Booker T. Washington
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Booker T. Washington
Booker T. Washington
Born
Booker Taliaferro Washington
April 5, 1856
Hale's Ford, Virginia, USA.
Died
November 14, 1915 (aged 59)
Tuskegee, Alabama, U.S.
Occupation Educator, Author, and African American Civil Rights Leader
Signature
Booker Taliaferro Washington (April 5, 1856 – November 14, 1915) was an African-American educator, author,
orator, and advisor to Republican presidents. He was the dominant leader in the African-American community in the
United States from 1890 to 1915. Representative of the last generation of black American leaders born in slavery, he
spoke on behalf of the large majority of blacks who lived in the South but had lost their ability to vote through
disfranchisement by southern legislatures. Historians note that Washington, "advised, networked, cut deals, made
threats, pressured, punished enemies, rewarded friends, greased palms, manipulated the media, signed autographs,
read minds with the skill of a master psychologist, strategized, raised money, always knew where the camera was
pointing, traveled with an entourage, waved the flag with patriotic speeches, and claimed to have no interest in
partisan politics. In other words, he was an artful politician."[1] While his opponents called his powerful network of
supporters the "Tuskegee Machine," Washington maintained control because of his ability to gain support of
numerous groups including influential whites and the black business, educational and religious communities
nationwide. He advised on financial donations from philanthropists, and avoided antagonizing white Southerners
with his accommodation to the political realities of the age of Jim Crow segregation.[2]
Overview
Washington was born into slavery to Jane, an enslaved woman, and a white father. His father was a nearby planter,
in a rural area of the southwestern Virginia Piedmont. After emancipation, his mother moved the family to rejoin her
husband in West Virginia; there Washington worked in a variety of manual labor jobs before making his way to
Hampton Roads seeking an education. He worked his way through Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute (now
Hampton University) and attended college at Wayland Seminary (now Virginia Union University). In 1876,
Booker T. Washington
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Washington returned to live in Malden, West Virginia, teaching Sunday School at African Zion Baptist Church; he
married his first wife, Fannie Smith, at the church in 1881.[3] After returning to Hampton as a teacher, in 1881 he
was named as the first leader of the new Tuskegee Institute in Alabama.
Washington attained national prominence for his Atlanta Address of 1895, which attracted the attention of politicians
and the public, making him a popular spokesperson for African-American citizens. He built a nationwide network of
supporters in many black communities, with black ministers, educators and businessmen composing his core
supporters. Washington played a dominant role in black politics, winning wide support in the black community and
among more liberal whites (especially rich Northern whites). He gained access to top national leaders in politics,
philanthropy and education. Washington's efforts included cooperating with white people and enlisting the support of
wealthy philanthropists, helping to raise funds to establish and operate thousands of small community schools and
institutions of higher education for the betterment of blacks throughout the South. This work continued for many
years after his death. Washington argued that the surest way for blacks to gain equal social rights was to demonstrate
"industry, thrift, intelligence and property."
Northern critics called Washington's followers the "Tuskegee Machine". After 1909, Washington was criticized by
the leaders of the new NAACP, especially W. E. B. Du Bois, who demanded a stronger tone of protest for
advancement of civil rights needs. Washington replied that confrontation would lead to disaster for the outnumbered
blacks, and that cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome pervasive racism in the long run.
At the same time, he secretly funded litigation for civil rights cases, such as challenges to southern constitutions and
laws that disfranchised blacks.[4] Washington was on close terms with national republican leaders, and often was
asked for political advice by presidents Theodore Roosevelt and William Howard Taft.[5]
In addition to his contributions in education, Washington wrote 14 books; his autobiography, Up From Slavery, first
published in 1901, is still widely read today. During a difficult period of transition, he did much to improve the
working relationship between the races. His work greatly helped blacks to achieve higher education, financial power
and understanding of the U.S. legal system. This contributed to blacks' attaining the skills to create and support the
Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, leading to the passage of important federal civil rights laws.
Career overview
Washington was born into slavery to Jane, an enslaved
African-American woman on the Burroughs Plantation in southwest
Virginia. She never identified his white father, said to be a nearby
planter; he played no significant role in Washington's life. His family
gained freedom in 1865 as the Civil War ended, and his mother took
them to West Virginia to join her husband. As a boy of 9 in Virginia,
he remembered the day in early 1865:[6]
Washington early in his career.
"As the great day drew nearer, there was more singing in the
slave quarters than usual. It was bolder, had more ring, and
lasted later into the night. Most of the verses of the plantation
songs had some reference to freedom.... Some man who seemed
to be a stranger (a United States officer, I presume) made a little
speech and then read a rather long paper—the Emancipation
Proclamation, I think. After the reading we were told that we
were all free, and could go when and where we pleased. My
mother, who was standing by my side, leaned over and kissed
her children, while tears of joy ran down her cheeks. She
Booker T. Washington
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explained to us what it all meant, that this was the day for which she had been so long praying, but fearing that
she would never live to see."
