (referred to as Bill
133 – “The Spills Bill”), broadening its scope to have every spill of a pollutant reported, regardless
of whether the spill causes or is “likely to cause an adverse effect”.28
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The reporting provisions of the EPA require that a spill be reported by: a) the person that spills or
who causes or permits the spill, b) the person who had control of the pollutant immediately prior to
the spill, and c) police officers and employees of a municipality or other public authorities who may
have been informed of or who are investigating a spill unless they suspect that the Ministry (SAC)
has already been informed (s.92(4)).29 When reporting a spill, it is required that the circumstances
surrounding the spill, and any action that the person(s) reporting has taken or intends to take, also
be reported to the SAC.30
In addition, the EPA outlines that the owner of a pollutant and/or the person having control of a
pollutant that is spilled shall forthwith do everything practicable to prevent, eliminate and lessen
the adverse effect and to restore the natural environment.31 Those who had control of the spilled
pollutant, and the owner of the pollutant, are both given responsibility for containment and cleanup
where the spill causes or is likely to cause adverse effects. Hence, there is a duty and also an
accountability to clean up and restore the spill site to pre-spill conditions.32
Environmental Impact of Spills
The Ontario Ministry of the Environment categorizes reported spills by the potential for
environmental impact. In order to identify spills that require a high priority field response,
environmental officers make a preliminary assessment of the seriousness of the spill upon first
response.
In 2007, 47 per cent of spills reported to the SAC were categorized as ‘environmental impact
confirmed’ and 20 per cent of spills were identified as ‘environmental impact possible but not
confirmed’. Spills in the category ‘environmental impact not anticipated’ accounted for 33 per cent
of the total spills reported to the SAC in 2007. Health risk assessments in relation to spills are done
on a case-by-case basis, as there are many factors associated with undertaking this assessment.
Tables 5 and 6 show the provincial distribution of 2007 spills by environmental impact.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
43
TABLE 5: 2007 Spills by Environmental Medium and Impact, Ontario
Medium
Environmental Impact
Total
Not Anticipated
Possible
Confirmed
Air
165
171
557
893
Land
863
384
831
2078
Water
334
238
467
1039
Multiple Media
133
90
217
440
7
4
16
27
120
85
187
392
Land, Water & Air
4
1
7
12
Water & Air
2
0
7
9
Total
1495
883
2072
4450
Percentage
33%
20%
47%
Air & Land
Land & Water
Source: Ministry of the Environment. 2007. 2007 Spills Summary Report.
Available at: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/publications/6743e.php
TABLE 6: 2007 Spills by Material Group and Environmental Impact, Ontario
Material Group
Environmental Impact
Total
Not Anticipated
Possible
Confirmed
Oils
843
421
955
2219
Chemicals
201
87
177
465
Gases and Particulates
162
170
545
877
Wastes
221
166
312
699
Other
68
39
83
190
Total
1495
883
2072
4450
Source: Ministry of the Environment. 2007. 2007 Spills Summary Report.
Available at: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/publications/6743e.php
The SAC records the ‘sources’ and ‘sectors’ of the reported spills and maintains a database to
assist the MOE in achieving its environmental protection mandate. The data for 2007 indicates that
transportation-related spills (motor vehicles, transport trucks and tank trucks) are the single largest
group of spills reported to the SAC, accounting for 1,055 or 24 per cent of all spills in Ontario.33
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Chemical Releases in Waterloo Region
There are several Regional Departments notified of spills within our region. Region of Waterloo
Environmental Enforcement and Laboratory Services (EELS) division of the Transportation
and Environmental Services Department respond to spills 24/7 and ensure that the person(s)
responsible for the environmental contamination informs the appropriate organizations (i.e. SAC),
contains the spill, and remediates the site. EELS staff respond to an average of 200 spills per year.
The Public Health unit is informed of spills when it is determined that the spill may pose a health
risk. Water Services staff are informed of spills so that they can take action to reduce the potential
impact on our drinking water and municipal water supply.
Actions taken in case of a spill in Waterloo Region
In the event of a chemical release or discharge in Waterloo Region, there would be many regulatory
agencies involved, each representing different interests and with an overall goal of providing
comprehensive emergency management of the spill. For example, if there was a transportationrelated spill involving dangerous goods along Highway 401 in Kitchener, there is a requirement
to report the accident to the regional and provincial police, Kitchener fire department, Emergency
Medical Services, and Canadian Transport Emergency Centre (CANUTEC). The Ontario Ministry of
the Environment’s Spills Action Centre would also be notified along with the Region of Waterloo’s
Environmental Enforcement spill response personnel, Grand River Conservation Authority (if the
spill was likely to enter nearby surface water), and other Regional staff from various departments
including Water Services, Transportation and Environmental Services, and Public Health. If the first
responders anticipate that the spill will cause or is likely to cause an adverse effect, emergency
and/or public health personnel will be involved in the response. Therefore, while many regulatory
agencies are notified of a spill, each agency is concerned about the spill from their own mandate.
Local public health units are the only regulatory agency specifically concerned about the potential
for spills to cause adverse human health effects.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
45
LOCAL CASE STUDY:
Chemical Releases in Elmira from Chemtura’s Facility (formerly Uniroyal)
In 1989, water sampling results found that much of Elmira’s groundwater in the vicinity of the
Uniroyal plant was contaminated with a chemical known as NDMA at concentrations many
times above acceptable drinking water standards. Further investigations over time revealed
other contamination both on- and off-site in the air, soil, surface water, bedrock, and adjacent
Canagagigue Creek. In the 19 years since the groundwater contamination was first discovered,
considerable work has been done to clean up the chemical contamination including groundwater
containment and soil evacuation. However, there is still further remediation work to be done.
The groundwater continues to have elevated levels of numerous chemicals, including: NDMA,
ammonia, DNAPL, and chlorobenzene. Sub-surface soils and bedrock have been found to have
elevated levels of NDMA and chlorobenzene. Routine monitoring of groundwater, soil, surface
water, air quality, and creek biota continues to detect contaminants that will require further
abatement measures and clean-up efforts in the future.
Historically, Canagagigue Creek has had a number of Uniroyal’s signature chemicals (chemicals
uniquely identifiable to Uniroyal) deposited and discharged into its water and sediment over the
years. Documentation from 1945 indicates that DDT waste by-products were disposed into waste
pits while wastewater containing DDT was discharged into the creek for several years. Other
chemicals, for example dioxins and furans, by-products of production of the herbicide 2,4,5trichlorophenoxy, have been found to be present in some on-site soils and creek bank sediment. In
addition, wastewater containing the chemical lindane, an insecticide, was discharged to on-site
ponds and wastewater treatment facilities from 1976 to 2000. Samples collected from fish, clam,
and leeches collected in the Creek adjacent to and downstream of the old Uniroyal site in the
time period between 1995 and 2003 indicated the possibility of human and ecological impact from
exposure to materials remaining in the environment from the previous contamination. As a result
of this information, a human health risk assessment for Canagagigue Creek report was prepared
in February of 2003 and found that chemical concentrates in creek users were below the level of
concern, as established by the MOE, for cancer risk as a result of the chemical contamination by
Uniroyal.
A variety of stakeholders including the Township of Woolwich, Region of Waterloo Public Health,
Region of Waterloo Water Services, and the Ontario Ministry of the Environment, have been
involved in the cleanup of the chemical contamination and in resolving other concerns that have
resulted from the contamination of Uniroyal’s site. In terms of on- and off-site cleanup efforts,
many different remediation technologies have been and are currently being used to clean up the
groundwater beneath Elmira. Recently, the final phase of the Canagagigue Creek rehabilitation
project was completed. In addition to remediation, the Uniroyal (now Chemtura) facility has
undergone a variety of equipment modernizations and process improvements to meet MOE orders
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
and reduce the impact of its operations on the environment. Overall, investigations into the
environmental impact of these historic chemical releases are still being undertaken and assessed.
The groundwater contamination is projected to be fully remediated by 2029.
LOCAL CASE STUDY:
Chemical Releases in Cambridge from Northstar’s Site
In late 2004, Northstar Aerospace Inc. began groundwater and soil testing on and immediately
adjacent to its plant at 695 Bishop Street North, Cambridge, as part of the company’s
environmental assessment program. Initial results found solvents, including trichloroethylene
(TCE), in some boreholes and monitoring wells that exceeded the applicable Ontario Ministry of
the Environment standards. Off-site contamination was identified in 2005 and a nearby property,
presently owned by G.E. Canada, has been identified as a secondary contributor to the same TCE
contamination. Although it is not known when trichloroethylene (TCE) was first released into the
environment in the Bishop Street neighbourhood, it is estimated that the initial chemical release
might have occurred 25 to 30 years ago.
Since 2004, Northstar and G.E. Canada have been conducting groundwater and indoor air quality
testing programs in consultation with Ministry of the Environment (MOE) and other government
agencies, including the Region of Waterloo Public Health. A series of 168 monitoring wells
continue to provide groundwater information for the area while 482 homes have received indoor air
sampling to date. In 2006, Northstar and G.E. Canada developed an Interim Remedial Action Plan
(IRAP) to address groundwater and indoor air impacts at the site and in the affected neighbouring
industrial and residential area. Phase one of the remediation began in late 2007. Based on the
results of indoor air sampling, Northstar has installed remedial interventions in 197 homes to lower
TCE vapour levels in indoor air. The majority of the homes have experienced improved indoor air
quality as a result of remediation efforts. The drinking water supplied by the Region of Waterloo to
area residents is safe and is currently unaffected by the contamination. Phase two of the IRAP is
under development and will concentrate on cleaning up the groundwater contamination.36,37
As this investigation and cleanup continues, the Region’s Public Health Department, Transportation
and Environmental Services Department, and the Ontario MOE will ensure that any public health
risks are appropriately addressed and that the Region’s drinking water supply is not impacted.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
47
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect
the environment from chemical spills?
Regional staff works collaboratively with other government agencies and industries to ensure that
the public’s health is protected when it has been identified that there has been a spill. Many Region
of Waterloo departments are involved in the review of risk assessments and other environmental
assessment reports for properties that are contaminated. Public Health is especially involved in
the event where the contamination affects residential properties and there are confirmed reports
that people are being exposed or potentially exposed to any substance that exceeds a recognized
standard, or it is determined that people are being exposed to an unacceptable health risk.
When a spill occurs, Region of Waterloo Environmental Enforcement and Laboratory Services staff
ensures that the persons responsible for the environmental contamination inform the appropriate
organizations, contain the spill, and remediate the site. Environmental Officers respond to spills
24/7 and make a preliminary assessment of the seriousness of the spill upon first response. In the
event of a major spill or chemical release that is considered an emergency, the Region’s Emergency
Planning Office assumes the coordination responsibilities.
Water Services staff continues to run workshops, education, and awareness campaigns to prevent
spills and other harmful substances from entering our groundwater. This is particularly important
since our regional population relies on our groundwater for drinking. Regional staff aim to decrease
land contamination in our community by ensuring spills have been reported, contained, and that the
area is quickly remediated.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to prevent
chemical spills and contamination?
• Take precautions to prevent toxic chemicals or substances of unknown toxicity from entering
soils and the environment in general. For example:
• Monitor fuel usage to identify possible leaks from fuel storage tanks
• Take precautions to reduce minor spills when changing oil in vehicles at home
• Ensure that your motor vehicles have regular maintenance to reduce the likelihood of
oil, gas, and other fluid leaks
• Use alternative lawn care methods instead of applying pesticides and other lawn and
yard chemicals
• Dispose of household hazardous wastes appropriately; refer to the Region of Waterloo
Waste Management website to learn about safe household hazardous waste disposal
• At home, clean up spills as soon as possible and ensure proper disposal of absorbent
material; call for help if you don’t know how to deal with a spill
• Inform SAC (1-800-268-6060) and Region of Waterloo Environmental Enforcement
(519-650-8200) staff in the event of a chemical spill
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
49
3.2 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
Solid wasteb generated by households and commercial and industrial enterprises may contain
substances that are hazardous or harmful to human health. Many current waste management
practices centre around preventing harmful substances that may be contained in waste from
leaking into water or air where they may be transported outside of the landfill area. If there is a
breach in regular waste management protocols, the health risks associated with solid wastes vary
depending on factors such as waste type, concentration, route of exposure, and vulnerability of
the exposed population. Residents can reduce health risks due to solid waste by respecting landfill
requirements and disposing of wastes according to guidelines. Overall, the probability of health
impacts from solid waste is low.
Background
Municipal solid waste is the garbage that households put at the curb every week. Waste is
generated when materials are considered to have no further value and are thrown away. For most
households in the Waterloo Region, these materials are collected weekly and transported to the
regional landfill in the City of Waterloo. Reducing the amount of solid waste that we produce is an
important way to reduce health and environmental impacts. Although health impacts aren’t usually
associated directly with waste management programs, how we collect, store, and dispose of our
waste can have long-lasting effects on our environment and our health.
Hazardous materials are generated as part of municipal waste but are dealt with separately from
the rest of the waste stream due to their toxicity. Hazardous waste includes by-products from
industrial processes such as waste acids, solvents, lubricants, paints, steel-making residues,
contaminated sludge, PCBs, and oils.
Many household products including paints, solvents, car batteries, and biomedical or pathological
wastes are considered hazardous waste and they require special disposal techniques to
avoid creating health hazards, nuisances, or environmental pollution.38 Household Hazardous
Waste (HHW) is defined as the residual of products used in the home which exhibit poisonous,
combustible, explosive, and/or flammable properties, or are wastes that are likely to spread
disease.39 Many chemicals in hazardous waste products are potentially harmful to human health
and the environment.
b
The definition of solid waste in this report refers mainly to discarded materials, and excludes sewage.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Current Trends
Municipal Solid Waste Diversion and Reduction Programs
Both waste diversion and waste reduction programs are intended to decrease the amount of waste
that is directed to landfill. Recycling and composting programs are examples of waste diversion
programs. Waste reduction refers to programs that reduce or eliminate waste from being generated
in the first place, through reuse, downsizing, light-weighting, reducing packaging, and/or changing
procurement practices that result in less waste. There is a wide range of economic, environmental,
and health benefits to both diverting and reducing waste.
Landfills are engineered environments where municipal solid wastes are buried. Modern landfills
are designed to manage the risks to the environment that exist when garbage is buried in the
ground. This includes ensuring that contaminants or pollutants present in the garbage do not
migrate out of the landfill. Moisture and water can filter through the waste, picking up metals,
minerals, organic chemicals, bacteria, viruses and other toxic materials. This contaminated water
is called leachate and if it is not contained, this leachate can travel and contaminate both soils
and water sources. Modern landfills are designed and built to meet strict rules and standards
with regards to collecting and treating leachate.40 Decomposing garbage in landfills also produces
odours and gases. Two of the gases produced, carbon dioxide and methane, contribute to climate
change (see Section 7 for more details). The methane produced from landfills can however, be
collected and burned to produce energy if a system is set up to do so.
The Region of Waterloo currently operates two waste management facilities: one in the City of
Waterloo and one in the City of Cambridge. Major components include one sanitary landfill for the
disposal of wastes in the City of Waterloo and a waste transfer facility in the City of Cambridge.
Regional residents and businesses may also dispose of their wastes at the six small-vehicle
transfer stations located throughout the region: one located at each of the landfill sites and one
in each of the rural townships. In addition, the Region is responsible for ongoing environmental
monitoring and maintenance at four closed landfills: Kitchener, Woolwich, and two in North
Dumfries (Ayr and Cheese Factory Road). In terms of waste collection, most of the Region’s waste
collection is contracted out.41
The Region of Waterloo is one of very few Ontario municipalities with secure long-term
disposal capacity. Our landfill site life remains in the 25-30 year range, our waste diversion was
approximately 45 per cent in 2007, and new waste reduction programs are implemented each year.
The Region of Waterloo’s Waste Management Centre in Waterloo was registered to ISO 14001
standard in 1998, and was the first municipal waste management facility to do so in North America.
The certified ISO 14001 Environmental Management System ensures: managed environmental
impacts, compliance with regulatory requirements, continuous improvement through objectives and
targets, and due diligence.42
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
51
Since the implementation of the 1986 Waste Management Master Plan which required upgrades
in leachate collection and management, an extensive leachate collection system at the Waterloo
Landfill has been installed in several stages. The system consists of an underdrain collection
system (1987), a full perimeter toe-drain collector system (1987-2004) including a low-permeable
soil berm or barrier to prevent lateral leachate movement off-site, several leachate pump stations
connected to the leachate collector lines which collect and pump the leachate to the wastewater
plant in the City of Waterloo (1987-2004), a leachate purge well containment system (2001 to
2005), and a trenchless collection system used to collect the leachate (2005).43
While the 1986 Waste Management Master Plan did not recommend a leachate control system at
the Cambridge Landfill, remedial actions were developed to improve the surface water drainage
network to prevent leachate from moving off-site via surface water runoff southwest of the site.
In 2002, after monitoring results reported that landfill leachate was contributing to groundwater
impacts downstream of the site, it was determined that a leachate control plan was required. The
major components of the leachate control plan consist of: a purge well containment system (2005),
an enhanced landfill gas condensate/leachate collection system (2005), and contingency measures.
In the late 1990s, leachate monitoring results at the Waterloo Landfill confirmed the presence of
vinyl chloride, a known human carcinogen. In 2001, Regional Council approved a leachate control
plan to ensure the leachate is contained and the groundwater is protected. Increasing the number
of monitoring wells and a purge well containment system are key components of this integrated
approach to control the leachate. In 2005, an emerging technology called ‘non-intrusive trenchless
technology’ was employed to better collect the leachate. This technology is anticipated to reduce
the groundwater impacts of leachate at the south part of the site. While the potential for vinyl
chloride to exceed the drinking water objective (of 2 parts per billion (ppb)) in off-site private wells
is low, detections of vinyl chloride continue to be observed in monitoring wells located near the
south property boundary. Therefore, as a precautionary measure, a municipal water main was
installed in the summer of 2002 to ensure that residents directly south of the area maintain a
secure water supply.44
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
It is anticipated that through the combined efforts of the perimeter toe-drains, the purge well
network, the final cap on the original landfill site, and the leachate extraction wells, that
groundwater impacts will be dramatically reduced over the long term. As of 2006, no groundwater
impacts have been observed off-site.45
In the mid-1980s, minor leachate breakouts were intermittent at the Cambridge Landfill and some
leachate was moving off-site via surface water runoff on the southwest area of the site. Remedial
actions were taken to address these minor breakouts and prevent further migration of leachate offsite. In 2002, monitoring results indicated that there were elevated levels of leachate in the landfill
and this buildup was having a negative impact on the landfill gas collection system. In addition,
monitoring results indicated that leachate was impacting groundwater in the south and southwest
portions of the landfill site. These results triggered the development of a leachate control plan in
2002.46
In 2004 and 2005, monitoring wells to the north and east of the main landfill area indicated that the
groundwater was impacted with dilute concentrations of landfill-related chemicals. Although the
contamination is within the landfill property boundary, Regional staff installed four new well nests
along the adjacent property and will continue to monitor them regularly.47
The Region is responsible for ongoing monitoring and maintenance activities at four closed landfill
sites. Groundwater monitoring wells were installed at each site following closure and are sampled
on a regular basis and analyzed for typical landfill parameters. As of 2006, monitoring results from
the former Ayr and Cheese Factory Road landfills indicate no significant groundwater impacts.
There appear to be some minor groundwater impacts from the former Woolwich landfill, but these
impacts are localized close to the site.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
53
Waste Management in Waterloo Region
In Waterloo Region, increasing amounts of residential waste are being diverted from landfill sites
(see Figure 8). Since 1998, total tonnes of diverted residential waste continue to rise while the total
tonnes of landfilled waste remained fairly steady. In 2007, the percentage of diverted residential
waste was highest at 45 per cent, compared to 37 per cent in 1998. This has been a continued
trend despite population growth (see Figure 9).
FIGURE 8: Trend of Landfilled/Diverted Residential Waste
from 1998-2007 for Region of Waterloo
Source: Region of Waterloo Waste Management. (2006). 2006 Key Indicator Report.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
FIGURE 9: Trend of Landfilled/Diverted Residential Waste
in relation to Regional Population Growth for Region of Waterloo
Source: Region of Waterloo Waste Management. (2006). 2006 Key Indicator Report.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
55
Household Hazardous Waste
The Region of Waterloo developed one of the first HHW programs in Ontario in 1984, which
ensures the safe disposal of hazardous wastes. Since its origin, the program has been expanded
beyond the safe disposal of household chemicals and cleaners to include the proper disposal of
vehicle tires. The box below outlines some of the more common HHWs and their related health
impacts.
Examples of Household Hazardous Waste and Related Health Impacts
Paint Products – Methylene chloride is used extensively in paint removers, and is very
dangerous for people with heart ailments. Oil-based products are combustible. Latex and
water-based paints don’t require solvent thinners (they may still have toxic substances but
lack volatile hydrocarbon solvents).
Solvents – Solvents are fast-drying substances which dissolve another material. Breathing
of these vapours or accidental drinking can be harmful or even fatal. Long-term exposure
to some solvents may cause liver and kidney problems, birth defects, central nervous
system disorders and cancer. Some solvents are flammable. Products containing highly
toxic ingredients may be considered carcinogenic (causes cancer) such as nitrobenzene,
trichloroethane, trichloroethylene,
or dinitrobenzene.
Caustic/Corrosive – Caustic/corrosive materials are effective cleaners, but they can cause
severe eye and skin damage. Any acid or alkaline product is corrosive and is also poisonous if
ingested.
Aerosol Sprays – Aerosol sprays contain a high proportion of organic solvents and mist
particles can enter the lungs and bloodstream. Contents can irritate eyes, skin and respiratory
tract.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect
the environment with regards to waste?
The Region of Waterloo (ROW) operates two waste management facilities and six small-vehicle
transfer stations. Region of Waterloo is responsible for ongoing environmental monitoring and
maintenance at four closed landfills throughout the region. ROW operates an ISO 14001 certified
Environmental Management System at the Waterloo Waste Management Centre to ensure that
our facility complies with regulations and has a minimal impact on the environment. ROW is
continuously expanding its HHW program to divert more and more residential hazardous waste
from entering the landfill. Recent diversion programs include tire recycling, white goods exchange
(appliances like fridges, stoves, washer, dryer, etc.), and e-waste programs (computers, cell phones,
and other electronic devices). ROW regularly monitors and maintains extensive leachate collections
systems at its sites to ensure that landfill leachate does not adversely affect the environment or
human health.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to protect
the environment with regard to waste?
• Participate in all of the residential waste reduction, reuse, recycling,
and composting programs offered in Waterloo Region such as:
•Blue box recycling
•Green bin composting program/source separated organics
•Deposit return programs
•Leaf landspreading
•Yard waste
•Backyard composting
•Grasscycling
•Scrap metal/white goods recycling
•Tire recycling
•Household Hazardous Waste drop-off programs
•E-Waste program
•Donating used items to organizations such as Goodwill or
Habitat for Humanity so that they can be re-used
• Ensure that your household toxic chemicals and hazardous products are disposed
of properly through the Region of Waterloo’s Household Hazardous Waste program.
• Make the switch from using products with hazardous ingredients to those with
natural or less toxic ones. See Table 7 “Making the Switch – Alternate Choices”.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
57
TABLE 7: Making the Switch – Alternate Choices
Waste Category
Hazardous Ingredients
Alternatives
Batteries
Mercury, zinc, silver lithium,
cadmium
Solar-powered,
Wind-up action,
Rechargeable batteries
Oven Cleaner
Potassium, sodium hydroxide,
ammonia
Baking soda and water
Toilet Cleaner
Acid, calcium hypochlorite
Baking soda, mild detergent
Drain Cleaner
Sodium or potassium
hydroxide, hydrochloric acid,
petroleum distillates
Flush with boiling water, 1/3
cup baking soda and 2 oz.
vinegar
Furniture and Floor Polish
Diethylene glycol, petroleum
distillates, nitrobenzene
1 part lemon juice, and 2 parts
vegetable oil
Bleach Cleaners
Sodium or potassium
hydroxide or hypochlorite
1/2 cup borax, vinegar or
baking soda
Mothballs
Napthalenes,
paradichlorobenzene
Cedar chips
Newspaper
Lavender flower
Pool Chemicals
Acids, algaecides
Ozone/ultraviolet light systems
Source: Region of Waterloo. 2001. One Drop at a Time – Grade 8 Water Unit.
Household Hazardous Wastes Facts – Teacher Resource.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
3.3 PESTICIDES
Pesticide products are used to control pests such as insects or weeds. They can be applied through
home use; commercially they are often applied through the spraying of a liquid pesticide solution.
This spray is of concern since it can drift outside of the pesticide treatment area, potentially
exposing humans and the general environment to toxic chemicals. Pesticide residues may persist
for a long time in the environment and may leach through the ground into local groundwater, bind
to soil particles, or run off into surface water sources like rivers and lakes. Pesticide residues may
also cling to our clothing, shoes, or our pets and be brought into our home, accumulating in carpets,
furniture, or in the air in the form of dust particles. The health risks from exposure to pesticides
vary depending on the type of pesticide, the concentration of the chemical, the duration and type
of exposure, as well as many other factors such as age, sex, diet, exposure to other chemicals,
family traits, lifestyle, and individual health status. Pesticides may form an acute or chronic
health risk, depending on the many factors listed above. An acute impact is often referred to as
pesticide poisoning. Health risks from chronic exposure to pesticides are still being researched but
growing evidence suggests that they are harmful to humans, particularly children and pregnant
women. Depending on the pesticide type, some have been classified as “carcinogenic to humans”.
It is prudent to avoid exposure to pesticides wherever possible and limit home use of chemical
pesticides where possible.
Background
The Pest Management Regulatory Agency of Canada defines a pesticide as “any substance that
has been developed to either destroy or control the activities of pests.”48 Common pesticides
include herbicides, fungicides, insecticides, antimicrobials, wood preservatives, pool chemicals,
personal insect repellents, and insect or rodent control mechanisms. The most common types of
pesticides are herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides, which are used to control the growth of
unwanted plants or “weeds”, the growth and reproduction of insect populations and the growth of
fungi, respectively.49
Pesticides are used for a variety of reasons: in agriculture they are primarily used to increase crop
yield and protect livestock; in forestry they are used to control invasive species; on lawns and
gardens they are often used for cosmetic purposes; and for health and safety reasons, pesticides
are used to prevent the spread of vector-borne disease. (See section 6.6, Vector-Borne and Zoonotic
Disease for more information).
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
59
Pesticide sprays used for agriculture and cosmetic lawn applications can enter the air and drift into
surrounding areas exposing humans and animals to toxic chemicals. Drift occurs when the spray
cloud is carried by the wind to locations outside the pesticide treatment area.50 The increasing
proximity between urban areas and farmlands has led to increasing concerns over the potential
human health effects of pesticide drift.51 Other risks of pesticide drift include unwanted residues on
adjacent crops and pesticides entering nearby ecosystems.52,53
The amount of time it takes for a pesticide to be broken down in the soil influences the likelihood
of environmental harm. The type of chemical pesticide, in combination with sunlight, temperature,
soil, pH, microbial activity, and other environmental factors affect the rate of breakdown.54 For
example, in the 1960s and 70s, the use of various organo-chlorine pesticides such as DDT, which do
not break down easily, gave rise to bio-accumulation concerns, the process whereby the chemical
is concentrated in the tissue of organisms, typically in fatty tissue.55 Some chemicals readily bind
to soil, while others are more water soluble and have a higher leaching potential.56 Texture and the
amount of organic material in the soil can also influence pesticide absorption. Coarse-textured soil
with minimal organic material allows chemicals from pesticides to pass through easily. This can
result in pesticides leaching into the groundwater or surrounding lakes and streams.
Pesticides entering into groundwater and surface water sources may negatively impact aquatic
environments and human health. Many studies are underway to help determine how pesticide
use affects aquatic environments and the overall health of our ecosystems. Studies have shown
that large concentrations of insecticides entering aquatic systems can be lethal to fish, macroinvertebrates, and zooplankton, while herbicides can be toxic to fish and other submerged plants.57
Current science suggests that pesticides entering the aquatic system in very low concentrations
can have chronic effects on aquatic ecosystems as well.58 Pesticides entering into surface water
and groundwater sources used as drinking water sources present a concern for municipal drinking
water.
In residential environments, pesticides can be brought into the home on clothing, shoes, or via
pets that have been exposed to pesticide residues. The residues can accumulate in carpets or on
furniture and enter the air in dust particles. This exposes anyone living in the home to pesticide
residues, even if they did not come into direct contact with the product(s). Children and pets are
at a higher risk of exposure because they are more likely to crawl in and around areas, such as
carpets, where residues tend to be deposited.
Exposure to pesticides can occur in three ways:
• Ingestion (taken in by the mouth, such as through eating or drinking)
• Inhalation (breathing in pesticide substances and particles)
• Absorption (through the skin)
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Acute pesticide poisoning is characterized by an adverse reaction from direct exposure to a
pesticide. Acute poisoning can occur in a variety of ways such as the accidental ingestion of a
pesticide or exposure through improper use/application or inhalation.59 Symptoms include, but are
not limited to, the following:
• Irritation and tearing of the eyes,
• A rash or blistering of the skin,
• Headaches, dizziness, lack of coordination,
• Sore throat, cough, runny nose, difficulty breathing, or respiratory failure,
• Cardiac arrhythmias,
• Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, or abdominal pain,
• In extreme cases, loss of muscle control, seizures, paralysis and coma.
Current Trends
In recent years, concerns have been raised over the risks of long-term health effects associated
with pesticide exposures. Toronto Public Health conducted a review of human exposure and health
effects from lawn and garden pesticides in 2002. Through a review of various epidemiological,
toxicological, bio-monitoring, and health risk assessment studies, this review suggests that
exposure to pesticides may moderately increase the risks for some health effects including some
cancers (especially leukemias, and lymphomas), reproductive effects (including fertility problems,
birth defects, adverse pregnancy outcomes such as spontaneous abortions and perinatal mortality),
and neurological effects (such as polyneuropathy, neuropsychological effects, or neurodegenerative
conditions like Parkinson’s disease). Limited research has also assessed the associations between
exposure to pesticides around the time of conception, during pregnancy, and on the long-term
effects in infants and children. While the evidence of epidemiological studies is not conclusive, it
does infer that pregnant women and fetuses, infants, children, and the elderly are more susceptible
to health effects from pesticide exposures than other sub-populations.60
Due to the growing evidence of the potential risk to human health posed by pesticides, the Medical
Officer of Health for the Region of Waterloo released the following statement in 2004 to support
pesticide use reduction:
“Due to the possibility of harm to human health, we should follow the
‘precautionary principle’ and avoid the non-essential use of pesticides.” 61
This precautionary approach led to the development of a Regional Pesticide By-Law
and to a pesticide reduction education campaign called Let’s Curb Pesticides.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
61
Pesticide Regulations
The federal government is responsible for the control and regulation of pesticides in Canada. The
Pesticide Management Regulatory Agency of Canada (PMRA) regulates the use of pesticides in
accordance with the federal Pest Control Products Act, which came into effect in 2006. Before a
pesticide is available for sale or use in Canada, it undergoes a scientific evaluation of the potential
health effects and environmental impacts of its active ingredient in conjunction with an evaluation
of the value that the product will offer Canadians. If approved, the product will become registered
for use in Canada.62 As of November 2008, there were 5,716 pesticide products registered through
the PMRA. Of those, 2,554 products or ingredients are registered for commercial use, 1,944 for
domestic use, and 112 for agricultural use.63
In June 2006, the federal Pest Control Products Act came into effect, with the goal of strengthening
health and environmental protection. This Act requires that products be sold with new sales
information, new incident reporting regulations, as well as a systematic re-evaluation of all
pesticides registered prior to 1995 using the most current science and technology. Emphasis was
also placed on increasing the availability of lower-risk products and promoting sustainable pest
management and risk reduction strategies in a variety of industries.64
Current Status of Pesticide Regulations in Ontario
Provincial governments can further restrict the sale and use of pesticide products above and
beyond the requirements set out by the federal government. As part of Ontario’s Toxics Reduction
Strategy (June 2008), the provincial legislature passed the Cosmetic Pesticides Ban Act in 2008
which regulates the cosmetic use of pesticides. The new legislation came into law April 22, 2009.
The Region’s Non-Essential Pesticide Reduction Social Marketing Campaign
and Waterloo Regional Pesticide By-law
From 2004 to 2008, Region of Waterloo Public Health coordinated the Let’s Curb Pesticides social
marketing campaign, jointly funded by the Region of Waterloo and the Area Municipalities. This
initiative came out of recommendations from the Waterloo Regional Pesticide Reduction Task
Force. The campaign was comprehensive and deployed a variety of behaviour change principles
and techniques. Workshops were delivered across the region that focused on natural lawn care
techniques, lawn alternatives including butterfly gardens, and other landscapes that encourage
biodiversity in our communities. The campaign included a website with testimonials from
homeowners in the region who had reduced or eliminated their pesticide usage. The website also
has information about natural lawn care techniques, a calendar of when to perform certain lawn
care practices, images of common pests and methods to effectively deal with them. In 2008, Grow
it Green lawn assistance visits were introduced. This free service was available to all Waterloo
Region residents and consisted of a personalized on-site visit from trained staff to identify common
lawn problems and provide customized education.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
FIGURE 10: Per cent of households that maintain a lawn, who identified that
they or a lawn company had used pesticides on their lawn by area municipality,
Waterloo Region, 2007 (n=311)
90
80
Per Cent Households
70
60
Pesticide
Use on Lawn
50
= 95%
Confidence
Interval
40
30
20
10
0
Cambridge Kitchener
42.0
24.5E
Waterloo Townships
43.1
64.2
Total
39.7
Source: Rapid Risk Factor Surveillance System (September 2007 – December 2007), Extracted November 2008.
Figure 10 shows the percentage of households that identified that they (or a lawn company) had
used pesticides on their lawn. It can be seen from this figure that the average use of pesticides on
lawns in 2007 was 39.7 per cent. Of the municipalities, the townships in Waterloo Region had the
highest use of pesticides on their lawn (64.2 per cent), and Kitchener had the lowest use (24.5 per
cent).
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
63
Agriculture results
Pesticide use in agriculture has been steadily declining since 1983. Figure 11 shows the decrease
in pesticide use based on total active ingredients used on all crops in Ontario from 1983 to 2003.
There has been a decrease from 8.7 million kilograms used in 1983 to 4.2 million kilograms used in
2003.
FIGURE 11: Trends in Agricultural Pesticide Use in Ontario, 1983-2003
10
8.7
7.2
million kg
8
6.3
5.2
6
4.2
4
2
0
1983
1988
1993
1998
2003
Source: OMAF. (2004). Survey of Pesticide Use in Ontario, 2003. Retrieved May 25, 2009,
from: http://www.agcare.org/File.aspx?id=752a4ce9-80d2-4287-822b-125e1f7a87b3
Agricultural pesticide use in Waterloo Region is also on the decline, mirroring the trends in
Ontario. Table 8 shows the total pesticide use in 1993 compared to 2003. In total, Waterloo Region
experienced a significant decrease of 25 per cent over the five-year period.
TABLE 8: Update on the rates of use of five pesticides, Waterloo Region, 1993 and 2003
Year
Pesticide Used (active ingredient per kg)
Mecoprop
+
2,4, -D
Dicamba
Diazinon+
Chlorpyrifos+
Total
1993
251,879
225,052
190,296
127,656
125,766
920,649
2003
703
115,517
195,627
3,970
5,366
321,183
Data based on the amount of active ingredient applied.
+
being phased out under PMRA re-evaluation program.
Source: Pesticide Management Regulatory Agency. (2008 3). PMRA Publications. Retrieved November 19, 2008,
from Re-evaluation Website: http://www.pmra-arla.gc.ca/english/pdf/re-eval/summarytable-eng.pdf
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Table 9 highlights the top 10 most often used pesticides in Ontario agriculture in 2003. It is
important to note that Atrazine, the third most commonly used pesticide in 2003, is slated for
phaseout under the PMRA re-evaluation program on all crops except corn. This should lead to a
significant decrease in its rate of use in Ontario. Since Waterloo Region is a major producer of corn,
however, it is unclear whether this region will see a decrease in rates of the use of Atrazine.
