Names:"Ng"Qi"Siang,"Wong"Jun"Wei"(Ryan),"Lim"Song"Fang"(Ariel)""
"
School:"Raffles"Institution""
"
Question:"To"what"extent"does"the"state"ideology"of"the"DPRK"conform"to"
Communist"ideology?"
"
!
!
!
To!what!extent!does!that!state!ideology!of!the!DPRK!conform!to!
Communist!ideology?!
Ng!Qi!Siang!
Raffles!Institution!!!
INTERNATIONAL)YOUNG)HISTORIANS)CONFERENCE)
)
UNITED)WORLD)COLLEGE)OF)SOUTHEAST)ASIA)(EAST))
)!!!!!!
1
CONTENTS)
2!
Abstract!.........................................................................................................................................................!3!
3!
Introduction!................................................................................................................................................!4!
4!
Overview!of!Juche!......................................................................................................................................!5!
5!
4.1!
Political!Independence!(chaju)!..................................................................................................!5!
4.2!
Economic!SelfPSustenance!(charip)!.........................................................................................!6!
4.3!
Military!Independence!(chawi)!.................................................................................................!6!
Overview!of!Communism!......................................................................................................................!7!
5.1!
Juche!and!Marxism!..........................................................................................................................!7!
5.1.1!
Historical!Materialism!.........................................................................................................!7!
5.1.2!
Class!Struggle!..........................................................................................................................!8!
5.1.3!
Alienation!of!the!Proletariat!.............................................................................................!9!
5.1.4!
Proletarian!Revolution!........................................................................................................!9!
5.1.5!
Perfect!Communism!..........................................................................................................!11!
5.2!
Strands!of!Communism!.............................................................................................................!11!
5.2.1!
Juche!and!MarxismPLeninism!........................................................................................!11!
5.2.2!
Juche!and!Stalinism!............................................................................................................!13!
5.2.3!
Juche!and!Maoism!...............................................................................................................!14!
6!
Is!Juche!a!distinct!animal?!..................................................................................................................!16!
7!
Conclusion!.................................................................................................................................................!19!
8!
Bibliography!.............................................................................................................................................!20!
!
!
!
2
Abstract!
As!one!of!the!last!members!of!the!former!Communist!bloc!that!have!not!reformed!their!
political!or!economic!systems!since!1989,!the!Democratic!People’s!Republic!of!Korea!
(DPRK)!is!often!seen!as!the!last!outpost!of!Communism.!Drawing!upon!foreign!and!
domestic!sources!where!appropriate,!this!essay!will!provide!an!overview!of!the!principles!of!
the!DPRK!state!ideology!of!Juche;!it!will!then!analyse!these!principles!in!comparison!to!
specific!tenets!of!various!Communist!schools!of!thought,!including!classical!Marxism!as!
well!as!later!developments!such!as!MarxismJLeninism,!Maoism!and!Stalinism,!in!order!to!
determine!the!extent!to!which!this!characterisation!remains!accurate.!It!will!conclude!that!
although!the!state!ideology!of!the!DPRK!continues!to!draw!heavily!upon!elements!of!
various!schools!of!Communist!ideology,!notably!in!the!areas!of!political!and!economic!
organisation,!it!has!deviated!significantly!from!Communist!ideology!in!many!notable!areas,!
particularly!in!its!embrace!of!raceJbased!nationalism!and!its!repudiation!of!classical!
internationalism!in!favour!of!an!isolationist!domestic!focus.!
(168!words)!
!
3
Introduction)
North!Korea!has!been!described!as!the!Jurassic!Park!of!Communism.!With!a!stateP
planned!economy!and!party!vanguardism!by!the!Korean!Workers’!Party!(KWP),!it!is!
easy!to!believe!that!the!DPRK!is!indeed!the!last!outpost!of!the!Cold!War.!However,!does!
Juche,!the!state!ideology!of!North!Korea,!still!merit!the!label!of!“Communist”?!This!paper!
argues!that!while!Juche!draws!heavily!upon!various!Communist!schools!of!thought,!it!
has!deviated!from!many!Communist!tenets!to!possess!its!own!unique!and!distinct!
characteristics.!!
A!few!caveats!must!be!noted.!We!firstly!note!that!no!state!can!truly!call!itself!Communist!
under!classical!Marxism,!as!the!state!itself!can!play!no!part!in!Marx’s!anarchoPSocialist!
conception!of!perfect!Communism.!In!classical!Marxism,!all!Communist!states!are!
therefore!in!the!stage!of!Historical!Dialectics!known!as!the!“Dictatorship!of!the!