She and the freedman Washington Ferguson were formally married in West Virginia, and Booker took the surname
Washington at school after his stepfather.[7][8]
The youth worked in salt furnaces and coal mines in West Virginia for several years, then made his way east to
Hampton Institute, a school established to educate freedmen, where he worked to pay for his studies. He attended
Wayland Seminary in Washington, D.C. in 1878 and left after 6 months. In 1881, the Hampton president Samuel C.
Armstrong recommended Washington to become the first leader of Tuskegee Institute, the new normal school
(teachers' college) in Alabama. He headed it for the rest of his life.
Washington was instrumental in having West Virginia State University, founded in 1891, located in the Kanawha
Valley of West Virginia. Dr. Washington visited the campus often and spoke at its first commencement exercise.[9]
Washington was a dominant figure of the African-American community from 1890 to his death in 1915, especially
after his Atlanta Address of 1895. To many he was seen as a popular spokesman for African-American citizens.
Representing the last generation of black leaders born into slavery, Washington was generally perceived as a
supporter of education for freedmen in the post-Reconstruction, Jim Crow-era South. Throughout the final twenty
years of his life, he maintained his standing through a nationwide network of supporters including black educators,
ministers, editors, and businessmen, especially those who supported his views on social and educational issues for
blacks. He gained access to top national leaders in politics, philanthropy and education, raised large sums, was
consulted on race issues and was awarded honorary degrees from leading American universities.
Late in his career, Washington was criticized by leaders of the NAACP, a civil rights organization formed in 1909.
W. E. B. Du Bois advocated activism to achieve civil rights. He labeled Washington "the Great Accommodator".
Washington's response was that confrontation could lead to disaster for the outnumbered blacks. He believed that
cooperation with supportive whites was the only way to overcome racism in the long run.
Washington contributed secretly and substantially to legal challenges against segregation and disfranchisement of
blacks.[4] In his public role, he believed he could achieve more by skillful accommodation to the social realities of
the age of segregation.[2]
Washington's work on education problems helped him enlist both the moral and substantial financial support of
many major white philanthropists. He became friends with such self-made men as Standard Oil magnate Henry
Huttleston Rogers; Sears, Roebuck and Company President Julius Rosenwald; and George Eastman, inventor and
founder of Kodak. These individuals and many other wealthy men and women funded his causes, including
Hampton and Tuskegee institutes.
The schools Washington supported were founded primarily to
produce teachers. However, graduates had often returned to their
largely impoverished rural southern communities to find few
schools and educational resources, as the state legislatures
consistently underfunded black schools in their segregated system.
To address those needs, Washington enlisted his philanthropic
network to create matching funds programs to stimulate
construction of numerous rural public schools for black children in
the South. Working especially with Julius Rosenwald from
Chicago, Washington had Tuskegee architects develop model
school designs. The Rosenwald Fund helped support the
construction and operation of more than 5,000 schools and
supporting resources for the betterment of blacks throughout the
Sculpture of Booker T. Washington at the National
Portrait Gallery in Washington, D.C.
Booker T. Washington
South in the late-19th and early-20th centuries. The local schools were a source of communal pride and were
priceless to African-American families when poverty and segregation limited severely the life chances of the pupils.
A major part of Washington's legacy, the model rural schools continued to be constructed, with matching funds from
the Rosenwald Fund, into the 1930s. Washington also helped with the Progressive Era by forming the National
Negro Business League.[10]
His autobiography, Up From Slavery, first published in 1901, is still widely read today.
Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute
The organizers of the new all-black state school called Tuskegee
Normal and Industrial Institute in Alabama found the energetic leader
they sought in 25-year-old Washington. He believed that with
self-help, people could go from poverty to success. The new school
opened on July 4, 1881, initially using space in a local church. The
next year, Washington purchased a former plantation, which became
the permanent site of the campus. Under his direction, his students
literally built their own school: making bricks, constructing
classrooms, barns and outbuildings; and growing their own crops and
Booker T. Washington's house at Tuskegee
raising livestock; both for learning and to provide for most of the basic
University
necessities.[11] Both men and women had to learn trades as well as
academics. Washington helped raise funds to establish and operate
hundreds of small community schools and institutions of higher educations for blacks.[12] The Tuskegee faculty used
all the activities to teach the students basic skills to take back to their mostly rural black communities throughout the
South. The main goal was not to produce farmers and tradesmen, but teachers of farming and trades who taught in
the new schools and colleges for blacks across the South. The school expanded over the decades, adding programs
and departments, to become the present-day Tuskegee University.[13]
Washington expressed his aspirations for his race in his direction of the school. He believed that by providing needed
skills to society, African Americans would play their part, leading to acceptance by white Americans. He believed
that blacks would eventually gain full participation in society by acting as responsible, reliable American citizens.
Shortly after the Spanish-American War, President William McKinley and most of his cabinet visited Washington.
He led the school until his death in 1915. By then Tuskegee's endowment had grown to over $1.5 million, compared
to its initial $2,000 annual appropriation.[14]
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Marriages and children
Washington was married three times. In his autobiography Up From
Slavery, he gave all three of his wives credit for their contributions at
Tuskegee. His first wife Fannie N. Smith was from Malden, West
Virginia, the same Kanawha River Valley town where Washington had
lived from age nine to sixteen. He maintained ties there all his life.