TABLE 9: Top ten pesticides used in agriculture, Ontario, 2003
Pesticide
Type of Pesticide
Amount (A.I. kg)
Glyphosate
Herbicide
1,170,762
Metalochlor
(including s-Metalochlor)
Herbicide
542,628
Atrazine +
Herbicide
513,950
1,3 dichloropropene
Nematocide
239,824
Dimethenamid
Herbicide
205,291
Dicamba
Herbicide
195,627
Fatty Alcohol N - decanol
Growth Regulator
133,856
MCPA/MCPB
Herbicide
129,337
2,4, -D
Herbicide
115,517
Pendimenthalin
Herbicide
85,334
Source: 2003 OMAFRA Survey of Pesticide Use.
Data based on the amount of active ingredient applied.
+
Being phased out except for use on corn.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
65
A consistent decrease in pesticide use has been seen in Ontario from 1983 to 2003. In addition,
there has been a 52 per cent decrease in the total active ingredients used in pesticides in Ontario
over the last 20 years.65 In Waterloo Region, a significant decrease in the active ingredients used
in pesticides was observed from 1993 to 2003. This decrease can be attributed to an increase
in education and adoption of integrated pest management programs, development of new
technologies, and a decrease in crop area.66 Based on the data in Tables 8 and 9, there was a 65
per cent decrease in the amounts of the 5 most commonly used pesticides in Waterloo Region
in 2003 (Mecoprop, 2,4-D, Dicamba, Diazinon, Chlorpyrifos) when compared to data in 1993.67 Of
those, three active ingredients – Mecoprop, Diazinon and Chlorpyrifos – are being phased out of
use completely under re-evaluation programs.68 In addition to a decrease in the use of pesticides,
an overall reduction in the risk associated with pesticide use and the number and amount of highrisk pesticides being used has also decreased. Based on this information, the overall health risks
associated with agricultural pesticide use should continue to decline.
Additional information about agricultural pesticides is found in Section 3.4 (Agricultural Land and
Practices) of this report.
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect
residents’ health with regards to pesticides?
The Regional Pesticide Working Group was formed in June 2003 after the health risks associated
with pesticides were recognized across the region. The working group’s mandate was to create
a framework for a possible pesticide by-law to reduce the use of non-essential pesticides. The
group included representatives from each municipality and township (i.e. Cambridge, Kitchener,
North Dumfries, Waterloo, Wellesley, Wilmot, and Woolwich), Region of Waterloo Public Health
Staff, representatives from the Regional Municipality of Waterloo Community Services Committee
and both community and industry stakeholders. The group reviewed the current by-laws from 10
different communities across Ontario as well as conducting public consultation in order to develop
a framework for a possible by-law in Waterloo Region. These recommendations were used by
Council to form the Region of Waterloo Pesticide By-Law to reduce the use of non-essential
pesticides. The by-law was proposed in February 2006 and came into effect January 1, 2007.
As part of Region of Waterloo Public Health’s non-essential pesticide reduction program, Let’s
Curb Pesticides, a variety of community-based social marketing campaign strategies were used to
promote alternatives to non-essential pesticide use. To find out more about this program, please
visit: http://www.letscurbpesticides.ca/
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to protect their
health and the environment with regards to pesticide use?
To protect your health and environment, it is best not to use pesticides in the first place, relying
instead on alternative practices and proper turf maintenance.
Proper storage and use of pesticide products is the most important way to reduce exposure if
you are going to use pesticides. Ensure that all label directions are carefully followed and wear
protective clothing when handling pesticides. Also make sure to properly seal any stored product,
follow storage instructions and keep products out of reach of children and pets. When disposing
of pesticides: do not dump them down the drain, sewer, or onto the ground, driveway, or road.
Make sure pesticides are disposed of properly during any Hazardous Waste Collection Day at any
Regional Waste Disposal site. For more information, please contact Region of Waterloo Waste
Management Department at 519-883-5100 or visit the Region of Waterloo website at www.region.
waterloo.on.ca and select “Living Here” then “Garbage and Recycling” from the drop-down menu.
In order to get a lawn strong and healthy without pesticide use, follow these steps:
1. Aerate your lawn at least once a year.
2. Top-dress and overseed: Rake a 1/2 inch of compost or triple mix over your lawn
(especially in bare or patchy areas) and overseed with a mix of fescues and perennial
ryegrasses in spring and fall.
3. Fertilize: Use a slow-release or organic fertilizer on your lawn in early spring and late fall.
4. Mow high: Leave your lawn at a minimum height of 2.5 to 3 inches.
5. Water properly: If you water, make sure you are only watering your lawn deeply (1 inch)
once a week to promote deep root growth.
6. Weeding: Hand pull or use a garden tool to remove weeds, or spot spray with pesticide
alternatives like acetic acid.
Visit the Let’s Curb Pesticides website at www.letscurbpesticides.ca for more information.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
67
3.4 AGRICULTURAL LAND AND PRACTICES
Health risks associated with agriculture depend largely on the farm type and how the land base is
used and managed. Well-managed farms and farmland should present very minimal health risk to
the nearby population. Bacterial or chemical contamination of water or land is possible, however, if
farming practices are poor or if there is a breakdown in waste management systems on farms. The
health risks associated with agriculture depend on the type of contamination, length of exposure
and individual risk factors among the exposed population. Livestock production carries the risk
of waterborne diseases linked to excessive and improperly treated livestock manure. Improperly
stored manure can leach into groundwater or run off into surface water and contaminate drinking
water with disease-causing bacteria, protozoa and viruses. Even in small amounts, the presence
of these contaminants can cause outbreaks of waterborne diseases, such as typhoid fever, cholera
and gastrointestinal illness. These diseases are usually of short duration and typically cause
diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches and other acute symptoms. However, in more susceptible
populations (i.e. infants, elderly, or people with weakened immune systems) the health effects may
be more chronic (e.g. kidney damage), or potentially fatal. By properly managing animal wastes and
taking common sense precautions, such as regularly testing well water for potential contaminants,
it is possible to significantly reduce the possibility of adverse health effects from agriculture.
Background
Agriculture represents the largest land use activity in the Region of Waterloo. Of the approximately
346,000 acres of land that make up the region, approximately 65 per cent was classified as
farmland by Statistics Canada in 2006.70 These agricultural lands form part of the region’s rich
natural capital and contribute significantly to the community’s quality of life.
The agricultural lands of the region support a diverse and productive agricultural sector that creates
jobs and promotes economic vitality. Agricultural lands provide an opportunity for urban residents
to buy fresh produce, experience rural communities and connect with the farms that supply their
food. However, agricultural lands are more than just about food and economic activity. They are
also an integral part of the environment and are a key element of a healthy regional community.
Agricultural lands contain organic soils, woodlands, wetlands, streams, recharge areas and other
valuable natural features. These features both sustain agricultural production and provide a
range of environmental benefits, such as providing wildlife habitats, preserving genetic diversity,
recharging groundwater and absorbing greenhouse gas emissions. An average hectare of corn, for
example, absorbs about 22 tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere per year, the equivalent to
removing four automobiles from the road.71
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Despite the benefits of agricultural lands, some agricultural practices may present environmental
health challenges. For instance, improper crop management techniques can contribute to soil
erosion and increase runoff to nearby streams and rivers. This surface runoff can carry excessive
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus from fertilized farm fields into water sources, potentially
increasing human exposure to various contaminants.72
As stewards of the countryside, farmers understand that taking care of the land promotes
economically viable farms, enhances the environment and also protects human health. Many
farmers across the region have already taken steps to address these challenges by adopting more
sustainable agricultural practices, such as implementing environmental farm plans and water
protection projects on their farms. The Region of Waterloo, together with the local municipalities,
Grand River Conservation Authority and other public agencies have an important role in fostering
sustainable agriculture by identifying trends and issues and developing effective policies and
programs.
Waterloo Region’s agricultural sector makes an important contribution to local economy, both
in terms of economic activity and job creation. In 2006, the region’s primary agricultural sector
generated close to $380 million in gross farm receipts, representing about 10 per cent of the total
gross farm receipts reported by the municipalities within the Greater Golden Horseshoe.73 The
Greater Golden Horseshoe is the growth-planning area designated under the Province of Ontario’s
Places to Grow Act, 2005. It consists of more than 100 municipalities, including the Greater Toronto
Area, extending outwards from the western end of Lake Ontario. As of 2006, this large region was
home to approximately 8.1 million people, making it the most populous and urbanized region in
Canada.74
On a per-farm basis, gross farm receipts in the region averaged approximately $275,000 per farm,
surpassed only by Niagara Region’s valuable specialty-crop areas.75 Within Waterloo Region, the
Township of Woolwich reported the highest share of the gross farm receipts at $124 million (31 per
cent) followed by Wellesley at $104 million (26 per cent) and Wilmot at $98 million (25 per cent).
The high monetary value of Woolwich’s farm receipts may be explained in part by its large share
of the farmland compared to the other municipalities. In 2006, farmers within Woolwich reported
working over 73,000 acres of farmland, accounting for almost one-third of the region’s total farm
area.76 Moreover, Woolwich’s agriculture sector is also overly represented in the supply-managed
commodities, such as dairy and chicken egg production. These commodities are controlled through
a quota system and typically generate higher and more stable farm incomes. In 2006, Woolwich
accounted for 47 per cent of all dairy farms and 42 per cent of all chicken egg production farms in
Waterloo Region.77
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
69
Waterloo Region’s gross farm receipts have a substantial multiplier effect on the local economy.
According to an economic impact study completed in 2003, the region’s primary agriculture
sector generates an additional $897 million (2002 dollars) in sales per year through linkages with
several hundred agri-businesses across the Waterloo Region.78 Taken together, the agriculture
and agri-business sectors generate an estimated $1.3 billion (2002 dollars) per year in gross
sales, representing an output multiplier of 3.4. This figure suggests that for every dollar of sales in
Waterloo Region’s primary agricultural sector, an additional $2.40 of sales is generated in the local
economy. It is important to note that these are gross agriculture-related sales and no attempt has
been made to identify the “net value added” component.
The economic impact of the region’s agricultural sector is further highlighted by the number of jobs
it supports. In 2001, the Waterloo Region’s primary agricultural sector supported approximately
3,450 jobs, consisting of farm operators, employees and support activities related to farming.79
To put this into perspective, these job numbers are slightly below the 4,575 jobs reported in the
region’s information and cultural industries sector.80 The employment multiplier for the region’s
agricultural sector is estimated to be approximately 5.2. This multiplier suggests that for every job
created in the region’s primary agricultural sector, an additional 4.2 jobs is supported in the wider
economy. All told, the region’s primary, secondary and tertiary agricultural sectors together support
an estimated 18,037 jobs, representing about 11 per cent of the region’s labour force.81
Current Trends
Table 10 illustrates the number and land area (i.e. acreage) of farms in Waterloo Region between
1986 and 2006. Over this period, farm numbers in the region fell from 1,642 to 1,444, representing
a decline of about 12 per cent. However, this statistic by itself does not necessarily imply that the
agricultural sector, as a whole, declined or is declining. If the area of farmland is considered, rather
than farm numbers, the region’s agricultural sector decreased by only 4.9 per cent. This discrepancy
reflects the trend toward farm amalgamations and more intensive operations.82
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
TABLE 10: Number and area of farms by Municipality, Waterloo Region, 1986 and 2006
1986
Municipality
No. of
Farms
2006
Total
Acres
No. of
Farms
Total
Acres
Change in
Land Area
Percentage
Change in
Land Area
Cambridge
48
10,336
31
7,836
-2,500
-24.2%
Kitchener
54
6,914
35
4,802
-2,112
-30.5%
North Dumfries
185
30,878
117
27,530
-3,348
-10.8%
Wellesley
503
62,634
518
64,210
+1,576
+2.5%
Wilmot
337
54,455
247
48,697
-5,758
-10.6%
Woolwich
515
72,737
496
73,309
+572
+0.8%
237,954
1,444
226,384
-11,570
-4.9%
Waterloo Region 1,642
Note: The City of Waterloo is not listed due to the small number of farms remaining within the city’s boundaries.
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture, 1986 and 2006.
Between 1986 and 2006, Statistics Canada reported a decline in farm numbers in each area
municipality, except in Wellesley where farm numbers increased from 503 to 518. In 2006,
Woolwich reported the second highest number of farms with 596. Wellesley and Woolwich
accounted for over 70 per cent of all farms in Waterloo Region. The strength of the farming sector
in these two municipalities may be explained in part by their large Mennonite communities, whose
culture and livelihood are closely connected to farming. All published census data are subject to
confidentiality restrictions, and any data in which an individual or agricultural operation could be
identified are suppressed.
Approximately 11,570 acres of farmland were removed from production in Waterloo Region
between 1986 and 2006. The decline in farmland varied widely across the area municipalities.
Cambridge and Kitchener reported the highest percentage decline at 24.2 per cent and 31.0 per
cent respectively. In absolute numbers, Wilmot reported the highest loss of farmland at 5,758 acres
followed by North Dumfries at 3,348 acres. Part of this decline stems from urban development
pressures as well as the manner in which the census information was reported by farmers.c
c
Statistics Canada employs a “headquarters rule” in reporting the total area of farmland. This rule assigns all data
collected for an agricultural operation to the municipality where the farm operator is headquartered, regardless of the
actual location of the land being farmed (e.g., a neighbouring municipality). As a result, part of the “loss” of farmland
reported in Wilmot may be explained by farmers in neighbouring Wellesley and Woolwich simply expanding their
operations by renting lands in Wilmot.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
71
Despite the drop in farm numbers and average farm areas, agricultural production in Waterloo
Region has been rising. As shown in Table 11, between 1986 and 2006 total livestock numbers
increased in each of the key livestock groups except for the hog industry, which reported a 38
per cent drop in numbers. The sheep and lamb numbers in the region rose from 1,976 to 4,151,
representing an increase of approximately 110 per cent. The number of turkeys and chickens grew
by approximately 34 per cent and 39 per cent respectively.
The intensification of Waterloo Region’s farmlands is further highlighted by the change in livestock
numbers per farm between 1986 and 2006. The average livestock numbers per farm in the region
increased sharply in each of the major livestock groups. The only exception to this trend was
in the turkey industry, which reported a modest decrease in the number of turkeys per farm. On
average, the number of chickens per farm increased from 2,888 to 5,274, representing an increase
of approximately 82 per cent. In general, these trends indicate that the region’s agricultural sector
continues to expand production, despite a gradual loss of farmland. Future increases in primary
production will likely come primarily from further shifts in land use and greater intensification, not
from expansion of the land base.
TABLE 11: Number of livestock and farms, Waterloo Region, 1986 and 2006
1986
Livestock
Type
2006
Average
Number of Number Number of Number of
Animals of Farms Animals
Animals
per Farm
Number
of Farms
Average
Number of
Animals
per Farm
Cattle and calves 85,312
1,156
74
89,975
914
98
Sheep and lambs 1,976
61
32
4,151
75
55
Hogs
230,449
789
292
142,531
315
452
Turkeys
263,598
29
9,090
353,592
46
7,687
Chickens
1,761,778
610
2,888
2,442,054
463
5,274
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture, 1986 and 2006.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
The environmental and health risks associated with agriculture depend largely on the farm
type and how the land base is used and managed. In general, farms that rely on large inputs of
commercial fertilizers, pesticides and livestock manure to optimize production tend to pose higher
risks than farms that rely on moderate inputs.83 Examples of the environmental risks include water
pollution, soil degradation and bioaccumulation, and reduced biodiversity. These environmental
risks can, in turn, potentially expose people (e.g. through ingestion of food and water, absorption
and inhalation) to a wide range of health risks through contact with various contaminants, such
as bacteria, viruses, nitrates, or toxic chemicals. The health effects of these contaminants can
be either acute or chronic, depending on the nature, concentration and toxicity of the specific
contaminant. For example, an individual who drinks water contaminated by bacteria or pathogens
from livestock manure may experience an array of health problems, ranging from diarrhea, cramps
and nausea lasting only a few days, to longer and more serious impacts, such as kidney failure,
systemic infections, or possibly even death. Additional examples of the health risks associated with
agriculture are provided throughout this section.
Table 12 provides a breakdown of the different farm types in the region between 2001 and 2006.
Livestock farming was the predominant farm type, accounting for approximately 74 per cent
of all farms in 2006. Within this sector, beef and dairy farms were the two most common farm
types, each representing about 20 per cent of all farms. The next most common was field-crop
growing, representing about 26 per cent of all farms in 2006. Within this group, oilseed and grain
farming (e.g., soybeans, oilseed, wheat, corn and other grains) was the largest type of field crop,
representing about 13.4 per cent of the region’s farms. The percentage of farms devoted to fieldcrop growing increased by about 4.0 per cent between 2001 and 2006.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
73
TABLE 12: Farm Types in Waterloo Region, 2001 and 2006
2001
Farm Type
Number
of Farms
Per cent
2006
Number
of Farms
Per cent
Dairy cattle and milk production 296
21.2%
263
18.2%
Beef cattle farming
289
20.7%
282
19.5%
Hog farming
231
16.6%
185
12.8%
Sheep and goat farming
14
1.0%
30
2.1%
Poultry and egg production
91
6.5%
91
6.3%
Other animal production
164
11.8%
217
15.0%
Oilseed and grain farming
189
13.6%
194
13.4%
Vegetable and melon farming
15
1.1%
23
1.6%
Fruit and tree nut farming
9
0.6%
13
0.9%
Greenhouse, nursery and
floriculture
27
1.9%
44
3.0%
Other crop farming
68
4.9%
102
7.1%
Total
1,393
100%
1,444
100%
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture, 2001 and 2006.
The following sections provide an overview of the key environmental and health risks associated
with some of the major farm types in the region.
Red Meats
In 2006, red meat farms, including beef cattle, hogs, and sheep and goats, made up approximately
34.4 per cent of all farms in the region. In terms of livestock numbers, the region reported a total of
67,100 beef cattle, 142,531 hogs, 4,151 sheep and lambs, and 2,054 goats. The main environmental
concerns associated with red meat production relate to excessive or improperly managed manure.
If applied correctly and at the right time of the year, manure is a valuable soil amendment essential
to plant growth and soil fertility. On the other hand, poor management can contaminate surface
and groundwater water resources (from nitrates, phosphorus and bacteria), produce offensive
odours, and contribute to greenhouse gas emissions, including nitrous oxide and methane.84 These
environmental risks are influenced by the concentration of livestock in relation to the availability
of land on which to spread manure, the method of storing and applying manure, and the time of
year in which the manure is applied. As a result, highly intensive livestock operations, such as hog
production in confined barns or beef production on small land parcels, may pose a higher level of
risk and require sound environment management.85
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
In terms of health risks, red meat production can potentially cause a range of waterborne diseases
linked to excessive livestock manure. Improperly stored manure can leach into groundwater or run
off into surface water and contaminate drinking water with disease-causing bacteria, protozoa,
and viruses. Even in small amounts, the presence of these contaminants can cause outbreaks of
waterborne diseases, such as typhoid fever, cholera and gastrointestinal illness. These diseases
are usually of short duration and typically cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches and other
acute symptoms. However, in more susceptible populations (i.e. infants, elderly, or people with
weakened immune systems) the health effects may be more chronic (e.g. kidney damage) or
potentially fatal.
Over the past decade, red meat production in the region has been gradually declining because
of structural changes in the sector. For example, the beef sector has undergone a major shift in
production location from Ontario and Quebec to vast ranchlands of western Canada. The number of
farms producing hogs in the region has also declined due to consolidation in the industry.86
Dairy
Waterloo Region has a very significant dairy industry, both in terms of farm numbers and overall
gross farm receipts. In 2007, the region had the third highest number of milk producers in Ontario,
followed by the Counties of Wellington and Oxford.87 In 2006, dairy farms made up nearly 20 per
cent of all farms in the region, surpassed only by beef cattle farming. Most of Waterloo Region’s
dairy farms were located within Woolwich and Wellesley, which together accounted for about
78 per cent of all dairy farms.88 In 2006, Waterloo Region’s dairy industry generated an estimated
$71.3 million in gross farm receipts, accounting for about 23.2 per cent of the region’s and 17.8 of
Ontario’s total farm receipts for main commodities.89 Between 2001 and 2006, the number of dairy
farms in the region fell from 296 to 263, representing a drop of 11 per cent.90 Over the same period,
the total inventory of dairy cows fell slightly from 14,566 to 14,361 animals. Despite these declines,
total milk shipments to dairy processing plants increased by approximately 3.9 per cent, indicating
that fewer cows are producing more milk than in the past.91
The main environmental risks associated with dairy production include: water pollution from milkhouse wastes; livestock manure and pesticides used on field crops; soil degradation associated
with production of annual row crops; and potential trampling of riparian areas by cattle.92 Many
of these risks can be reduced by implementing best management practices on the farm, such as
constructing proper manure storage facilities to reduce the risk of runoff. To a certain degree, some
of these environmental impacts are being offset by the gains in milk productivity noted above. For
example, having fewer cows produce more milk means that less manure is being generated per
unit of milk. Future environmental gains in the dairy sector will likely stem from increased best
management practices and further gains in milk productivity.93
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The health risks associated with dairy production are similar to those in the red meat sector. As
noted previously, poorly managed manure can potentially cause certain waterborne diseases.
These diseases can lead to a variety of acute and chronic health problems, ranging from diarrhea,
cramps and headaches to more serious health effects, such as kidney damage or even death. The
relative health risks associated with any given livestock sector is difficult to assess and quantify
(e.g. health risks associated with dairy farms in comparison to beef cattle farms). In terms of
livestock numbers, the region had almost five times as many beef cows (67,100) as dairy cows
(14,361) in 2006. However, in comparison with other livestock, dairy cows produce nearly twice as
much manure per year (i.e. total kilograms) than beef cows.94
Oilseed and Grain
Waterloo Region’s farmers produce a range of oilseed and grain crops, such as corn, soybeans,
winter wheat, barley, and other grains. In 2006, a total of 194 farms were classified as oilseed
and grain farms, representing about 13.4 per cent of the region’s total farm numbers. However,
this statistic may be misleading as it only includes farms that Statistics Canada considers to be
devoted primarily to oilseed and grain farming. If all farms are considered, irrespective of their
primary farming activity, the scale of oilseed and grain production in the region is much larger. This
is because many farmers who have a sufficient land base often diversify their primary operations by
growing oilseed and grain crops.
The largest grain crop grown in Waterloo Region in terms of acreage was corn. In 2006, 560
farms reported growing 39,276 acres of grain corn, and 690 farms reported growing 19,022 acres
of corn for silage. These crops generated approximately $11.2 million in gross farm receipts in
2006, representing about 3.6 per cent of the region’s total gross farm receipts.95 Soybeans made
up the second largest field crop grown in Waterloo Region. In 2006, 303 of all farms in the region
(20.9 per cent) reported 25,869 acres of land planted for soybeans. Over the past decade, the
region’s soybean crops have been gradually expanding in response to rising soybean prices and the
introduction of new, hardier soybean varieties. These factors have promoted soybeans over corn in
farming production decisions.
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The environmental risks associated with oilseed and grain farming depend largely on the
crop.96 Smaller grain crops, including wheat, barley, and oats, generally pose relatively lower
environmental risks because they need little fertilization and provide good vegetative cover,
enhancing the soil both during and after the growing season. However, crops requiring higher
fertilization and/or providing limited vegetative cover tend to pose higher environmental risks. For
example, corn generally has higher nitrogen requirements than small grains, but can provide similar
levels of vegetative cover over the soil under reduced tillage practices. Moreover, soybean crops
generally provide less soil cover than small grains, but do not require nitrogen inputs. Soybean
fields also provide a good habitat for wildlife. Deer and rabbit, for instance, eat the forage and use
these fields for cover. During winter, unharvested grain provides wildlife with a valuable source of
food.97
In general, field crops that require higher amounts of fertilization (i.e. manure or commercial
fertilizer) and pesticides to optimize production tend to pose greater health risks than field crops
that need only moderate inputs. The nature of the health risks (i.e. acute vs. chronic) will depend
on the toxicity of the contaminant and the level of exposure. The recent rise in corn prices in
the commodities markets, fuelled in part by the expanding corn-derived ethanol fuel sector in
the United States, may prompt some farmers in Waterloo Region to convert from soybeans to
corn production in the coming years. This could potentially result in an increase in the amount of
pesticides and commercial fertilizers applied in the region.
Agricultural Land Use
Table 13 outlines the agricultural land use trends in Waterloo Region between 2001 and 2006.
In 2006, 78.2 per cent of the region’s agricultural land base was used for crop production,
dropping slightly from 79.8 per cent in 2001. Less than one per cent of the region’s agricultural
land base was used as summerfallow lands, remaining virtually unchanged between 2001 and
2006. Summerfallow lands refer to lands that are not cropped for at least one year. In the past,
many farmers relied on this practice to help reduce weeds and replenish soil moisture. However,
summerfallow lands also pose a series of environmental risks, such as soil erosion, organic matter
loss through oxidation, and sedimentation of surface water. Recent technological advances (e.g.
diversified crop rotations, improved seeding and tilling methods, proper use of herbicides) have
reduced the farmer’s reliance on this management technique.98
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TABLE 13: Agricultural Land Use in Waterloo Region, 2001 and 2006
Agricultural
Land Use
2001
Acres
2006
Per cent
Acres
Per cent
Percentage
Change
Lands in crops
180,274
79.8%
177,072
78.2%
-1.6%
Summerfallow land
822
0.4%
558
0.2%
-0.1%
Tame or seeded pasture
(improved pasture)
9,344
4.1%
8,249
3.6%
-0.5%
Natural land for pasture
(unimproved pasture)
8,402
3.7%
7,996
3.5%
-0.2%
Other lands (including
Christmas tree area,
woodlands and wetlands)
26,958
11.9%
32,509
14.4%
+2.4%
Total farmland area
225,800
100%
226,384
100%
-
Source: Statistics Canada, 2001 and 2006 Census of Agriculture.
Over the same period, the proportion of farmland used as pasture fell slightly from 7.8 to 7.1 per
cent. Since pasturelands are used less intensively than cropland, they require few, if any, fertilizers
or pesticides. As a result, they can help mitigate some of the environmental and health risks
associated with agriculture by providing greater soil cover, lowering the risk of soil degradation,
and creating habitat for certain wildlife species.
The share of farmland used for other purposes (e.g., Christmas tree areas, farm woodlots,
wetlands, and lands occupied by other farm uses) increased slightly from 11.9 per cent to 14.4 per
cent. Part of this increase likely resulted from the conversion of some cropland and pastureland
to woodlands and wetlands. This statistic suggests that local farmers are helping to maintain the
integrity of the region’s natural areas and ecosystems, despite a wider trend towards larger and
more intensive agricultural operations. Woodlands and wetlands provide many environmental
benefits, such as absorbing excess nutrients, filtering contaminants around water bodies, and
providing habitat and natural corridors for wildlife.99 These benefits help offset some of the
negative impacts associated with some farm operations.
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Soil Conservation Practices
Healthy soil is the foundation of a sustainable agriculture system. One of the key determinants of
healthy soil relates to land tillage practices. In general, the more farmland is disturbed through
plowing or tilling, the more susceptible it is to soil compaction and crusting, resulting in low water
infiltration, increased erosion, poor water retention, and the development of a zone of low microbial
activity near the soil surface.100 Soil compaction can occur when soil particles are packed closer
together by farm tractors and heavy tillage equipment after a rain shower. This can occur anywhere
in the soil profile, but usually occurs near the surface or at plow depth. Proper management can
lessen the impact of compaction on soil structure. Soil crusting can occur following the rapid
wetting and drying of an overworked field, forming a solid sheet between 0.2 to 5 centimetres
thick. This crust is tight enough to prevent crop emergence.101
Table 14 illustrates the main tillage practices used to prepare land for seeding in Waterloo Region
between 1996 and 2006. Over this period, the share of land worked with conventional tillage,
which has been the traditional tillage method in the region, dropped from approximately 68.7 per
cent to 49.6 per cent. The area of land practicing “no tillage” increased from 8.0 per cent to 24.8
per cent. No-tillage techniques use seeding equipment that slices a thin slit in the soil to plant the
seed without disturbing the soil. Conservation tillage, which represents a blend of conventional and
no-tillage practices increased from 23.3 per cent of tilled area to 24.8 per cent. The rising use of
these soil conservation practices indicates that more and more farmers in the region are doing their
part to help keep the land base productive for years to come.
TABLE 14: Tillage Practices Used to Prepare Land for Seeding,
Waterloo Region, 1996 and 2006
1996
Tillage
Practice
Acres
Total land prepared
2006
Number
of Farms
Per cent
Acres
138,277
1,270
100%
137,642 1,154
100%
Conventional tillage
95,004
1,104
68.7%
68,271
900
49.6%
Conservation tillage
32,193
280
23.3%
35,248
288
25.6%
No tillage
11,080
100
8.0%
34,123
279
24.8%
Number
of Farms
Per cent
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture 1996 to 2006.
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Use and Management of Farm Inputs
Many farmers in Waterloo Region use pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, and fungicides),
commercial fertilizers, and irrigation to increase crop yields and reduce the risk of crop failure
from diseases and pests. How these inputs are used and managed on the farm has important
implications on the environment and human health. Under the regulations of the Ontario Pesticides
Act, farmers must be certified to buy or apply certain agricultural pesticides on their land. These
regulations ensure that farmers understand the potential adverse effects of pesticides and know
how to minimize them. The main environmental impacts associated with pesticide use relate to
water pollution and potential impacts to non-target organisms.102 Many newly developed pesticides
are generally more selective and less toxic to humans, animals, and non-target organisms.
The health effects of pesticide use are diverse and vary with the toxicity of the pesticide and the
level of exposure. A pesticide with low toxicity and high exposure may pose similar health risks to a
pesticide with high toxicity and low exposure. For instance, a farm worker who accidentally inhales
or comes in direct contact with a toxic pesticide can experience headaches, dizziness, stomach
cramps, skin and eye irritation, and other acute symptoms. Other health effects of pesticide use
may not be noticed for many years. For example, an individual exposed to small amounts of certain
pesticides over a long period of time may develop chronic health problems, solid tumour cancers,
non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson’s disease. Pesticide
exposure may occur through dietary sources such as food and drinking water. In some cases,
pesticide residues can remain in or on the foods that have been treated.
In 2006, approximately 103,519 acres of farmland were treated with pesticides (herbicides,
insecticides and fungicides), a 4.4 per cent decrease from the area treated in 1996 (see Table 15).
The decline in pesticide use can be attributed in part to: higher prices for pest control products;
pesticide education programs and certification requirements for farmers; new technologies
allowing for more precise pesticide application (e.g. electrostatic sprayers, improved calibration,
and banning of pesticide applications); a rising trend towards crop rotations and other Integrated
Pest Management techniques; and the introduction of genetically modified field crops (e.g. Bt-corn,
and glyphosate-resistant corn and soybeans).103
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TABLE 15: Use of Selected Farm Inputs, Waterloo Region, 1996 and 2006
Type of
Farm Input
1996
Acres
Farms
2006
Percentage
of Farmland
Acres
Farms
Percentage
of Farmland
Commercial fertilizer 126,127 1,084
53.8%
137,642
1,154
60.8%
Herbicides
104,108 975
44.4%
68,271
900
30.2%
Insecticides or
Fungicides
13,596
455
5.8%
35,248
288
15.6%
Irrigation
287
30
0.1%
34,123
279
15.1%
Total
234,406 1,494
100%
226,384
1,444
100%
Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture 1996 to 2006.
In 1996, farmers applied commercial fertilizers to about 126,127 acres of land, representing 53.8
per cent of the total agricultural land base. By 2006, this percentage had increased to almost 61
per cent of the land base or approximately 137,642 acres of land. This trend, combined with the
gradual loss of farmland across the region, provides further evidence that the agricultural land base
is being used more intensively than in the past.
The health effects associated with fertilizers, including livestock manure and commercial fertilizers,
relate primarily to excessive nitrates. Nitrates are a major ingredient in fertilizers necessary to
nourish soils and promote plant growth. However, health problems can occur when excessive
amounts of nitrates leach into groundwater or flow into nearby creeks and rivers. This could
potentially contaminate drinking water and lead to infantile methemoglobinemia (“blue-baby”
syndrome). Adults who consume nitrate-contaminated water over an extended period of time could
experience compromised kidney or spleen function. Additional information regarding the health
effects of nitrates in drinking water is provided in Section 4.3 Drinking Water Treatment.
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One of the most striking trends occurring in Waterloo Region relates to the increase in crops being
irrigated (i.e., watering crops by artificial means to foster plant growth). In 1996, approximately
287 acres or 0.1 per cent of the total land base required irrigation. By 2006, the area of land
under irrigation had increased to approximately 34,123 acres or 15.1 per cent of the total land
base. However, this statistic must be interpreted with caution as it does not distinguish between
the different types of irrigation, or the volume of water being applied to crops. For example, a
greenhouse operation using drip irrigation will consume considerably less water than a fruit
farm using an overhead sprinkler system. Despite this limitation, the Census data suggest that
significantly more farmers in Waterloo Region are irrigating their crops than in the past. The trend
may be attributed in part to the higher incidence of drought conditions that occurred in the region
over the past decade, forcing many farmers to irrigate their crops. Irrigation is typically used on
crops having a high monetary value, such as vegetables, fruit, sod, and greenhouse products. The
environmental impacts associated with irrigation depend on the type of irrigation system, the
quantity of water being used, and the source of the irrigation water. Sprinkler and gun systems are
the least water-efficient, while drip or trickle systems are the most efficient in providing water to
plants. In Ontario, the pumping of water for irrigation, either from underground wells, or streams
and ponds, requires a Water Taking Permit from the Ministry of the Environment. This requirement
helps to ensure that irrigation does not significantly decrease groundwater levels or reduce
adjacent stream flows.
Environmental Initiatives Related to Agriculture
In recent years, there have been a number of initiatives to help address the environmental issues
associated with agricultural land use. Many of these initiatives offer financial incentives and other
resources to encourage farmers to manage their operations in an environmentally sustainable
manner. A brief overview of some of the key initiatives currently underway is provided below.
In 1993, the Government of Canada launched the National Environmental Plan Initiative to help
Canadian farmers develop and implement environmental farm plans. An environmental farm plan
is a voluntary process in which individual farmers identify the environmental risks and benefits
associated with their farming operation. As part of the process, farmers then develop an action
plan to address the identified risks and implement more sustainable agricultural practices. The
program applies to all types and sizes of farms throughout Canada. Under the program, farmers
are eligible to apply for cost-shared incentives to help implement their plans. In the Region of
Waterloo, the program is administered by the Ontario Federation of Agriculture and delivered
by the Ontario Soil and Crop Improvement Association. Technical support is available from the
Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs to help farmers prepare and implement their
environmental farm plans. Funding for the program is provided by Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada
under the Canada-Ontario Farm Stewardship Program.
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This program (and related programs) have been very successful in helping local farmers implement
more sustainable agricultural practices. Between 2005 and 2008, the most recent funding period,
a total of 429 environmental farm plan projects were completed in Waterloo Region.104 The most
common type of project is related to manure storage and handling practices. Examples of such
projects include increasing manure storage to meet winter spreading restrictions and introducing
features to prevent water contamination (i.e., leaks and spills from manure storage facilities). The
second most common project is related to water well management, including sealing and capping
old wells and protecting existing wells from surface contamination. Most of the farmers who have
participated in the program to date are involved in beef, hog, and dairy farming.105
Cost-sharing amounts for any given project are set at either 30 per cent or 50 per cent, up to the
project categories’ funding caps. At present, the maximum federal contribution per legal farm entity
is $50,000. Between 2005 and 2008, farmers in Waterloo Region received a total of $2.7 million
in federal grants under the program. If the farmers’ share of the program costs is considered, an
estimated $6.0 million was spent in Waterloo Region on a wide range of environmental farm plan
projects.106
Region of Waterloo Rural Water Quality Program
To encourage and provide support for farmers wanting to upgrade their farming practices, the
Region of Waterloo, in cooperation with the Grand River Conservation Authority and the Ontario
Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, initiated the Rural Water Quality Program in 1998.
The program was originally established as part of the region’s groundwater protection strategy.
Under the program, farmers can receive grants of up to $25,000 to implement measures to improve
surface and groundwater quality. To be eligible for funding, farmers must have also completed an
environmental farm plan under the Canada-Ontario Farm Stewardship Program noted above.