Proletariat”.!Therefore,!in!analysing!the!extent!to!which!Communist!ideology!applies!to!
the!DPRK,!we!shall!include!not!just!classical!Marxism!but!other!schools!of!Communist!
ideology!in!order!to!incorporate!theories!pertaining!to!the!functioning!of!a!Communist!
state.!!
In!addition,!one!of!the!key!limitations!of!our!project!is!the!difficulty!of!accessing!accurate!
and!reliable!information!pertaining!to!Juche.!Although!ideological!material!is!readily!
available,!the!isolated!nature!of!the!regime!makes!it!difficult!for!us!to!gain!insights!into!
the!manner!in!which!this!material!is!taught!and!applied!in!practice;!furthermore,!much!
of!the!propaganda!available!to!us!was!intended!for!foreign!consumption,!with!domestic!
propaganda!either!unavailable!or!inaccessible!due!to!the!language!barrier.!Thus,!
although!we!have!done!our!best!to!refer!to!sources!that!reproduce!and!analyse!foreign!
and!domestic!material,!we!do!not!exclude!the!possibility!that!our!analysis!may!not!fully!
reflect!actual!domestic!realities.!
!
!
4
Overview)of)Juche)
Juche!is!an!ideology!centred!on!the!importance!and!superiority!of!man,!holding!the!
ultimate!belief!that!“man!is!the!master!of!everything!and!has!the!power!to!decide!
everything”,!as!man!“understands!and!transforms!the!world!in!order!to!bring!everything!
in!the!world!to!serve!him”.1!
The!core!objective!of!Juche!is!to!realise!chajusong,!translating!roughly!to!
“independence”;!this!is!to!be!achieved!through!the!three!main!pillars!of!Juche,!namely!
political!independence!(chaju),!economic!selfPsustenance!(charip)!and!selfPreliance!in!
defence!(chawi).2!
4.1
POLITICAL)INDEPENDENCE)(CHAJU))
The!achievement!of!political!independence!(chaju)!is!seen!as!the!prerequisite!for!charip!
and!chawi;!it!is!founded!upon!the!complete!equality!of!all!nations.!“On!the!Juche!Idea”!
states!that!although!“there!are!big!and!small!parties,!big!and!small!countries,!and!
economically!developed!and!underdeveloped!peoples!in!the!world”,!“all!parties,!all!
countries!and!peoples!are!equal!and!independent”,!and!relations!with!emerging!
countries!are!to!be!carried!out!on!“the!principles!of!respect!for!territorial!integrity!and!
state!power,!nonPaggression,!nonPinterference!in!each!other’s!internal!affairs,!equality!
and!mutual!benefit,!and!of!cooperating!with!all!countries!which!are!friendly!towards!
us”.3!The!unwillingness!of!North!Korea!to!yield!to!foreign!pressure!in!order!to!establish!
chaju!has!been!the!driving!force!behind!its!global!isolation,!as!Kim!JongPil!believed!that!
foreign!influence!was!a!threat!to!national!independence.!!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
1!(J.Pi.!Kim!1982)!
2!(G.!Lee!2003)!
3!(J.Pi.!Kim!1982)!
4.2
ECONOMIC)SELFCSUSTENANCE)(CHARIP))
In!direct!relation!to!chaju!would!be!economic!selfPsustenance!(charip).!Kim!IlPsung!
feared!that!dependence!on!economic!aid!would!render!North!Korea!susceptible!to!
external!control!and!influence,!thwarting!the!establishment!of!chajusong.!To!build!a!
socialist!republic,!an!independent!economy!is!vital,!particularly!through!industrial!and!
agricultural!selfPreliance.!These!sentiments!were!echoed!by!Kim!JongPil:!!
“…building!an!independent!national!economy!means!building!an!economy!
which!is!free!from!dependence!on!others!and!which!stands!on!its!own!feet,!
an!economy!which!serves!one’s!own!people!and!develops!on!the!strength!of!
the!resources!of!one’s!own!country!and!by!the!efforts!of!one’s!people.”4!
Thus,!the!DPRK!has!focused!its!economic!plans!primarily!on!industry!and!agriculture,!
such!as!in!the!Chollima!Undong,!as!well!as!on!economic!essentials!such!as!raw!materials!
and!fuel.!However,!Kim!IlPsung!maintained!that!charip!did!not!preclude!close!economic!
and!technical!cooperation!within!the!Communist!bloc.!