Washington and Smith were married in the summer of 1882. They had
one child, Portia M. Washington. Fannie died in May 1884.[15]
Washington next wed Olivia A. Davidson in 1885. Born in Virginia, she
had studied at Hampton Institute and the Massachusetts State Normal
School at Framingham. She taught in Mississippi and Tennessee before
going to Tuskegee to work. Washington met Davidson as a teacher at
Tuskegee, where she was promoted to assistant principal there. They
had two sons, Booker T. Washington Jr. and Ernest Davidson
Washington, before she died in 1889.
Booker T. Washington with his third wife
Margaret and two sons.
In 1893 Washington married Margaret James Murray. She was from
Mississippi and had graduated from Fisk University, a historically black
college. They had no children together, but she helped rear Washington's children. Murray outlived Washington and
died in 1925.
Politics and the Atlanta Compromise
Washington's 1895 Atlanta Exhibition address was viewed as a "revolutionary moment"[16] by both
African-Americans and whites across the country. Then W. E. B. Du Bois supported him, but they grew apart as Du
Bois sought more action to remedy disenfranchisement and lower education. After their falling out, Du Bois and his
supporters referred to Washington's speech as the "Atlanta Compromise" to express their criticism that Washington
was too accommodating to white interests.
Washington advocated a "go slow" approach.[16] The effect was that many youths in the South had to accept
sacrifices of potential political power, civil rights and higher education.[17] His belief was that African-Americans
should "concentrate all their energies on industrial education, and accumulation of wealth, and the conciliation of the
South." [18] Washington valued the "industrial" education, as it provided critical skills for the jobs then available to
the majority of African-Americans at the time, as most lived in the South, which was overwhelmingly rural and
agricultural. He thought these skills that would lay the foundation for the creation of stability that the
African-American community required in order to move forward. He believed that in the long term "blacks would
eventually gain full participation in society by showing themselves to be responsible, reliable American citizens."
His approach advocated for an initial step toward equal rights, rather than full equality under the law. It would be
this step that would provide the economic power to back up their demands for equality in the future.[19] This action,
over time, would provide the proof to a deeply prejudiced white America that they were not in fact "'naturally' stupid
and incompetent." [20]
This stance was contrary to what many blacks from the North envisioned. Du Bois wanted blacks to have the same
"classical" liberal arts education as whites did, along with voting rights and civic equality. He believed that an elite
he called the Talented Tenth would advance to lead the race to a wider variety of occupations.[21] The source of
division between Du Bois and Washington was generated by the differences in how African Americans were treated
in the North versus the South. Many in the North felt that they were being 'led', and authoritatively spoken for, by a
Southern accommodationist imposed on them primarily by Southern whites."[22] Furthermore, historian Clarence E.
Walker said, "Free black people were 'matter out of place'. Their emancipation was an affront to southern white
Booker T. Washington
freedom. Booker T. Washington did not understand that his program was perceived as subversive of a natural order
in which black people were to remain forever subordinate or unfree."[23] Both men sought to define the best means to
improve the conditions of the post-Civil War African-American community through education.
Blacks were solidly Republican in this period. Southern states disfranchised most blacks and many poor whites from
1890–1908 through constitutional amendments and statutes that created barriers to voter registration, and voting
such as poll taxes and literacy tests. Southern white Democrats regained power in the state legislatures of the former
Confederacy and passed laws establishing racial segregation and other Jim Crow laws. More blacks continued to
vote in border and Northern states.
Washington worked and socialized with many white politicians and industry leaders. Much of his expertise was his
ability to persuade wealthy whites to donate money to black causes. He argued that the surest way for blacks to gain
equal social rights was to demonstrate "industry, thrift, intelligence and property." [24] This was the key to improved
conditions for African Americans in the United States. Because they had only recently been emancipated, he
believed they could not expect too much at once. Washington said, "I have learned that success is to be measured not
so much by the position that one has reached in life as by the obstacles which he has had to overcome while trying to
succeed.[15]
Along with Du Bois, he partly organized the "Negro exhibition" at the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, where
photos, taken by his friend Frances Benjamin Johnston, of Hampton Institute's black students were displayed.[25] The
exhibition expressed African Americans' positive contributions to American society.[25]
Washington privately contributed substantial funds for legal challenges to segregation and disfranchisement, such as
the case of Giles v. Harris, which went before the United States Supreme Court in 1903.[26]
Wealthy friends and benefactors
Washington associated with the richest and most powerful
businessmen and politicians of the era. He was seen as a spokesperson
for African Americans and became a conduit for funding educational
programs. His contacts included such diverse and well-known
personages as Andrew Carnegie, William Howard Taft, John D.
Rockefeller, Henry Huttleston Rogers, George Eastman, Julius
Rosenwald, Robert Ogden, Collis Potter Huntington and William
Washington's wealthy friends included Andrew
Henry Baldwin Jr., who donated large sums of money to agencies such
Carnegie and Robert C. Ogden, seen here in 1906
as the Jeanes and Slater Funds. As a result, countless small schools
while visiting Tuskegee Institute.
were established through his efforts, in programs that continued many
years after his death. Along with rich people, black communities also helped their communities by donating time,
money and labor to schools. Churches such as the Baptist and Methodist also supported black elementary and
secondary schools.