Over the past decade, over 500 farmers completed 834 water quality improvement projects within
the region. These projects received grants of almost $3.0 million, most of which were funded by
the Region of Waterloo. When the landowners’ effort, material, and cost share of the program are
factored in, the total value of the projects is worth several million dollars.107
In total, these projects have had a considerable impact on environmental quality in farmland
areas. Examples of some of the projects completed so far include: erecting fences along 38
kilometres of river and stream banks to keep more than 3,000 head of livestock from polluting
the water and damaging fish habitat; planting 300 acres of trees to filter water, reduce erosion
and sedimentation, improve crop yield, enhance habitat, and sequester carbon; and developing
nutrient management plans for more than 26,000 acres of land to protect surface and groundwater.
In addition, landowners have planted 10 kilometres of windbreaks to reduce erosion and provide
wildlife habitat, and removed roughly 320 acres of fragile land out of production to return it to a
more natural state.108
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The Rural Water Quality Program has been extended by the Region of Waterloo by another five
years, to the year 2013, with another $1.5 million in incentives available to rural land owners.
At present, the Region of Waterloo contributes $300,000 annually to a fund, administered by the
Grand River Conservation Authority, to support these water quality initiatives.
Region of Waterloo Bio-Solids Master Plan
In 2003, the Region of Waterloo completed a Bio-Solids Master Plan to provide a long-term
strategy for the use and management of bio-solids. Bio-solids is a term used to describe the
organic material that results from the biological treatment of sewage sludge, a natural by-product
of the Region’s municipal wastewater treatment process. As part of this treatment process, the
generated sludge is stabilized through digestion (anaerobic or aerobic) to reduce the presence
of potentially harmful micro-organisms.109 The resulting bio-solids are rich in nutrients, such as
nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, copper, and zinc, making it a valuable fertilizer and soil
amendment for agricultural practices.
In 2007, the Region of Waterloo applied approximately 371,939 cubic metres (m3) of bio-solids on
agricultural fields located both within and outside the Region’s municipal boundaries. Applying
bio-solids to farmland helps recycle nutrients in the environment. The ratio of land application
within and outside the Regional boundaries changes from year to year, depending on the
availability of suitable farm parcels. The suitability of a farm parcel for bio-solids depends on a
range of factors, including the type of farm operation, soil conditions, drainage patterns, depth
of the water table, and proximity to sensitive natural areas. Bio-solids are commonly applied to
croplands used to grow livestock feed. The availability of suitable farm parcels is also limited
by inclement weather conditions and provincial regulations, which regulate the maximum rate
that bio-solids can be applied to agricultural lands over a given time frame. The use of best
management practices helps to maximize the benefit of returning nutrients to land by conserving
nitrogen and minimizing odour.110
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The application and use of bio-solids is strictly controlled under the Nutrient Management Act
(O. Reg. 267/03) and the Guidelines for the Utilization of Bio-Solids and Other Wastes on
Agricultural Land. These regulations address issues relating to environmental quality, consumer
and animal health, while maintaining the productivity of the land. All farms in the region that
utilize bio-solids on their lands must have a valid Certificate of Approval issued by the Ministry of
the Environment. The Certificate of Approval provides in detail all the conditions and restrictions
by which the bio-solids must be applied. Conditions imposed typically include limits on metal
concentrations and separation distances to residential areas, groundwater, and surface water.
Despite these safeguards, there are still some concerns that applying bio-solids on agricultural
lands poses a risk to the environment. Some of these perceptions revolve around the detrimental
effects that heavy metals and disease-causing pathogen concentrations found in bio-solids could
have on the surrounding environment. Current bio-solids data collected from Regional wastewater
treatment plants indicate no concerns regarding soil and water contamination that might endanger
public health.
Over the next five to seven years, the volume of liquid bio-solids applied to land in Waterloo
Region will decrease following the completion of new bio-solids dewatering facilities at the
Galt, Kitchener, and Waterloo Wastewater Treatment Plants. The new Kitchener and Waterloo
facilities are presently in the design phase. The Region of Waterloo intends to update its Bio-Solids
Master Plan in 2009 to further enhance the bio-solids program and to address new regulatory
requirements.111
Over the past decade, farmers in Waterloo Region have made significant strides to address the
environmental and health risks described in this report. Many livestock farmers, for instance, have
spent several thousand dollars upgrading their barns and manure storage facilities, significantly
reducing the risk of contamination to ground and surface water resources. Many other farmers
have implemented a wide range of best management practices, substantially decreasing the need
for fertilizer, manure, and pesticides. Despite these huge gains, however, opportunities may exist to
further reduce the environmental and health risks.
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What is Region of Waterloo doing to protect the
environment with regards to agricultural lands?
The Region of Waterloo is involved in several initiatives to protect the environment with regards
to agricultural lands. The Rural Water Quality Program, initiated to provide support for farmers
wanting to upgrade their farming practices is linked to the Region’s groundwater protection
strategy.
The Region’s Bio-Solids Master Plan was initiated to ensure a long-term strategy for the use
and management of bio-solids. Applying bio-solids to farmland helps recycle nutrients in the
environment and can be safely conducted based on suitability of certain farmland parcels as well
as timing of application.
The Region also seeks to support environmentally sustainable agriculture through the development
of individual Environmental Farm Plans to minimize soil degradation, protect the quality and
quantity of water resources, improve the management of potential on-site pollution sources
and to maintain, enhance or, where feasible, restore the ecological functions of elements of the
Greenlands Network.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to protect their
health and the environment with regards to agricultural land?
As stewards of the countryside, farmers across the region understand that taking care of the land
not only promotes economic viability, it enhances the environment and also protects human health.
That is why many farmers across the region have already taken steps to adopt more sustainable
agricultural practices. Residents of Waterloo Region can support local farmers by:
• Avoiding illegal dumping of garbage or wastes on or near agricultural lands;
• Supporting farmers to make upgrades and conversions to agricultural systems; and
• Buying direct from local U-pick operations, farm stands, and farmers’ markets.
For more information, please see section 6.5 (Food Systems) of this report.
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3.5 BROWNFIELD DEVELOPMENT
Brownfield sites are underdeveloped or previously developed properties that may be contaminated
usually as a result of previous industrial activities. In many instances this has resulted in chemical
contamination in the soil which can have health impacts if left untreated. Regulations govern the
remediation and re-development of brownfields and as a result it is unlikely that people will be
exposed to brownfield contamination on a day-to-day basis. However, it is important to remember
that abandoned or derelict sites may be contaminated and should not be trespassed on. In addition,
citizens can avoid contributing to contaminated lands by ensuring proper disposal of wastes
including paints, oil and gas, and other toxic chemicals.
Background
Brownfield sites can be challenging sites to develop and are often left vacant, underutilized, or
abandoned.112 The challenge associated with remediation and redevelopment often exists despite
efforts to stimulate their redevelopment. In many cases, the cost of remediation effectively deters
private sector redevelopment of these brownfield opportunities. The element of risk associated
with these sites (i.e. what will the remediation requirements be, how long will they take, etc.)
makes lenders reluctant to advance capital or causes them to impose higher interest rates.
Remediation and redevelopment are also hindered by higher legal and insurance costs to protect
against future liability associated with brownfields. Costs associated with remediation may
exceed the value of the land, thus making the brownfield sites unattractive to potential developers.
Although education and awareness of the need for re-urbanization and its positive effect on the
public health and the environment has resulted in many new redevelopment, infill, and adaptive
reuse projects occurring within the region, there are still many brownfield sites which require
incentives to ensure their redevelopment and subsequent use.
Greyfields, like brownfields, are tracts of land with urban intensification potential, such as ‘strip
malls’ or other formerly viable retail sites with significant space allocated to asphalt parking lots
which may only be used for a few hours during the day. It is the asphalt that inspired the term
greyfields, in part to differentiate between brownfields and new urban lands (greenfields). Unlike
brownfields, greyfields do not typically require environmental remediation and generally need only
updating, repairing, or re-designing of the space.
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Current Trends
The Growth Plan for the Greater Golden Horseshoe, prepared under the Places to Grow Act, 2005,
indicates that The Greater Golden Horseshoe (GGH) is one of the fastest growing regions in North
America and expects an increase of 3.2 million people from 2001 to 2031. The need for growth
management is great and intensification within the built boundaries is a key focus. The Places
to Grow Act envisages increasing intensification of the existing built-up area, with a focus on
urban growth centres, intensification corridors, major transit station areas, brownfield sites and
greyfields”.113 Furthermore, the Regional Growth Management Strategy (RGMS) and the Region of
Waterloo 2004-2006 and 2007-2010 Strategic Plans contain objectives related to re-urbanization
and brownfield rehabilitation.
The health benefits of remediation and redevelopment of brownfield sites are twofold. Firstly,
there is a physical benefit to removing contaminants. Brownfield remediation turns abandoned
contaminated lots into useful, safe land. It removes hazards within the soils and contributes to
improved air, water and soil quality. Secondly, remediation of brownfields helps to implement
growth management strategies to encourage more compact communities. Since many of
these brownfield sites are adjacent to or within core areas, there is significant potential for
re-urbanization within the built-up area while reducing the pressure to expand the urban area
boundary and decreasing dependence on automobiles. Less vehicle use has positive impacts on
the environment including, but not limited to, improved air quality. More compact communities also
promote walking and cycling which contribute to healthy lifestyles. For further information related
to the built environment, please refer to section 6.2 of this report.
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What is the Region of Waterloo doing related to brownfields in the region?
Under the RGMS goal of ‘Building Vibrant Urban Places’ is the direction to investigate the use of
Tax Increment Financing and other incentives to make the risk/reward relationships associated
with brownfield redevelopment more inviting to both the local development industry and outside
investors.114 This led to the implementation of a 2006 budget allocation for a financial incentives
program. In October of 2006, the Regional Brownfield Financial Incentives Pilot Program was
approved. This Pilot program consists of three financial incentives. The first incentive expanded
the existing Regional Development Charge Exemption program for brownfields located outside
the downtown core areas. The second incentive is a Phase II Environmental Site Assessment
Grant. This grant offsets the cost of completing a Phase II ESA that addresses site impacts on
groundwater. The third incentive is the provision of Joint Tax Increment Grants (TIG). This incentive
is currently available in Kitchener and the Cambridge Core Areas. This granting mechanism enables
developers to recoup some or all of the remediation costs associated with brownfield projects.
The payment structure is based on the increase in assessment for tax purposes between the preremediated site and post-remediated and redeveloped site. It is possible to have 100 per cent of
the remediation costs associated with the projects reimbursed.
The Cities of Kitchener and Cambridge already have Community Improvement Plans (CIPs)
established to encourage brownfield remediation and redevelopment but these CIPs need to be
reviewed and amended in order to allow the Region to participate in these incentives. Other
area municipalities do not have CIPs with a brownfield component as of yet, and in order for
developments in these areas to be eligible for the Regional TIG program, one must be established.
To assist the other area municipalities in developing such a CIP, the Region may contribute to
the costs. This is to encourage all area municipalities to promote brownfield remediation and
redevelopment.
As of November 2008, multiple land owners, representing a total of almost 24 acres of
brownfield lands, have either received funding or have applications in the review process under
the Brownfields Financial Incentive Program. The Region, in partnership with the seven area
municipalities, has launched a new marketing tool kit to increase awareness of the programs that
are offered.
Remediation of brownfield sites contributes to public health and safety by removing ground
contaminants, thereby reducing the risk to groundwater contamination. The Region is committed
to ‘managing and shaping growth to ensure a liveable, healthy, thriving and sustainable Waterloo
Region’.115 The Brownfield Financial Incentive Program is one way that the Region is helping to
achieve this goal.
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HEALTH AND THE
PHYS ICAL ENVIRO N M E N T
4 . 0 WATER
4.0 WATER
4.1 DRINKING WATER SUPPLY
Extensive systems for filtering, disinfecting, and transporting drinking water exist to ensure that the
water available for residents is safe to drink. As long as these systems function effectively, there
should be no significant health risks associated with drinking water supplies. Water supplies in the
Region of Waterloo are tested regularly. Citizens can contribute to protecting their drinking water
supplies by avoiding contaminating source water and conserving water where possible in order to
ensure that available water sources are used wisely.
Background
Waterloo Region’s municipal water supply comes from two sources: groundwater – water found
between soil grains or rock fractures, and surface water – water which comes from lakes or rivers.
Approximately 80 per cent of Waterloo Region’s municipal water supply comes from groundwater
resources and the remaining 20 per cent from the Grand River. Water Services provides the Region
of Waterloo with approximately 180 million litres of drinking water every day. Groundwater
from aquifers is pumped from 126 wells that are located throughout the Region. Groundwater
is naturally filtered by the layers of rock, sand or gravel as it travels underground. Before use,
it is disinfected by adding chlorine and in some cases treated with ultraviolet irradiation and/
or filtration to remove iron/manganese.116 Surface water from the Grand River is pumped to the
Mannheim Water Treatment Plant where it is filtered, disinfected and blended with groundwater
before sending it to area municipalities for distribution to residents.
Figure 12 shows areas in Waterloo Region that are supplied by municipal water. Homes in areas
not indicated on the map are supplied by private water sources such as private wells.
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FIGURE 12: Regional Water Supply Areas, Waterloo Region, 2008
Source: Region of Waterloo, Planning, Culture and Community Services, current as of date August 14, 2009.
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Current Trends
As the population of Waterloo Region grows, so too will the demand for water in the region. In
2003, it was estimated that each urban resident of Waterloo Region used approximately 230 litres
of water per day during the winter months, and more during the summer. According to Region of
Waterloo’s 2007 Water Supply Strategy Update, it is expected that additional sources of water may
be required by the year 2018. A pipeline to the Great Lakes (most likely Lake Erie) may be needed to
meet Waterloo Region’s water demand by 2029. That date could be pushed back to 2034 if current
levels of participation in water efficiency and water demand reduction programs are maintained.117
The residential sector is the greatest consumer of water in Waterloo Region; it accounts for 72 per
cent of water use in the Region. A breakdown of water use by market sector is illustrated below.
See Figure 13.
FIGURE 13: Annual billed consumption by market sector, Waterloo Region, 2004
Institutional 4%
Commercial 6%
Industrial 18%
Residential 72%
Source: United Utilities Canada Limited. (2006). Region of Waterloo
Water Efficiency Master Plan Update, Research Report. Waterloo, ON.
A recent study in Waterloo Region found that most indoor residential water usage is from faucets
(24%). Water leaks around the home account for as much as 21 per cent of water consumption
representing an opportunity for reduced water usage. The full breakdown of residential water use
is illustrated in Figure 14.119
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FIGURE 14: Residential end use of water, Waterloo Region, 2005
1% Other
24% Faucet
21% Leaks
18% Toilets
Water Softener 7%
Baths 1%
Clothes Washing 13%
Showers 15%
Source: Region of Waterloo Water Efficiency Master Plan Update:
Research Report, May 24, 2006; author United Utilities Canada Ltd.
Impacts of Climate Change on Water Resources
While population growth in the region will be a factor in meeting future water demand, climate
change may also impact our future water supply. It is impossible to predict with certainty what
the local impacts of climate change will mean for average precipitation and temperature, however
current expert opinion suggests that the pattern of rainfall may change and the overall quantity of
precipitation will also change. A systematic review of seven global circulation models concluded
that for Ontario, annual precipitation totals are likely to increase. However, in southern Ontario
during summer and fall, the region may experience precipitation decreases of up to 10 per cent by
2050. The net moisture availability will also be impacted by generally warmer temperatures and
longer growing seasons, with resultant increases in evaporation and evapo-transpiration rates.119
The pattern of rainfall is predicted to change with the effects of climate change. It is expected that
the future number of rain events for southern Ontario will be fewer and shorter in duration but with
a similar amount of rainfall. This means that Waterloo Region may experience a slightly reduced
amount of rain that comes in only a few rain events throughout the summer and fall. This pattern of
rain impacts groundwater recharge since fast, high-volume rain events can result in more sheeting
– or water running across lands into surface waters instead of being absorbed into the ground.
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What is Region of Waterloo doing to conserve water resources?
Since 1974, Region of Waterloo has actively promoted a comprehensive approach to water
conservation. In recognition of its achievements in this regard, Region of Waterloo received an
award of excellence for water efficiency from the Ontario Water Works Association in 2002.
Some of the Region’s public awareness campaigns include the distribution of promotional material
and newsletters such as 40 Ways to be Water Wise, and Environews. The Region also distributes
tools and products that help households reduce water usage such as rain barrels and shower bags
(used to determine shower flow rates). The Region provides school curriculum supplements to help
educators teach students about the importance of water conservation. In 1994, Region of Waterloo
Water Services initiated a major program to encourage residential water savings through its toilet
replacement program.121 A survey of residents of Waterloo Region conducted in 2005 revealed that
55 per cent of households reported having a low flush or dual flush toilet and up to 18 per cent of
households had participated in the rain barrel distribution program.122
Waterloo Region Water Conservation By-Law
Meeting high summer water demands, especially during extended periods of hot and dry weather,
creates peak demands on a municipality’s water treatment and distribution systems. It is estimated
that lawn watering can increase per capita water consumption by 30% during the summer
months.124 In 2003, in order to promote water conservation – especially regarding lawn irrigation
– Region of Waterloo established a Water Conservation By-Law which is in effect from May 31 to
September 30 of each year. The by-law restricts residents to watering their lawn once per week
between the hours of 5:30 a.m. and 10:00 a.m. and/or 7:00 p.m. and 11:00 p.m.125 This reduces peak
water demands and helps to reduce the overall amount of water drawn from rivers and aquifers.
A secondary benefit of reducing water consumption is a small, but measurable, reduction in the
production of greenhouse gases from reduced need to power the pumping or water. While the
energy used in water treatment and distribution systems varies from system to system, it has been
estimated that approximately 0.8 kilograms (kg) of greenhouse gas can be saved for every cubic
metre of water saved. A household reduction of 100 litres per day could help reduce greenhouse
gas emissions by approximately 7.4 kg each summer, or approximately 1,000,000 kg for the entire
region.126
The Region of Waterloo also encourages “naturescaping”, or water-efficient gardening which
utilizes plants indigenous to the surrounding area. A similar but more drought-resistant technique
is sometimes referred to as “xeriscaping.” This method of gardening/planting makes use of a
wide variety of low-water demand plants and trees to create beautiful landscapes. Both of these
techniques utilize plants which are more drought resistant, easier to maintain and better able to
grow in poor quality soils.127
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What can residents of Waterloo Region do to conserve water?
Residents of Waterloo Region can do several things to help conserve water. By following these
three simple rules of water conservation – reduce, repair and retrofit – we can all help to conserve
our water supply and reduce waste.
Reduce
• Don’t use the toilet as a wastebasket or flush unnecessarily
• Don’t run the dishwasher or laundry unless fully loaded
• Take short showers of five minutes or less; if you prefer baths, fill the tub only one-quarter full
• Water lawns and gardens early in the morning or in the evening
• When washing a car, fill a bucket with water and use a sponge; this can save about 300 litres
of water
Repair
• Repair worn-out washers in leaking faucets
• Repair toilet leaks; leaky toilets can waste up to 200,000 litres of water a year
Retrofit
• Adapt or replace older water fixtures or appliances with more efficient devices; they can help
save both water and money
• Target the toilet, replacing an 18- or 13-litre flush toilet with an ultra-low volume 6- or 4.3-litre
flush model
• Use a low-flow showerhead; it can reduce water usage by half
• Install low-flow aerators (an attachment on the end of your tap that mixes air into the water
stream) to reduce flow
• A rain barrel can store rainwater that can be used as a source for irrigation
• Consider a low-maintenance landscape that requires little water
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4.2 WATER SOURCE PROTECTION
Background
It is critical to use water resources wisely and to protect them from contamination. In Waterloo
Region protecting our sources of water means being stewards for both groundwater and surface
water sources.
In Waterloo Region there are approximately 126 different wells that provide the municipal water
supply. These wells are mapped and the areas surrounding them studied using computer-based
groundwater flow models to determine the length of time it takes water to reach the wells. There
are signs posted where it has been determined that water within these areas will take ten years
or less to move to the municipal well supply. See Figure 15 for map of the region and the sensitive
municipal well areas.
FIGURE 15: Map of Waterloo Region and the sensitive municipal well areas
Source: Region of Waterloo, 2006. Regional Official Plan, Sept 2006 consolidation. Available at:
http://www.region.waterloo.on.ca/web/region.nsf/DocID/CA5BC18540AE6A2185257555006D0304?OpenDocument
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Many land uses and activities may pose some risk to drinking water supplies. The risk level is
impacted by the type of activity, the nature of the chemicals involved, and the vulnerability of
the water supply to contamination. Contamination can render groundwater unsuitable for use.
Substances that affect groundwater quality can be divided into two basic categories: those that
occur naturally, and those that are produced or introduced by human activities. Substances that
occur naturally include minerals such as iron and calcium. Substances resulting from human
activities include: solvents and petroleum products, liquids that have leached from landfills and
carry dissolved substances from the waste materials (called leachates), salt, fertilizers, pesticides
and nutrients applied to fields and lawns, bacteria, and viruses.
Current Trends
As one of the responses to the Walkerton tragedy, the Ontario government passed the Clean Water
Act in 2006. This Act requires communities to develop plans to protect both the quality and quantity
of their municipal drinking water sources. The Act will also benefit private well water users by
identifying vulnerable water sources (aquifers and recharge areas) for protection.129 Through this
Act, the government has legislated the establishment of Source Protection Committees across the
province that are responsible for developing policies and programs to deal with significant risks
to the drinking water supplies and to prevent low and moderate risks from becoming significant.
Waterloo Region is part of the Lake Erie Source Protection Region.130
A significant number of today’s groundwater contamination problems are due to human activities.
See Table 16 for more detail.
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TABLE 16: List of potential ground and surface water threats, concerns and contaminants
Potential Threat
Concern
Contaminant
Septic Tanks, cesspools,
privies
• If these systems are improperly
situated, designed, constructed,
or maintained they can allow
contamination of the groundwater.
Bacteria, nitrates, viruses,
synthetic detergents and
household chemicals
Agricultural Activities
• Application of fertilizers and
pesticides not taken up by plants.
• Disposal of livestock wastes.
Nutrients (nitrates,
phosphorus, etc.) and
bacteria
Landfills
Bacteria, viruses,
• Some water may leak through the
waste and generate hazardous waste household and other toxic
(leachate) from the landfill sites and chemicals
get into groundwater.
Underground Storage
Tanks
• Underground storage tanks are
used to store a range of materials,
including gasoline, fuel oil and
numerous chemicals. The average
life span of these tanks is around 18
years and over time, exposure to the
elements causes them to corrode.
Various petroleum products
and chemicals
Abandoned Wells
• If a well is improperly constructed or
abandoned without being properly
filled in and sealed, it can act as a
direct channel for contaminants to
easily reach the underground water
supply.
Bacteria, fertilizers and
pesticides
Spills and Illegal
Dumping
• A large volume of toxic materials is
transported throughout the country
by truck, train, and airplane. Every
day chemical or petroleum product
spills occur that, if not handled
properly, can result in groundwater
contamination.
Various chemicals and
petroleum products
Road and Parking Lot
De-icing
• As ice/snow melts or when it
rains, the salt gets washed into the
surrounding soil where it can work
its way down to the groundwater.
Salt also can find its way into
groundwater from improperly
protected storage of stockpiles of
salt.
Sodium Chloride (salt)
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Potential Threat
Concern
Contaminant
Urban structures
(buildings, roads and
parking lots)
• Buildings, roads and parking lots
Sodium Chloride (salt) and
create an impermeable cover across petroleum products
the landscape that prevents the
water from soaking into the ground
and increases runoff. What does not
soak into the ground travels along
these impermeable surfaces until it
eventually reaches a ditch, sewer,
stream, wetland, river or lake. This
water often picks up contaminants
along the way.
• By interfering with the water draining
into the water table, urban areas
also interfere with the recharge of
groundwater.
Industrial activities
• Factories, waste treatment, scrap
yards, etc. can discharge hundreds of
different substances into rivers and
lakes. The impact of these discharges
depends mainly on the nature of
the substances and the amounts
released.
As an example, one drop
of oil can make up to 25
litres of water unsafe for
drinking, while one gram
of polychlorinated biphenyl
(PCB) can make up to
one billion litres of water
unsuitable for aquatic life.
Source: Environment Canada. (2008). How we contaminate groundwater. Retrieved on November 17, 2008,
from the Freshwater Website: http://www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/info/pubs/FS/e_FSa5.htm#how
Scientists suspect that many private wells in rural Canada are contaminated by substances from
sources such as septic systems, underground tanks, used motor oil, road salt, fertilizer, pesticides,
and livestock wastes. Scientists also predict that in the next few decades more contaminated
underground water sources (aquifers) will be discovered, new contaminants will be identified,
and more contaminated groundwater will be released into wetlands, streams and lakes. Once an
underground water source becomes contaminated, it may be unusable for decades.133
When any undesirable substance, usually something infectious or harmful, gets in the water,
the water source is considered contaminated. The presence of a substance that is offensive,
but not infectious, is considered “pollution” or as polluting the water source.
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What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect water sources?
Since 1994, the Region of Waterloo has been implementing its Water Resources Protection
Strategy, the purpose of which is to minimize the impact of land use activities on municipal
drinking water supplies. In the preceding 15 years, the region undertook a number of projects to
map its water resources, identify threats, and implement programs to protect its drinking water
supplies. This work informed the development of the Water Resources Protection Strategy. All of
these efforts are in place to reduce the risk of drinking water becoming contaminated.
In 1998, The Region of Waterloo initiated (and continues to support) the Rural Water Quality
Program to provide financial incentives for rural landowners to implement measures to improve
surface and groundwater quality. This program is delivered by the Grand River Conservation
Authority. As of the end of 2008, approximately $2.7 million was used to complete 738 water
quality improvement projects within the region since the start of the program. Some of these
projects include planting trees for erosion control, fencing, manure storage, and well upgrades.134
Waterloo Region has established a Smart About Salt program to reduce the use of road salt and
minimize environmental impacts associated with salt use. The program targets contractors and
building maintenance staff to reduce their salt application levels. Participants in the program
undertake site assessment and training to achieve certification as part of the Smart About Salt
program. As part of the program, a winter maintenance policy and procedures strategy set out
guidelines to reduce salt use by 25 per cent. Many of the trucks used to distribute salt on roads are
equipped with liquid salt to pre-wet rock salt and help it stick to the road, and all are equipped with
tracking devices to monitor how much salt is being applied.
The Region also plays a key role in operating and organizing the annual Waterloo-Wellington
Children’s Groundwater Festival. This educational activity is designed to educate children about
the importance of water, where it comes from, and how to conserve and protect our drinking
water. The festival brings together the expertise of educators, groundwater specialists, and
members of industry and government to provide elementary aged students with the opportunity
to discover the importance and the diversity of groundwater uses in historical and modern times.
Through a combination of multimedia exhibits and hands-on activities that focus on the general
theme of groundwater, students will have the opportunity to learn about: the physical science of
groundwater; groundwater as a resource; the water cycle; the interdependence between people,
plants, animals, soil, air and water; the results of the interaction between people and water and
what effects that has on the environment; and the role of water in historic and current processes
and technology.135
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The Region of Waterloo has one voting and one non-voting member on the Lake Erie Source Water
Protection Committee. This committee is responsible for developing policies and programs to deal
with significant risks to the drinking water supplies and to prevent low and moderate risks from
becoming significant. The Region is working collaboratively with the Grand River Conservation
Authority to assess threats to water sources and develop approaches to reduce risks which will be
presented at the source water protection committee for their consideration.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to protect water sources?
The development of the source water protection plan for the Grand River as part of the Clean
Water Act is slated to be developed by 2012. During this development period, there will be several
opportunities for residents to provide input through public participation processes.
For residents who own property with a functioning well, ensure that the well is properly maintained
and test at least three times a year for bacteria. (See the section on private wells for more detailed
information.)
Residents who own a non-farm property with a private well water supply can have a free well
checkup done through your local Well Aware program. This program is for homeowners who want
to learn more about how to protect their well water and our shared groundwater supplies. The
program is voluntary, non-regulatory and confidential. Participants will: learn about what makes
a good well, find out how “well” their well is doing, identify priorities for improvement, and learn
how to take a proper water sample.136 More information can be found at: www.wellaware.ca
For residents who own property that has an unused or abandoned well please contact the
Grand River Conservation Authority to find out about the grants available to properly seal and
decommission your well. More information can be found at www.grandriver.ca
Using water wisely by reducing our everyday water consumption and eliminating the use or
disposal of potentially toxic contaminants such as some household cleaners helps to protect
the supply. It also reduces the amount of wastewater that is created which then decreases the
amount of effluent getting into our local rivers, affecting the drinking water of those communities
downstream of Waterloo Region.
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4.3 DRINKING WATER TREATMENT
The risk to citizens from drinking municipally treated water is extremely low. Municipal water
supplies are regularly monitored and consistently meet or exceed provincial water quality
standards. However, microbial contamination of drinking water may create the potential for the
transmission of waterborne gastrointestinal diseases such as E. coli and Giardia. Some chemicals
can be toxic and may adversely affect human health in a range of ways, but only if present above
guideline levels. Because of these risks, municipalities treat water to ensure a safe drinking water
supply. Unless water treatment systems are compromised, there is little, to no, health risk due to
drinking water. Water treatment processes involve a variety of systems and chemicals.
Background
A multi-barrier approach is employed for source water protection, drinking water treatment, and
the water distribution system.137,138 This involves three levels of government: federal, provincial,
and municipal. The federal government leads development of drinking water guidelines for the
Federal-Provincial-Territorial Committee on Drinking Water. The Ontario government, in turn, bases
its standards for drinking water quality on the federal guidelines (Ontario Drinking Water Quality
Standards Regulation).139 The Ontario government has legislative responsibility for providing safe
drinking water to the public. In Ontario, this authority rests with the Ministry of the Environment,
often in collaboration with the Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care.140
The Safe Drinking Water Act (2002) and the Ontario Clean Water Act (2006) are two pieces of
legislation that specifically deal with water quality. The Safe Drinking Water Act was enacted to
protect human health and prevent drinking water health hazards through the control and regulation
of drinking water systems and drinking water testing. The Clean Water Act (Bill 43) requires all
communities to review existing and potential threats to their water and implement any actions
necessary to reduce or eliminate significant threats. As water travels through the environment
it can accumulate other substances, such as bacteria, chemicals, organic matter, and minerals.
Some of these substances, when found in excess, may impact the health of individuals, especially
vulnerable groups such as children and the elderly. Consequently, raw water is tested and treated
to ensure its safety when delivered to consumers. Standards for drinking water have been set out
in Ontario’s Drinking Water Quality Standards Regulation (ODWQS) O.Reg. 169/03. This regulation
establishes health-based standards for a total of 161 microbiological, physical, radiological, and
chemical parameters.141
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In Waterloo Region, 80 per cent of the water delivered to homes comes from aquifers deep below
the surface of the ground. The remaining 20 per cent comes from the Grand River (surface water).
These different water sources require slightly different treatment processes to ensure drinking
water is safe and acceptable in terms of appearance. Region of Waterloo Water Services treats
and supplies drinking water to the seven municipalities and is responsible for ensuring the quality
of the water supplied to the municipal distribution system. Each municipality is responsible
for drinking water distribution and the service connections to local residents, excepting North
Dumfries and Wellesley Township, which are owned by the Region. Owners of homes/buildings are
responsible for ensuring water quality once it enters the residence or building. Public Health works
with the municipalities and the Ministry of the Environment to make certain that adverse water
quality issues are responded to appropriately.
The health effect of any contaminant in water depends upon several factors including what the
specific contaminant is and its toxicity, the concentration level of the contaminant, and the type of
exposure.142
Micro-Organisms
Micro-organisms may be present naturally or occur as a consequence of contamination from
human or animal waste.143 Surface water sources, such as lakes, rivers and reservoirs, are
more likely to contain micro-organisms than groundwater sources.144 The potential for microbial
contamination of drinking water creates the potential for the transmission of waterborne diseases,
even in small amounts.145,146,147 Typhoid fever, cholera, and a variety of gastrointestinal illnesses
can be transmitted by untreated water.148 The most common symptom of waterborne illness
is gastrointestinal upset (i.e. nausea, vomiting and diarrhea), and is usually of short duration.
However, vulnerable individuals, such as infants and the elderly, may experience more severe
effects.149 In Waterloo Region, the incidence of waterborne illnesses are carefully reported and
tracked. This local data surveillance ensures safety systems minimize the potential health impacts
and/or outbreaks of illness.
Physical Characteristics
Physical characteristics of water do not normally cause a direct threat to human health. However,
they can sometimes indicate the presence of chemical or microbiological concerns that may impact
the effectiveness of treatment.150 Physical characteristics of water include: temperature, turbidity
or the cloudiness of water (caused by small particles of sediment and organic matter which can
interfere with disinfection and provide a point for microbial growth),151 colour (usually the result of
natural substances (such as iron) or other minerals),152 and pH (which is a measure of the hydrogen
ion concentration in water).
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Radiological Contaminants
In Ontario, the Ministry of Environment has established drinking water standards for radiological
contaminants (called radio-nuclides).153 There are more than 200 naturally occurring radio-nuclides
found in the environment. Levels of the contaminants are largely dependant on geographic location
and levels of radio-nuclides that are naturally present in the environment at that location. Radionuclides may also occur as a result of industrial activity and have been associated with nuclear
technologies (artificial radio-nuclides).154 Waterloo Region is not an area of concern for radionuclides.
Chemical Contaminants
While some chemicals can be toxic and may adversely affect human health, they are generally
only a concern if chemicals are present above guideline levels or exposure to them has been longterm.155 General categories of chemical contaminants include organic and inorganic chemicals.156
Examples of organic chemicals include pesticides and vinyl chloride while examples of inorganic
chemicals include nitrates, sodium and lead.157 Nitrates are chemicals found naturally in soil and
groundwater. Nitrates are also a major ingredient in fertilizers. Nitrates can sometimes end up
in water due to runoff from farm fields, septic systems, and landfills. When homeowners apply
fertilizers to their lawns and gardens, nitrogen can end up in nearby water sources.158 High nitrate
levels can lead to health problems, such as “Blue-Baby Syndrome,” in unborn children and infants
less than six months of age.159
Sodium
Sodium is a mineral that is found naturally in groundwater and is most commonly present as
sodium chloride or salt. The most common source of sodium in groundwater in Waterloo Region is
salt applied to de-ice public roadways and private parking lots.160 However, other sources, such as
water softener salt, may also contribute to higher concentrations of salt in drinking water.
Waterloo Region groundwater has high levels of hard water (meaning that the water has high
levels of minerals, especially calcium and magnesium), and because of this, many residents
choose to ‘soften’ their water using a salt exchange process or ‘water softener’. Soft water
prevents mineral or scale buildup in pipes, fixtures and appliances. A 2005 survey commissioned
by Region of Waterloo as part of the Water Efficiency Master Plan found that 76 per cent of the
homes surveyed had water softeners. Companies that supply water softener salt estimate that
one household, on average, uses 240 kg of salt per year. Consequently, it is estimated that 32,333
tonnes of salt from water softeners is released into the sewer system each year. The sewers carry
the water to wastewater treatment plants, where it is treated, diluted with other wastewater
and then released into the Grand River. The salted water, therefore, has little impact on municipal
groundwater supplies but does adversely affect the natural environment.161
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Although sodium levels from most sources in Waterloo Region drinking water have increased by 15
per cent between 2003 and 2008, the majority of the population is not at risk. It is also important
to remember that most of the sodium consumed by residents of Waterloo Region comes from their
diet. However, for people on sodium-restricted diets it is still important that all sources of sodium
be taken into consideration, including that derived from drinking water. It is recommended that
individuals on sodium-restricted diets not drink or cook with softened water.162
Current Trends
Surface water taken from the Grand River is pre-settled, and goes through several treatment steps.
These steps include: coagulation (a chemical called polyaluminum chloride is added to quickly
moving water to make particles and impurities stick together), flocculation (water is gently stirred
to create larger clumps of impurities called “flocs”), sedimentation (floc particles pass through and
settle on a series of plates, where they collect and drop to the bottom), ozonation (ozone gas is
added to disinfect the water (kills cryptosporidium and giardia cysts) and improve the taste, smell,
and colour of the water), and filtration (a series of filters remove any remaining impurities).