4.3
MILITARY)INDEPENDENCE)(CHAWI))
Finally,!military!independence!(chawi)!is!seen!as!vital!in!defending!the!borders!and!
sovereignty!of!North!Korea.!It!has!formed!the!basis!for!a!defence!policy!which!utilises!
force!against!any!perceived!acts!of!imperialist!aggression,!including!the!mobilisation!of!
the!entire!country!if!necessary.!This!focus!on!defence!has!pushed!North!Korea!to!
compensate!for!numerical!disadvantages!with!massive!militarisation,!including!the!
development!of!nuclear!arms.5!
Juche!encompasses!all!political,!economic,!defence,!and!social!policies!in!the!DPRK;!in!
this!way,!its!tenets!have!been!crucial!in!justifying!the!belligerence!and!isolationism!of!
the!North!Korean!state.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
4!Ibid.!
5!(G.!Lee!2003)!
5
Overview)of)Communism)
Communism!is!a!classless,!stateless!and!moneyless!social!order!based!on!the!ownership!
of!all!means!of!production!by!the!proletariat6.!It!is!based!upon!the!basic!maxim!of!“from!
each!according!to!his!ability,!to!each!according!to!his!need”7.!It!also!espouses!a!
cooperative!rather!than!competitive!system,!which!sees!people!working!together!and!
sharing!resources!for!the!collective!good!of!society!rather!than!competing!against!each!
other.!This!section!will!examine!classical!Marxism!as!well!as!later!schools!of!Communist!
ideology;!it!will!then!compare!Juche!to!these!schools!of!thought.!
5.1
5.1.1
JUCHE)AND)MARXISM)
Historical)Materialism))
Historical!materialism!is!a!dialectical!view!that!claims!that!History!is!defined!by!material!
concerns!such!as!class!and!economics.!History!can!therefore!be!viewed!through!the!
inevitable!evolution!of!economic!systems.!According!to!Marx,!they!are!protoP
Communism,!slavery,!feudalism,!capitalism,!socialism!and!finally!perfect!Communism.!
Marx!postulates!that!all!epochs!are!the!natural!evolution!of!human!socioPeconomic!
society,!rendering!the!overthrow!of!capitalism!inevitable.!!
Philosophically,!Juche!bears!similarities!to!MarxismPLeninism!in!its!view!of!Communism!
as!the!ultimate!state!of!society;!Kim!JongPil!declared!in!“On!the!Juche!Idea”!that!“The!ageP
long!ceaseless!struggle!of!the!masses!for!Chajusong!can!win!its!ultimate!aim!by!building!
socialism!and!Communism.!The!struggle!for!socialism!and!Communism!is!the!highest!
stage!of!the!struggle!for!Chajusong.”!However,!Juche!is!dialectically!distinct!from!
MarxismPLeninism.!Under!the!latter,!human!society!is!driven!by!historical!materialism;!
however,!the!former!claims!that!“Man!is!the!master!of!his!fate”,!arguing!that!it!is!human!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
6!(Engels!1969)!
7!(Marx,!Critique!of!the!Gotha!Program!1970)!
beings!themselves!who!drive!history,!as!Man!“plays!a!special!role!as!master!of!the!world!
because!he!is!a!social!being!with!Chajusong,!creativity!and!consciousness”.8!9!Such!a!view!
repudiates!the!Marxist!dialectic!of!historical!determinism.!
5.1.2
Class)Struggle)
Class!struggle!is!the!idea!that!history!is!the!neverPending!battle!between!dominant!and!
subservient!classes.!The!Communist!Manifesto!proclaims!that:!!
“The!history!of!all!hitherto!existing!society!is!the!history!of!class!struggles...!
oppressor!and!oppressed,!stood!in!constant!opposition!to!one!another....”10!
Marx!characterises!class!struggle!as!between!the!bourgeoisie!(the!merchant!classes)!and!
the!proletariat!(the!working!class).!The!fundamental!contradiction!is!that!within!a!
capitalist!society,!all!capital!exists!as!private!property!in!the!hands!of!the!bourgeoisie,!
while!the!proletariat!own!little!of!this.!This!creates!inequity,!as!the!bourgeoisie!can!
subsist!on!the!means!of!production!while!the!proletariat!must!live!by!selling!their!
labour.!
Such!class!struggle!is!compounded!by!the!fact!that!the!struggle!is!not!just!economic!but!
political.!Marx!states!that!as!the!dominant!class,!the!bourgeoisie!has!control!not!only!of!
the!means!of!production!but!the!state!and!governing!instruments!as!well,!allowing!them!
to!uphold!the!capitalist!system!in!a!selfPperpetuating!cycle.!The!proletariat!must!thus!
struggle!against!these!obstacles!to!assert!their!class!interests.!