Henry Rogers
A representative case of an exceptional relationship was Washington's friendship with millionaire industrialist and
financier Henry H. Rogers (1840–1909). Henry Rogers was a self-made man, who had risen from a modest
working-class family to become a principal of Standard Oil, and had become one of the richest men in the United
States. Around 1894 Rogers heard Washington speak at Madison Square Garden. The next day he contacted
Washington and requested a meeting, during which Washington later recounted that he was told that Rogers "was
surprised that no one had 'passed the hat' after the speech." The meeting began a close relationship that was to extend
over a period of 15 years. Although he and the very-private Rogers openly became visible to the public as friends,
and Washington was a frequent guest at Rogers' New York office, his Fairhaven, Massachusetts summer home, and
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aboard his steam yacht Kanawha, the true depth and scope of their relationship was not publicly revealed until after
Rogers' sudden death of an stroke in May 1909.
A few weeks later Washington went on a previously
planned speaking tour along the newly completed
Virginian Railway, a $40-million enterprise which had
been built almost entirely from Rogers' personal fortune.
As Washington rode in the late financier's private railroad
car, "Dixie", he stopped and made speeches at many
locations, where his companions later recounted that he
had been warmly welcomed by both black and white
citizens at each stop.
Washington revealed that Rogers had been quietly funding
operations of 65 small country schools for African
Americans, and had given substantial sums of money to
support Tuskegee and Hampton institutes. He also
disclosed that Rogers had encouraged programs with
matching funds requirements so the recipients had a stake
in the outcome.
Anna T. Jeanes
Handbill from 1909 tour of southern Virginia and West Virginia.
In 1907 Philadelphia Quaker Anna T. Jeanes (1822–1907)
donated one million dollars to Washington for elementary
schools for black children in the South. Her contributions
and those of Henry Rogers and others funded schools in
many poor communities.
Julius Rosenwald
Julius Rosenwald (1862–1932) was another self-made wealthy man with whom Washington found common ground.
By 1908 Rosenwald, son of an immigrant clothier, had become part-owner and president of Sears, Roebuck and
Company in Chicago. Rosenwald was a philanthropist who was deeply concerned about the poor state of
African-American education, especially in the Southern states, where their schools were underfunded.[27]
In 1912 Rosenwald was asked to serve on the Board of Directors of Tuskegee Institute, a position he held for the
remainder of his life. Rosenwald endowed Tuskegee so that Washington could spend less time fundraising and more
managing the school. Later in 1912 Rosenwald provided funds for a pilot program to build six new small schools in
rural Alabama. They were designed, constructed and opened in 1913 and 1914 and overseen by Tuskegee; the model
proved successful. Rosenwald established the Rosenwald Fund. The school building program was one of its largest
programs. Using architectural model plans developed by professors at Tuskegee Institute, the Rosenwald Fund spent
over $4 million to help build 4,977 schools, 217 teachers' homes, and 163 shop buildings in 883 counties in 15 states,
from Maryland to Texas.[28] The Rosenwald Fund made matching grants, requiring community support and
fundraising. Black communities raised more than $4.7 million to aid the construction.[29] These schools became
informally known as Rosenwald Schools. By 1932, the facilities could accommodate one third of all
African-American children in Southern U.S. schools.
Booker T. Washington
Up from Slavery and an invitation to the White House
Washington published five books during his
lifetime with the aid of ghost-writers Max
Bennett Thrasher and Robert E. Park.[30]
They were compilations of speeches and
essays:
• The Story of My Life and Work (1900)
• Up From Slavery (1901)
• The Story of the Negro: The Rise of the
Race from Slavery (2 vol 1909)
• My Larger Education (1911)
• The Man Farthest Down (1912)
Booker Washington and Theodore Roosevelt at Tuskegee Institute, 1905
In an effort to inspire the "commercial,
agricultural, educational, and industrial
advancement" of African Americans, Washington founded the National Negro Business League (NNBL) in 1900.[31]
When Washington's autobiography, Up From Slavery, was published in 1901, it became a bestseller and had a major
impact on the African American community, its friends and allies. One of the results was a dinner invitation to the
White House in 1901 by President Theodore Roosevelt.
Eventual Governor of Mississippi James K. Vardaman and Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina indulged in
racist personal attacks in response to the invitation. Vardaman described the White House as "so saturated with the
odor of the nigger that the rats have taken refuge in the stable",[32][33] and declared "I am just as much opposed to
Booker T. Washington as a voter as I am to the cocoanut-headed, chocolate-colored typical little coon who blacks
my shoes every morning. Neither is fit to perform the supreme function of citizenship."[34] Tillman opined that "The
action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South
before they will learn their place again."[35]
Austro-Hungarian ambassador to the United States Ladislaus Hengelmüller von Hengervár, who was visiting the
White House on the same day, claimed to have found a rabbit's foot in Washington's coat pocket when he mistakenly
put on the coat; The Washington Post elaborately described it as "the left hind foot of a graveyard rabbit, killed in the
dark of the moon".[36] The Detroit Journal quipped the next day, "The Austrian ambassador may have made off with
Booker T. Washington's coat at the White House, but he'd have a bad time trying to fill his shoes."[36][37]
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Death
Despite his travels and widespread work, Washington
remained as principal of Tuskegee. Washington's health
was deteriorating rapidly; he collapsed in New York
City and was brought home to Tuskegee, where he died
on November 14, 1915, at the age of 59. He was buried
on the campus of Tuskegee University near the
University Chapel.