Surface water that has already been treated according to the steps listed above and raw
groundwater are then disinfected according to the following steps: ultraviolet radiation (this
provides preliminary disinfection by deactivating cryptosporidium, giardia, bacteria and most
viruses), chlorination (which provides disinfection from bacteria and viruses that cause waterborne
diseases. Chlorine is added as disinfection to keep the water clean and safe as it makes its way
through the distribution system to homes and businesses), and chloramination (which combines
small amounts of ammonia with chlorine to provide long-lasting protection from bacteria that can
cause waterborne diseases).163
Municipal water supplies are routinely monitored for nitrate levels, but owners of private wells are
responsible for testing their own water for nitrate levels. This can be done at a cost of $14 per test
through Region of Waterloo Public Health. In an Ontario groundwater survey, conducted in 1993,
of 1,300 private wells, 15 per cent were found to contain nitrates at potentially harmful levels.164
In 2005, a local study of private wells in the Baden and St. Agatha areas of Wilmot Township was
conducted to identify areas of nitrate groundwater concentrations in an effort to improve private
water sampling rates. Out of the 173 nitrate water samples received during this study period, 30
(17.3 per cent) were found to be adverse (above the provincial guidelines). Owners were notified
and given relevant information regarding mitigation measures.165
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What is the Region of Waterloo doing about drinking water?
Region of Waterloo Water Services plans, monitors, operates and maintains the region’s water
supply and wastewater treatment facilities. Samples are regularly collected and analyzed from all
water sources. Local municipalities and the Ministry of the Environment (MOE) test water quality
annually.166 Standards are set by the MOE for a variety of substances found in drinking water. If a
substance is found to be over accepted limits, Public Health is notified along with the MOE. A risk
assessment is then conducted and appropriate corrective measures taken. If required, a boil, or
drinking water advisory is issued to affected residents until the water is deemed safe to drink.
In Waterloo Region, water is tested and treated for bacteria, organic and inorganic content, pH and
turbidity using a variety of processes before it is distributed to municipalities. Chlorine has been
the most commonly used disinfectant for drinking water for over 80 years and is currently used
in 98 per cent of the water treatment plants in Canada. It is very effective at killing bacteria and
has the added benefit of staying active as it moves through the distribution system.167 The use of
chlorine in the treatment of drinking water has virtually eliminated waterborne diseases by killing
or inactivating most micro-organisms commonly found in water.168
Other disinfectants, such as chloramines, a mixture of chlorine and ammonia,169 may also be used
for water treatment. Chloramine is used to treat water by the Region of Waterloo because it is
more stable than chlorine and provides long-lasting disinfection through the distribution system.
Ozone is another disinfectant used by the Region of Waterloo to disinfect drinking water obtained
from the Grand River. Ozone is a powerful oxidant with a high disinfectant capacity and is very
effective at inactivating cysts (giardia and cryptosporidium), bacteria, and viruses. Ozonation
technology requires careful monitoring for ozone leaks which can pose a health hazard.170 The
drawbacks of using ozone are its cost and short-lived effectiveness.171 It can also result in the
production of some undesirable chemical by-products, including bromate, which has been classified
as a probable human carcinogen (cancer causing agent).172 In order to ensure the safety of drinking
water, the MOE has established a maximum acceptable concentration for bromate in drinking
water at 0.01 mg/L.
When levels of sodium exceed 20 mg/L in the public water system, Region of Waterloo Public
Health is notified by the drinking water operator. Physicians are informed of elevated levels in
municipal supplies in the Public Health Physician’s Update newsletter.
Region of Waterloo Transportation and Environmental Services are working to reduce the amount
of sodium from road salt entering the water supply through their salt management program. For
more information refer to the Smart About Salt program on the Region’s website and for more
information on sodium in your drinking water, refer to the Region of Waterloo Factsheet on Sodium
and Drinking Water.173
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What can residents of Waterloo Region do to help protect their drinking water?
While the Region of Waterloo is responsible for the provision of safe drinking water to households
connected to the municipal water supply, households that obtain their drinking water from a
private well should test their water supply regularly and maintain their well in order to prevent
contamination.
All residents of Waterloo Region can contribute to the maintaining of a safe water supply by
conserving water where possible, and by not contaminating water sources with toxic chemicals.
For example:
• Don’t pour paint or paint thinners, or other household chemicals down the drain; use the
hazardous waste pick-up service or drop them off at the Erb Street Waste Management facility
for free and safe disposal;
• Where possible use natural cleaning products;
• Don’t flush unused medications down the toilet, rather return them to the pharmacy;
• Use de-icing salt in the winter only where necessary, and when it is used, use an appropriate
amount;
• Reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides and chemicals on your lawn and in your garden; use
natural lawn care methods instead, including naturalized landscaping practices such as droughtresistant plants.
For more information, refer to the Region of Waterloo Waste Management website.
Residents of Waterloo Region who do not receive municipal water or who rely on private wells
for their drinking water are responsible for ensuring its safety. Region of Waterloo Public Health
currently offers free testing to owners of private wells. Private well water owners in Waterloo
Region can have their well water tested for bacteria, including total coliform and E. coli, free
of charge. Well owners are encouraged to test their well water for bacteria three times each
year. Water sample bottles are available at Region of Waterloo Public Health offices and all
area Township Offices. The Region of Waterloo Regional Laboratory offers nitrate, nitrite, and
fluoride testing for private well water owners for a small fee ($14 per parameter). Well owners are
encouraged to test their well water for nitrates, nitrites, and fluorides once each year. For more
information on testing your well water for bacterial contamination, contact the Region of Waterloo,
Environmental Health division.
For more information on how to protect your well from salt-contaminated surface runoff, contact
either of the following organizations:
• Grand River Conservation Authority, Rural Water Quality Program
• Well Aware Program (through the Residential Energy Efficiency Project)
http://www.reepwaterlooregion.ca/prog_wellaware.php
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4.4 LEAD
Lead is a naturally occurring metal found in the environment. It can be a significant contaminant
when absorbed by the body. Long-term exposure in adults can affect the nervous system, blood
pressure, reproductive functions, and kidney function among other adverse health effects. Sources
of lead are most often drinking water (when old lead service lines are in use), dust from old paint
(lead used to be an additive in paint products but is not any longer), and other lead products
which may cause contamination. Where guidelines and precautions are followed, the risk of lead
contamination is low. Those most at risk due to lead contamination are infants and young children,
as well as pregnant women.
Background
Lead is a heavy metal which occurs naturally in the environment. It can be a significant contaminant
because of its toxicity and how easily it is absorbed by the body.174 Lead was used extensively in
the plumbing industry and has appeared in a wide variety of consumer products including: paint,
gasoline, lead crystal, solder, and glazes used for pottery and dinnerware. However, since the early
1970s, the use of lead in consumer products has decreased significantly. Although lead can make
its way into tap water from contact with lead pipes and fixtures in older buildings, especially those
built before the 1950s, levels of lead in water are typically low.175
Current Trends
Generally speaking, pregnant women or children under the age of six years old are most vulnerable
to the effects of lead. Even low-level exposure may result in premature births and low birth-weight
babies as well as affect intellectual and neurological development in infants.176,177 Low-level
exposure in adults over an extended period of time can affect kidney function, fertility, reduce
sperm count, and increase blood pressure. Exposure to lead over an extended period of time can
affect the intellectual and neurological development of the fetus, infants, and young children.178
Long-term exposure in adults can affect the nervous system, blood pressure, reproductive
functions, and kidney function among other adverse health effects.179
In 2007, the Ministry of the Environment (MOE) implemented Regulation 243/07 required schools
and day nurseries built before 1990 to test for lead at least once a year and to flush their systems
by running water through the system daily. In 2008, Region of Waterloo Public Health monitored
results from 110 schools. The Ontario MOE has also made it mandatory for municipalities to take
samples from a mix of private residences and non-residential buildings (with prior consent), as well
as samples from the distribution system (the piping system transporting water to users).180
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The few cases of lead poisoning documented in Canada have not been associated with water or
food products, but with the consumption, by children, of paint chips, furniture, toys and jewellery
containing lead. For more information on the adverse effects of lead in these products see 5.2
Indoor Air Quality.
What is the Region of Waterloo doing about lead in drinking water?
The Region of Waterloo regularly tests for lead in municipal distribution systems to ensure that
the municipal water supply meets the Ontario Drinking Water Standards. When elevated levels
are found, steps are taken to ensure the public does not consume it, and the source is located and
eliminated.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to minimize their exposure to lead?
To find out if a building has lead plumbing lines:
• Determine the age of your home/building. If built before 1990, there may be lead in the
pipes or solder.
• Contact your local municipality to verify if you have lead service lines.
• Contact a plumber to determine if you have lead piping or solder in your home. If present,
steps can be taken to reduce your family’s exposure, including flushing or replacement
of older pipes.
If you do live in a building with lead service lines, then follow recommendations below.
General recommendations:
• Flush drinking water tap for at least five minutes if it has been sitting in the
pipes for six hours or more;
• Use cold, flushed water for drinking and preparing food;
• Do not consume water from the hot water tap as it can contain more lead.181
The following are recommendations for pregnant women and/or parents who have children under
six years old:
• Do not drink the tap water unless flushing or other corrective measures have been shown to
reduce levels;
• Do not mix baby formula with tap water;
• If using a filtration device, make sure that you follow the manufacturer’s instructions and check
for National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) standards for reducing lead. Pitcher-style filters are not
recommended for lead reduction.182
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4.5 TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER
Background
Households, businesses, industries and institutions use water and release wastewater into
Waterloo Region’s sewer system. This wastewater is treated at a wastewater treatment facility
before being returned to local surface waters. The Region of Waterloo currently owns and operates
13 wastewater treatment plants that receive wastewater from the across the region.183 The
operation of all Regional wastewater facilities is contracted to the Ontario Clean Water Agency
(OCWA) who employs certified operators responsible for monitoring and maintaining facilities
according to established performance standards. Routine external monitoring is performed to
ensure OCWA is compliant with all standards.184
The process for treating wastewater in Waterloo Region includes the following steps:
1. Grease, oil, and large objects like rags or sticks are removed
2. Micro-organisms treat organic material (such as waste, food, and soap)
3. Phosphorus and ammonia are removed either by micro-organisms or by the addition of
chemicals
4. Chlorine, ozone, or ultraviolet radiation is used to kill potential pathogens present before
the treated water is released into the environment
Sewage sludge or bio-solids are generated throughout the wastewater treatment process. Biosolids are stabilized and disinfected making it safe to apply them to agricultural environments as a
soil amendment.184
Current Trends
Water Services Department for the Region of Waterloo treats 190 million litres of wastewater
every day. This represents about 72 per cent of the system’s current treatment capacity. It is
projected that the Region’s wastewater treatment system will need to accommodate 282 million
litres per day by 2031 and 319 million litres per day by 2041.183
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What is the Region of Waterloo doing to maintain
high-quality wastewater treatment?
In 2004, the Region of Waterloo initiated a process to update the Wastewater Treatment Master
Plan (WWTMP) to ensure that the Region would have capacity to treat wastewater until 2041.185
Water conservation programs reduce the amount of wastewater generated by reducing the amount
of fresh water used for different applications. Current water conservation programs in the Region
include replacement rebates for low-flow and dual-flush toilets, restaurant pre-rinse spray valve
installation, promotion of water efficient washing machines, and increased public education
campaigns.
The Region developed a Bio-Solids Master Plan in 2003 that provides a framework for managing
bio-solids for the region’s municipal wastewater treatment plants for the next 20 years. Aspects
of the plan include increased monitoring and control of the land application of bio-solids as well
as the reduction of volume of bio-solids and additional storage capacity for bio-solids.186 One of
the initiatives recommended in the Bio-Solids Master Plan (2003) is to use advanced ‘de-watering’
processes with the bio-solids generated at the Kitchener Wastewater Treatment Plant. This will
result in a reduction in the volume of bio-solids generated and eliminate the need for liquid storage
at the site, which will lead to decommissioning of the existing bio-solids storage lagoons.187
What can residents of Waterloo Region do about wastewater?
While the Region of Waterloo is responsible for wastewater treatment, residents of Waterloo
Region can help reduce the need for wastewater treatment and contribute to cleaner source
water supplies by conserving water where possible and avoiding contaminating water with toxic
chemicals.
For example:
• Don’t pour paint or paint thinners, or other household chemicals down the drain;
use the hazardous waste pick-up service or drop them off at the Erb Street
Waste Management facility for proper disposal;
• Where possible use natural cleaning products;
• Don’t flush unused medications down the toilet; return them to the pharmacy;
• Use de-icing salt in the winter only where necessary; and
• Reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides and chemicals on your lawn and in
your garden; use natural lawn care methods instead, including naturalized
landscaping practices such as drought-resistant plants.
For more information, refer to the Region of Waterloo Water Services website
at www.region.waterloo.on.ca/water
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4.6 HEALTH OF RIVERS
Background
The Region of Waterloo lies at the heart of the Grand River Watershed (see Figure 16) and uses the
Grand River as a water source and as a source of recreation.
FIGURE 16: Grand River Watershed
Source: Grand River Conservation Authority. (2009). Grand River watershed.
Retrieved on March 19, 2009, from the Grand River Conservation Authority Website: http://www.grandriver.ca
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Many people enjoy recreation on the rivers in the Region of Waterloo. Since these rivers are
natural systems, the water quality is influenced by many different land uses and activities including
runoff from urban and rural lands, point sources such as sewage treatment plants and wildlife.
During the warm summer weather, rivers in Waterloo Region can often be safely enjoyed. However,
there are certain conditions when recreation should be avoided and this includes periods of time
following storm or rainfall events when contaminants from the land are washed into streams and
rivers. The ideal time to enjoy the rivers in the Region of Waterloo is when the water levels are
lower, flow is slower, the water clarity is high, and the weather is dry. Up-to-date information on
the water quality in the Grand River can be found at http://www.grandriver.ca/ The website will
display results from monitoring stations including temperature, pH, conductivity, and dissolved
oxygen.
Current Trends
Generally, the water quality of the Grand River as it enters Waterloo Region is good, although
nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus levels tend to be elevated. As the Grand flows through
the Waterloo Region, it accommodates runoff from streets and residential areas as well as receives
the effluent from the Waterloo, Kitchener, Preston, and Galt sewage treatment plants. The Hespeler
sewage treatment plant discharges into the Speed River which then flows into the Grand River in
Preston. All of these inputs, combined with runoff from urban and rural areas, significantly elevate
nutrient levels in the river. Consequently, the nutrient levels are significantly higher in the Grand
River as it flows out of the Region of Waterloo (Figure 17).
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FIGURE 17: Status of Water Quality in the Grand River Watershed, 2003-2007
Source: Grand River Conservation Authority Committee Report #CW-11-08-90
retrieved October 2009 from: http://www.grandriver.ca/governance/CW110890.pdf
An overall assessment of nutrient levels at the routine water quality monitoring sites in the
Grand River watershed from 2003-2007. Due to the optimization of the Provincial water quality
network, a few sites currently have insufficient data for reporting purposes (grey dots).
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The high levels of nitrogen and phosphorus facilitate the prolific growth of aquatic plants,
specifically in the Grand River at Blair. The growth of these plants affects the dissolved oxygen
levels in the river with the result that levels can fall well below the provincial objective for
dissolved oxygen (e.g. 4.0 mg/L). As a result, the fish and aquatic organisms in this area may be
highly stressed. Further, the dense aquatic weed growth is aesthetically unpleasing and likely
diminishes the recreation value of this section of the river. As the Grand flows through Cambridge
and on toward Glen Morris, there tends to be a slight improvement of water quality as a result of
natural processes and an influx of groundwater.
Persistent organic contaminants can accumulate in aquatic organisms resulting in high levels of
contaminates in fish tissue. People who consume fish that have higher contaminant concentrations
are at greater risk of exposure. Women of childbearing age and children should, in particular,
avoid eating more than the recommended maximum quantity of sport fish because of potential
reproductive and developmental effects of contaminants such as mercury. A review of the Ministry
of the Environment’s 2007-2008 Guide to Eating Ontario Sport Fish suggests that, for most species
and most size ranges, fish from the Grand, Speed, and Nith Rivers and Canagagigue Creek systems
are safe to eat for the recommended acceptable number of meals per month. However, there are
some advisories in place for sensitive populations for certain fish species and for very large fish
(e.g. northern pike, carp). Please refer to this Guide when considering consuming fish from the
Grand River watershed.
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect the health of regional rivers?
Healthy rivers are important features of our landscape and contribute to our quality of life.
Waterloo Region is at the heart of the Grand River watershed and, as such, is in a position to enjoy
a National Heritage River. To ensure that the Grand, Nith and Speed Rivers are valued features
in Waterloo Region, there are initiatives underway by various agencies to implement better land
management practices such as the Region’s Rural Water Quality Program, better storm water
management, and improved wastewater treatment which includes the Region of Waterloo and the
seven area municipalities’ significant investment in wastewater infrastructure over the next 10
years.
In addition, the Grand River Conservation Authority monitors and reports on the health and
condition of these rivers through provincial and municipal monitoring programs. The Grand River
Simulation Model is a tool that is also used by the Grand River Conservation Authority to evaluate
various land and river management approaches to ensure that current and future activities will not
further degrade the river. All of these activities contribute to improved understanding of our rivers
to ensure that our rivers continue to provide residents of Waterloo Region opportunities to enjoy
their surroundings and improve their quality of life.
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117
What can residents of Waterloo Region
do to protect the health of regional rivers?
While the Region of Waterloo manages storm water, wastewater treatment, water flows in and out
of regional rivers, and conducts programs such as the Region’s Rural Water Quality Program (which
regulates land practices that impact water quality), residents of Waterloo Region can help protect
the health of regional rivers by conserving water where possible and avoiding contaminating water
with toxic chemicals. For example:
• Don’t pour paint or paint thinners, or other household chemicals down the drain; use the
hazardous waste pick-up service or drop them off at the Erb Street Waste Management
facility for proper disposal;
• Where possible use natural cleaning products;
• Don’t flush unused medications down the toilet; return them to the pharmacy;
• Used de-icing salt in the winter only where necessary; and
• Reduce or eliminate the use of pesticides and chemicals on your lawn and in your garden;
use natural lawn care methods instead, including naturalized landscaping practices such
as drought-resistant plants.
For more information, refer to the Region of Waterloo Water Services
website at www.region.waterloo.on.ca/water
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4.7 PRIVATE WELL WATER SUPPLY AND SEPTIC SYSTEMS
Background
The quality of private well water in Waterloo Region is an important concern for both public and
environmental health. An estimated 7,860 households in Waterloo Region derive their water
from privately owned wells.188 Water in wells comes from aquifers in the ground. An aquifer is
an underground formation of rock or loose material which can produce useful quantities of water
when tapped.189 Overall, groundwater provides 30 per cent of all water in Ontario and 95 per cent
of the water supply for those living in rural areas.190
Property owners with private wells are responsible for the maintenance and testing of their wells.
Ensuring proper well maintenance and water quality testing are important steps in protecting the
health of those using the well water. In Waterloo Region, it is estimated that only 19 per cent of
owners tested their well for bacteria in 2007. Many home owners living in rural households on
private wells are unaware of their well history and in some cases, even the location of the well.191
Lack of well maintenance and abandoned wells can lead to increased environmental health risk.
An improperly maintained well can allow bacteria and contaminants to enter the well water. This
can occur through unsealed joints, poorly constructed wells or improperly sealed annular spaces or
well caps. Over time, physical degradation of the joints, well cap and casing, can allow pollutants
to enter the well and contaminate the well water.192 Proper maintenance and regular testing of the
well water quality is an important aspect of ensuring safe water.
Abandoned wells are of particular concern since they can be vulnerable to contamination and
are direct avenues to aquifers, meaning contamination could quickly spread. In Ontario, it is
estimated that there approximately 500,000 abandoned wells.193 Lack of education regarding proper
procedures for decommissioning (sealing and blocking) unused wells, combined with the financial
burden of decommissioning a well, leads many people to neglect unused wells on their properties.
Education and programs aimed at decreasing the cost of properly decommissioning a well are
important enablers to increase compliance and participation among landowners.194
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Current Trends
There are different types of wells common in Waterloo Region, including dug or bored wells,
and drilled wells. The Regional policy is that only drilled wells with the appropriate casing are
permitted if the water is to be used for drinking.
Dug and bored wells are normally less than 15 metres deep and are used to reach shallow
surface water supplies. They are more prone to contamination from surface water and water
shortages.195
Drilled wells are normally used to reach water stores deeper than 15 metres. They are less
prone to surface water contamination and therefore can provide a safer source of drinking
water. However, they are expensive to construct compared to dug or bored wells.
Regulations pertaining to well water and maintenance, including private drinking water supplies,
are set out by the Ontario Water Resources Act and Provincial Regulation 903. Further information
on septic system regulations in Ontario can be found through the Ontario Ministry of Municipal
Affairs and Housing.196
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect well water supplies?
Region of Waterloo Public Health encourages regular testing of private well water for bacteria
and nitrates. Bacteria testing is available free of charge. Sample bottles can be picked up and
dropped off at several locations in Waterloo Region, including the Public Health offices and at
most Township offices. Refer to the Region of Waterloo Public Health website for more information
at: www.region.waterloo.on.ca/ph
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What can residents of Waterloo Region do
to protect their drinking water and well?
• Regularly test your water quality:
• Three times per year for bacteria
• Test nitrate levels annually
• Any time there is a change in the taste, colour, or odour of the water
• Periodically if there is an infant or a pregnant woman consuming the water
• Do an annual well maintenance check and periodic checks to the well cover, cap, and top casing
to ensure it is in good repair
• Keep hazardous chemicals such as paint, fertilizers, pesticides, and motor oil away from the well
and avoid spills on the property
• Properly maintain and monitor septic systems and do not place chemicals or contaminants down
the drain
• Educate yourself about your well and water and make sure to ask questions during maintenance
and service calls so you understand the problem
• Decommission unused or abandoned wells in your property
Participate in a free well assessment by the Well Aware program. This program offers free well
checkups to residential private well owners wanting to learn how to protect their well water. It is
voluntary and confidential. More information can be found at website: www.wellaware.ca
For more information on private wells and their maintenance, refer to the Ministry of Health and
Long-Term Care website197 and the Well Wise website.198
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Septic systems
Because the majority of property owners who rely on private well water also rely on a septic
system for their wastewater treatment, the interaction between the two systems is an important
consideration for environmental health and well water quality. In Waterloo Region, approximately
7,860 rural households use septic systems.
A septic system consists of a tank made of concrete, polyethylene, or fibreglass and a soil filter
leaching bed. The leaching bed is a network of perforated pipes laid in a gravel bed over the soil.
Some older septic tanks may be constructed of steel or wood. It is important to check and replace
these tanks as they increase the risk of contamination and faulty septic tank functionality.199
A septic system treats sewage and wastewater and releases the treated liquid back into the
groundwater. The septic tank receives the wastewater from the residence. Once in the tank,
the heavy solid materials settle to form sludge, which stays in the bottom of the tank. Lighter
components, called scum, float on top of the sludge. Natural bacteria in the tank break down the
organic material which then enters into the leaching bed. The leaching bed acts as a soil filter and
uses natural processes to complete the treatment of the wastewater. Once treated the water then
re-enters the groundwater system.
A buildup of sludge in the tank or increased demands on the septic system can lead to a variety of
problems. Untreated overflow can contaminate both the groundwater and environment. A clogged
septic system can also cause backflow into the home, resulting in sanitation issues, an unpleasant
smell, and the malfunctioning of appliances/water systems. Repairs or replacement resulting from
improper septic tank maintenance can be very costly, so properly maintaining and caring for a
system is extremely important.200
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Steps to maintaining and caring for your septic system201
Preventative maintenance is the key to keeping costs low. A well-maintained septic system can last
for decades:
• Have your septic system inspected every two years;
• Perform regular pump-outs on the septic system to remove sludge; summer and
early fall are the best times;
• Do not put garbage, food waste or grease, harsh chemicals such as solvents,
bleach or cleaning agents, diapers, wrappers or anything that may clog the
system or disrupt important bacteria, down the drain;
• Conserve water to decrease the wear and tear on the pump, decrease the risk
of overflow or backflow and allow for proper slow draining of the effluent;
• Do not add additional demand, such as extra toilets or drains, to a septic system
without increasing its capacity;
• Avoid driving heavy machinery or cars over the system to prevent soil compaction
and damage;
• Do not plant trees or shrubs near the system as roots can damage or interfere
with the structure;
• Ensure all inspections and repairs are done by a licensed contractor;
• If you suspect your septic system tank may be steel or wood, have it replaced as
soon as possible.
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4.8 RECREATIONAL WATER
Background
Region of Waterloo Public Health plays an important role in ensuring the health and safety
of recreational water. Routine testing and inspections of public beaches, pools, and spas are
conducted to ensure that water is safe for use.
Public Beaches
Region of Waterloo Public Health monitors two public beaches: Laurel Creek Beach in the City of
Waterloo and Shades Mill Beach in Cambridge. These beaches are operated by the Grand River
Conservation Authority (GRCA). In accordance with the Ontario Public Health Standards, public
beaches are sampled for bacteriological testing throughout the bathing season. Factors that may
affect water quality include rainfall, heat and humidity, wind conditions, sewage runoff, farming
operations, and water fowl. Bacterial water quality samples are obtained and analyzed at least
once a week for each beach. In the event there is an elevated bacterial count in the water, a
warning sign is posted indicating the water is unsafe for swimming.
Current Trends
Table 17 illustrates the number of posted days for Laurel Creek and Shades Mill between
2004 and 2008.
TABLE 17: Number of warning signs posted at Laurel Creek
and Shades Mill beaches, Waterloo Region, 2004-2008
Year
Laurel Creek - Postings
(Days posted)
Shades Mill - Postings
(Days posted)
2008
37
41
2007
38
24
2006
35
37
2005
18
0
2004
14
0
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Other factors that affect water quality:
• Algae (seaweed) and cyanobacteria (blue-green algae) may cause itching,
burning, and inflammation;
• Litter, scum, oil and other floating debris may cause undesirable odour, colour,
taste, or turbidity; or
• Chemical contamination may cause skin and eye irritation, as well as problems
caused by inhalation or ingestion of chemically-contaminated water.
Recreational Water Facilities
In Waterloo Region, there are approximately 128 public pools and over 42 public spas that are
routinely inspected by Public Health Inspectors. This includes inspections at all public swimming
pools, including pools at fitness centres, camps, hotels, and apartment and condominium buildings
with more than five living units. Since January 2006, public spas became provincially regulated and
Public Health staff inspects all spas on a routine basis. A public spa is defined as a hydro-massage
pool with a body of water with jet circulation or air bubbles and is not drained after each use.202
As with Public Health’s Beach Management Program, inspections are conducted at recreational
water facilities to minimize risk of injury or illness.
The top three reasons for pool closures are:
1) Water clarity – water unclear resulting in drowning hazards;
2) Entrapment hazards – outlet covers and drain covers not secure
resulting in possible entrapment; and
3) Pool chemistry – chemicals not at required levels resulting in
possible poor disinfectant levels and discomfort.
The top three reasons for closures of spas are:
1) Water quality and clarity – foamy or cloudy water resulting in drowning hazards;
2) Vacuum release mechanisms – not functioning properly or operator unable to test
resulting in possible entanglement and entrapment in spa; and
3) Spa chemistry – chemicals not at required levels resulting in possible poor disinfectant
levels and discomfort.
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What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect residents
from waterborne illness in recreational settings?
To protect the health of the public while swimming at public beaches, Region of Waterloo Public
Health does the following:
• Samples water for bacteriological testing on a weekly basis;
• Surveys beaches to identify potential sources of contamination and pollution;
• Works with GRCA to monitor beach water quality;
• Posts warning signs and closes beaches when recreational water does not meet standards; and
• Provides advice and recommendations to citizens in order to minimize the risk of illness and
promote healthy recreational water experiences.
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to prevent illness in pools and spas?
Region of Waterloo Public Health does the following:
• Inspects pools and spas on a routine basis;
• Assesses chemistry of pools and spas to ensure they are within required mandated parameters;
• Provides recommendations to keep pools and spas in good working condition; and
• Ensures all safety equipment is available and functional.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to
prevent waterborne illness in recreational settings?
Bacterial contamination in water used for swimming may become amplified due to changes in
climate. Residents can do the following to prevent waterborne illness from recreational waters:
• Be alert for beach postings (i.e. don’t swim or wade in the water of a posted beach)
• Wash hands with soap and water or use hand-gel sanitizer after swimming
• Dry off thoroughly after exiting water to prevent swimmer’s itch
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to
prevent illness in pools and spas?
• Follow all notices posted
• Shower before entering and re-entering pools and spas
• Avoid swimming if ill with a communicable disease, diarrhea, or open sores
• Do not overcrowd pool or spa
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5
REPORT ON:
HEALTH AND THE
PHYS ICAL ENVIRO N M E N T
5 . 0 AIR
5.0 AIR
5.1 OUTDOOR AIR QUALITY
Air pollution results from both natural sources and human activity. Natural sources of air pollution
include forest fires or dust storms. Human activities resulting in air pollution include burning gas
and oil for heat, transportation, and industrial processes.203 The significance and impact of air
pollution is related to the sources of air pollution and type of contaminant. Most often air pollution
levels are high in urban and industrial areas where there are larger amounts of effluent going into
the air. Although everyone is at risk of the negative health effects associated with air pollution,
certain populations are more susceptible. Unborn and very young children are particularly sensitive.
Other groups that are highly sensitive to air pollution include the elderly, those with cardiovascular
and respiratory disease, and those who are exposed to other toxic materials that add to or interact
with air pollutants.204,205,206
Background
Criteria air contaminants are measured to understand what the quality of the air is at a given
time in a given environment. Environmental agencies worldwide have confirmed a core set of
air pollutants and indicators that are used to measure and describe air quality. These primary air
pollutants include the following outdoor air pollutants: fine particulate matter (PM2.5), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), ozone (O3), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and sulphur dioxide (SO2). The Ontario
Ministry of the Environment also monitors levels of carbon monoxide (CO) and total reduced sulphur
(TRS). The sources of air pollution vary by pollutant. The transportation sector is one of the main
emission sources in Ontario. The transportation sector accounts for approximately 65 per cent
of emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO2 is a major product) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
both of which contribute to the formation of ground-level ozone (O3).207 Nitrogen dioxide is strongly
related to particulate matter (PM), as both come from the same combustion sources.208 The main
sources of sulphur dioxide (SO2) in Ontario are smelters (48 per cent) and public service utilities (22
per cent).209
TABLE 18: Common Sources of Outdoor Air Pollutants, Ontario
Pollutant
Common Sources by Sector
Particulate matter (PM2.5)
Residential, industrial, transportation
Ground-level ozone (O3)
Transportation
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) Transportation, industrial
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
Transportation
Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
Industrial
Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment, “Air Quality in Ontario” 2006.
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Current Trends
Air quality in Ontario has improved significantly over the past 35 years with a reduction of
three common air pollutants: NO2, CO, and SO2. These reductions are, in part, attributable to
technological improvements and stricter emission standards as well as a decline in use of highsulphur coal for domestic heating. O3 levels and levels of PM, on the other hand, have been rising
and present a growing health concern.210
Air pollution does not give rise to a single unique adverse health outcome or clinically observable
illness, but rather contributes and/or exacerbates many commonly occurring conditions.211 Exposure
to outdoor air pollution has been linked to a number of health outcomes from modest changes in
pulmonary function, restricted activity, emergency room visits and hospital admissions to mortality
(death). This evidence stems from studies on both acute and chronic exposure to poor air quality.212
Everyone is at risk of the negative health effects associated with air pollution, but certain
populations are more susceptible. Individual reactions to air contaminants depend on several
factors such as the type of pollutant, the degree of exposure and how much of the pollutant is
present in the air.213 Unborn and very young children are both particularly sensitive, however, for
different reasons. Vulnerability exists for the fetus since this is a time when major organs and
systems are developing. Young children, on the other hand, process more air than adults for their
relative body weight and therefore a higher level of pollutants. There is evidence that air pollution
is associated with infant mortality; it is also believed to be linked to poor birth outcomes such as
low birth weight and pre-term labour. Other groups that are highly sensitive to air pollution include
the elderly and those with cardiovascular and respiratory problems (such as asthma).214,215,216 Locally
there are two primary constituents of smog that are linked to health impacts, particulate matter
(PM2.5) and ground level ozone (O3). These are further described below.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
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Particulate Matter (PM)
Particulate matter refers to the solid or liquid (droplets of liquid) particles that are small enough to
remain suspended in the air. Particles less than 3 microns can be deposited in the smaller airways,
deep in our lungs, and cannot be expelled by exhaling or coughing. Although particles from 3
to 10 microns are too large to be deposited deep in our lungs, they are small enough to remain
suspended in the atmosphere for days.217
Fine particulate matter is primarily formed from chemical reactions in the atmosphere and through
fuel combustion. Particulate matter is often the driving pollutant in Waterloo Region, meaning
the ambient levels of PM are heavily influencing the air quality index level. PM levels can be high
during all months of the year, however, levels tend to be the worst during the summer months. The
risk for various health conditions has been shown to increase with exposure to PM and there is
little evidence to suggest a threshold below which no adverse health effect would be anticipated.
Short-term (on the order of a few days) and long-term (months to years) exposure to PM is
associated with serious adverse health outcomes (e.g. death, hospital admissions, etc.).218 Different
health authorities have established acute and long-term exposure limits for PM.219 Canada-wide
standards (set in 2000) for PM2.5 is 24-hour average: 30 µg/m3. World Health Organization 2006
Guidelines PM2.5 annual average: 10 µg/m3 and 24-hour average: 25 µg/m3.220
The range of health effects exacerbated by exposure to elevated levels of PM is broad, however
PM predominantly affects the respiratory and cardiovascular systems.221 Respiratory conditions
such as asthma, bronchitis, cardiovascular or lung disease are exacerbated by breathing in PM.
Susceptibility may vary with health or age, but children and the elderly are more sensitive to the
effects of PM.222,223
Ozone (O3)
Ozone is a colorless and highly irritating gas that forms naturally when the precursor air pollutants,
nitrogen oxide and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), react with each other in the sunlight to
produce ground-level ozone. This occurs primarily on hot summer days but it can also occur in
winter. Most Canadians, including those in Waterloo Region, live in communities where groundlevel ozone may reach unacceptable levels. High levels of ambient ozone most often occur during
the summer months. Periods of high ground-level ozone can persist for several days and frequently
take place when an unmoving air mass traps pollutants over a region. The majority source of
nitrogen oxide is from the burning of fossils fuels (e.g. power plants, industry, homes and motor
vehicles). There is little evidence of a threshold concentration below which O3 in ambient air has no
effect on health.224
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Studies show that every major Canadian urban centre has levels of ground-level O3 that pose health
risks.225,226 As O3 concentrations increase, health effects at the population level become increasingly
numerous and severe with exposure to O3 which is linked to increased hospital admissions and
premature mortality.227,228 Ozone has been recognized as a serious air pollutant with well-defined
adverse respiratory health effects.229 People with respiratory and heart problems, asthma and lung
disease are at higher risk, as are healthy adults exercising for long periods of time outdoors.230
Air Quality Index
The Air Quality Index (AQI) is a tool used to characterize air quality in a given area. The AQI is
calculated based on the continuous monitoring of various criteria air contaminants. The levels
of these pollutants are measured and these values are translated into an AQI value which is a
relative scale. A low AQI value is associated with better or cleaner air, a higher index reading
means greater health risks. Pollutants will impact health differently at different levels. Translating
different pollutant levels into a standard scale helps to communicate relative risks easily. Details
of how the AQI is calculated in Ontario can be found on the Ministry of Environment’s air quality
website: www.airqualityontario.com
Specific AQI thresholds are:
• below 32 (good to very good): air quality is considered relatively good
• 32 to 49 (moderate): there may be some adverse effects on very sensitive people
• 50 to 99 (poor): may have some short-term adverse effects on human or animal
populations, or may cause significant damage to vegetation and property
• 100 or more (very poor): may cause serious adverse health effects on a large
proportion of humans or animals.231,232
On average in 2006, the AQI monitoring sites in Ontario reported air quality in the very good and
good categories 91 per cent of the time and moderate to poor ratings, about 9 per cent of the
time.233
The pollutants measured by the Ontario Ministry of the Environment include ozone (O3), particulate
matter (PM2.5), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), and reduced
sulphur compounds.234,235,236 These specific pollutants are measured because they have known
adverse effects on human health. Continuous ambient air quality data are collected by the
province at 38 Air Quality Index monitoring sites as part of the National Air Pollution Surveillance
Network.237 The Ministry of the Environment operates one air quality monitoring station in Waterloo
Region. The MOE takes hourly real-time air quality data from its AQI monitoring site to produce AQI
readings. Data generated from these monitoring sites are used to determine the state of air quality
in Ontario, help develop programs that reduce the burden of air pollutants, address key air quality
issues, and assess the effectiveness of air quality policies and programs.238
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
133
Figure 18 represents the percentage of time that Waterloo Region’s AQI was in the “moderate”
and “poor” categories from 1998 to 2007. As such, it represents the percentage of days where air
quality was not considered good or better in the region.239
FIGURE 18: Per cent time that Air Quality Index (AQI) was in
“Moderate” and “Poor” range, Waterloo Region, 1998-2007
Per Cent of time at increased risk levels
18.0
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
1.0 0.9 0.3 0.7 1.5 1.1 0.4 1.3 0.1 0.8
8.6 7.6 4.5 7.6 11.2 11.2 9.6 14.9 9.7 10.5
Poor (AQI 50-99)
Moderate (AQI 32-49)
Source: Ministry of the Environment, Annual Air Quality Reports. (1998-2007).