While!Juche!does!advocate!class!struggle,!it!differs!slightly!from!the!Marxist!conception!
by!grouping!the!intelligentsia!into!a!class!of!their!own,!the!samuwon,!in!order!to!better!
the!literacy!of!the!state.!While!orthodox!Marxism!was!silent!on!this,!the!Juche!framework!
differs!from!MarxismPLeninism!which!believes!that!the!intelligentsia!is!not!a!class!but!a!
“social!stratum”!containing!members!of!all!classes.!In!truth,!however,!the!samuwon!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
8!(J.Pi.!Kim!1982)!
9!(K.!Lee!2004)!
10!(Marx!and!Engels,!Manifesto!of!the!Communist!Party!1848)!
consist!only!of!the!“proletarian!intelligentsia”!or!intellectuals!loyal!to!the!Kim!regime,!as!
dissenting!intellectuals!would!likely!be!persecuted!as!class!enemies!and!“bourgeoisie”.!!
5.1.3
Alienation)of)the)Proletariat)
Alienation!is!the!state!where!labour!becomes!a!mere!commodity!and!workers!mere!
means!of!production.!Heywood!describes!this!as!workers!being!alienated!from!“the!
product!of!their!labour,!from!the!process!of!labour,!from!fellow!workers,!and,!ultimately,!
from!themselves!as!creative!and!social!beings.”11!It!is!arguable!that!alienated!labour!
therefore!alienates!workers!from!humanity!itself.!In!contrast,!under!a!Communist!
system!of!production,!the!proletarians!will!be!less!alienated!from!their!work,!as!they!
now!control!all!means!of!production.!This!manPcentred!view!of!labour!is!echoed!in!the!
DPRK!Constitution,!which!states!in!Article!29!that!“the!labour!of!our!working!people,!
who!do!not!worry!about!unemployment,!more!joyful!and!worthwhile,!so!that!they!
willingly!work!with!enthusiasm!and!creativeness!for!society,!the!collective!and!
themselves”.!!!
5.1.4
Proletarian)Revolution)
According!to!Marx,!the!oppression!of!the!proletariat!is!untenable;!capitalists!will!exploit!
the!proletariat!to!such!a!degree!that!their!numbers!swell,!giving!the!class!greater!power,!
support!and!influence.!!Eventually,!they!will!gain!sufficient!classPconsciousness!with!
which!to!overthrow!the!political!dominance!of!the!bourgeoisie.!The!concerted!strength!
of!the!global!proletariat!would!provide!the!impetus!and!support!to!create!the!new!
system.!Indeed,!this!internationalist!goal!is!exhorted!in!the!last!line!of!the!Communist!
Manifesto:!“The!proletarians…have!a!world!to!win.!WORKING!MEN!OF!ALL!COUNTRIES!
UNITE!”12.!
While!Juche!does!provide!for!a!workers’!revolution,!it!deviates!from!orthodox!
Communism!in!its!nationalist!outlook.!Ideologies!such!as!“A!theory!of!the!Korean!nation!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
11!(Heywood!2007)!
12!(Marx!and!Engels,!Manifesto!of!the!Communist!Party!1848)!
as!number!one”!and!“Socialism!of!Our!Style”!have!highlighted!this!shift!to!a!more!
nationalist!ideology13,!which!emphasises!the!supremacy!of!the!North!Korean!people.!
Furthermore,!despite!official!proclamations!that!“All!countries,!all!nations,!and!peoples!
the!world!over!that!advocate!Chajusong!must!struggle!joinery,!in!close!unity!under!the!
revolutionary!banner!of!antiPimperialism!and!independence”14,!the!DPRK’s!foreign!
policy!seems!to!have!retreated!into!one!of!isolationism,!where!instead!of!striving!for!
proletarian!internationalism,!it!increasingly!retreats!from!the!international!community,!
even!its!ideological!allies.!!
Official!writings!on!Juche!consistently!emphasise!Korean!nationalism!as!indispensable!in!
the!quest!for!chajusong.!In!“On!the!Juche!Idea”,!Kim!JongPil!stated!that!“Koreans!must!
know!well!Korean!history,!geography,!economics,!culture!and!the!custom!of!the!Korean!
nation,!and!in!particular!our!Party’s!policy,!its!revolutionary!history!and!revolutionary!
traditions”!in!order!to!“establish!Juche!and!become!true!Korean!patriots,!the!Korean!
communists”15.!In!fact,!Kim!IlPsung!has!actually!been!publicly!quoted!repudiating!
Communist!internationalism!in!favour!of!a!more!nationalist!direction!for!North!Korean!