His death was believed at the time to have been a result
of congestive heart failure, aggravated by overwork. In
March 2006, with the permission of his descendants,
examination of medical records indicated that he died
of hypertension, with a blood pressure more than twice
normal, confirming what had long been suspected.
Booker T. Washington's coffin being carried to grave site.
At his death Tuskegee's endowment exceeded $1.5
million. Washington's greatest life's work, the education of blacks in the South, was well underway and expanding.
Honors and memorials
For his contributions to American society, Washington was granted an honorary master's degree from Harvard
University in 1896 and an honorary doctorate from Dartmouth College in 1901.
Washington, as the guest of President Theodore Roosevelt in 1901, was the first African American ever invited to
the White House. The visit was recalled in the 1927 song by Banjo Blues Musician Gus Cannon, titled "Can You
Blame The Coloured Man".[38] At the end of the 2008 presidential election, the defeated Republican candidate,
Senator John McCain, referred to Washington's visit a century before as the seed that blossomed into Barack Obama
as the first African American to be elected President of the United States.
In 1934 Robert Russa Moton, Washington's successor as president of Tuskegee University, arranged an air tour for
two African-American aviators. Afterward he had the plane named the Booker T. Washington.
On April 7, 1940, Washington became the first African American to be
depicted on a United States postage stamp. Several years later, he was
honored on the first coin to feature an African American, the Booker T.
Washington Memorial Half Dollar, which was minted by the United
States from 1946 to 1951. He was also depicted on a U.S. Half Dollar
from 1951–1954.[39]
In 1942, the Liberty Ship Booker T. Washington was named in his
honor, the first major oceangoing vessel to be named after an African
American. The ship was christened by Marian Anderson.[40]
Booker T. Washington was honored on a 'Famous
Americans Series' Commemorative U.S. Postage
stamp, issue of 1940.
On April 5, 1956, the hundredth anniversary of Washington's birth, the
house where he was born in Franklin County, Virginia, was designated
as the Booker T. Washington National Monument. A state park in
Chattanooga, Tennessee was named in his honor, as was a bridge
spanning the Hampton River adjacent to his alma mater, Hampton
University.
Booker T. Washington
In 1984 Hampton University dedicated a Booker T. Washington Memorial on campus near the historic Emancipation
Oak, establishing, in the words of the University, "a relationship between one of America's great educators and social
activists, and the symbol of Black achievement in education."[41]
Numerous high schools, middle schools and elementary schools[42] across the United States have been named after
Booker T. Washington.
At the center of the campus at Tuskegee University, the Booker T. Washington Monument, called "Lifting the Veil,"
was dedicated in 1922. The inscription at its base reads:
"He lifted the veil of ignorance from his people and pointed the way to progress through education and
industry."
On October 19, 2009, West Virginia State University dedicated a monument to the memory of noted African
American educator and statesman Booker T. Washington. The event took place at West Virginia State University's
Booker T. Washington Park in Malden, West Virginia. The monument also honors the families of African ancestry
who lived in Old Malden in the early 20th Century and who knew and encouraged Booker T. Washington. Special
guest speakers at the event included West Virginia Governor Joe Manchin III, Malden attorney Larry L. Rowe, and
the president of WVSU. Musical selections were provided by the WVSU "Marching Swarm".[43]
Books
•
•
•
•
•
The Future of the American Negro - 1899
The Negro in the South - with W.E.B. Du Bois - 1907
Tuskegee & Its People - (editor) - 1905
Up from Slavery - 1901
Working With the Hands - 1904
Notes
[1] Michael Scott Bieze and Marybeth Gasman, eds. (26 March 2012). Booker T. Washington Rediscovered (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=GcvFoRcObNUC& pg=PA209). Johns Hopkins UP. p. 209. .
[2] Harlan (1983) p. 359
[3] Garrett C. Jeter (December 7, 2010). "e-WV, The West Virginia Encyclopedia: African Zion Baptist Church article" (http:/ / www.
wvencyclopedia. org/ articles/ 24). West Virginia Humanities Council. . Retrieved 2011-08-02.
[4] Meier 1957
[5] Robert J. Norrell, Up from history: the life of Booker T. Washington (2009) pp 4, 130
[6] Up from Slavery (1901) pp 19-21
[7] "Booker T. Washington" (http:/ / www. online-literature. com/ booker-washington/ ). . Retrieved 2011-09-29.
[8] Washington 1901, p. 34
[9] "Booker T. Washington Monument To Be Dedicated In Malden" (http:/ / www. wvstateu. edu/ news/ default. aspx?news=233). WVSU. .