This chart shows that, based on a ten-year average from 1998 to 2007, Waterloo Region’s AQI
was in the poor to moderate range approximately 10.4 per cent of the time. However, in 2002,
2003, 2005, and 2007, the percentage of time in the moderate to poor range exceeded the ten
year average.
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Air Quality Forecast
An Air Quality Forecast (AQF) is a prediction of future air quality. Smog days are predicted by
monitoring short- and long-range weather forecasts and studying air quality information for Ontario
and neighbouring American states. The Ministry of Environment (MOE) issues a three-day outlook
or a ‘smog prediction’ in order to give Ontario residents advance notice of a forthcoming smog day.
Air quality forecasts are issued in three categories:
• “Good” means the AQI reading is expected to range from 0 to 31;
• “Moderate” refers to an AQI reading that may range from 32 to 49;
• “Poor” means the AQI reading is expected to be at least 50.240
If poor readings are predicted to be sustained over a significant period of time and over a wide
area, then a Smog Alert is issued. There are two kinds of Smog Alerts that could be issued: a Smog
Watch is issued when there is a 50 per cent chance that elevated smog levels are forecast to occur
within the next three days and a Smog Advisory is issued when there is a strong likelihood that
elevated smog levels are forecast to occur within the next 24 hours, or if widespread poor AQI
readings occur and weather conditions conducive to the persistence of such levels are expected to
continue for several hours.
Table 19 represents the number of smog advisories issued and smog advisory days for the
Waterloo-Wellington area in the time period between 2004 to 2008.241 In 2008, the number of smog
advisory days decreased and fewer smog advisories were issued compared to previous years in
part due to it being a cooler, rainier year which results in less particulate matter and decreased
ozone formation.
TABLE 19: Smog advisories in the Waterloo-Wellington area, 2004-2008
Year
Number of smog
advisories issued
Number of smog
advisory days
2004
5
13
2005
13
45
2006
5
11
2007
11
29
2008
3
7
Total
37
105
Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment – Smog Advisory Statistics. 242
Local predictions related to the air quality forecast are available on the Ontario Ministry of the
Environment website: www.airqualityontario.com
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
135
Economic Burden
Clean air is a basic requirement of human health and well-being.243 As a society, we incur both
social costs and economic losses from the impact of air pollution on our health. The Ontario
Medical Association produced a report entitled “The Illness Costs of Air Pollution” (2005) which
presented estimates of the annual health effects associated with air pollution exposure. In 2005,
it was estimated that approximately 5,800 premature deaths were associated with exposure to
air pollution in Ontario alone.244 The economic burden of air pollution can be measured in terms of
additional health care costs such as hospital admissions, emergency room and doctor’s office visits,
homecare services, and medications. Additional costs include reduced workplace productivity, lost
wages due to sick time, and out of pocket expenses incurred while ill.245,246
The Ontario Medical Association (OMA) estimated that in 2005, overall economic losses
associated with air pollution exposure were expected to be approximately $7.8 billion in
Ontario and $19.9 million in Waterloo Region.247
Incidence in Waterloo Region
Utilizing the most appropriate risk coefficients and health impact data for Cambridge,
Kitchener, and Waterloo, it was determined that there were a total of 504 (average 126 per year)
non-traumatic deaths (i.e. deaths not caused by injury) linked to chronic PM2.5 exposure between
2000 and 2004. Of this, an estimated total of 208 people died from cardio-pulmonary problems
or lung cancer between 2000 and 2004 associated with chronic PM2.5 exposure (see table 20).
Non-traumatic deaths related to acute exposure were similar for O3 (111), NO2 (94), and PM2.5 (82).
It is important to mention that although total non-traumatic deaths for acute O3 exposure exceeded
that of NO2, non-traumatic deaths for acute NO2 exposure may have exceeded that of acute O3
exposure but data was incomplete for 2003.
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TABLE 20: Pollution-related deaths in Cambridge, Kitchener and Waterloo, 2000-2004
Chronic Exposure (non-traumatic)
Year
Acute Exposure (non-traumatic)
Total nontraumatic
Cardiopulmonary
Lung
cancer
Pollutant
Unit of
Measure
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
O3
Annual
daily 1-hr
maximum
(ppb)
SO2
Annual
24-hr
average
(ppb)
NO2
Annual
24-hr
average
(ppb)
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
2000
115
40
9
17
3
26
19
2001
127
45
9
23
4
25
21
2002
•
•
•
26
3
21
•
2003
135
44
10
28
3
•
22
2004
127
41
10
17
•
22
20
TOTAL
504
170
38
111
13
94
82
The symbol “•” denotes that data was not available for the current assessment.
Source: Air Quality and Urban Health Impacts Waterloo Region: A preliminary assessment.
Region of Waterloo Public Health, February 2008.
Outdoor air pollution is thought to be associated with increases in hospital admissions.248,249,250 This
initial assessment estimates that air pollution in Cambridge, Kitchener, and Waterloo, contributed
to about 2,000 hospitalizations from acute exposure to four common pollutants over five years
(2002 to 2006) (see table 21). For cardiovascular hospital admissions, O3 had the greatest health
impact, averaging approximately 192 hospital admissions per year. NO2 exposure was associated
with the largest contribution to respiratory hospital admissions with 64 hospital admissions
estimated per year.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
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TABLE 21: Hospital admissions related to acute pollutant exposure
in Cambridge, Kitchener, and Waterloo, 2002-2006
Year
Chronic Exposure (non-traumatic)
Acute Exposure (non-traumatic)
Pollutant
Unit of
Measure
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
O3
Annual
daily 1-hr
maximum
(ppb)
SO2
Annual
24-hr
average
(ppb)
NO2
Annual
24-hr
average
(ppb)
PM2.5
Annual
24-hr
average
(µg/m3)
2002
188
6
148
27
8
47
9
2003
241
8
•
•
12
•
•
2004
152
•
195
36
•
70
14
2005
220
•
187
34
•
79
16
2006
159
3
147
27
5
59
12
TOTAL
960
17
677
124
25
255
51
The symbol “•” denotes that data was not available for the current assessment.
Source: Air Quality and Urban Health Impacts Waterloo Region: A preliminary assessment.
Region of Waterloo Public Health, February 2008.
Asthma affects a significant portion of the Canadian population, with children bearing the most
disease burden. The literature suggests that the prevalence of asthma in Canadian children
under 14 years has risen dramatically and that children are at increased risk due to air pollution
exposure.251 Ozone related exposures in children aged five to 12 accounted for 47 emergency
department visits and 20 hospital admissions in Cambridge, Kitchener, and Waterloo from 2002
to 2006.
It is important to mention that this local assessment of air quality health impacts should be
interpreted as a general aid in guiding air quality and health management strategies. The key
limitations are that the results provided are only estimates and not precise counts of persons
affected by individual pollutants. There are many uncertainties in linking illness to individual
pollutants, and this type of assessment would benefit from additional research that builds on
the existing state of scientific evidence. In addition, these estimates represent the most serious
health outcomes (e.g. death, hospitalization) at the peak of the ‘pyramid’ of health effects, but do
not reasonably represent the numerous, less severe health outcomes such as asthma symptom
days, and respiratory infections (i.e. pneumonia).252 Therefore, although significant, these mortality,
hospitalization admission, and emergency department visit estimates, highly underestimate illness
associated with poor air quality.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Air pollution is also associated with other negative impacts less directly related to human health.
For instance, smog and haze are accompanied by low visibility conditions while elevated levels
of air pollutants can cause plant injury resulting in impacts to forests and crop loss. Atmospheric
levels of nitrogen can also alter soil composition and ecosystem structures by causing certain plant
species to flourish and others to decline. Certain air-borne pollutants contribute to the corrosion of
rubber, metal, and carbonate cement building materials. In addition, air pollutants such as carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone are greenhouse gases which contribute to global
climate change.253
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to improve outdoor air quality?
As part of the National Air Pollution Surveillance Network (NAPSN), the Ontario Ministry of
the Environment (OMOE) operates one air quality monitoring station in Waterloo Region. The
monitoring station, located near West Avenue and Homewood Avenue in Kitchener, was selected
by OMOE based on NAPSN guidelines that it should represent where the population “lives, plays,
and works”.254 For the years 2000 to 2006, hourly air quality data was obtained for the pollutants
PM2.5, NO2, O3, and SO2.255
Continuous assessment of air quality and its health impacts is one of the actions directed by the
Ontario Public Health Standards and its related protocols for Population Health Assessment and
Surveillance, and Investigation and Management of Health Hazards. In compliance with the Ontario
Public Health Standards, Region of Waterloo Public Health is developing a comprehensive Health
Hazard program that will contain a specific component relating to air quality and health impacts.
Several key strategic initiatives to address air quality have been put forward in the recently
introduced 2007-2010 Region of Waterloo Strategic Plan.256 The environmental sustainability focus
area of the plan emphasizes two key objectives: first, to improve air quality in Waterloo Region;
and second, to effectively use and manage energy resources. Region of Waterloo Public Health has
committed to contribute to these objectives by conducting the following:
• A feasibility assessment of developing a community-wide air quality monitoring
and modeling program;
• Working with Reduce the Juice, a youth-led climate change organization,
to develop an anti-idling social marketing campaign; and
• Investigating the feasibility of a community energy planning strategy including
community design for more efficient energy use.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
139
Across various departments, Region of Waterloo is also involved in:
• Expanding initiatives to operate Regional vehicles in a more environmentally
sustainable manner (e.g., Grand River Transit hybrid buses); and
• Investigating and piloting the use of alternative energy sources in Regional facilities;
• Developing an energy efficiency strategy.
The growth management focus area of the plan emphasizes two objectives that ultimately help
improve air quality by decreasing the number of single vehicle occupant trips: first, developing
a rapid transit system; and second, to enhance, develop, promote and integrate sustainable and
active forms of transportation (public transit, cycling, and walking). Numerous objectives exist
across the Region to achieve these objectives, including:
• Implementing Transportation Demand Management Initiatives;
• Improving customer service on Grand River Transit by updating the Business Plan
and implementing new technology;
• Increasing affordable transportation options; and
• Developing long-term funding strategies for sidewalks, cycling, and pedestrian facilities.
Region of Waterloo Public Health has committed to helping achieve these objectives by:
• Partnering with Planning, Housing and Community Services to enhance and develop
sustainable and active forms of transportation; and
• Conducting surveillance and publishing reports on the health impacts of the built environment.
In addition, Public Health has committed to partner with Planning, Housing and Community Services
to enhance and develop sustainable and active forms of transportation and to conduct surveillance
and publish reports on the health impacts associated with environmental and social conditions.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to improve outdoor air quality?
According to Environment Canada, there are several ways that outdoor air quality can be improved,
as detailed below.257
• Use active modes of transportation: Choose to walk, take the bus or bike to commute, to run
errands, or visit friends. For example, ride your bike and take advantage of approximately 500 km
of on-road bikeways and off-road multi-use trails across Waterloo Region.
• Increase driving efficiency and improve air quality by avoiding letting your car idle. Allowing your
vehicle to idle increases emissions, uses gas and costs more than turning off your vehicle.
• Generating electricity contributes to outdoor air pollution. Therefore, conserve electricity yearround by adjusting the heat or air conditioner and turning off lights that are not being used.
• Avoid using oil-based products such as paints, solvents or cleaners if avoidable. They contain
volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which contribute to smog.
• Get engine tune-ups and car maintenance checks as advised by the car manufacturer’s
maintenance schedule to make sure that your car is working optimally.
For further information related to outdoor air quality, please refer to the Air Quality and Urban
Health Impacts, Waterloo Region – A Preliminary Assessment (February 2008) report available
on the Region of Waterloo website: www.region.waterloo.on.ca
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
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5.2 INDOOR AIR QUALITY
Indoor air quality may be impacted by either biological contaminants (like mould and mildew) or
chemical contaminants (sources which may include cleaning products, some home furnishings, and
combustible materials including tobacco). The degree of contamination of indoor air quality varies
widely between buildings due to the presence or absence of various contaminants at different
locations. Most Canadians spend the majority of their time indoors making indoor air quality an
important health consideration. The degree of impact of indoor air quality depends on the presence
or absence of indoor air contaminants and their relative concentration, toxicity, and the affect that
they may have on different individuals. Most often, people experience cold-like symptoms as a
result of indoor air contamination.
Background
Indoor air quality and related health effects
The majority of Canadians spend up to 90 per cent of their time indoors, and, as such, the effects
of poor indoor air quality are of significant concern.258 A variety of factors affect indoor air quality
including building materials, home furnishings, carpets, cleaning products, some consumer
products, biological contaminants such as mould and mildew, combustible materials such as
tobacco smoke, oil, gas and wood, paint, and a variety of outdoor pollutants which enter into
indoor spaces.259 Improper ventilation and poor air circulation, humidity and high temperatures also
act to increase the concentration of contaminants in the air.260 Because of this and the additional
substances that may be introduced to the indoor environment, indoor air can contain a higher
concentration of contaminants than outdoor air.261
The probability that an individual will be impacted by indoor air quality is related to the amount of
time spent in an environment with poor indoor air quality as well as their individual susceptibility
to the specific type of indoor air contaminant. Poor indoor air quality has been linked to a variety
of health effects which vary depending on the contaminant. Common effects of exposure to indoor
contaminants include: irritation of the eyes, nose and throat, headache, dizziness, and fatigue.262
In addition, poor indoor air quality can trigger more severe asthmatic and allergic reactions in
susceptible populations. Poor indoor air quality can also contribute to the development of allergies.
Because the symptoms associated with reactions to poor indoor air quality often mimic those seen
with a common cold, the effects of poor indoor air quality on health can be overlooked.263 Chronic
exposure to a variety of indoor air pollutants has been linked to some respiratory diseases, heart
diseases, cancer, and Legionnaires disease.264
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Poor indoor air quality can also lead to the development of a variety of health syndromes,
specifically the Sick Building Syndrome (also known as Tight Building Syndrome), Building-Related
Illness, and Multiple Chemical Sensitivities Syndrome.265 Sick Building Syndrome describes
cases in which building occupants experience adverse health effects that are apparently linked
to the time they spend in a building. Building-Related Illness refers to less frequent (but often
more serious) cases of people becoming ill after being in a specific building at a certain time. A
clear cause can often be found upon investigation. Multiple Chemical Sensitivities Syndrome is
characterized by a reaction to a number of chemicals in indoor air, each of which may occur at very
low concentrations.266
Dust
Dust is formed when contaminants bind to particulate matter in the air. Dust can remain in the air
or settle out as house dust. Where toxic contaminants are present in the air, they may combine
with particulate matter and settle out in dust. Exposure to the toxic contaminants in dust, whether
through inhalation or ingestion, may be linked to adverse health effects.267 Where contaminants in
dust may be a problem, inhaling or ingesting dust should be avoided and dust should be regularly
cleaned with a wet cloth or mop.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon Monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, tasteless gas that is released during the burning
of fuels such as natural gas, propane, gasoline, oil, coal, and wood. Sources of CO indoors include
improperly used fuel burning appliances, blocked chimneys, idling vehicles in garages or close to
homes, and using non-vented fuel burning appliances meant for outdoor use such as barbeques
and space heaters, and tobacco smoke. When inhaled, CO gas acts to decrease the oxygen content
of blood which can lead to a variety of adverse health effects. At low concentrations, healthy
persons can experience fatigue and those with heart disease can experience chest pain. At higher
concentrations, persons can experience impaired vision and coordination, headaches, dizziness,
confusion, and nausea. At very high concentrations, exposure to CO can be fatal.268 The nature
of CO gas makes it a particular concern as it is colourless and odourless and as a result often
goes unnoticed. For this reason, it is important to follow manufacturer directions on appliances,
use outdoor fuel burning items only outdoors and in a well-ventilated area, and use CO detectors
(available where smoke detectors are sold) in the home to protect against fuel burning appliance
malfunction.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
143
Lead
Before it was known that lead had adverse health human effects, it was used in a variety of
materials such as paint, gasoline, building materials, and piping. The use of lead in consumer
products has since been phased out. The use of lead in gasoline was banned in 1990 and the use
of lead in paint became illegal in 2005.269 Exposure to lead occurs through our drinking water and
food, the soil, and various consumer products.270 Of particular concern to indoor air quality is the
presence of lead particulates in the air and dust in homes. A major source of lead particulates in
homes is the removal of old lead-based paint products from the home; the lead particles enter the
air during the sanding, scraping or open-flame burning of lead-based paint.271,272 Paint that was
applied prior to 1950 is the highest concern, when the concentration of lead in paint was high.273
Exposure to lead poses a major health concern for infants, children, and pregnant women. Lead
exposure affects cognitive and behavioural development in infants and children and increases the
chance of pre-term labour, miscarriage, and spontaneous abortion in pregnant women.274,275 Infants
and children tend to play in and around areas where dust can accumulate and are more likely to
put their hands or objects in their mouths, resulting in increased potential exposure to lead. This,
in conjunction with their smaller size results in increased absorption and subsequently increased
concentrations of lead in their bodies. The risks of lead poisoning occurs at much lower exposure
levels for the developing fetus so pregnant women are strongly encouraged to reduce their
exposure to lead whenever possible.276,277
Mould
Moulds are fungi which produce spores and are present in both indoor and outdoor air.278 Mould
growth is promoted when moisture levels in the home are high enough to produce suitable
conditions for mould. Excessive levels of moisture in the home usually result from a fault or failure
in the structure of a home and/or inadequate ventilation allows the moisture to accumulate.279
Evidence of mould in the home includes discolouration or smell. Mould colours include: black,
white, red, orange, yellow, blue, or violet. Moulds may also be hidden, but a musty or earthy smell
may indicate a mould presence.
Health Canada identifies mould growth in residential buildings as a possible health hazard.280
Health impacts due to mould result from breathing the spores in the air or direct contact with
mouldy surfaces. Health risks associated with mould growth include allergic reactions, asthma
and other respiratory symptoms.281 These risks are relative to the level of exposure as well as an
individual’s degree of sensitivity to mould. Both allergy and asthma sufferers are more likely to be
impacted by indoor air contamination due to mould.282 Others may experience cold-like symptoms
due to the presence of mould in an indoor environment.
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Moulds and mould spores are present naturally in the environment and it is virtually impossible
to completely eliminate mould from a home. However, it is possible to eliminate the conditions
which support mould growth inside, including excessive dampness or moisture in buildings, and
by ensuring adequate ventilation of areas in the home which can acccumulate moisture, including
the bathroom and kitchen. Mould growth is often a risk following a flood, and proper steps must be
taken to properly clean and dry an area. Professional help should be obtained when there is a large
presence of mould in the home, when the home is excessively damp, or when mould reappears
after numerous cleanings.283 If significant mould is detected in a home, immediate remediation
is recommended to avoid possible health effects and to limit further mould damage to the home.
Further information can be obtained from Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation which offers
information about dealing with mould in the home.284
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to improve indoor air quality?
Currently, there is no specific legislation dealing with indoor air quality in Canada or Ontario.
The majority of federal government regulations apply to outdoor air quality. The Canadian
Environmental Protection Act is the primary legislation regulating the control of environmental
contaminants through national guidelines, quality objectives, and standards.
Provincially, the majority of restrictions and enforcement apply to occupational settings only. The
Occupational Health and Safety regulations state an employer must provide a safe and healthy
workplace; therefore, providing good air quality is seen as the employer’s duty.285
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
145
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to improve indoor air quality?
Health Canada recommends taking three general approaches to improve the indoor air quality in
the home: source control, proper ventilation, and air cleaners.
• Keep your home dry: Control humidity levels and fix anything that causes dampness and allows
mould to grow including cracks in a foundation or outside window
• If there is a flood, take immediate action and remove the water and anything wet, dry the area
out, including all affected furnishings, within 48 hours to prevent mould growth and to reduce
future repair costs
• Open windows and doors
• Turn on kitchen or bathroom exhaust fans: bathroom and kitchen fans remove moisture directly
from the room where they are created
• Maintain HVAC (Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning) systems, which perform these
important tasks:
• They bring fresh air indoors;
• They vent stale air outside;
• They circulate the air throughout the building; and
• They control temperature and humidity levels.
• Reduce lead exposure when renovating:
• get advice from a qualified contractor on how best to deal with old painted surfaces;
• keep painted surfaces in good repair; wipe up paint chips with a damp cloth;
• keep pregnant women and children out of renovated spaces until the work is finished and
well-cleaned; and
• regularly clean house dust by wet mopping and carefully dispose of vacuum cleaner bags
and dust cloths.
• If you suspect you may have lead-based paints in your home, it is recommended that you paint
over top of it rather than sanding it. Sanding of lead-based paint should be done with caution
and protective measures should be put in place.
• Purchase and use CO detectors for use along with smoke detectors in the home
• Always use fuel burning appliances with adequate ventilation, never use appliances designed
for outdoor use, indoors
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5.3 TOBACCO SMOKE
Second-hand tobacco smoke is a serious health hazard and known human carcinogen, meaning it
is known to cause cancer in humans.286 The degree of risk from second-hand smoke is relative to
its level of concentration, how long exposure takes place, and the age and health of the person
who is exposed. Exposure to second-hand smoke can have a significant impact on health, up to and
including premature death.
More than 50 cancer-causing
chemicals are found in secondhand smoke. Eleven compounds in
tobacco smoke have been identified
by the International Agency for
Research on Cancer as Group 1
human carcinogens, meaning they
are known to cause cancer:287
• 2-naphthylamine
• 4-aminobiphenyl
• benzene
• vinyl chloride
• ethylene oxide
• arsenic
• beryllium
• nickel compounds
• chromium
• cadmium
• polonium-210
Background
Second-hand smoke contains more than 4,000 chemicals, at least 50
of which are known to cause cancer. There is no known safe level of
exposure to second-hand smoke. Current evidence suggests that any
exposure should be avoided wherever possible.287
The significant harm caused by tobacco smoke is completely preventable
by making environments 100 per cent smoke-free. Exposure to secondhand smoke is highest when smoking takes place in a confined or nonventilated space. Concentrated exposure commonly occurs in vehicles,
homes, workplaces not covered by legislation, and may occur in outdoor
spaces such as the patios of restaurants and bars.
Exposure to second-hand smoke has been shown to cause the following
diseases and conditions: in children – Sudden Infant Death Syndrome,
bronchitis, pneumonia and other lower respiratory tract infections,
asthma, chronic cough, phlegm, wheezing and breathlessness, and
middle ear infections; in pregnant women – low birth-weight babies and
pre-term delivery; and in adults – coronary heart disease (25-30 per cent
increased risk), lung cancer (20-30 per cent increased risk), and asthma
induction and exacerbation.288
Exposure to second-hand smoke is associated with other diseases and conditions, including:
in children – an adverse impact on learning and behavioural development, decreased lung
function, exacerbation of cystic fibrosis, childhood cancers, leukemia, and lymphomas; in
pregnant women – miscarriages and pre-term births; in adults – stroke; breast, cervical and
nasal sinus cancer; fertility problems; chronic respiratory symptoms; and decreased lung function
in adults. Individuals with diabetes, high blood pressure, vascular diseases, asthma, bronchitis,
and emphysema are particularly vulnerable when exposed to second-hand smoke.290
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Current Trends
As knowledge of the harms caused by exposure to second-hand smoke grows and legislation
restricting smoking in public places becomes more prevalent, concerns are increasingly being
raised about unregulated areas of concentrated tobacco smoke such as homes, vehicles, and some
outdoor environments.
Exposure to Second-hand Smoke in Homes, Vehicles, and Outdoor Environments
Homes
Daily or near daily smoking in the home can result in significant exposure among all of the home’s
residents. Residents of multi-unit dwellings such as apartment buildings can be exposed to
second-hand smoke not just from smokers in their own homes, but also from people smoking in
neighbouring units. Second-hand smoke can find its way into indoor environments through windows
or doors, if cigarettes are smoked immediately outside of buildings, and through contaminated
clothes, skin, and dust carried inside if cigarettes are smoked elsewhere.291 Second-hand smoke
can remain indoors for long periods of time.292 Carpets, draperies, and various soft furnishings are
particularly prone to absorbing tobacco smoke and then re-emitting it into the air over time.293
Vehicles
Smoking in vehicles results in particularly high concentrations of second-hand smoke because of
the restricted area within which the smoke is circulated.294 Second-hand smoke in motor vehicles
can be up to 27 times more concentrated than in a smoker’s home.295 A recent University of
Waterloo study found smoking just one cigarette in a car can lead to levels of second-hand smoke
equal to and even several times greater than those found in the smokiest bars and restaurants.296
Outdoors
Limited research has been conducted to date on outdoor exposure to second-hand smoke. A study
conducted in outdoor spaces at the University of Maryland found outdoor tobacco smoke levels did
not decrease to background levels for fine particles and carcinogens until about seven metres from
the source.297 Unlike indoor environments where second-hand smoke concentrations persist for
hours after smoking ceases, outdoor tobacco smoke concentrations dissipate rapidly after smoking
stops.
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Exposure levels
Risk due to second-hand smoke is related to an individual’s level of exposure. Overall, second-hand
smoke from cigarettes, cigars, and pipes is estimated to cause 425 deaths each year in healthy
non-smokers in Ontario.298
Exposure levels to second-hand smoke vary widely among different groups of people. Thirteen
per cent of Canadian households reported at least one person smoked inside the home every day
or almost every day in the first half of 2008.299 Among the remaining households where smoking
did not occur daily or near daily, an additional 11 per cent allowed persons to smoke inside their
homes. Six per cent of Canadian children under the age of 12 (about 262,000 children) were
regularly exposed to second-hand smoke at home.
The percentage of Ontarians exposed to second-hand smoke in their homes has decreased
significantly from 9.1 per cent in 2003 to 5.7 per cent in 2007. In Waterloo Region exposure levels
to second-hand smoke in the home were 8.1 per cent in 2003 and 7.0 per cent in 2007 (see Table
22).
TABLE 22: Per cent individuals aged 12 years and older who reported
at least one person smokes inside their home every day or almost
every day by year, Waterloo Region and Ontario, 2003-2007
Area
Year
2003
2005
2007
Waterloo Region 8.1%
5.8%
7.0%E
Ontario
7.3%
5.7%
9.1%
Source: Canadian Community Health Survey, 2003, 2005, 2007.
Levels of exposure to second-hand smoke in the home differ across various groups within the
population. Overall, about 73 per cent of households in Waterloo Region reported being totally
smoke-free between 2003 and 2006.300 Households with children were significantly more likely to
have had smoke-free homes than households without children (82.1 per cent vs. 66.7 per cent).
Households from the City of Waterloo (81.0 per cent) were significantly more likely to have had a
totally smoke-free home than households in the cities of Kitchener (69.3 per cent) or Cambridge
(69.2 per cent), but were comparable to households in the surrounding townships (81.6 per cent).
(See Table 23.)
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TABLE 23: Percentage of smokers and exposure to second-hand smoke
across Waterloo Region municipalities and townships, 2003-2006
Waterloo Region Municipalities and Surrounding Townships
Tobacco Use
City of
City of
City of
Waterloo Cambridge Kitchener
Townships: Woolwich,
Wilmot, Wellesley and
North Dumfries
Adult smoking rate (%)
13.6%
24.4%
23.0%
17.8%
Households with totally
smoke-free homes (%)
81.0%
69.2%
69.3%
81.6%
Source: Region of Waterloo Public Health, 2006, 2006. 302,303
A survey of 703 households across Waterloo Region conducted in late 2008 found 87 per cent
of households reported no one ever smokes in their home and 30 per cent reported no one ever
smokes on their porch, balcony, patio, or in their garage. Nevertheless, 30 per cent of respondents
who did not permit smoking in these areas reported being exposed to second-hand smoke in their
homes at least sometimes, including tobacco smoke coming from outside the home. Sixty-nine per
cent reported they or other household members are bothered by exposure to second-hand smoke
and 30 per cent reported they or other household members have health problems made worse by
exposure to second-hand smoke.301
A similar survey of residents of housing owned or operated by the Region of Waterloo conducted
in 2008 found 24 per cent of residents who did not permit smoking in their own home said they
were nevertheless always or very often exposed. A further 29 per cent said they were sometimes
exposed. Of those, 44 per cent said someone in their home had health problems worsened by
exposure to second-hand smoke.304
According to the Canadian Community Health Survey (2007),305 9.9 per cent of non-smokers aged
12 or over in Waterloo Region reported being exposed to second-hand smoke in a public place or
vehicle in the previous month. Thirty-four per cent of respondents to the Canadian Tobacco Use
Monitoring Survey (2008) said they are exposed to second-hand smoke at least once a week, with
11 per cent reporting this occurs every day, and another 11 per cent reporting exposure almost
every day.306
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According to the Canadian Tobacco Use Monitoring Survey (2008), 23 per cent of Canadians
reported being exposed to cigarette smoke in a car or other vehicle in the previous month. In
Waterloo Region the percentage of people 12 years and older exposed to second-hand smoke
in a vehicle every day or almost every day in the previous month dropped from 10.3 per cent in
2003 to 6.8 per cent in 2005.307 The reported rates of daily or near daily exposure in the previous
month for Ontario and Canada as a whole are similar to those for Waterloo Region.
In Waterloo Region, households with children are significantly more likely to prohibit smoking
in their vehicles at all times (82.3 per cent) compared to households without children
(78.1 per cent).308 The majority of drivers in a 2004 survey (78.7 per cent) said they prohibited
smoking in their vehicles at all times. An additional 9.3 per cent forbade smoking in the
presence of children.309 In Ontario, legislation prohibiting smoking in vehicles with children
up to 16 years of age came into effect in January 2009.
Health Protection Efforts
Public health officials and health advocacy groups focus education efforts on increasing public
awareness of the health risks associated with exposure to second-hand smoke and encouraging
smokers who are unable to quit smoking to smoke outdoors, preferably in areas designated for
that purpose. Legislation has been enacted to protect Canadians from the significant dangers of
exposure to second-hand smoke in enclosed workplaces, enclosed public places, and on school
property. The Smoke-Free Ontario Act forbids smoking in bars, restaurants, casinos, schools, school
grounds, daycares, hospitals and long-term care settings, workplace vehicles, vehicles carrying
children up to 16 years of age, and common areas of condominiums and apartment buildings.310
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect
residents from exposure to second-hand smoke?
The Regional Municipality of Waterloo was the first municipality in Ontario to introduce a
comprehensive smoking by-law prohibiting smoking in bars and restaurants. The World Health
Organization (2007) recommends legislation of this type as the best way to protect citizens from
exposure to second-hand smoke.311 Regional enforcement officers currently enforce the Smoke-Free
Ontario Act, legislation which was modeled on municipal by-laws such as the Region’s smoking
by-law. The Smoke-Free Ontario Act prohibits smoking in enclosed workplaces and enclosed
public places. The Region’s smoking by-law remains in effect today. It goes beyond the SmokeFree Ontario Act in its prohibition of smoking in outdoor bleacher areas. Recently, the Region
established a policy that prohibits smoking within nine metres of the main entrance(s) to any
regionally owned building or facility.
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151
Waterloo Region’s Planning, Housing, and Community Services, and Public Health departments
recently recommended a smoke-free policy for inclusion in all new leases with Waterloo Region
Housing beginning in April 2010. The recommendation was proposed as a solution to concerns
raised by residents of Regionally owned or operated housing about second-hand smoke entering
their homes from other units or outdoor areas. The recommendation was made in consultation with
tenants following a tenant survey conducted in the fall of 2008 and follow-up forums with tenants
in April 2009.
All pregnant women who attend Grand River Hospital’s pre-birth service and those who access
Region of Waterloo Public Health services, including the reproductive health information line,
Growing Healthy Two-gether program, and Healthy Babies, Healthy Children program, are asked
about their tobacco use, advised to quit and given referrals to services that will help them quit.
Pregnant women participating in one-on-one programs at Public Health receive counselling to help
them reduce their tobacco use or quit entirely.
Region of Waterloo Public Health staff monitor surveillance data about levels of exposure to
second-hand smoke in Waterloo Region, provide information to the public about the risks of
exposure to second-hand smoke, and contribute to provincial campaigns to raise awareness about
the value of smoke-free homes and public places. Staff are currently planning activities to promote
tobacco-free sports and recreation.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to
protect themselves from second-hand smoke?
In the home:
• Keep homes smoke-free;
• Block airways where smoke can travel from other units or from outside
(e.g., gaps under doors, openings for plumbing and electrical fixtures);
• Work with fellow tenants or residents to advocate for restrictions on
smoking in buildings; and
• If you’re a landlord or a member of the Board of your condominium,
consider implementing a smoke-free policy in your building.
In Vehicles
• Keep vehicles smoke-free at all times.
In the Workplace
• Advocate for designated smoking areas located outdoors away from
building entrances and exits.
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In Outdoor Spaces
• Choose patios of bars and restaurants where smoking is prohibited;
• If you smoke, avoid smoking within 9 metres of building exits and entrances;
• Advocate for smoke-free playgrounds so children will not be exposed to smoke
during play, to role modeling of smoking behaviour by adults, or to tobacco product
litter (Note: Volunteers across Canada picked up 270,000 cigarette butts in a
weekend shoreline cleanup in 2007. Cigarette butts represent the most littered
item in the world); and
• Participate in and promote tobacco-free sports and recreation where everyone
(i.e., participants, spectators, coaches, and leaders) who takes part in a sport or
recreation activity refrains from using tobacco products.
For further information:
• Health Canada – Second-hand Smoke
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/tobac-tabac/second/index-eng.php
• The Health Consequences of Involuntary Exposure to Tobacco Smoke:
A report of the Surgeon-General (U.S.)
http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/library/secondhandsmoke/
• Ministry of Health Promotion – Smoke-Free Ontario Strategy
http://www.mhp.gov.on.ca/english/health/smoke_free/default.asp
• Smoke-Free Housing Canada
http://www.smokefreehousing.ca/
• Tobaccosmoke.org – Scientific Information about Exposure
http://tobaccosmoke.org/
• Make your Home and Car Smoke-free – a Guide to Protecting
your family from second-hand smoke (Health Canada)
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/hc-ps/pubs/tobac-tabac/second-guide/index-eng.php
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5.4 ODOURS
Odours in the environment may act as an irritant but have not been shown to be associated with
health impacts.
Background
Studies have shown that both odour exposure and annoyance were associated with health
complaints.313 However, research studies have been unable to clearly demonstrate a connection
between specific odorants and health effects.314 Perception of odour includes several dimensions
such as odour intensity, odour identification and pleasantness.315 While literature shows that
there is a range of sensitivity in the population to both odour and irritation as a result of individual
characteristics, there is little evidence to support a finding that a negative physical reaction may
occur as a consequence of exposure to environmental odours.316,317
Current Trends
While there can be any number of different sources of odorants in a given community, the most
common sources of citizen complaints are generated by industry and/or landfill/waste activity.
Complaints and/or concerns received by Region of Waterloo Public Health regarding odorants
generated by industry are forwarded to either the Ministry of the Environment or the Ministry of
Labour, as appropriate.
What is Region of Waterloo doing to protect residents from odorants?
Odorants associated with landfill complaints are handled by the Region of Waterloo Waste
Management Department. The Waste Management Department of the Region has established a
long-standing committee which meets with the public on a quarterly basis to discuss operations
and odour complaints. These meetings usually consist of departmental representatives and
existing public committee members, but meetings are open to any and all interested members of
the general public. Region of Waterloo Waste Management also responds to public complaints
received through the Ministry of the Environment.
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Region of Waterloo Waste Management has established a number of proactive programs in an
effort to reduce odorants, and consequently complaints, associated with landfill operations. Some
of these initiatives include:
• A gas collection/reclamation system located at the Waterloo landfill site which is operated in
cooperation with TORMONT Energy to produce electrical energy. A series of gas collection wells
were drilled at the site to collect landfill gas and transfer it to large generators. Established in
1999, the landfill gas generation project currently supplies electricity to 2,000 homes.
• As part of an assessment process highlighted in the Region’s 1986 Waste Management Master
Plan, a series of gas probes were located throughout the Cambridge landfill to monitor methane
gas conditions.318 In 1996, a landfill gas control system was installed. At the same time, the
Region was approached by Gerdau Ameristeel to utilize the landfill gas in their “reheat furnace.”
By August 1999, the gas utilization system was on-line and is now fully functional.319
• Sections of the landfill which are closed are covered with a clay-based material in order to seal
the area and reduce air-borne odorants.
• Waste Management is currently trialing a spray-based “deodorant” system located around the
perimeter fence of the Waterloo Landfill as an additional odorant control measure. While the
system is designed primarily for summer use, a study is underway to investigate winterizing the
system for year-round use.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do about odorants in their community?
• Maintain your property and house to minimize odours, make sure to take out your garbage
regularly, and turn over your compost in order to prevent odours.
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6
REPORT ON:
HEALTH AND THE
PHYS ICAL ENVIRO N M E N T
6 . 0 ENVIRONMENT
AN D THE COMMUNITY
6.0 ENVIRONMENT A N D T H E C O M M U N I T Y
6.1 ALTERNATIVE/RENEWABLE ENERGY
Our society uses a variety of forms of energy to power our buses and cars, heat our homes,
cook our foods and run our appliances. Energy sources are often described as either being finite
or non-renewable, such as fossil fuels, or renewable, such as solar and wind power. There are
clear contrasts in the type and magnitude of health burdens associated with each.320 Pollutants
generated by the combustion of fossil fuels, especially gasoline used in automobiles, have a
significant impact on air quality which impacts both acute and long-term health. These health
impacts can range from a reduction in lung function to hospital admissions and death. Renewable
energy is considered to be less polluting than other forms of energy and therefore its impact on
health is also lessened.321
Background
We use energy in our society to produce electricity which powers our tools, lights our homes, and
pumps our water. We also use energy for space heating and water heating, cooking, transportation,
manufacturing, agriculture, and most other human activities. Energy sources and distribution
systems have been developed including our production, distribution, and retailing for common
energy sources like electricity, gasoline, natural gas, heating oil, and other fossil fuels. These
resources are generally divided into three broad categories: non-renewable energy (coal, oil, and
gas), renewable energy (wave, wind), and nuclear energy. All of these resources have the potential
to impact, both directly and indirectly, the environment and human health. In general, the types and
scales of these impacts will vary from one resource to another, and will depend on a wide range of
other variables, including the methods used to extract and convert this resource into electricity.322
Current Trends
In Ontario electricity is generated by more than 20 different companies that own and operate
power generators connected to the Independent Electricity System Operator (IESO)-controlled
electricity grid. The largest is Ontario Power Generation, controlling 70 per cent of generation in
the province. Ontario’s internal power generation is supplemented when needed by power imported
from Quebec, New York State, and other neighbouring jurisdictions.323
Ontario Power Generation power stations use fossil fuels (natural gas or coal), nuclear, and some
renewable sources including hydro and, to a lesser extent, wind power. This electricity is then
distributed across the province by Hydro One. Electricity is sold to households, businesses, and
institutions by local utility companies. In Waterloo Region our electrical utility companies include
Waterloo North Hydro, Kitchener-Wilmot Hydro, and Cambridge-North Dumfries Hydro.
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The majority of energy most people in Waterloo Region use in their day-to-day lives is derived
from non-renewable sources such as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels, such as coal, natural gas, and oil are
finite; formed by natural forces over millions of years, they are not easily or readily replaced once
consumed. The use of fossil fuels is connected to a number of issues including poor air quality and
climate change. (See Section 5.1 Outdoor Air Quality and Section 6.7 Climate Change for a more
complete discussion of the effects of poor air quality and climate change.)
Future use of energy is predicted to be challenged by several factors including rapid growth in
many regions, increased energy demands, rising fuel prices, potential supply disruptions, climate
change, and air quality issues.
Alternative/Renewable Energy
Renewable energy generally refers to energy that is derived from non-depleting sources such as
wind, solar, bio-energy, water, and earth energy.324 Renewable energy is less polluting than other
forms of energy. One of the key characteristics of renewable energy is the low or zero-emissions of
air pollutants and/or greenhouse gases generated by its use. Because it is less polluting than other
forms of energy such as fossil fuels, its impact on health is also lessened.325
Wind Energy
The wind can be harnessed to produce electrical energy. Wind generating capacity has been
growing; in Canada (as of 2008), the current wind-energy capacity generated from 87 established
wind farms has been estimated at 2,239 megawatts – enough energy to power more than 600,000
homes.326,327
Note: A megawatt equals one million watts. A watt is the basic unit used to measure electrical
energy. Watt-hours (Wh) are used to measure the number of watts consumed in one hour.
Locally, the Region of Waterloo, in conjunction with the University of Waterloo and the City of
Waterloo, is investigating the feasibility of installing wind turbines at various sites in the region
as part of a renewable energy initiative.328 Region of Waterloo is currently operating a test tower
at the Waterloo Region Emergency Services Training & Research Complex which data-logs wind
characteristics. If the test tower provides sufficient wind profile data, a single 250 Kilowatt-unit
wind turbine will be proposed for the site. It is anticipated that the turbine, once in place, would
provide enough energy to power the centre located at the site. Excess energy generated by such a
turbine would be put into the electrical energy grid for which the Region would receive credit from
the local utility.
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Solar Energy
The sun’s energy, in the form of radiation, can be captured by solar collectors or panels, and
transformed into usable heat and electricity. Captured by photovoltaic panels and depending on the
location and the number of sunny/cloudy days which occur in a year, solar energy can be a limitless
and inexpensive source of power once established.329
At present, there are a handful of solar-powered homes and public buildings which demonstrate
solar energy in Waterloo Region. These include: Federation Hall at the University of Waterloo,
Waterloo City Hall, the Regional Emergency Medical Services building, and the YMCA outdoor
centre located at Paradise Lake. New installations are in the planning stages for Rockway
Mennonite Collegiate in Kitchener and the Grand House Co-operative in Cambridge.330
Bio-energy
Bio-energy is one of the oldest energy resources used by humankind. The burning of wood to
create heat for warmth and cooking is another example of the use of bio-energy.
On a large scale, bio-energy is derived from material termed ‘biomass’ which is often the
by-product of another product or process. Common examples of biomass fuels are agricultural
waste (including animal manure), municipal waste (paper products, kitchen waste & sewage
sludge), food processing waste and waste resulting from the forest/logging industry.331
Currently, approximately 5.9 per cent of Canada’s energy demands are supplied through the
combustion of biomass.332 Landfill gas (LFG) is a type of bio-energy created when oxygen mixes
with decomposing garbage and results in methane (CH4) which can be harnessed for energy.333
There are currently two landfill gas reclamation projects in Waterloo Region; one project is located
at the Erb Street landfill in Waterloo and the second is located at the Cambridge landfill site.
Earth Energy
Earth energy is a technology which uses temperatures found in the earth, or beneath water, as
a means of heating and cooling buildings. Earth energy systems rely on the fact that the earth’s
temperature below a certain depth (one to two meters) is a relatively constant 10 degrees Celsius
year-round. This makes the earth a very large, predictable source of heat energy, irrespective of
outdoor air temperatures. By installing looped pipes either horizontally (in trenches) or vertically
(in bore holes), the heat pump moves fluid through the ground. During the cold, winter months, the
system circulates warm air in order to heat a building, while in the summer, the system is reversed
– hot air is removed from the building and cooler air is circulated in its place.334,335 Currently, there
are more than 30,000 earth energy installations in residential, commercial, and industrial use
across Canada.336
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There are several community-based initiatives and/or organizations which are involved with
promoting and educating the public on alternative/renewable energy initiatives in Waterloo Region.
Residential Energy Efficiency Project (REEP)
The Residential Energy Efficiency Project (REEP) was founded in 1999 as a local means of delivering
the federal government’s ecoENERGY project. This product (earlier known as the EnerGuide for
Houses) gives a detailed account of the home’s energy losses – predominantly from heating and
cooling losses.
REEP conducts a variety of residential household assessments to provide homeowners with
information about how to reduce energy use and to measure the home or property’s suitability for
different renewable energy generation. To date, REEP has conducted more than 9,000 home energy
audits in Waterloo Region, equating to over 10 per cent of the region’s eligible housing (homes
older than 20 years, single/semi/row house). This comprehensive service provides a household
with the results of a home energy evaluation. Clients who have followed REEP’s energy-saving
recommendations have collectively reduced over 4,900 tonnes of CO2 emissions per year through
home energy retrofits.337
REEP now provides a variety of other environmental services including household Solar
Assessments. This service involves a Certified Energy Advisor from REEP visiting a home to
evaluate the building’s potential for solar energy including solar electricity, solar water and space
heating and solar pool heating. This service involves mapping the orientation of the building,
assessing solar access, and then modeling potential energy generation. A report is provided that
includes an analysis of the costs and benefits associated with various technologies (including solar
hot water systems, solar electric, or photovoltaic systems).
Community Renewable Energy Waterloo (CREW)
Community Renewable Energy Waterloo (CREW) is a local nonprofit organization dedicated to
making renewable energy accessible to residents of Waterloo Region. CREW’s vision is to provide
the community with a network of knowledgeable advocates, early adopters and interested citizens
who initiate and support local projects. Through education and example, CREW encourages energy
conservation and sustainable use of energy or materials from naturally regenerating sources, such
as wind, solar and earth energy.338
CREW is a member of the Ontario Sustainable Energy Association, an organization that advocates
for Community Power and Renewable Energy in Ontario.
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What is the Region of Waterloo doing with regard
to alternative and renewable energy?
Waterloo Region Partners for Clean Air (WRPCA)
Region of Waterloo Public Health leads a community group called Waterloo Region Partners for
Clean Air (WRPCA). The purpose of WRPCA is to increase the capacity of member organizations to
reduce energy use and air pollution. WRPCA meets regularly to share information, showcase best
practices, and seek opportunities for collaborative action. WPRCA is comprised of organizations
with a desire to implement initiatives that result in improved air quality in Waterloo Region.
Regional Energy Modeling
The Region of Waterloo has already demonstrated its leadership in a number of energy-related
areas such as implementing Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED®) building
policies, developing the Corporate Energy Program, establishing the Waterloo Region Partners for
Clean Air, developing the Rapid Transit proposal, researching the benefits of urban agriculture, and
the links between urban design and health. To explore these issues further, Region of Waterloo
Public Health and Region of Waterloo Planning, Housing and Community Services consulted with
the Adaptation and Impacts Research Division of Environment Canada and the University of Regina,
Faculty of Engineering, to develop a Regional Energy Model which uses local data to assess a
number of different energy scenarios.
Community Events
The Woolwich Township Healthy Communities Project is a local, community-based, organization
that was formed in 1991 to promote a “Healthy Communities” concept for residents of Woolwich
Township. Although they have a variety of projects, the Healthy Communities project is involved
with several key issues such as: sustainable development, clean and safe water, wildlife corridors,
trail preservation, and tree planting. For the past several years, Woolwich Healthy Communities has
held an annual Eco-Show as a means of educating the community, and the public generally, about a
variety of environmental issues and concerns.339
In 2008 and 2009, Region of Waterloo has hosted an environmental event called Eco-Show and
Eco-Fest, respectively. These events highlighted various environmental issues and ways that
schools and residents of Waterloo Region can ‘green’ their practices.
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What can residents of Waterloo Region do with
regards to alternative and renewable energy?
Residents can consider installing alternative energy components in their homes depending on
suitability. Options for homeowners include:
• Solar hot water heaters
• Solar panels that can be installed on your roof
• Geothermal energy
• Wind power
Further information on alternative energy options can be found locally from organizations such
as Community Renewable Resources Waterloo which provides information on alternative energy
options and conserving energy. http://www.crewzone.ca/
Solar energy assessments for your home can be arranged through Residential Energy Efficiency
Project; more information is available at: http://www.reepwaterlooregion.ca/
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6.2 BUILT ENVIRONMENT
There is increasing awareness about the ways the built environment impacts our health. The built
environment includes land use patterns, the design of our streets, sidewalks and pathways, the
transportation system, and the shape of our communities. Factors such as the distance between
home and work, the look and feel of the neighbourhood and streets, the presence or absence of
stores, recreation facilities, and parks all affect choices to walk, cycle, take transit, or drive. The
transportation choices we make have long-term impacts on our health in terms of air quality and
physical well-being. Increased motorized vehicle use leads to poorer air quality; fewer walking and
cycling trips contribute to rising incidence of overweight persons, obesity, and increasing rates of
chronic diseases.
Background
The ‘built environment’ includes land use patterns, the design of our streets, sidewalks and
pathways, the transportation system, and the overall shape of our communities. The effects
of the built environment on physical fitness and activity levels operate through a complex
set of relationships; habits and choices are influenced by both the built environment and the
demographic characteristics, attitudes, time constraints, and social conditions in which people
live.340,341,342,343,344,345 In Waterloo Region, towns and cities have been developed for the most part
with residential areas separated from employment, recreation, entertainment, and shopping
areas.346 The distance between residences and other destinations often make walking or cycling a
less desirable choice resulting in higher use of cars and other vehicles.
Increased motor vehicle trips also lead to poorer air quality and decrease the time and opportunity
for regular daily physical activity. The Ontario Ministry of the Environment estimates that the
transportation sector in Ontario is responsible for 65 per cent of the emissions of nitrogen oxides
and volatile organic compounds (the main components in smog).347 Lack of sufficient physical
activity is linked to increases in heart disease, diabetes, obesity, and depression.348,349 For more
information on Air Quality Impacts, please refer to Section 5.1 of this report.
Changes to the built environment to develop a more walkable community can have long-lasting
benefits on the health of our citizens. A walkable community is one that encourages citizens
to choose walking more often and their cars less often.350 In a walkable community, the built
environment supports walking as a viable form of everyday transportation. These communities tend
to have higher population densities, a mixture of land uses (i.e. retail, recreation, employment, and
residential all within close proximity), and a variety of convenient routes for getting around.351,352
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Regular physical activity can reduce the risk of heart disease, colon cancer, and diabetes by as
much as 50 per cent. It decreases the impact of osteoporosis and arthritis, and regular physical
activity is an important part in avoiding becoming overweight or obese.353,354
Current Trends
Physical Activity and Health
A 2005 research study in Waterloo Region demonstrated that there are differences in walking
and driving behaviour among residents based on urban form. A comparison was made between
urban or denser neighbourhoods which tend to be more walkable and suburban neighbourhoods
which are usually less walkable and have fewer services and amenities within walking distance.
Residents from downtown neighbourhoods reported walking on average more days per week and
more minutes per day than those in suburban neighbourhoods. Suburban residents were more likely
to own three or more vehicles per household and they reported spending an average of 74 minutes
per day in a car compared to 42 minutes per day for urban residents.355
TABLE 24: Commuting and Driving Patterns, Waterloo Region, 2005
Commuting statistic
Urban Neighbourhoods
Suburban Neighbourhoods
Average number of minutes
per day spent driving in a car
42.0
73.8
% who drive to work/school
68.0
86.0
% who walk to work/school
18.0
8.0
% who cycle to work/school
8.0
2.0
Source: Region of Waterloo, 2005. Urban Form and physical Activity and Health Report. Waterloo, ON.
TABLE 25: Walking Patterns, Waterloo Region, 2005
Walking statistic
Urban Neighbourhoods
Suburban
Neighbourhoods
Average # of days per week walking
5.0*
4.1*
Average # of minutes walking
per day
47.7
41.1
% who report walking for leisure
78.0
79.0
% of time spent walking on purposive
walking, doing errands etc.
48.2*
33.5*
* Represents a statistically significant difference (p<0.05) between two neighbourhood types.
Source: Region of Waterloo, 2005. Urban Form and Physical Activity and Health Report. Waterloo, ON.
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While the numbers in this study may not seem large, the implications may be significant. An
unrelated study has shown that each additional hour spent in a car per day is associated with a six
per cent increase in the likelihood of obesity.356 Even small amounts of physical activity each day
may have significant implications in terms of long-term health and well-being for individuals.357
Automotive collisions
Each year Region of Waterloo produces a report of collisions on Regional roads. Rates of traffic
collisions are increasingly correlated with the number of vehicles on the road. While targeted
changes to high-risk intersections has led to an ongoing decrease in the number of fatal collisions,
the number of collisions overall remains high.
TABLE 26: Collisions in Waterloo Region, 2003-2007
Statistic
Number of Collisions
Number of Fatal Collisions
Year
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
5,980
5,688
5,748
6,061
6,657
5
9
12
11
14
Source: Region of Waterloo. (2007). Collision report. E-07-059. Waterloo, ON: Transportation and Environmental Services.
This annual report is a summary of factors associated with traffic collisions that occurred on roads
under the jurisdiction of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo or occurring at intersections with
traffic signal under the jurisdiction of local municipalities in 2007 for the years 2003 to 2007.358
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to improve the built environment?
The pedestrian environment has been a key focus across Waterloo Region since the adoption
of the Pedestrian Charter by the Region of Waterloo (2005) and the cities of Cambridge (2005),
Kitchener (2005), and Waterloo (2008). The Pedestrian Charter serves as a set of principles to foster
awareness and support for pedestrian activity. The Charter helps to ensure that walking is a safe,
comfortable, and convenient mode of urban travel. It also puts forward 11 areas for action that
encourage and support walking.
In addition, policy changes have been made in the new Regional Official Plan for the Region of
Waterloo, including a requirement for the development of a Regional Pedestrian Master Plan for
Waterloo Region. Both urban design guidelines and suburban design guidelines have been revised
to highlight the importance of pedestrian-friendly development in the region. Sidewalk policies
have been strengthened and plans have been developed to fill in missing sidewalk links within area
neighbourhoods.
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The trails network across Waterloo Region continues to be improved and now boasts the first
pedestrian bridge over highway 401 linking the Kitchener and Cambridge trail systems. Region
of Waterloo has continued to focus on learning and sharing information on the pedestrian
environment through hosting workshop sessions such as the Walkability Roadshow from the
International Walk21 Conference; this conference brought international experts to speak with
citizens, senior management, and staff about successful strategies for promoting walking,
developing focussed awareness campaigns like walkON (promoting destination walking to
school, work, etc.), Reduce the Juice (promoting sustainable transportation choices and reducing
auto emissions to students and the community-at-large), and the Glare (promoting safe driving
behaviour); as well as engaging in research to learn more about the links between the built
environment, transportation, food choices and health. Region of Waterloo also continues to work
with local community groups like Active and Safe Routes to School (who promote walking to
school) and the Pedestrian Charter Steering Committee (a citizens’ group that encourages the
implementation of the Pedestrian Charter across Waterloo Region) to support their efforts to
increase the walkability of Waterloo Region’s built environment.
Cycling Environment
In 2004, Region of Waterloo adopted a revised Regional Cycling Master Plan and continues to
work with the Regional Cycling Advisory Committee, which was created in 1994 during the first
Regional Cycling Master Plan. The Committee provides input into cycling facility construction,
cycling policies, and strategies. It also endeavours to increase public awareness and understanding
of cycling issues, and serves as a forum for the public and/or agencies to raise their viewpoints on
cycling issues.
The Regional Cycling Master Plan identifies core and long-term cycling networks and provides
guidelines for the Region to work with Area Municipalities and other stakeholders towards an
integrated cycling network over the next 20 years. The Regional Cycling Master Plan continues
to be implemented through the addition of cycling lanes as roadways are reconstructed. Cycling
opportunities have also increased with the inclusion of bike racks on all Grand River Transit
buses, the addition of bike racks at key transit stops and stations, and the addition of bike lockers
available at the Charles Street and Ainslie Street bus terminals in Kitchener and Cambridge.
Community Design & Investments
In 2001, the Regional Growth Management Strategy was launched. This strategy provides direction
for the long-term management of growth within Waterloo Region over the next several decades
by employing a balanced approach to planning our future. One focus of the strategy involved
intensification and redevelopment of the downtown core of our cities. Area municipalities have
undertaken significant investment to improve the design of the downtown neighbourhoods and
facilitated the building of new university campuses, redevelopment of old factory buildings, and
investment in civic squares.
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What can residents of Waterloo Region do to improve the built environment?
Public consultation processes are held during the development of many Regional policies and
plans. Citizen input plays an important role in shaping the development of these policies and their
implementation. Residents can contribute to the community by participating in these processes to
build a more walkable community.
On an individual level, residents can choose active and sustainable modes of transportation more
often to improve their health and decrease their impact on the air quality. This means walk, bike, or
take transit when you go to work, school, go out to eat, buy groceries, run errands, or meet friends.
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6.3 CONSUMER PRODUCTS
Most consumer products are generally safe when designed, manufactured, and used appropriately.
On rare occasions, exposure to contaminated products may pose health risks (such as
developmental disorders, irritations, etc.) to consumers and in particular vulnerable populations
including children, and pregnant women. The risk associated with consumer products varies
depending on the product type, exposure levels, and a variety of individual factors. Consumers
should use products as they were designed and be aware of product recalls in the event that a
product has been deemed to be unsafe after being released to the marketplace.
Background
Most consumer products (non-food products intended for the consumer) are generally safe when
designed, manufactured and used appropriately.359 However, exposure to contaminated products
may pose health risks to consumers and in particular vulnerable populations including children,
pregnant women, and women of childbearing age.
While most consumer products do not pose health risks, and harm from these exposures is largely
preventable, products of concern recently include: imported children’s toys found to have high
levels of lead (approximately 80 per cent of toys imported into Canada are from China); leaching
of bisphenol-A from plastics and can liners; phthalates used to make pliable plastics and many
personal care products; polybrominated flame retardants found in televisions and computers; and
volatile organic compounds (VOCs) found in paints and household cleaning products. Chemicals
within these products can be released into the air, adhere to surfaces, accumulate in household
dust, and be ingested through direct contact thus providing many routes for exposure.360,361
During pregnancy, the fetus is at greatest risk from toxins in the first three months of pregnancy.
This is because organ systems, hormone pathways, and metabolic systems are developing at
that time.362 Exposure to toxins during early developmental stages, from preconception through
childhood, can result in permanent damage (e.g. birth defects, developmental disorders) to
developing infants and children.363 It is important to mention that both dosage of an exposure and
timing are of importance in the potential impact a toxin may have.
Children are more vulnerable than adults to environmental contaminants because their bodies are
undergoing rapid development and their behaviours put them in closer contact with contaminants
found in the home. Kilogram for kilogram of body weight, children will eat more, drink more fluids
and breathe more air than adults. Children naturally use their hands and mouth for exploration. In
addition, children experience vulnerable periods in their physical development where exposures to
harmful substances may have a more significant effect on their health.364
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169
Current Trends
The evidence being generated on the harmful effects of chemicals used during the manufacture of
consumer products has lead Health Canada to propose a new action plan with regard to consumer
products. The proposed new Canada Consumer Product Safety Act is an important component of
Canada’s Food and Consumer Safety Action Plan. The plan includes the creation of new legislation
and more accountability for both national and international manufacturers and suppliers to ensure
safer products in the Canadian marketplace. Strategies in Health Canada’s plan include introducing
a general prohibition against dangerous consumer products, requiring enhanced reporting of
safety concerns with products, strengthening consumer product recalls, improving import safety,
increasing fines and penalties, and improving the accessibility to information and resources for
consumers.365
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect
residents from harmful consumer products?
Region of Waterloo Public Health has many resources available for public use that it makes
available in its offices and at public events. In addition, Public Health actively increases awareness
of children’s health through programs such as Prenatal Health Fairs and Workplace Wellness
Fairs. In response to Health Canada’s ‘Public Comment Period on bisphenol-A’, Public Health’s
Reproductive Health Program in partnership with Central South West Reproductive Health Working
Group advocated for more stringent protocols pertaining to bisphenol-A in consumer products.
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What can residents of Waterloo Region do to protect
themselves from harmful consumer products?
The following chart outlines methods to create a healthier environment while using consumer
products.
TABLE 27: Methods to Create a Healthier Environment While Using Consumer Products
While Playing
While Eating
Avoid soft plastic toys, Choose glass or
especially for teething ceramic storage
babies
container
While Renovating/
Decorating
Choose low-VOC
paints
While Cleaning
Avoid using aerosol
sprays
Ensure children do not Don’t use leaded
Don’t involve pregnant Choose ‘green’
put toys in their mouth crystal for storing or
women and children in cleaning products
serving foods or drinks renovation activities
Handwash after play
Handwash before
eating
Never sand old
painted surfaces
Make household
cleaners/use vinegar
and water or baking
soda for cleaning
Discard metal toys and Do not heat food in
jewellery that are dull, plastic containers
heavy for their size
and can easily draw a
grey line
Vacuum frequently to
remove dust
Use a wet rag to
remove dust
Purchase toys from
reputable and safe
sources
Try using wood,
Wash hands regularly
glass, ceramic, stone,
metal, cloth and wood
products instead of
plastic
Do not use plastic
wrap to cover food in
the microwave
Source: Canadian Partnership for Childrens’ Health and the Environment (2008)
Playing it Safe: Childproofing for Environmental Health. 365
For additional information about consumer products and recalls, refer to the Health Canada
website: (http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/cps-spc/index-eng.php) and to the Canadian Partnership for
Childrens’ Health and Environment website: (http://www.healthyenvironmentforkids.ca/english/)366
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6.4 FOOD SAFETY
Food-borne (enteric) illnesses are caused by ingesting bacteria, viruses, or other parasitic
organisms. Transmission occurs primarily by consuming contaminated food or water. Health
impacts of enteric disease range from diarrhea and/or vomiting lasting a few days, to severe
chronic conditions, such as kidney failure or systemic infection. Vulnerable populations (i.e. elderly,
pregnant women, and young children) are more susceptible to enteric illnesses and are at greater
risk of developing severe symptoms and chronic conditions.
From 1995 to 2004, there was an overall decrease in the incidence of the most common food-borne
illnesses in Waterloo Region, generally mirroring provincial and national trends.367 Despite this,
there has been a rise in the number of food-borne illness outbreaks linked to fruit and vegetables
in Canada assumed to be due to three main factors: greater level of consumption of whole and
minimally processed fruits and vegetables, changes in consumer demographics, and more intensive
production, processing and handling habits.368 Yet, food-borne diseases are largely preventable.
Proper agricultural, manufacturing and food handling practices can significantly reduce the spread
of microbes among food items and prevent the contamination of foods.
Background
Access to safe food is a basic public necessity. Over the past decade, changes in fruit and
vegetable consumption, travel patterns, global climate change, and changes in the global
marketplace that allow Canadians to access a huge variety of imported foods from around the
world have impacted the safety of the food supply system. These changes introduce a new set of
risks to food.
An effective food safety system must encompass all aspects of the food continuum from production
to consumption. It requires the participation of everyone along the ‘farm to fork’ food chain
including food producers, retailers, consumers, and governments.
Surveillance of food-borne illnesses is important.369,370 Increased surveillance in conjunction with
consumer awareness and access to information have added to earlier detection of a number of
large-scale, food-borne outbreaks and food recalls.
Consideration must be given to the health impacts of climate and food safety on an international,
even global scale.371 Increased access to international foods and the ability to travel abroad
presents new and increased risks for food-borne and waterborne diseases. Although not common,
pathogens can move with imported foods and people, entering Canada in boats, airplanes and
suitcases.
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Canadians can be exposed to infectious diseases that are sensitive to climate variables such as
temperature and precipitation. This includes diseases that are transmitted through water, food,
and animals. Some can be transmitted through both food and water, as is the case with pathogens
like E. coli. Many of these illnesses occur seasonally. For example, food-borne illnesses caused by
Campylobacter peak during warmer months.372
Warmer temperatures result in people spending more time participating in outdoor food
preparation (e.g. BBQs) and activities such as camping, swimming, and hiking.371 Proper
temperature control in cooking and cold-holding during these activities is difficult. There are also
increased risks of contamination due to lack of adequate handwashing facilities, storing raw
foods on top of or next to ready-to-eat foods, and using the same utensils to handle raw meats as
cooked, and ready-to-eat foods.372
In addition, extreme weather events and climate conditions have played a part in water
contamination incidents in Canada. The most common climate-related cause of water
contamination in Canada is storm water runoff that flushes contaminants into streams, rivers, and
lakes, and can transport contaminants into groundwater.373
Climatic influences on food safety include:
• Contamination of drinking and recreational water by runoff from heavy rainfall;
• Changes in marine environments that result in algal blooms and higher levels
of toxins in fish and shellfish;
• Behavioural changes due to warmer temperatures resulting in an increased risk of
food-borne and waterborne infections (e.g. through longer BBQ and swimming seasons);
• Livestock stressed by temperature or other factors on farm or during transport may be
more likely to become ill or to carry greater amounts of harmful bacteria and viruses;
• Changes in wild bird and wild animal population health may bring about new bio-security
issues for farmers, potentially leading to the emergence of new food-borne pathogens; and
• Heat waves and power outages could cause refrigeration failure during food processing
and storage, compromising food safety.374
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There are many opportunities for food to become contaminated as it is produced and prepared.
Meat and poultry can become contaminated during slaughter by contact with small amounts of
intestinal contents. Raw foods of animal origin are the most likely to be contaminated including
raw meat and poultry, raw eggs, unpasteurized milk, and raw shellfish. Fresh fruits and vegetables
can be contaminated if they are washed or irrigated with water that is contaminated with animal
manure or human sewage.375
Later in food processing, other food-borne microbes can be introduced from infected humans
who handle the food, or by cross-contamination from some other raw agricultural product. In the
kitchen, microbes can be transferred from one food to another food by using the same knife, cutting
board, or other utensil to prepare both without washing the surface or utensil in between. A food
that is fully cooked can become re-contaminated if it touches other raw foods or drippings from raw
foods that contain pathogens. The way that food is handled after it is contaminated can also make
a difference in whether or not an outbreak occurs. In general, refrigeration or freezing prevents
bacteria from growing.376
It is important to mention that food-borne diseases are largely preventable, though there is no
simple one-step prevention measure like a vaccine. Instead, measures are needed to prevent or
limit contamination all the way from farm to table. A variety of good agricultural and manufacturing
practices can reduce the spread of microbes among food items and prevent contamination of
foods.377
Enteric illnesses, commonly referred to as food-borne illnesses, are caused by ingesting bacteria,
viruses or other parasitic micro-organisms. Transmission occurs primarily through ingestion of
contaminated food or water, and more rarely through direct or fecal-oral contact with an infected
person. Enteric diseases can cause symptoms such as diarrhea and/or vomiting lasting a few
days, to severe chronic conditions, such as kidney failure or systemic infection. These issues are
of particular concern for vulnerable populations including, pregnant women, young children, the
elderly and people with compromised immune systems. These vulnerable populations are more
susceptible to enteric illnesses and are at greater risk of developing severe symptoms and chronic
conditions.378,379
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Current Trends
The most common food-borne pathogens in Canada are Salmonella, Campylobacter and E. coli.
Pathogens, such a Giardia, Cryptosporidium, Campylobacter, Shigella, and E. coli, are the most
common causes of waterborne diseases in Canada. The report titled, Enteric Illness in Ontario,
Canada, from 1997-2001380 found that for 74 per cent of outbreaks associated with eight enteric
pathogens (Campylobacter, Salmonella, E. coli, Yersinia, Shigella, Hepatitis A, Listeria and
Clostridium botulinum), food-borne contamination was the cause. The top three reported places of
transmission for food-borne illness were private homes (50.2%), travel (24.6%), and restaurants
(14.1%). Since private homes appear to be a significant source of food-borne illness, there is
an opportunity to improve disease rates through prevention measures such as increased public
education and awareness of proper food handling practices and skills. The study also identified an
increased incidence of illness in the summer (likely related to warmer environmental temperatures)
and poor food handling practices which result in increased risk of pathogen growth in poorly
handled food.
The report concluded that there appeared to be a downward trend in the number of reported
illnesses associated with the eight pathogens during the 5-year study, and that the number of
illnesses reported between 1997 and 2001 was less than from 1992 to 1996.381 There was an
overall decreasing trend in the incidence of the most common food-borne illnesses in Waterloo
Region from 1995-2004 as well, often mirroring provincial trends.382
Prevalence of Food-borne Illness
• OMAFRA estimates that there are on average over 2.5 million cases of food-borne
illness in Ontario each year, resulting in 9,319 hospitalizations and 135 deaths.383
• These estimates project an annual economic impact from lost time, doctors’ visits,
hospitalizations, death, and chronic illness in excess of $3.2 billion in Ontario.384
• An Ontario study estimates that of reported illnesses, 1 in 17 illnesses were caused
by Campylobacter, Salmonella and Yersinia and 1 in 9 were caused by Shigella.385
• Public Health Agency of Canada estimates that there are approximately 11 million
cases of food-borne illness per year in Canada.386
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Recalls and outbreaks
In recent years, food related outbreaks and recalls have garnered increased attention. This is in
contrast to the overall downward trend in food-borne illness reports we have seen over the last ten
years, as stated in the previous sections of this report. The globalization of food sources increases
our exposure to potentially harmful organisms and large-scale farming and processing means that
a large number of people are exposed to the same sources of food and potentially, contamination.
It is possible that the increased public and health care awareness of food-borne illnesses, and
recalls, may be resulting in increased reporting of symptoms and testing for enteric pathogens.
The role and expertise of laboratories with increased accuracy (e.g. molecular sub-typing, better
communication between labs, timeliness) coupled with increased public health capacity and
epidemiological expertise have led to more accurate detection of food borne illnesses.
The food industry uses advanced controls to protect the safety of the products they produce.
However as the complexity of food systems increases, so do the opportunities for contamination
of the food chain. Occasionally, a food product which poses a health risk may be manufactured
and sold. When this occurs it is important that the product is quickly removed from the market.
This process of removing the product is called a “recall”. The food industry carries out most recalls
voluntarily. The company issuing a recall is responsible for implementing the recall and verification
of its effectiveness.387 The Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ministry of Health and Long-Term
Care, and the Region of Waterloo Public Health work together to monitor the effectiveness of
recalls and to take action where necessary to help remove affected products and/or identify
concerns.
Region of Waterloo Public Health investigates and manages all cases of enteric illness reported in
Waterloo Region. Public Health also actively responds to all suspected and confirmed outbreaks
of enteric illness in health care, long term care, residential and child care facilities, and in the
community at large. Investigations include management of cases and contacts, attempts to identify
source of illness and implementation of control measures to limit and stop the spread of illness.
Figure 19 represents the number of enteric outbreaks investigated by Region of Waterloo Public
Health by facility type from 2003 to 2008. The total number of enteric outbreaks investigated by
Public Health increased from 2004 to 2007 but decreased in 2008 to levels which were similar to
2005. During the time frame between 2003 to 2008, enteric outbreaks most commonly occurred in
long-term care homes and child care centres.
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FIGURE 19: Number of enteric outbreaks investigated by Region of Waterloo
Public Health by facility type, Waterloo Region, 2003-2008
100
90
Number of outbreaks
80
LTC
Hosp
RF
CCC
Community
Total
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
*Long Term Care (LTC), Hospital (Hosp), Residential Facility (RF), Child Care Centre (CCC) and Community-based.
Source: Region of Waterloo Public Health (2009). Enteric Outbreak Monitoring. (Chart to be updated with complete 2008
data) Note: Institutions such as health care, long term care, residential, and childcare facilities are required to report
outbreaks of food-borne illness to public health. This reporting requirment does not exist for the community at large.
Fruit and vegetable consumption and outbreaks
The eating habits of Canadians have changed during the past decade. As the health benefits
of minimally processed fruits and vegetables has become more widely known and accepted,
the variety and quantity consumed has increased dramatically.388 This signals an improvement
in people’s knowledge of healthy food options. However, the trend towards whole fruits and
vegetables has resulted in a corresponding rise in the number of food-borne illness outbreaks
linked to fruit and vegetables. This is despite the fact that the overall incidence of food-borne
illness appears to be decreasing. Table 28 represents recent fruit and vegetable-related outbreaks
in North America from 1996 to 2008.