[10] Anderson (1998)
[11] African American Odyssey: "The Booker T. Washington Era (Part 1)" (http:/ / lcweb2. loc. gov/ ammem/ aaohtml/ exhibit/ aopart6. html),
Library of Congress, 21 Mar 2008, accessed 3 Sep 2008
[12] Emma Thornbrough, Booker T. Washington (1969)
[13] name="Harlan 1972"
[14] Harlan (1972); Harlan (1983)
[15] Harlan (1972)
[16] Bauerlien p 106 (2004)
[17] Pole p 888 (1974)
[18] Du Bois p 41-59 (1903)
[19] Pole p 107(1974)
[20] Crouch (2005) p 96
[21] Du Bois p 189 (1903)
[22] Pole p 980 (1974)
[23] Walker, Clarence E. Deromanticising Black History. The University of Tennessee Press (1991) p.32
[24] Washington p 68 (1972)
10
Booker T. Washington
[25] Anne Maxell, "Montrer l'Autre: Franz Boas et les soeurs Gerhard", in Zoos humains. De la Vénus hottentote aux reality shows, Nicolas
Bancel, Pascal Blanchard, Gilles Boëtsch, Eric Deroo, Sandrine Lemaire, edition La Découverte (2002), p.331-339, in part. p.338
[26] Harlan (1971)
[27] Williams, Juan (Spring 2012). "Educating a Nation" (http:/ / www. philanthropyroundtable. org/ topic/ excellence_in_philanthropy/
educating_a_nation). Philanthropy. . Retrieved 6 June 2012.
[28] See NationalTrust.org (http:/ / www. nationaltrust. org/ news/ docs/ 20020606_rosenwald. html)
[29] Claiborneone.org (http:/ / ford. claiborneone. org/ )
[30] Harlan, Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee 1901-1915 p 290
[31] PBS.org (http:/ / www. pbs. org/ wnet/ jimcrow/ stories_org_business. html)
[32] Wickham, DeWayne (February 14, 2002). "Book fails to strip meaning of 'N' word" (http:/ / www. usatoday. com/ news/ opinion/
columnists/ wickham/ 2002-02-15-wickham. htm). USA Today. .
[33] Nathan Miller (1993-11-11). Theodore Roosevelt: A Life (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=2maGdg-nHCIC& pg=PA362& dq=Vardaman+
rats+ refuge#v=onepage& q=Vardaman rats refuge). HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-688-13220-0. .
[34] Books.Google.com (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=VgMRHB3dvNIC& pg=PA71& dq=Rubio+ coon#v=onepage& q=& f=false)
[35] Kennedy, Randall (2002). Nigger: The Strange Career of a Troublesome Word (http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-srv/ style/ longterm/
books/ chap1/ nigger. htm). Pantheon. ISBN 0-375-42172-6. .
[36] "Booker T. Washington Papers" (http:/ / www. historycooperative. org/ btw/ Vol. 8/ html/ 437. html). .
[37] Detroit Journal, 14th Nov, 1905
[38] http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=pyx0aBWGyAU
[39] "Commemorative Coin Programs" (http:/ / www. usmint. gov/ mint_programs/ commemoratives/ index. cfm?flash=yes&
action=premodern), The United States Mint
[40] Marian Anderson christens the liberty ship Booker T. Washington (http:/ / unitproj. library. ucla. edu/ dlib/ lat/ display.
cfm?ms=uclamss_1387_b10_28752-2& searchType=subject& subjectID=223751)
[41] EdHamiltonworks.com (http:/ / www. edhamiltonworks. com/ booker_t_washington. htm)
[42] See Washington Elementary in Mesa Arizona, MPSAZ.org (http:/ / www2. mpsaz. org/ washington/ )
[43] White, Davin (2009-10-19). "Booker T. Washington monument unveiled" (http:/ / wvgazette. com/ News/ 200910190706). Charleston
Gazette. . Retrieved 2009-10-19.
References
Secondary sources
• Anderson, James D. The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (1988) online (http://www.questia.com/
PM.qst?a=o&d=54406292)
• Bauerlein, Mark. "Booker T. Washington and W. E. B. Du Bois: The origins of a bitter intellectual battle," The
Journal of Blacks in Higher Education (46) (Winter,2004) in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/4133693)
• Boston, Michael B. The Business Strategy of Booker T. Washington: Its Development and Implementation
(University Press of Florida; 2010); 243 pages. A revisionist study that emphasizes the content and influence of
his philosophy as an entrepreneur.
• Brundage, W. Fitzhugh, ed Booker T. Washington and Black Progress: Up from Slavery 100 Years Later (2003).
• Friedman, Lawrence J. "Life 'In the Lion's Mouth': Another Look at Booker T. Washington," Journal of Negro
History Vol. 59, No. 4 (Oct., 1974), pp. 337–351 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2717315)
• Harlan, Louis R. Booker T. Washington: The Making of a Black Leader, 1856–1901 (1972) the standard
biography, Volume 1; Booker T. Washington: The Wizard of Tuskegee 1901–1915 (1983), the standard scholarly
biography, Volume 2. Volume 2 online (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=78995092)
• Harlan, Louis R. Booker T. Washington in Perspective: Essays of Louis R. Harlan (1988) (http://www.questia.
com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104404815).