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177
TABLE 28: Recent fruit and vegetable related outbreaks, North America, 1996-2008
Year of
Outbreak
Location
1996/1997
USA
2003
USA
Hepatitis A
650 cases
Green onions from Mexico1
2005
Ontario, Canada
Salmonella
Over 600 cases
Mung bean sprouts1
2006
USA and Canada
Salmonella
185 cases
Tomatoes2
2006
USA and Canada
E.coli O157:H7
200 cases
Spinach1
2007
USA
Salmonella
65 cases
Vegetable snacks2
2008
USA and Canada
Salmonella
60 cases
Cantaloupe2
2008
USA
E.coli O157:H7
40 cases
Iceberg lettuce3
2008
Ontario
E.coli O157:H7
128 cases
Romaine lettuce4
Causative
Number of
Agent/Organism People Affected
Food Involved
Cyclospora parasite Over 1000 cases Raspberries from Guatemala1
Arthur, L., Jones, S., Fabri, M. & Odumeru, J. (2007).
Whitfield, Y. (2008).
3
http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/125553.php
4
http://www.cbc.ca/canada/story/2008/11/12/lettuce-outbreak.html
1
2
The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs’ Food Safety Science Unit (FSSU)
estimates that 41 percent of food-borne illness in Ontario can be attributed to foods of plant origin,
i.e. fruits and vegetables. This exceeds every other food group including meat, fish, dairy, and eggs.
The FSSU estimates that foods of plant origin caused 90,200 illnesses annually from 1997 to 2001,
with an estimated annual health-related cost (health care, lost wages, and other economic losses)
of $143,591,577, second only to the costs associated with meat-related illnesses.389
Surveillance
Surveillance is the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, and interpretation of disease and
illness data. It also incorporates the prompt dissemination of results to those regulatory bodies that
are required to take action.
Surveillance is conducted in order to reduce illness related to a potential disease outbreak and
to improve health. A good surveillance system related to food-borne disease includes animal
health, food hazards, and food-borne illnesses.390 Disease surveillance in Canada has moved from
traditional work of recording past events to a more active, anticipatory approach designed to
identify health threats as early as possible.391
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Surveillance continues to be a vital cornerstone of Region of Waterloo Public Health’s food safety
program. With a view to enhancing food and water safety programs in Waterloo Region, Public
Health partnered with the federal government, namely the Public Health Agency of Canada, and
in 2005 became the first site for an enhanced enteric illness surveillance program, known as
C-EnterNet.
C-EnterNet is a multi-partner program facilitated by the Public Health Agency of Canada to detect
changes in trends in human enteric disease and in levels of pathogen exposure from food, animal,
and water sources in Canada. This system involves enhanced epidemiological and microbiological
surveillance of reportable human enteric diseases in selected communities. In addition, the active
surveillance of pathogens in retail food, water, and food animal operations in Waterloo Region are
also studied by C-EnterNet researchers.
To date, C-EnterNet has analyzed two years (2006-2007) of human enteric illness data from
Waterloo Region. A summary of this data is presented in Table 29. In 2007, the most frequently
reported enteric diseases to Region of Waterloo Public Health were Campylobacteriosis,
Salmonellosis, Giardiasis, and Amoebiasis; these diseases accounted for 83 per cent of all reported
enteric disease.
TABLE 29: Reported human enteric illnesses, Waterloo Region, 2006-2007
Human Enteric Illness Data
Year
2006
2007
420
477
Per cent Outbreak Related
1
<1
Per cent Travel Related
31
30
Per cent Endemic (Local)
68
69
Salmonellosis,
Campylobacteriosis,
Giardiasis,
Verotoxigenic E. coli
Campylobacteriosis,
Salmonellosis,
Giardiasis,
Amoebiasis
82%
83%
Total No. Human Cases
Most Frequently Reported
Diseases
Most Frequently Reported
Diseases as a per cent of Total
Reported Enteric Diseases
Source: Public Health Agency of Canada (2008). 2007 C-EnterNet Annual Report.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
179
Figure 20 and 21 depict the annual number of cases (2003-2007) for the most frequently reported
human enteric illnesses in Waterloo Region.
200
40.0
180
35.0
Number of cases
160
30.0
140
120
25.0
100
20.0
80
15.0
60
10.0
40
5.0
20
0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Campylobacteriosis
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Salmonellosis
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Verotoxin producing E. coli
Source: Public Health Agency of Canada (2008). 2007 C-EnterNet Annual Report.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
0.0
Incidence rate (per 100,000 population)
FIGURE 20: Number of Cases and Rates of Campylobacteriosis, Salmonellosis
and Verotoxin producing E. coli, Waterloo Region, 2003-2007
200
40.0
180
35.0
Number of cases
160
30.0
140
120
25.0
100
20.0
80
15.0
60
10.0
40
5.0
20
0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Amebiasis
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007
Giardiasis
Incidence rate (per 100,000 population)
FIGURE 21: Number of Cases and Rates of Amebiasis and
Giardiasis, Waterloo Region, 2003-2007
0.0
Source: Public Health Agency of Canada (2008). 2007 C-EnterNet Annual Report.
Food safety program
Region of Waterloo Public Health’s Food Safety Program aims at reducing the incidence of foodborne illness in Waterloo Region through a balance of education and enforcement programs.
The Food Safety Program achieves its goals by inspecting food establishments and by providing
education to food handlers and the general public. The frequencies of inspections are determined
by a risk assessment that categorizes food premises as high, medium or low risk. The risk
factors for each premise are determined through an assessment of the type of food prepared,
the population served, and the history of compliance with the Ontario Food Premises Regulation
562/90.392
Compliance with the Ontario Food Premises Regulation 562/90 is measured by the number of
critical and non-critical infractions noted by Public Health Inspectors during routine inspections.
Critical infractions are violations that can lead to food-borne illness. Non-critical infractions are
those that affect the structure and sanitation of a premise. In 2007, there were 2,218 critical
infractions and 4,585 non-critical infractions. The number of infractions in 2007 decreased by nine
per cent from 2006 levels.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
181
FIGURE 22: Number of public health inspections, Waterloo Region, 2005-2007
5000
4500
3988
Number of inspections
4000
3500
4299
3467
3193
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
2005
2006
2007
2008
Source: Region of Waterloo Public Health (2009). 2008 Food Safety Annual Report.
In 2008, Public Health Inspectors seized and destroyed food that was deemed unfit for human
consumption on 117 occasions amounting to approximately 1,535 kg of food. Provincial Offences
Notices and Summons are issued when an operator of a food establishment repeatedly fails to
comply with the requirements outlined in the Ontario Food Premises Regulation 562/90. In 2008,
36 charges were issued to 19 food establishments in the Region of Waterloo.393
Waterloo Region’s diverse cultural communities organize many annual special events that involve
the preparation and sale of food to the public in temporary food premise arrangements (e.g.
food stands and BBQs). Special events in Waterloo Region include Oktoberfest, the Multicultural
Festival, and the Elmira Maple Syrup Festival.394
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In 2008, Region of Waterloo Public Health received notification of 352 special events hosted in the
Region. Consultation and education with a Public Health Inspector occurs for each event application
received to ensure that each vendor meets the food safety requirements. Inspection of these events
depends on a risk assessment which is based on the expected number of attendees, types of foods
served and whether the event is open to the public. Risk assessments prompted the inspection of
242 vendors at 35 special events.
Pesticide use on foods
Canadians are concerned about the use of pesticides on their food, especially their vegetables and
fruit.395 Pesticide intake may occur through various food and water sources as pesticides are used
in agriculture to protect crops and livestock. Residues of pesticides can remain in or on foods that
have been treated.396
The Pest Control Products Act (PCPA) which came into legislation in June 2006, legally formalized
existing pesticide policies at that time. The PCPA supports pesticide risk reduction approach. For
example, it specifies that only pesticides that make a useful contribution to pest management are
registered and approved for use.397 Risk reduction is accomplished by setting maximum residue
limits for fruits and vegetables. A maximum residue limit (MRL) represents the maximum amount
of pesticide that might be expected to be remaining on a food item. MRLs are set at levels that
are thought to pose no increased health risk to consumers. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency
is responsible for monitoring domestic and imported foods as well as for carrying out enforcement
activities to prevent the sale of food containing excessive pesticide residues.
Between 2005 and 2006, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency reported that 99.1 per cent of the
domestic fruits and vegetables were below the established MRL and 88 per cent had no detectable
residues. They also reported 96.7 per cent of imported fruits and vegetables were below the
established MRL and 86 per cent had no detectable residues. Canadian Food Inspection Agency
data for 2006-2007 are currently being compiled.398
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
183
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect
the public from food-borne illness?
In order to ensure access to safe food, Region of Waterloo Public Health actively participates in
a food safety system that emphasizes “farm to fork” food safety. This is accomplished through a
multi-faceted, multi-agency approach which includes: routine food premises inspections; foodborne illness, recall, and outbreak investigations; food safety education, and public awareness. It
is also the role of Region of Waterloo Public Health to help identify and mediate food related risks
and ensure that the food service industry is implementing appropriate control measures in order to
protect public health by reducing the risk of food-borne illness, protect consumers from unsanitary,
unwholesome, mislabelled or adulterated food, providing assurance that food is suitable for human
consumption, and providing health education programs to effectively communicate the principles of
food safety to industry and consumers.399
In order to accomplish this, Public Health undertakes the following activities: follow up and manage
all cases of enteric illness reported to Public Health; respond to outbreaks of enteric illness in the
community, in health care, long term care, residential care, and child care facilities; inspection of
approximately 2,200 food establishments in the region; training and education of over 3,800 food
handlers between 2003 to 2008; liason with more than 54 health care facilities, 117 residential
homes, and 139 child care facilities to ensure sound infection control; assist and respond to food
recalls; provide quick and easy access to routine food inspection results for food premises on the
Food Premises Inspection Disclosure website, and staff the Public Health Inspector intake line.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do?
To Prevent Food-borne Illness
• Wash hands after using the washroom, coughing into hands, before and after
handling food, and anytime that they may have become contaminated
• Keep and serve hot food hot and cold food cold
• Practice safe food handling
• Seek advice from Region of Waterloo Public Health before traveling abroad
• Seek medical attention if you suspect a food-borne illness – submit samples when possible
• Report suspected food-borne illness to Region of Waterloo Public Health at 519-883-2008
• Wash fruits and vegetables
• Ask your health care provider what foods to avoid when you are pregnant
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To Control Pesticide Intake
• Wash hands with warm water and soap for at least 20 seconds before and after handling food,
especially fresh whole fruits and vegetables
• Wash all fresh fruit and vegetables
• Use a small scrub brush to clean the outer skin of fruit and vegetables, if appropriate for foods in
which you eat the outer skin
• Peel fruit and vegetables and trim the outer leaves of leafy vegetables
• Discard the outer leaves of leafy vegetables such as lettuce and cabbage
• Plant your own garden and use natural pest control methods
• Buy pesticide-free organically-grown produce
For further information
• Canadian Partnership for Consumer Food Safety Education:
http://www.canfightbac.org/en/
• Food Safety Network:
http://www.foodsafetynetwork.ca
• Health Canada:
http://www.hc-sc.gc.ca/fn-an/securit/index-eng.php
• Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food & Rural Affairs:
http://www.omafra.gov.on.ca/english/infores/foodsafe/safety.html
• Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care:
http://www.health.gov.on.ca/english/public/pub/pub_menus/pub_foodsafe.html
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
185
6.5 FOOD SYSTEMS
Background
A food system can be defined as “all of the processes which are part of providing food to
people” including the growing (i.e. agriculture), transporting, processing, packaging, marketing,
selling/buying, consuming, and disposing of food.400 The environment plays an important role
in the food system, and activities involved in the food system have considerable impact on the
environment.
In Waterloo Region there has been an ongoing trend toward intensification of agricultural
production (see section 3.5). The term ‘agricultural intensification’ refers to the practice of
intensifying what is grown or produced in a set area, and usually involves additional inputs of
fertilizer or other materials. Agricultural intensification may also involve growing uniform crops or
monocultures, which reduces biodiversity and increases the need for pesticides401 and the addition
of other materials like fertilizers.402
There are a number of environmental impacts related to food systems. Burning of fossil fuels during
production and transportation of commercial fertilizers contributes to climate change. Excessive
fertilizer use leads to release of nitrous oxide, a greenhouse gas (GHG) more
Sustainable agricultural
potent than carbon dioxide and a factor in ozone layer depletion.403 Effects
methods and
of intensified animal farming include water pollution, soil degradation and
principles include crop
GHG emissions. Excessive food packaging generates waste and pollution.404
diversity, rotation and
Fossil fuels are required for food and material transportation related to food
intercropping; integrated
systems contributing to air pollution (e.g. smog) and climate change.405
pest management;
conservation tillage and Food systems can be designed to have positive effects on the environment.
zero-tillage; cover crops; The use of land for agriculture can be combined with various conservation
and restoration measures to create balanced and integrated ecosystems.406
and use of natural and
Ecologically oriented or sustainable food production can promote health
organic fertilizers.
of the environment through increased biodiversity, improved soil fertility
and stability, as well as increased soil capacity for water retention and storage of carbon.407,408
Agricultural practices may also help prevent erosion, conserve water, and decrease concentrations
of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.409 A localized food system (i.e. a food system in which food
production, distribution, consumption, etc. occur in the same geographic area) can benefit the
environment by reducing GHG emissions associated with long-distance food transportation.410
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Current Trends
Food Distribution
Ontario and Waterloo Region are characterized by consolidation of the food processing and
distribution sector. Because food is sourced from across the province and beyond, local food is
found only in a limited amount of food items sold in Waterloo Region.411 Similarly, chain stores,
which account for a significant portion of food retailers in Waterloo Region, are unlikely to buy their
food locally because of the purchasing systems that they have in place.412 The end result can lead
to decreased availability of local food.413 A study for Waterloo Region, examining a sample of foods
that can be grown locally, demonstrated that even during the peak growing season, local foods
were not readily available in Waterloo Region stores.414
The concept of ‘food miles’ or the idea of measuring how far food has travelled before reaching
the consumer has been used in recent years to illustrate the environmental costs associated with
transportation of food.415 In a Region of Waterloo Public Health study, completed in 2005, it was
reported that, on average, imports of selected food items travel 4,497 km before reaching Waterloo
Region.416 This equates to the emission of 51,709 tonnes of greenhouse gases per year, an effect
similar to 16,919 additional cars on the road. If the same foods were sourced in southwestern
Ontario, the total amount of greenhouse gases emitted would be 2,224 tonnes, a 96 per cent
reduction.417
There is strong public support for the local food system as 87.1 per cent of residents of Waterloo
Region who participated in a 2003 survey ranked buying local food as either very important or
somewhat important. As well, 71 per cent of respondents indicated they would be willing to
buy more local food if it was labelled as local.418 The survey findings illustrate that the public is
generally aware of the importance of buying local food and that efforts need to focus on making it
easier to do so.419
Farmland Use
Waterloo Region’s agricultural land base is potentially sufficient to supply the food needed for
our population’s optimal nutrition in the next few decades. A study of Waterloo Region found that
requirements for many key foods could be met partially or completely through a 10 per cent shift in
crop type and production in local agricultural production.420 The environmental significance of this
is that a shift in agricultural production required would not necessarily translate into agricultural
intensification, but rather, changes in the kinds of food being produced (e.g. greater emphasis on
vegetables and fruits in crop production). To some extent this shift has started to take place as
the area of land used for vegetable production has increased between 2001 and 2006 from 643 to
1,473 acres (although the area of land used to grow fruits, berries and nuts decreased from 387 to
349 acres in the same period).421,422
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
187
Urban Agriculture
Urban agriculture refers to the practice of “growing of plants and raising of animals in and around
cities”. Community gardens, rooftop gardens and backyard gardens are some of the ways urban
agriculture is commonly practiced.423
In 2005, there were approximately 31 community gardens and at least 10 rooftop gardens or green
roofs in Waterloo Region;424 in 2008, there were 40 community gardens offering 711 gardening
plots. A survey of the Waterloo Region’s residents conducted in 2005 revealed that 38 per cent
of respondents practiced some form of urban agriculture, with 90 per cent of it through backyard
gardens.425
Green roofs are a form of urban greening whereby roofs are designed or retrofitted to incorporate
growing medium and plants. By retaining and filtering storm water, green roofs can reduce pollution
of urban waterways as well as flooding and erosion due to storm water.426 Green roofs and rooftop
gardens help to alleviate the urban heat island effect
(higher temperatures in urban areas compared to
In 2008, in response to a request from the
their surroundings). As a result, energy consumption
City of Waterloo, Public Health developed an
and air pollution involved in counteracting the heat
internal position statement regarding urban
island effect (e.g. air conditioning) are reduced.427
chicken farming. A review of literature, health
Unlike large-scale agriculture, urban agriculture is not
risks, and urban chicken farming practices
limited to specialized production and can, therefore,
elsewhere in Ontario, indicated that there
promote biodiversity through diversified production.428
may be benefits of urban chicken farming
Urban agriculture improves air quality through
related to urban agriculture and food security.
removal of pollutants, lowering of smog levels, and
Environmental implications of urban chicken
increased production of oxygen and can provide the
farming are mostly related to food safety and
means for removing soil contaminants, through a
animal-borne disease (e.g. avian influenza and
process known as phytoremediation.429
Salmonellosis). However, safety concerns of
urban chicken farming can be addressed with
sound management practices. At this point, a
by-law permitting urban chicken farming has
not been passed in Waterloo.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
What is the Region of Waterloo doing about food systems?
In April 2007, Public Health finalized a Healthy Community Food System Plan, which proposed
that the goal of a healthy community food system be that “all residents have access to, and
can afford to buy, safe, nutritious, and culturally-acceptable food that has been produced in an
environmentally-sustainable way and that sustains our rural communities”.430
Public Health completed a two-year pilot project in 2008, exploring the feasibility of establishing
neighbourhood markets in areas with limited food access in Waterloo Region. One of the goals
of the neighbourhood markets was to support local farmers. The majority of the food sold at the
markets was sourced in Waterloo Region. The markets were also successful in raising awareness
in the wider population of the importance of buying local produce, which further supports the local
farmers growing produce.
The Diggable Communities Collaborative is a partnership between Public Health, Opportunities
Waterloo Region, and the Community Garden Council of Waterloo Region. The goals of the
Collaborative are to strengthen and expand urban agriculture (specifically, volunteer-run community
gardens) in Waterloo Region.
The Regional Official Policies Plan contains policies on agricultural land designation, farmland
protection against severances that threaten viability of agricultural practice, and support for
environmental stewardship on private lands.431 Policies in the draft of the new plan, approved in
June 2009, build on the above policies and are partly based on the Regional Growth Management
Strategy, approved in 2003. The draft of the new plan outlines implementation of the countryside
line, which protects agricultural areas from urban sprawl; designation of permanently protected
agricultural lands throughout Waterloo Region; conservation easements; planning for increased
availability of food stores in residential neighbourhoods; promotion of development patterns that
enable pedestrian access to food sites; and support for development of temporary farmers’ markets
or stands, urban agricultural projects and community gardens.432
What can residents of Waterloo Region do about food systems?
• Buy and eat local and seasonal foods to help ensure viability of local food systems. The public
can purchase food from local farmers at the market or on their farms, participate in communityshared agriculture (CSA) initiatives, as well as choose local and seasonal products such as the
ones carrying the local food label (i.e. Buy Local! Buy Fresh!) when shopping at the store or
dining out.
• Practice urban agriculture using sustainable methods. For example, residents can start or join a
community garden as well as grow food in their yards.
• Protect the environment by reducing food waste through composting.433 One of the
environmental benefits is that there would be less waste in landfills. As well, organic waste may
be recycled through composting.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
189
6.6 VECTOR-BORNE AND ZOONOTIC DISEASES
People may be exposed to a number of diseases in the physical environment, via contact with
insects and animals. West Nile Virus and Lyme disease are vector-borne diseases transmitted by
mosquitoes and ticks, respectively. Environmental conditions such as precipitation and warmer
climate can influence the presence of vector-borne diseases and increase the risk of human
exposure. Rabies is a zoonotic disease that one may be exposed to after contact with an infected
animal.
In Waterloo Region, West Nile Virus has been found in mosquitoes, and the rabies virus has been
documented in domestic and wild animals. The bacterium which causes Lyme disease is found in
ticks in many areas of Ontario. While chance of contracting these diseases is low, measures can
be taken to minimize risk of human exposure. Protective clothing and use of insect repellant are
effective ways to reduce the risk of exposure to vector-borne disease. Avoiding contact with wild
animals and ensuring pets are vaccinated minimize the risk of infection from rabies.
Background
People can be exposed to disease from insects or animals in the environment. Disease-causing
agents (e.g. viruses, bacteria) can be passed on to humans through the bite of an insect or arachnid
“vector” (i.e. mosquito, tick). Similarly, zoonotic diseases can be transmitted to humans by an
invertebrate animal.
Vector-Borne Diseases
A number of diseases can be transmitted to humans by “vectors”, insects which can carry an
infectious pathogen from one organism to another, namely to a susceptible human host.434
Mosquitoes and ticks are the primary vectors of concern to residents of Waterloo Region, as they
are capable of transmitting West Nile Virus and Lyme disease, respectively.
West Nile Virus
West Nile Virus (WNV) is primarily a disease of birds but can be spread to humans through the
bite of an infected mosquito. Adult female mosquitoes seek a blood meal from a number of hosts,
including humans, in order to develop their eggs. A mosquito carrying WNV does not always act
as a vector; the virus must enter the mosquito’s salivary glands in order to transmit the virus to
a human during a mosquito bite. The period from ingestion of WNV to the time it appears in the
mosquito salivary glands, or incubation period, is typically 10 to 12 days and is largely influenced
by climatic and seasonal variations.436 Warmer temperatures are known to accelerate mosquito
development, accelerate the incubation period and increase viral load, increasing the probability of
WNV transmission.437
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
West Nile Virus was first confirmed in Ontario in 2001. Most human cases of WNV are
asymptomatic (i.e. individual shows no symptoms), however, these cases can be confirmed via a
blood test. One in five infected individuals develop WNV Non-Neurological Syndrome (formerly
known as “West Nile Fever”), with mild flu-like symptoms lasting between a few days and several
weeks. Approximately one in 150 persons infected will develop WNV Neurological Syndrome, with
more severe and long-lasting symptoms. While this more serious illness can occur in people of any
age, persons over the age of 50 and persons with compromised immune systems are at the highest
risk of the WNV Neurological Syndrome.
Lyme disease
Lyme disease is caused by the Borrelia burgdorferi bacterium, which can be transmitted to humans
through the bite of a tick carrying the bacterium. Unlike mosquitoes, ticks cannot fly; they settle
on tall grass and bushes until they attach themselves to a person or animal passing by. Ticks feed
on blood by inserting their mouth into the skin of a person or animal; their body slowly enlarges
as it feeds, initially the size of a sesame seed growing to the size of a dime.439 In Ontario, the tick
species responsible for transmitting Lyme disease to humans is the blacklegged tick (i.e. Ixodes
scapularis or “deer tick”). While this species of tick is currently not considered native to Waterloo
Region, certain areas of Ontario have a significant population of this species and residents may
be exposed to these during travel outside Waterloo Region. Long Point, Point Pelee National Park,
Rondeau Provincial Park, Turkey Point, Prince Edward Point National Wildlife area and the
St. Lawrence Island National Park are considered higher risk areas for exposure to blacklegged
ticks. In 2007, Ontario health regions with the highest number of locally-acquired Lyme disease
cases included Simcoe-Muskoka, Haldimand-Norfolk, Chatham-Kent, Leeds-Grenville and Lanark,
and Toronto.440
It is important to remove a tick attached to the human body as soon as possible, as transmission of
Lyme disease may not occur until the tick has been attached for 24 hours or more.441 Lyme disease
is characterized by a distinctive “bulls-eye” skin lesion (i.e. erythema migrans) and mild flu-like
symptoms. Antibiotics can be effective in treating Lyme disease if treated soon after infection, and
can prevent long-term neurological, rheumatological, and cardiac complications.442 The usual time
from infection with Lyme disease to onset of disease symptoms ranges from three to 32 days, with
an average of seven to ten days.443
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
191
Zoonotic Diseases
In addition to disease risk from insects in the environment, disease can be passed from animals to
humans. A zoonosis is “an infection or infectious disease transmissible under natural conditions
from vertebrate animals to humans”.444 Rabies is a zoonotic disease which is established in the
animal population in Waterloo Region.
Rabies
Animals carrying the rabies virus can be either wild or domestic animals such as dogs, foxes,
skunks, racoons, bats and other warm-blooded mammals. Humans become infected with rabies
when the saliva of a rabid animal enters the human body through a break in skin or via a mucous
membrane. Exposure usually occurs through an animal bite, scratch or lick. The rabies virus attacks
the central nervous system, and without prompt treatment, infection is almost always fatal. The
usual time from initial infection to onset of disease symptoms ranges between three to eight
weeks depending on wound severity, the proximity of the wound to nerve supply, and the distance
of the wound from the brain.445
Following exposure to an infected animal, medication (i.e. post-exposure prophylaxis) is available
and can be effective in preventing the development of the disease. Human rabies immunoglobulin
is administered at the site of the bite or scratch to neutralize the virus, and the rabies vaccine can
be provided to elicit immunity.446 Rabies is not as prevalent in Canada as it is in other parts of the
world, however, rabid animals have been identified in Waterloo Region.
Current Trends
West Nile Virus (WNV)
Human cases of WNV have been confirmed in Waterloo Region. Public Health staff investigate
WNV cases in humans in order to help identify possible risk factors. Table 30 illustrates suspected
and confirmed human cases of WNV in Waterloo Region, from 2002 to 2008. Table 31 illustrates
disease rates for Waterloo Region, Ontario and Canada (cases per 100,000 population).
Since 2002, disease rates in Waterloo Region have been consistently lower than both provincial
and national rates, which may be a function of geography, climate or other factors. However, WNV
is known to be somewhat unpredictable and as such, future disease risk is difficult to predict.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
TABLE 30: Suspected and confirmed human cases of
West Nile Virus, Waterloo Region, 2002-2008
Year
Case Type
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
No. of suspected cases
7
77
93
79
49
35
18
No. of confirmed cases
3
1
0
1
0
0
0
Source: Rates calculated using: Public Health Agency of Canada 2008 Human Case Surveillance data (include
symptomatic and asymptomatic cases) retrieved August 12, 2009 and Provincial Health Planning Database Vital
Statistics; Health Planning Branch, MOHLTC [Waterloo Region and Ontario Population Statistics (extracted November 3,
2008), Statistics Canada (Catalogue no. 91-215-X1, extracted November 4, 2008).
TABLE 31: West Nile Virus disease rates per 100,000 population,
Waterloo Region, Ontario and Canada, 2002-2008
Geography
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Waterloo Region
0.64
0.21
0.00
0.21
0.00
0.00
0.00
Ontario
2.34
0.47
0.11
0.77
0.33
0.12
0.03
Canada
1.32
4.73
0.08
0.74
0.47
7.29
0.11
Source: Rates calculated using: Public Health Agency of Canada 2008 Human Case Surveillance data (include
symptomatic and asymptomatic cases) retrieved August 12, 2009 and Provincial Health Planning Database Vital
Statistics; Health Planning Branch, MOHLTC [Waterloo Region and Ontario Population Statistics (extracted November 3,
2008), Statistics Canada (Catalogue no. 91-215-X1, extracted November 4, 2008).
Bird mortality related to WNV has been an important surveillance tool in confirming the presence
of the virus in Waterloo Region and also contributes to assessment of risk to the human population.
Residents have been encouraged to report dead bird sightings to Public Health, particularly of the
Corvidae species (i.e. crows, blue jays, and ravens) as corvids have a high mortality rate if infected
with WNV, are easily recognized by the public, and are relatively common in Waterloo Region.447
Public Health staff collected reported birds that met testing criteria and submitted them to a
laboratory for viral testing. Table 32 shows the results of bird mortality surveillance in Waterloo
Region between 2002 and 2008.
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TABLE 32: Dead birds submitted and testing positive for
West Nile Virus, Waterloo Region, 2002-2008
Sample Type
Year
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Submitted
40
30
20
45
36
15
32
Positive
13
5
4
11
10
1
5
33%
17%
20%
24%
28%
7%
16%
% positive
Source: Canadian Cooperative Wildlife Health Centre. (2008). Wildlife Disease Surveillance.
The most WNV-positive birds were identified during the 2002 season (n=13), and this season was
also associated with the highest rate of infection among submitted specimens. While the number
of WNV-positive birds documented in the Region has been variable between seasons, the virus has
been consistently confirmed in the bird population in every year since monitoring began. As such,
WNV is considered established in Waterloo Region.
Research has illustrated that bird mortality data can be an effective predictive tool for estimating
times of heightened risk for human infection when an appropriate volume of bird reports are made.
However, public reporting has progressively decreased locally and across the province since the
introduction of WNV in Ontario (see Table 33). As such, bird surveillance is no longer considered
an effective warning system for human infection. As of 2009, bird surveillance is no longer being
conducted by Ontario health units.448
TABLE 33: Public Reports related to West Nile Virus, Waterloo Region, 2005-2008
Public Reports
Year
2005
2006
2007
2008
Total public calls received
1,767
1,345
769
652
No. of dead bird reports
1,203
1,111
696
533
No. of standing water reports
167
197
73
96
No. of general information requests
397
37
0
23
Source: Region of Waterloo Public Health. (2009). 2008 West Nile Virus Report.
Retrieved from: http://chd.region.waterloo.on.ca/web/health.nsf/DocID/
D2A33208D1CE83BB85256EED005C3310/$file/WNV_Report_08.pdf?openelement
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Mosquito surveillance is an important component of WNV surveillance and risk assessment. Public
Health coordinates adult mosquito trapping, species identification, and viral testing. In 2008, the
Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care recognized the top mosquito species of concern in Ontario
to be Culex pipiens/restuans, Culex salinarius, Ochleratatus japonicus, Culex tarsalis, and Aedes
vexans vexans/Aedes vexans nipponi.449 Four of these species have been identified in Waterloo
Region. Adult mosquito profiles have remained relatively constant over the past several years.
Lyme disease
Ticks are not actively monitored in Waterloo Region, however, human exposures to ticks among
residents are investigated. Table 34 illustrates the number of laboratory confirmed human cases of
Lyme disease among residents of Waterloo Region, as well as disease rates for Waterloo Region
and Ontario (per 100,000 population; 2004-2008).
TABLE 34: Number of human cases and rates per 100,000 population of Lyme disease,
Waterloo Region and Ontario, 2004-2008
Geography
Waterloo Region
Ontario
Year
Data
Description
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
Number of cases
0
2
5
5
10
0.00
0.41
1.02
1.01
1.99
32
38
43
62
97
0.26
0.30
0.34
0.48
0.75
Rate
Number of cases
Rate
Source: Rates calculated using the Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care 2007 Vector-Borne Disease Report (April 30,
2008) and the Integrated Public Health Information System, MOHLTC (extracted August 18, 2009), and Provincial Health
Planning Database Vital Statistics; Health Planning Branch, MOHLTC [Waterloo Region and Ontario Population Statistics
(extracted November 3, 2008).]
Rabies
Human cases of rabies are extremely rare and positive cases have not been documented on recent
record in Waterloo Region. Only two human cases have been documented in Canada since 1995.
Since 1925, 21 people have died of rabies in Canada.450 Table 35 illustrates rabies prevention and
control activities in Waterloo Region, including the number of Public Health investigations initiated
following a reported animal exposure (i.e. bite, scratch), the number of individuals receiving postexposure prophylaxis, and the number of tickets issued for lack of compliance to domestic animal
immunization regulations. Table 35 also indicates the confirmed presence of rabies in animals in
Waterloo Region. As such, there is demonstrated risk to residents and a need to take action to
minimize potential exposure.
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TABLE 35: Rabies prevention and control program summary, Waterloo Region, 2004-2008
Program Elements
Year
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
No. of investigations initiated
by Public Health
839
870
784
839
1051
No. of individuals issued
post-exposure prophylaxis
112
123
69
129
148
No. of animals testing
positive for rabies*
3
3
5
13
12
No. of tickets issued for
non-compliance with domestic
animal immunization regulations
0
5
4
5
2
Sources: Region of Waterloo Public Health. (2009). Rabies program database;
*Canadian Food Inspection Agency – Animal Health branch. (2009).
Animal rabies monitoring (including animals with or without human exposure).
What is the Region of Waterloo doing to protect
residents from vector-borne and zoonotic diseases?
West Nile Virus
Region of Waterloo Public Health works in a number of ways to minimize the risk of human West
Nile Virus (WNV) infection. Public Heath conducts risk assessments of conditions pertaining to
WNV to assess the relative risk of human infection and to determine necessary and appropriate
control activities. Risk assessment includes surveillance activities focused on mosquitoes, equine
infections, human cases, and weather patterns. Multiple partners contribute to this comprehensive
surveillance program, including the Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care, Canadian Cooperative
Wildlife Health Centre, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs, Canadian Food
Inspection Agency, Canadian Blood Services, and the Region of Waterloo area municipalities.
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The elimination of larval development sites in the environment is seen as the simplest and
most effective way to reduce the number of mosquito vectors.451 When necessary, Public Health
and its partners also recommend source reduction on commercial and other private properties,
and remediate public sites so that larval development sites may be reduced. However, when
surveillance activities indicate a need, the Medical Officer of Health will support use of approved
pesticides for direct vector control strategies in mosquito habitats. Three products which have been
approved for larval vector control in Ontario and are used in Waterloo Region are: methoprene,
Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis, and Bacillus sphaericus.452 These larvicides are effective in
preventing mosquito development beyond the larval life stage and pose little threat to human
health through either direct handling of products or through indirect exposure (i.e. via municipal
mosquito abatement program).453 Table 36 summarizes WNV control program activities. Three
rounds of catch basin larviciding are typically completed in each season. An increase in the number
of catch basins larvicided is a reflection of both new infrastructure and continuous improvement in
the detection of catch basins throughout successive seasons.
TABLE 36: West Nile Virus Control Program summary, Waterloo Region, 2005-2008
Mosquito Control Elements
No. of rounds of catch basin larviciding
No. of catch basins larvicided (per round)
No. of hectares of standing water larvicided
Year
2005
2006
2007
2008
3
3
3
3
27,500
29,000
30,090
46,587
0.79
0.74
0.28
1.495
Source: Region of Waterloo Public Health. (2009). 2008 West Nile Virus Report. Retrieved from: http://chd.region.
waterloo.on.ca/web/health.nsf/DocID/D2A33208D1CE83BB85256EED005C3310/$file/WNV_Report_08.pdf?openelement
Public Health also coordinates the Fight the Bite public education campaign. Residents are provided
with information regarding source reduction (i.e. reduction of larval development sites) around the
home, and also about personal protective measures such as appropriate clothing and the use of
insect repellants. The education campaign also directs the public to a telephone line and online
database to which they can report stagnant water sites, an important contribution to surveillance
activities.
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Lyme disease
As Ixodes scapularis ticks are not established in Waterloo Region, Public Health does not actively
survey for ticks in our natural environment. However, when residents of the region have located a
tick on their body, Public Health will coordinate tick species identification and bacterial testing.454
Public Health staff investigate reported human Lyme disease cases and assess exposure to
determine the presence of the disease and the level of risk in certain geographic areas.455 Public
education is an important Public Health tool used to encourage personal protective measures for
reducing public exposure to Lyme disease.
Rabies
Region of Waterloo Public Health’s rabies program employs a multi-faceted approach including
investigation of animal bites, enforcement of domestic animal vaccination regulations, and
issuance of post-exposure prophylaxis following a potential rabies exposure. Public Health partners
with the Canadian Food Inspection Agency for inspection, monitoring, and viral testing related to
rabies.
In cases where there has been an animal exposure, Public Health investigates within 24 hours of
notification. When the animal involved in the incident is accessible, Public Health staff will assess
the general health and vaccination status of the animal and, depending on the circumstance, will
begin an animal confinement period. Public Health ensures the immunization of domestic animals
(e.g. dogs, cats) within the region to increase the general level of immunity in the domestic
animal population, protect those animals not immunized and to decrease the chance of spread of
the disease to humans. In the event of lack of compliance with respect to immunization [Ontario
Regulation 567/90 (amended to O. Reg. 360/01)], Public Health staff may issue a Provincial Offence
Notice or a summons to the pet owner. Public Health staff can issue post-exposure prophylaxis
and vaccine therapy to prevent illness in the exposed individual if the animal involved exhibits
symptoms of rabies, tests positive for rabies, or if the animal cannot be located after 48 hours of
exposure.
Education is the cornerstone of Public Health’s rabies control program. The program targets health
professionals, veterinarians, the public, and other community stakeholders and provides general
information about minimizing exposure to the rabies virus.
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Other Initiatives
The Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR) also conducts initiatives within Waterloo Region to
support rabies control; their role in the province of Ontario is to manage and research rabies in
wildlife. The MNR has contributed to rabies control in Waterloo Region through aerial vaccine
baiting. This program consists of dropping specially prepared vaccine baits from airplanes or
helicopters in areas that have a high incidence of terrestrial rabies.456 Exposure to the bait is not
harmful to people or pets, though it is recommended that people or pets who come in contact with
the vaccine contained in the bait contact a doctor or veterinarian as a precaution.457
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to protect
themselves from vector-borne and zoonotic diseases?
West Nile Virus and Lyme disease
Residents of Waterloo Region are encouraged to minimize exposure to mosquitoes and ticks which
can transmit West Nile Virus and Lyme disease, both within the region and when traveling.
1. Keep mosquitoes and ticks off your skin
• Use insect repellent when outdoors, such as those containing
DEET (N,N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide)
• Cover up with long-sleeved, light-coloured clothing
• Remove ticks immediately using fine-tipped tweezers
2. Minimize risks around the home
• Clean up standing water around your home where mosquitoes can breed
• Check window screens and doors to keep mosquitoes out of your home
3. Contact Region of Waterloo Public Health
• Report standing water (i.e. mosquito breeding sites) for investigation
• If you have removed a tick from your body, save it in a plastic container
and submit it to Public Health for viral testing
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Rabies
Residents of Waterloo Region are encouraged to prevent personal exposure to rabies.
• Ensure domestic animals are vaccinated against rabies
• Ontario Regulation 567/90 (amended to O. Reg. 360/01) requires that all owners of cats
and dogs greater than three months of age must have their pet immunized against rabies,
or re-immunized as required.
• All dogs and cats must have regular vaccinations scheduled and administered by a
veterinarian. Failure to immunize may result in prosecution.
• Stay away from wild animals and animals that are acting strangely
In the event of an animal exposure (i.e. bite or scratch), residents are encouraged to:
• Immediately wash the bite or scratched area thoroughly with soap and water,
as washing greatly reduces the chance of infection
• Contact your family physician or go to the nearest hospital emergency or
urgent care facility
• Report the bite or scratch to Region of Waterloo Public Health
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For further information:
Lyme disease:
Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care: Lyme disease Public Information
http://www.health.gov.on.ca/english/public/pub/disease/lyme_mn.html
Region of Waterloo Public Health: Lyme disease information
www.region.waterloo.on.ca/fightthebite
Rabies:
Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care: Rabies Public Information
http://www.health.gov.on.ca/english/public/program/pubhealth/rabies/rabies_mn.html
Public Health Agency of Canada: Disease Information – Rabies
http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/tmp-pmv/info/rage-eng.php
Region of Waterloo Public Health: Facts About Rabies
http://chd.region.waterloo.on.ca/web/health.nsf/4f4813c75e78d71385256e5a0057f5e1/
142489ef6cae216785256b17004f0b28!OpenDocument
West Nile Virus:
Ontario Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care: West Nile Virus Public Information
http://www.health.gov.on.ca/english/public/program/pubhealth/westnile/wnv_mn.html
Public Health Agency of Canada: Infectious Diseases – West Nile Virus
http://www.phac-aspc.gc.ca/wn-no/index-eng.php
Region of Waterloo Public Health: West Nile Virus Information
www.region.waterloo.on.ca/fightthebite
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6.7 CLIMATE CHANGE
Climate change is an issue that has been much debated in recent years. This topic is a part of this
report as it relates to the health of the environment and the public.
For example, vector-borne diseases such as West Nile Virus are susceptible to weather changes.
Extreme weather events such as flooding can contribute to health concerns such as waterborne
diseases. This report addresses such end effects of climate change in other sections. However,
because this is such a broad topic, this section on climate change does not contain the sections on
the Regional response and recommended individual response.
The word “climate” is used to describe the overall weather of a specific location or region – its
temperature highs and lows, variations and extremes.458 Climate can also describe the general
types of conditions which may be found in a geographical area, such as “temperate” or “arid.”
Climate is sometimes used to refer to “what you expect,” versus weather, which sometimes
better describes “what you get.”459 Regardless of the interpretation, there is an inseparable
link between climate and weather.
Climate change is a term used to describe changes in global climatic patterns.460 Most often the
term ‘change’ is used to refer to changes in climate patterns that have been induced by human
activities. Climate change can be measured by a number of different means, but generally involves
long-term weather monitoring using data such as daily average temperatures (highs/lows), rainfall
(how much/how often), and wind patterns.461 Changes in climate variability can also be construed
as climate change, even if average weather conditions remain the same.462
We know from geological records that the earth’s climate has changed on numerous occasions in
the past and while those changes have usually been gradual, they have, at times, been punctuated
by periods of dramatic activity. Essentially, climate change is a natural process or function of
natural activity that has been occurring on earth for hundreds of thousands of years.
Even though the world’s climate has changed and will continue to change as a result of natural
activity, the current speed at which observable changes are occurring is of great concern.
Climatologists – people who study climate change – have been able to determine that the
20th century was warmer than any other century over the past 1,000 years. In Ontario alone,
temperatures have risen by as much as 1.4 degrees Celsius since 1948.463 Other examples of global
climate change are evident: sea levels have risen substantially over the past 100 years, Arctic snow
cover is on the decline, glaciers are melting and, in many parts of the world, plant development
is occurring earlier in the season.464 This unnatural, accelerated process of climate change
experienced over the last 50 to 100 years is attributable to human activity.
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Industrialization & The Greenhouse Effect
Although some of the sun’s energy reaching the planet is reflected back into space by the earth’s
atmosphere, a large proportion of that energy is absorbed by the earth.465 As this energy warms the
earth, some of it is emitted back into space in the form of infra-red radiation. However, a portion of
that radiation is trapped in the earth’s atmosphere by something called greenhouse gases (GHG).
It is the composition of the greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide, methane, and water), which traps
the long-wave/infrared radiation, causing a blanket effect which insulates the earth and creates
a warm environment.466 This process of capturing and escaping energy (heat) is known as the
greenhouse effect. See Diagram 1 below.467
FIGURE 23: The Greenhouse Effect
Source: Natural Resources Canada, 2008. From Impacts to Adaptation: Canada in a Changing Climate 2007.
(Ottawa: Natural Resources Canada, 2008). p. 229.
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203
Some greenhouse gases are naturally occurring, such as carbon dioxide, water vapour, and
methane, but the use of fossil fuels, and deforestation has increased the total amount of these
naturally occurring greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The effect of the increase in greenhouse
gases is that more heat is trapped by the atmosphere; this has an impact on global climate
processes as well as average global temperatures.
Other greenhouses gases include: methane – a by-product of agriculture, natural gas, oil, livestock,
and municipal waste; nitrous oxide – also released through agriculture and industry/combustion
of fossil fuels; and fluorinated gases – which are synthetic gasses produced through industrial
processes.468 While a small portion of carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere when
it is absorbed by trees and plants through the carbon cycle, the excesses produced by modern
industrialized nations far exceeds nature’s capacity to remove it. The increase in greenhouse
gases and its impact on global climate change has both environmental health and socio-economic
impacts.469
Climate Change & Diseases
Research has suggested that climate variability may also influence disease patterns and human
health. Changing migratory patterns and emerging rodent and vector-borne diseases are examples
of the possible effects of climate change that may affect human health, food safety, security
and water safety.470 It is anticipated that climate change will affect the distribution of disease
patterns across the country, leaving the potential for relatively unknown or exotic diseases to begin
emerging.
Vector-Borne Diseases
A number of diseases can be transmitted to humans by “vectors”, insects which carry an infectious
pathogen from one organism to another. In Canada, mosquitoes and ticks are the primary vectors of
concern for residents of Waterloo Region as they are capable of transmitting West Nile Virus and
Lyme disease.
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Rodent-Borne Diseases
Climate change can also affect the population and survivability of rodents and rodent-borne
diseases. Rodents act as a key reservoir of tick-borne diseases which can be incidentally
transferred to humans, causing a variety of harmful and potentially deadly conditions including
the Plague;471 while there have been no reported human cases of plague in Canada since 1924,
Y. pestis is known to exist amongst the (wild) rodent populations of southern Alberta,
Saskatchewan and parts of the western United States.472
In North America, rodents are responsible for the transmission to humans of a disease known
as Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. In most cases, hantavirus is transmitted to humans through
inadvertent exposure to infected rodents’ excreta.473 Although the incidence of this disease in
Canada is relatively low, two to eight human cases are reported yearly. Current speculation
suggests that climate change may provide favourable conditions for increased rodent populations
and the spread of rodent-borne diseases beyond current endemic regions.
Food-Borne Illness
Conditions such as increased drought, sporadic, or torrential rainfall and loss of soil fertility could
combine to dramatically alter traditional food crop production. Conversely, shortened, less severe
winters may lead to a higher survival rate or replication of certain pathogens. Other food sources
in Canada, such as those found in coastal areas, are threatened by climate change and rising
temperatures in different ways. Warmer temperatures allow for an increase in abundance of
certain algae including those with harmful toxins. Although the Canadian Food Inspection Agency
monitors shellfish for toxins, entire ecosystems remain in jeopardy from the impact of global
climate change.
Waterborne Illness
Like food-borne and vector-borne diseases, evidence demonstrates that climate variability
increases the risks associated with waterborne diseases.474 Drought, for example, places
heightened demands on water supply, but also concentrates contaminants and pathogens.
Similarly, torrential or heavy rainfall, particularly if preceded by drought, can cause severe flooding
and increases the risks of chemical and waterborne contamination. Rising ambient temperatures
have been linked with higher survival rates of micro-organisms associated with waterborne
infection.
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205
Adaptation
Adaptation generally refers to the ability of natural or human systems to respond to the actual
or expected impacts of climate change and/or variability in a manner which moderates harm or
exploits beneficial opportunities.475 In Canada, and Ontario, multi-level governmental programs are
put in place to prepare for negative climatic effects and mitigate outcomes. Increasingly, programs
such as emergency preparedness, extreme weather response planning, and source water protection
are being put in place or enhanced through the introduction of new public health standards. While
the human health risks resulting from climate change remain, the implementation of preventative
programs, public awareness, and education will only serve to enhance our future adaptive capacity.
Canada & Global Perspectives
International cooperation between governments, industry, and the scientific community will
be needed in order to mitigate the future impacts of global climate change. Adaptation, policy
development, and implementation will be required in earnest if we are to succeed in this
endeavour. Nevertheless, enhanced local programs such as directed research, emergency
preparedness and planning, and the surveillance and monitoring of infectious diseases can
help protect the health of our communities and ensure greater success for the future.
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6.8 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
Electricity is generated in power stations and is transmitted to homes, offices, and factories by
high-voltage transmission lines or distribution lines. This infrastructure produces electrical and
magnetic fields. At the present time, there is no clear evidence suggesting that health effects can
be linked to Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs).
Background
Electric fields are expressed as volts per metre (V/m). Magnetic fields are expressed in the unit
tesla (T). Collectively, these are referred to as electromagnetic fields or EMFs. Electromagnetic
fields are strongest close to the source and will decrease in strength with distance.
Electric fields are created by differences in electronic voltage: the higher the voltage, the stronger
will be the resultant electromagnetic field. An electric field will exist even when there is no current
flowing. If current does flow, the strength of the magnetic field will vary with power consumption
but the electric field strength will be constant.476
Most people experience EMF exposure as part of their everyday life. There are guideline levels
established by the International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation Protection (ICNIRP) that
set out the maximum exposure limits of magnetic and electric fields in different settings. They are
described in Table 37 below.
TABLE 37: International Commission on Non-Ionizing Radiation
Protection (ICNIRP) Maximum Exposure Guidelines
Exposures
Magnetic Field (µT)
Electric Field (V/m)
Public Exposure Limits
100
5000
Occupational Exposure Limits
500
10000
Source: ICNIRP, EMF Guidelines, Health Physics 74, 494-522 (1998). Adapted from WHO, 2008.
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Occupational limits are higher than public limits because precautions such as personal protective
equipment are the standard in occupational settings and are usually not available to the public
generally.477 It is the responsibility of manufacturers of consumer goods and appliances to comply
with these limits, and to ensure that exposure levels of EMFs for everyday activities are well below
the standards in the guidelines set out by the ICNIRP.
Home appliances such as televisions, mobile phones, computers, and microwave ovens all emit an
EMF. The proximity to electric power lines will also result in exposure to EMFs. Table 38 below lists
the EMF radiation levels for common household appliances.
TABLE 38: Typical Magnetic Field Strength in Daily Life at 30cm from the source
Appliance
Magnetic Field (µT)
Electric Field (V/m)
Vacuum Cleaner
2-20
50
0.04-2
60
Refrigerator
0.01-0.25
120
Electric Oven
0.15-0.5
8
Colour TV
Source: ICNIRP, EMF Guidelines, Health Physics 74, 494-522 (1998). Adapted from WHO, 2008.
Current Trends
Studies examining the health effects of Electromagnetic Fields (EMFs) have been undertaken
and to date, the results have been inconclusive. Although there is some evidence that EMF
exposure adversely affects human health, there are also studies that contradict those results.
Recent research on the effects of EMFs resulting in reproductive dysfunction, cancer, and central
nervous system disorders suggest some potential risk, however, many studies are inconclusive
and sometimes have conflicting results.478 There have also been studies to try and relate
hypersensitivity to EMFs, but they suffer from methodology problems, and few population studies
have evaluated the true prevalence of this disorder for which there is no clear case definition.479
What is the Region of Waterloo doing about EMFs?
The Region of Waterloo monitors the results of studies on EMFs and will provide regional residents
with precautionary information should it be determined that that is necessary.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do about EMFs?
As there is no conclusive evidence on adverse health effects to humans, Region of Waterloo Public
Health advises that no change is needed in the way people use appliances, and any exposure to
EMFs can be addressed using methods such as reducing unnecessary use of electronic appliances.
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6.9 ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION & SUN PROTECTION
The earth’s ozone layer protects all life on earth from excessive exposure to ultraviolet (UV)
radiation from the sun. Over time the release of certain chemicals into the environment has
damaged the ozone layer. The earth’s ozone layer is thinning and more ultraviolet radiation from
the sun is reaching the earth. UV radiation from the sun is classified by the International Agency
for Research on Cancer (IARC) as cancer causing.480
Background
There are many factors that may influence UV radiation levels. For example, the closer a person is
located to the equator, the higher the UV radiation level. Time of day and season also affects the
amount of UV radiation that people may be exposed to. UV radiation levels are highest between the
hours of 10 a.m. and 2 p.m. in Ontario. UV rays can penetrate through clouds, fog, and haze. Water,
sand, concrete and especially snow can reflect, and even increase, UV radiation. UV radiation on
cloudy days is lower, but may still be high enough to pose a health risk.
Environment Canada’s UV Index indicates the intensity of the sun’s rays; the higher the number,
the stronger the sun’s rays. The UV index provides information which can be used to plan the level
of sun protection needed and to plan daily activities. If the UV Index in your area reaches three or
more, it is included in the daily forecast. The UV Index is also available online.
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209
FIGURE 24: The UV Index
0–2 Low
Minimal sun protection required.
Wear sunglasses on bright days. If outside for more than one hour cover up and wear sunscreen.
3–5 Moderate
Take precautions!
Cover up, wear a hat, sunglasses and sunscreen – especially if you’re outside
for 30 minutes or more. Look for shade around midday when the sun is the strongest.
6–7 High
Protection required!
Unprotected skin can be damaged and burn quickly.
Seek shade, use sunscreen, hats, and sunglasses. Cover up.
Reduce time in the sun between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m.
8–10 Very High
Extra precautions required!
Unprotected skin will be damaged and can burn quickly.
Seek shade, use sunscreen, hats, and sunglasses. Cover up.
Avoid the sun between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m.
11+ Extreme
Take full precautions!
Unprotected skin will be damaged and can burn in minutes.
Avoid the sun between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m.
Stay in the shade, use sunscreen, hats, and sunglasses. Cover up.
This is rare in Canada, however, levels can reach 14 or more in the tropics and southern U. S.
Source: Environment Canada. (2009). Retrieved August 2009 from:
http://www.msc-smc.ec.gc.ca/education/uvindex/who_newstd2_e.html
In 2009, the Canadian Cancer Society estimates there will be over 5,000 new cases of melanoma,
the least common but most life-threatening form of skin cancer, and 75,100 new cases of nonmelanoma skin cancer.481 UV radiation may also lead to eye cancer, cataracts, weakening of the
immune system, and medication reactions.482 Overall, overexposure to UV radiation is estimated as
causing 60,000 deaths per year worldwide.483
The following data is available on sun protection behaviours in Waterloo Region. The data was
collected from a monthly telephone survey of 501 adults May to September 2008.
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TABLE 39: Sun protection behaviours May to September 2008 by gender
Males
Females
Total
Proportion with a sunburn in the previous 12
months
40.7%
35.6%
37.9%
Proportion often or always wearing clothing,
including hat, as a protective measure
51.8%
30.9%
40.6%
Proportion often or always avoiding the sun
between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m.
37.4%
46.9%
42.5%
Proportion always or often wearing sunscreen
32.6%
47.4%
40.8%
Proportion always or often wearing sunglasses
with UV protection
56.9%
69.0%
63.3%
Source: Rapid Risk Factor Surveillance System (RRFSS), Waves 85-96 (May to September 2008), extracted July 29, 2009.
TABLE 40: Sun protection behaviours May to September 2008 by age group
18-24
25-44
45-64
65+
Proportion with a sunburn in the previous 12
months
60.7%
51.5%
33.3% 10.6%
Proportion always or often wearing clothing,
including hat, as a protective measure
43.9%
38.3%
41.0% 39.0%
Proportion always or often avoiding the sun
between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m.
30.8%
37.9%
49.5% 45.3%
Proportion always or often using sunscreen
35.0%
50.8%
38.6% 24.7%
Proportion always or often using sunglasses
with UV protection
46.3%
70.2%
65.9% 48.7%
Source: Rapid Risk Factor Surveillance System (RRFSS), Waves 85-96 (May to September 2008), extracted July 29, 2009.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
211
What is the Region of Waterloo doing about UV radiation?
In the past, Region of Waterloo Public Health has been involved in educating and distributing
information about sun protection to families, children, golfers, lifeguards, sport coaches and
daycares. Presently, the Region of Waterloo Public Health is involved in educating workplaces,
especially outdoor workers about their increased risk for skin cancer. Other efforts include working
towards shade policy in the region.
Artificial tanning devices emit UV rays. This is not an environmental concern but a man-made
concern. Recently, the IARC classified UV emitting devices as causing cancer.484 The Region of
Waterloo Public Health supports efforts for advocating for a ban on the use of artificial tanning
devices for those under 18 as well as working with the Cancer Prevention Early Detection Network
to bring awareness to youth about the dangers of artificial tanning.
What can residents of Waterloo Region do to
protect themselves from UV radiation?
Sun protection is best practiced as part of your daily routine. If you are going outside check the UV
index and make arrangements to protect yourself and your family from the sun. If you are planning
a backyard play area, plan for shade. Advocate for more shade in your neighbourhood. Educate
your children about sun protection and avoid artificial tanning, especially if you are less than 18
years of age.
Protect yourself in 5 simple steps:
1. Wear sun-protective clothing. Choose long pants and long-sleeved, collared shirts.
2. Wear a broad-brimmed hat. A hat should cover your head, face, neck and ears.
A brim of 3 inches is suggested.
3. Seek shade, or provide your own by using umbrellas and tents.
Reduce your exposure to the sun, especially between 11 a.m. and 4 p.m.
4. Wear sunglasses. Go for close-fitting, wrap-around styles.
5. Apply SPF 30+ sunscreen. Use a sunscreen that has UVA and UVB protection
(it will be on the label) and water resistant if swimming. Apply 20 minutes
before going outside. Reapply at least every 2 hours.
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
GLOSSARY OF TERM S
Acute Health Effect: A health effect that occurs over a relatively short period of time (e.g.
minutes, hours, a few days). The term is used to describe brief exposures and effects that appear
promptly after exposure.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Admission: An admission is recorded for each event or occurrence on the date that a decision is
made to admit a patient as an in-patient to a hospital. The database used for this report includes
only those events in which a discharge has occurred by the extraction date (i.e. the patient has not
continued to be hospitalized since the original event).
Source: Health System Intelligence Project (2004) Health Analyst’s Toolkit.
Available at: http://www.health.gov.on.ca/transformation/providers/information/resources/analyst_toolkit.pdf
Adverse effect: As defined in Annex I of the Ontario Environmental Protection Act (EPA) means
one or more of:
a) Impairment of the quality of the natural environment for any use that can be made of it,
b) Injury or damage to property or to plant or animal life,
c) Harm or material discomfort to any person,
d)An adverse effect on the health of any person,
e) Impairment of the safety of any person,
f) Rendering any property or plant or animal life unfit for use by man,
g) Loss of enjoyment of normal use of property, and
h) Interference with the normal conduct of business.
Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 2007. Spills Reporting – A Guide to Reporting Spills and Discharges.
Available at: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/about/penalties/SpillReportingGuide.pdf
Air Monitoring: Sampling for and measuring of pollutants present in the atmosphere.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Air Pollutants: Amounts of foreign and/or natural substances occurring in the atmosphere that
may result in adverse effects to humans, animals, vegetation, and/or materials.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Air Pollution: Degradation of air quality resulting from unwanted chemicals or other materials
occurring in the air.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Ambient Air: The air occurring at a particular time and place outside of physical structures. Often
used interchangeably with “outdoor air.”
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Aquifer: Geologic units where water is stored between sand or gravel grains or between rock
fractures; permeable geologic formations capable of receiving, storing, and transmitting water;
porous stratums or formations of rock, sand, or gravel capable of bearing water or between grains
or in fractures; aquifers may be confined or unconfined.
Sources: Berrenda Mesa Water District, Available at Berrenda Mesa Water District Water Related Terms / Glossary
NASA Earth Observatory Glossary. Available at: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Glossary/
Environment Canada - Freshwater Website: Informational Resources and Services (Glossary)
Bioaccumulation: Is a general term for the accumulation of substances, such as pesticides or
other organic chemicals, in an organism or part of an organism or the environment.
CANUTEC: The Canadian Transport Emergency Centre is operated by Transport Canada to assist
emergency response personnel in handling dangerous goods emergencies. Established in 1979, it
is a program under the Transportation of Dangerous Goods Directorate. Mandated to regulate the
handling of dangerous goods by all modes of transportation, CANUTEC specializes in emergency
response and interpreting technical information to assist in protecting the public.
Source: Transport Canada. 2008. CANUTEC – Services. Available at: http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/canutec/services-249.htm
Carbon Monoxide (CO): A colourless, odourless gas resulting from the incomplete combustion of
hydrocarbon fuels. CO interferes with the blood’s ability to carry oxygen to the body’s tissues and
results in numerous adverse health effects. Over 80 per cent of the CO emitted in urban areas is
contributed by motor vehicles. CO is a criteria air pollutant.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Census: An official, and usually periodic, collection of information about every member of a
population; a survey that collects data from all members of a population; in Canada the census is
replicated every five years in years ending in 1 and 6.
Climate: The prevailing (long-term average) environmental conditions for an area for a specific
period of time; climate is not the same as the weather.
Source: Communities Conservation and Markets (2008) Glossary of Terms.
Available at: http://www.ccmproject.org/glossary.php
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
215
Chronic Exposure: Long-term pollutant exposure, usually lasting one year to a lifetime.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Chronic Health Effect: A health effect that occurs over a relatively long period of time (e.g.
months or years).
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Combustion: The act or instance of burning some type of fuel such as gasoline to produce energy.
Combustion is typically the process that powers automobile engines and power plant generators.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Corn for silage: Corn in which the entire plant, including the cob, is chopped up and stored in
upright silos, bunker silos or plastic bags, and used for animal feed.
Crop rotation: Changing the type of crop grown on the same land from year to year or periodically
to control weeds, insects, disease, and replenish soil nutrients or reduce erosion.
Discharge: When used as a verb, discharge includes add, deposit, leak or emit and, when used as
a noun, discharge includes addition, deposit, emission or leak.
Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 2007. Spills Reporting – A Guide to Reporting Spills and Discharges.
Available at: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/about/penalties/SpillReportingGuide.pdf
Emigrant: A person who departs Waterloo Region to settle in another area (country). External
(international) migrant – one who moved from outside of Canada (another country) to live in
Waterloo Region resulting from a permanent change of residence.
Source: Princeton’s WordNet (2008) Online Dictionary.
Available at: http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn
Endemic: “The constant presence of a disease or infectious agent within a geographic area or
population group”.
Source: Last, J.M. (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 4th Ed. Oxford University Press: New York. p59.
Erythema Migrans: A characteristic rash associated with the majority of human cases of Lyme
disease; often takes a “bulls eye” appearance.
External (international) migrant: One who moved from outside of Canada (another country) to
live in Waterloo Region resulting from a permanent change of residence.
Source: Statistics Canada (2006) Census Dictionary.
Available at: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/dictionary/atoz.cfm
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Extrinsic Incubation Period: A developmental stage within vector required for virus
transmissibility from the vector to susceptible host.
Forthwith: Requires that notification be made ‘forthwith’, which has been interpreted by the courts
to mean as quickly as possible under the circumstances or without undue delay.
Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 2007. Spills Reporting – A Guide to Reporting Spills and Discharges.
Available from: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/about/penalties/SpillReportingGuide.pdf
Geography: The science and study of describing the earth, its physical, biological, and cultural
features, its inhabitants (flora and fauna), and phenomena, and their relationships and distribution
to each other.
Grasscycling: The process of recycling grass clippings by leaving them on your lawn and thus,
putting nutrients back into your soil and lawn.
Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment. (1998). Green tips: Grasscycling.
Available at: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/cons/3684e.pdf
Greater Golden Horseshoe: The growth planning area designated under the Province of Ontario’s
Places to Grow Act, 2005. The Greater Golden Horseshoe consists of more than 100 municipalities,
including Waterloo Region, extending from the western end of Lake Ontario.
Headwaters: The smallest, uppermost tributaries of a drainage system; the source (origin) of a
stream or river.
Source: Radford University GEOG 202 (1997) Physical Geography Glossary.
Available at http://www.runet.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG202/physprov/geolglos.html
United States Department of the Interior - United States Geological Survey – Federal Emergency Management Agency –
Nevada Water Science Center (2006) Definition of Terms.
Available at: http://nevada.usgs.gov/crfld/definitions.htm
Health Event: Recorded, specified disease events. For the purpose of this report, health events
may include mortality (deaths), hospital admissions (unique in-patient admissions to a hospital) or
ambulatory visits.
Source: Florida Department of Health (2008) Community Health Assessment Glossary.
Available at: http://www.doh.state.fl.us/Planning_eval/CHAI/Training/CoreFunctionsMAPP/RefBibEvaluationGlossry/
CHAIglossary.htm
Hydrologic: Referring to the properties, distribution, flow, and path of water in all its forms as it
moves throughout a system.
Source: Gulf of Mexico Hypoxia (2006) Dead Zone Glossary.
Available at http://www.gulfhypoxia.net/education/_resources/Dead_Zone/Glossary.doc
The San Diego Wildfires Education Project (2008) Lesson Plan Glossary.
Available at: http://interwork.sdsu.edu/fire/curricula/Glossary.htm
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
217
Immigrant: A person arrives in Waterloo Region to settle after leaving another area within
(internal migrant) or outside of Canada (external migrant)).
Source: Statistics Canada (2006) Census Dictionary.
Available at: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/dictionary/atoz.cfm
Integrated Pest Management: A crop management technique that integrates multiple,
complementary control tactics (e.g. biological control, crop rotation, host plant resistance,
insecticides) to manage pests and weeds in an effective and environmentally sound manner.
Internal migrant: One who moved from one census subdivision within Canada to another.
Source: Statistics Canada (2006) Census Dictionary.
Available at: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/dictionary/atoz.cfm
Indoor Air Pollution: Air pollutants that occur within buildings or other enclosed spaces, as
opposed to those occurring in outdoor, or ambient air. Some examples of indoor air pollutants are
nitrogen oxides, smoke, asbestos, formaldehyde, and carbon monoxide.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Landspreading: Akin to integrating compost material into soil, landspreading is a similar term for
spreading organic materials, such as food processing by-products, over land where it is biologically
broken down to remain in the soil as plant nutrients.
Source: University of Minnesota. (2008). Minnesota technical assistance program fact sheet:
Composting and land spreading food processing plants.
Available at: http://www.mntap.umn.edu/FOOD/78FS.CompostLandspread.pdf
Larvicide: Biological or chemical products used to prevent mosquito larvae from maturing to biting
adults.
Leachate: A solution comprised of chemical contaminants that, over time, have leached out of
waste products, commonly associated with landfills.
Moraine: Any glacial accumulation of unconsolidated earth, stone and sediments, ranging from
flour-sized grains to large boulders, carried, deposited, and then left behind by a glacier.
Mortality: The condition of cessation of life (i.e. death).
Source: John Last (2007) A Dictionary of Public Health.
Natural increase: The total number of live births minus the total number of deaths in a population
for a given time period; it can be positive or negative.
Source: Statistics Canada (2006) Census Dictionary.
Available at: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/dictionary/atoz.cfm
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REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Net migration: The difference between immigration and emigration or in-migration and outmigration for a given time area and time period.
Source: Statistics Canada (2006) Census Dictionary.
Available at: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/dictionary/atoz.cfm
Non-traumatic deaths: Non-accidental causes of death also explained as deaths not caused by
injury (e.g. cardiovascular disease).
Source: Houghton Mifflin Company (2007) The American Heritage Medical Dictionary;
Available at: http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/trauma
One-hour maximum: Highest 1-hour pollutant concentration level in a 24-hour period (1 day).
Source: Environment Canada, Statistics Canada, and Health Canada (2007)
Canadian Environmental Sustainability Indicators.
Available at: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/16-251-x/16-251-x2007000-eng.pdf
Organochlorines: Organochlorines are chemicals that contain carbon and chlorine atoms joined
together. Harmful organochlorines are those which do not break down easily and which stay in the
environment and in our bodies for a long time.
Polluter Pays Principle: A principle under which users and producers of pollutants and wastes
should bear the responsibility for their actions. Companies or people that pollute should pay the
costs they impose on society.
Source: Environment Canada. 2005. Canadian Pollution Prevention Information Clearinghouse: Glossary.
Available at: http://www.ec.gc.ca/cppic/en/glossary.cfm?view=details&id=178
Post-exposure prophylaxis: Medication provided after exposure to infectious agent to prevent
the development of disease.
Risk Coefficient: A risk coefficient is a multiplier (or factor) of risk that an event will occur. In this
report the unit incremental health risk per cent (ßQH%/ unit) is defined as the per cent change in
health outcome, per unit of pollutant. In other words, a risk coefficient of 0.700 per cent means that
for each unit increase of a pollutant there would be a corresponding increase by 7 of the observed
health event (e.g. deaths, hospital admissions).
Source: Toronto Public Health (2004) Air Pollution Burden of Illness in Toronto. Toronto: City of Toronto.
Available at: http://www.toronto.ca/health/hphe/pdf/air_and_health_burden_illness.pdf
Reservoir: The natural habitat of an infectious agent (i.e. person, animal, arthropod, plant, soil or
substance, or combination of these).
Source: Last, J.M. (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 4th Ed. Oxford University Press: New York. p. 158.
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
219
Rural: All areas with a population of less than 1,000 and fewer than 400 persons per square
kilometre; all non-urban areas.
Source: Statistics Canada (2006) Census Dictionary.
Available at: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/dictionary/atoz.cfm
Smog: A combination of the words smoke and fog. This term is used for photochemical smog,
which includes ozone, fine particulate matter, and other contaminants. It tends to appear like a
brownish haze.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
Spill: A spill means a discharge into the natural environment; from or out of a structure, vehicle or
other container; and that is abnormal in quality or quantity in light of all the circumstances of the
discharge.
Source: Ontario Ministry of the Environment. 2007. Spills Reporting – A Guide to Reporting Spills and Discharges.
Available from: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/en/about/penalties/SpillReportingGuide.pdf
Sustainable agriculture: Refers to a way of producing and processing agricultural products that
can be carried out over the long term, in a manner that protects the natural resource base, prevents
the degradation of soil, water, and air quality, contributes to human health, and safeguards the
livelihood and well-being of agricultural workers and their families.
Surveillance: Surveillance is the ongoing, systematic collection, analysis, interpretation and
dissemination of data with prompt dissemination of the results to those who need to know,
particularly those who are in a position to take action (Haines, 2004).
Temporary Food Premise: A temporary food premise is ‘an arrangement of equipment and
appliances at which food is prepared and/or sold, and is intended to be dismantled or moved
intact’. Examples include barbeques, cake stalls and food stands.
Topography: The shape of the land in terms of elevation, slope, and orientation of the physical
features of a place.
Source: The State of Queensland Environmental Protection Agency (2008) Saltmarsh Wetlands Glossary.
Available at: https://203.9.184.225/nature_conservation/habitats/wetlands/wetland_management_profiles/
saltmarsh_wetlands/glossary/
220
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
Total Reduced Sulphur (TRS) compounds: TRS compounds are a class of compounds that
produce offensive odours similar to rotten eggs. Common sources of TRS compounds are the steel
industry, and pulp and paper mills. TRS compounds are not normally considered a health hazard
except at very high concentrations.
Source: Ministry of the Environment. Green Facts: Ontario’s Air Quality Index, May 2005.
Available at: http://www.ene.gov.on.ca/programs/3958e02.pdf
Township urban area: A small, slightly built-up area within a largely rural setting.
Transboundary: Transport of pollutants (particularly air pollutants) across national or provincial
boundaries.
Source: Wiley College (2007) Exploitation, conservation, preservation:
A geographic perspective on natural resource use complete glossary.
Available at: http://www.wiley.com/college/geog/cutter018104/resources/glossary.htm
Tributary: A stream or river which flows into another stream or river and does not flow directly into
a body of water.
Source: Ecologic Development Fund (2008) Glossary.
Available at: http://www.ecologic.org/en/learn_more/glossary#tributaries
Urban: An area with a population of at least 1,000 and no fewer than 400 persons per square
kilometre; all non-rural areas.
Source: Statistics Canada (2006) Census Dictionary.
Available at: http://www12.statcan.ca/english/census06/reference/dictionary/atoz.cfm
Vector-borne disease: A class of miscellaneous diseases which are transmitted to humans by
vectors, predominately insects (e.g. mosquito-borne diseases caused by viruses, bacteria, etc.).
Source: Last, J.M. (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 4th Ed. Oxford University Press: New York.
Vector: A living creature, usually an insect, which carries an infectious pathogren to a susceptible
host.
Source: Last, J.M. (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 4th Ed. Oxford University Press: New York.
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Carbon-containing compounds that evaporate into the
air (with a few exceptions). VOCs contribute to the formation of smog and / or may be toxic. VOCs
often have an odour and some examples include gasoline, alcohol, and the solvents used in paints.
Source: California Environmental Protection Agency (2007) Air Pollution Terms.
Available at: http://www.arb.ca.gov/html/gloss.htm
REPORT ON: HEALTH AND THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
221
Watershed (catchment): The entire area of land from which all water drains to a particular
endpoint (water body).
Source: Centres for Disease Control (2002) MMWR Surveillance Summaries.
Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/MMWR/preview/mmwrhtml/ss5108a4.htm
Weather: The current (short-term) state of environmental conditions in an area; weather is not the
same as climate.
Source: World Wildlife Fund (2008) Climate Glossary.
Available at: http://www.worldwildlife.org/climate/curriculum/item5957.html
White goods: Large household appliances like fridges, stoves, washers, dryers, etc.
Zoonosis: A disease that is transmissible from animals to humans; usually a disease that causes
disease also in animals, although the degree of severity may vary between the species. Pathogens
can include viruses, bacteria, protozoa and worms.
Source: Last, J.M. (2001). A Dictionary of Epidemiology. 4th Ed. Oxford University Press: New York.
222
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ibid
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ibid
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251
PUBLIC HEALTH
For more information about
this report please contact:
Region of Waterloo Public Health
99 Regina Street South, 3rd floor
Waterloo, Ontario N2J 4V3
Phone: 519-883-2008 ext. 5147
Fax: 519-883-2241
www.region.waterloo.on.ca/ph