• Harlan, Louis R. "The Secret Life of Booker T. Washington." Journal of Southern History 37:2 (1971). in JSTOR
(http://www.jstor.org/pss/2206948) Documents Booker T. Washington's secret financing and directing of
litigation against segregation and disfranchisement.
• Harlan, Louis R. "Booker T. Washington in Biographical Perspective," American Historical Review Vol. 75, No.
6 (Oct., 1970), pp. 1581–1599 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/1850756)
11
Booker T. Washington
• McMurry, Linda O. George Washington Carver, Scientist and Symbol (1982) (http://www.questia.com/PM.
qst?a=o&d=106358296)
• Meier, August. "Toward a Reinterpretation of Booker T. Washington." The Journal of Southern History, 23#2
(May, 1957), pp. 220–227. in JSTOR (http://links.jstor.org/
sici?sici=0022-4642(195705)23:2<220:TAROBT>2.0.CO;2-F). Documents Booker T. Washington's secret
financing and directing of litigation against segregation and disfranchisement.
• Norrell, Robert J. Up from History: The Life of Booker T. Washington (2009). Belknap Press/Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-674-03211-X; ISBN 978-0-674-03211-8, favorable scholarly biography
• Smith, David L. "Commanding Performance: Booker T. Washington's Atlanta Compromise Address". In Myth
America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) Brandywine
Press, St. James, NY. ISBN 1-881089-97-5
• Smock, Raymond. Booker T. Washington: Black Leadership in the Age of Jim Crow. Chicago: Ivan R. Dee, 2009,
• Cary D. Wintz, African American Political Thought, 1890–1930: Washington, Du Bois, Garvey, and Randolph
(1996) (http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=104912065).
• Pole, J. R. "Review: Of Mr. Booker T. Washington and Others; The Children of Pride," The Historical Journal
17, (4) (Dec,1974) in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2638562)
• Strickland, Arvarh E. "Review: Booker T. Washington: The Myth and the Man," Reviews in American History
vol. 1, No. 4 (Dec., 1973), pp. 559–564 in JSTOR (http://www.jstor.org/stable/2701723)
• Andrew Zimmerman, Alabama in Africa: Booker T. Washington, the German Empire, and the Globalization of
the New South (Princeton, Princeton University Press, 2012).
Primary sources
• DuBois, W. E. B. The Souls of Black Folk (1903) ch. 3 (http://www.bartleby.com/114/3.html)
• Washington, Booker T. The Atlanta Cotton States Exposition Address (Sep, 1895). online (http://historymatters.
gmu.edu/d/39/)
• Washington, Booker T. "The Awakening of the Negro," The Atlantic Monthly, 78 (September, 1896). online
(http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1969/12/the-awakening-of-the-negro/5449/)
• — (1901). Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/washing.html).
Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday. Documenting the American South. Other online full-text versions available via
Project Gutenberg (http://digital.library.upenn.edu/webbin/gutbook/lookup?num=2376), UNC Library (http:/
/docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washington/menu.html)
• — (December 1906). "A Farmers' College on Wheels" (http://books.google.com/
books?id=3IfNAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA8352). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XIII: 8352–8354.
Retrieved 2009-07-10.
• — (October 1910). "Chapters From My Experience I" (http://books.google.com/books?id=HsrkfU461xAC&
pg=PA13505). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XX: 13505–13522. Retrieved 2009-07-10.
• — (November 1910). "Chapters From My Experience II" (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13627). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 13627–13640.
Retrieved 2009-07-10.
• — (December 1910). "Chapters From My Experience III" (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13783). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 13784–13794.
Retrieved 2009-07-10.
• — (January 1911). "Chapters From My Experience IV" (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA13847). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 13847–13854.
Retrieved 2009-07-10.
• — (February 1911). "Chapters From My Experience V" (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14032). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 14032–14039.
12
Booker T. Washington
Retrieved 2009-07-10.
• — (April 1911). "Chapters From My Experience VI" (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Zm0AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA14230). The World's Work: A History of Our Time XXI: 14230–14238.
Retrieved 2009-07-10.
• Washington,Booker T., Louis R Harlan, John W. Blassingame The Booker T. Washington Papers (http://books.
google.com/books?id=4yTkxGiI4mkC), University of Illinois Press (1972) ISBN 0-252-00242-3 Google Book
Search. Retrieved on February 4, 2009.
• The Booker T. Washington Papers (http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/volumes.html) University of
Illinois Press online version of complete fourteen volume set of all letters to and from Booker T. Washington.
• Cumulative Index (http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.14/html/)
External links
• An Autobiography: The Story of My Life and Work. (http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/washstory/menu.html)
Toronto, Ont.; Naperville, Ill.: J. L. Nichols & Co., c1901.
• Booker T. Washington: Online Resources, from the Library of Congress (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/
btwashington/index.html)
• Frederick Douglass. (http://docsouth.unc.edu/neh/doug1906/menu.html) London: Hodder and Stoughton,
1906.
• My Larger Education: Being Chapters from My Experience. (http://docsouth.unc.edu/fpn/washeducation/
menu.html) Garden City, New York: Doubleday, Page & Company, 1911.
• Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/WASHINGTON/cover.html) from
American Studies at the University of Virginia
• Up from Slavery: An Autobiography (http://multiracial.com/site/content/view/308/27/) Published online by
The Multiracial Activist
• From Slave to College President:Being the Life Story of Booker T. Washington (http://www.gutenberg.org/
etext/27258) at Project Gutenberg
• Booker T. Washington (http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/24672) at Project Gutenberg, by Emmett J. Scott
• The Booker T. Washington papers digital archive, University of Illinois Press (http://www.historycooperative.
org/btw/index.html) searchable index to complete annotated text of all important letters to and from Washington
and all his writings.
• A Criticism of the Atlanta Compromise by W.E.B. Dubois (http://xroads.virginia.edu/~HYPER/DUBOIS/
ch03.html)
• Booker T. Washington Delivers the 1895 Atlanta "Compromise" Speech (http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/39/
) from the American Social History Project / Center for Media and Learning (Graduate Center, CUNY) and the
Center for History and New Media (George Mason University)
• Booker T. Washington statue at Tuskegee University (http://www.dcmemorials.com/index_indiv0008405.
htm)
• Abbott, Lyman (October 5, 1921). "Snap-Shots Of My Contemporaries: Booker T. Washington" (http://books.
google.com/?id=sVroBrOJL64C&pg=PA181). The Outlook 129: 181–182. Retrieved 2009-07-30.
• Booker T. Washington's West Virginia Boyhood (http://www.wvculture.org/history/journal_wvh/wvh32-1.
html)
• Works by Booker T. Washington (http://www.gutenberg.org/author/Booker+T.+Washington) at Project
Gutenberg
• Booker T. Washington's 1909 Tour of Virginia on the newly completed Virginian Railway (http://www.
historycooperative.org/btw/Vol.10/html/128.html)
• Dr. Booker T. Washington papers – comments about Henry Rogers (http://www.historycooperative.org/btw/
Vol.10/html/122.html)
13
Booker T. Washington
• National Park Service Booker T. Washington Birthplace (http://www.nps.gov/bowa/index.htm)
• Legends of Tuskegee (http://www.cr.nps.gov/museum/exhibits/tuskegee/intro.htm)
• "Booker T. Washington" (http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=1073). Educator and
social reformer. Find a Grave. Jan 01, 2001. Retrieved Aug 18, 2011.
• Washington & Du Bois (http://www.americanwriters.org/writers/washington.asp) at C-SPAN's American
Writers: A Journey Through History
• The short film What's A Heaven For? (1966) (http://www.archive.org/details/gov.ntis.ava02140vnb1) is
available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
14
Article Sources and Contributors
Article Sources and Contributors
Booker T. Washington Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=520556702 Contributors: -- April, 2D, 790, 99owned, A D Monroe III, ACES-wikiman, AJR, ASK, Abh9h,
Actingmyetearnallove, Adamrmoss, AdjustShift, AeonicOmega, Afluent Rider, AgnosticPreachersKid, Akulkis, Al421297, Alan Canon, Alanscottwalker, Alansohn, AlexPlank, AlexTiefling,
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horses, I'm not giving my name to a machine, IRP, Ian Page, Ian Pitchford, Ice Cold Beer, IceCreamAntisocial, Igoldste, Imjustmatthew, ImperatorExercitus, IncognitoErgoSum, Infrogmation,
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Wencer, Werdan7, Werideatdusk33, Wesley, WestCoastHipHopFan, Who, Wiki alf, WikiDao, WikiPuppies, WikiSlasher, Wikieditor06, Wikien2009, Wikignome0530, Wikipedia brown,
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Yamamoto Ichiro, YellowMonkey, Youngamerican, Zanimum, Zemari, Zeneky, Zevlag, Zoe, 2016 anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Booker T Washington retouched flattened-crop.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Booker_T_Washington_retouched_flattened-crop.jpg License: Public Domain
Contributors: Harris & Ewing
File:Booker T Washington Signature.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Booker_T_Washington_Signature.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Booker T
Washington
File:Booker T Washington portrait .jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Booker_T_Washington_portrait_.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kenmayer,
OttawaAC
Image:Booker T. Washington sculpture at National Portrait Gallery IMG 4385.JPG Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Booker_T._Washington_sculpture_at_National_Portrait_Gallery_IMG_4385.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Billy Hathorn, the
Sculpture is by
Image:Booker T. Washington House.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Booker_T._Washington_House.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors:
Original uploader was Organizedchaos02 at en.wikipedia
Image:Booker T. Washington.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Booker_T._Washington.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Da Stressor
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File:Tuskegee Institute - faculty.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Tuskegee_Institute_-_faculty.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: AgnosticPreachersKid, R.
Engelhardt
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File:Booker Washington and Theodore Roosevelt at Tuskegie Institute.jpg Source:
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Image:Booker T Washington 1940 Issue-10c.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Booker_T_Washington_1940_Issue-10c.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors:
US Post Office
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