Communism:!
“The! people! are! the! masters! of! the! revolution! in! each! country.! It! is! like!
putting!a!cart!before!the!horse!that!foreigners!carry!out!the!revolution!for!
them.!The!revolution!can!neither!be!exported!nor!imported.”16!
“We!are!not!engaged!in!any!other!country's!revolution,!but!precisely!in!the!
Korean!revolution...Therefore,!all!ideological!work!must!be!subordinated!to!
the!interests!of!the!Korean!revolution.”17!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
13!(Shin!2006)!
14!(J.Pi.!Kim!1982)!
15!(J.Pi.!Kim!1982)!
16!(Takeo!1976)!
17!(I.Ps.!Kim!1955)!
This!makes!it!apparent!that!even!from!the!start,!North!Korea!was!ready!to!abandon!the!
orthodox!interpretation!of!a!Communist!international,!lending!credence!to!the!idea!that!
Juche!was!originally!envisioned!as!a!nationalist!ideology.!Although!“On!the!Juche!Idea”!
states!that!“Chajusong!is!not!in!conflict!with!internationalism!but!is!the!basis!of!its!
strengthening”18,!this!is!conceived!as!an!approach!to!foreign!policy!rather!than!the!
Korean!revolution,!which!must!remain!essentially!Korean!in!nature.!
5.1.5
Perfect)Communism)
After!the!revolution,!society!will!enter!the!Dictatorship!of!the!Proletariat–a!period!of!
transition!from!capitalism!to!socialism,!necessitating!the!state!ownership!of!all!means!of!
production.!As!socialism!is!entrenched,!this!state!will!wither!away!and!a!stateless,!
classless!utopia!will!come!into!being,!causing!“the!prehistory!of!human!society!to!come!
to!an!end”19.!Class!struggle!would!end!and!all!would!work!for!their!own!satisfaction!and!
the!common!good.!However,!Marx!was!vague!on!the!details!of!how!this!would!come!
about.!
5.2
STRANDS)OF)COMMUNISM)
Over!time,!the!adoption!of!Communism!by!different!states!led!to!the!development!of!
different!schools!of!thought.!We!will!analyse!three!major!schools,!namely!MarxismP
Leninism,!Stalinism,!and!Maoism,!and!compare!them!with!Juche.!
5.2.1
Juche)and)MarxismCLeninism)
MarxismPLeninism!is!the!fusion!of!Marxism!with!the!philosophy!of!Soviet!Communist!
leader!Vladimir!Lenin.!Lenin’s!main!contribution!was!to!introduce!the!ideas!of!the!
Vanguard!Party.!
Lenin!inferred!the!idea!of!vanguardism!from!the!following!passage!in!the!Communist!
Manifesto:!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
18!(J.Pi.!Kim!1982)!
19!(Marx!and!Engels,!Manifesto!of!the!Communist!Party!1848)!
“The!Communists,!therefore,!are...!the!most!advanced!and!resolute!section!
of! the! workingJclass! parties! of! every! country,! that! section! which! pushes!
forward!all!others…”20!
Lenin!believed!that!it!was!essential!for!a!Communist!Party!consisting!of!professional!
revolutionaries!to!lead!the!revolution!in!order!to!promote!classPconsciousness!among!
the!proletariat,!to!ensure!ideological!adherence!through!leadership!by!experienced!
Communists,!as!well!as!to!facilitate!the!organisation!of!labour!and!logistics!for!a!
revolutionary!movement.!!This!often!became!a!justification!for!singlePparty!rule,!as!
Communist!Parties!claimed!that!as!the!vanguard!party,!only!they!could!truly!represent!
the!working!class.!
That!Juche!deviates!significantly!from!MarxismPLeninism!is!not!surprising!considering!
that!the!KWP!broke!with!its!Western!nature!to!adapt!Juche21!to!Korean!conditions.!
While!Juche!is!similar!to!MarxismPLeninism!in!its!belief!that!the!working!class!need!
leadership!and!its!privileging!of!the!KWP,!it!differs!in!its!explicit!centralisation!of!
revolutionary!leadership!in!the!“great!leader”!above!all.!Juche!holds!that!the!revolution!
is!led!by!a!“great!leader”,!who!by!virtue!of!his!“infallible”!intelligence!and!wisdom!is!in!
charge!of!the!North!Korean!revolution.!The!working!class!are!hence!exhorted!to!let!the!
leader!think!for!them!and!suppress!their!own!thoughts!and!opinions,!hence!propping!up!
the!dictatorial!Kim!regime22.!While!this!has!similar!philosophical!underpinnings!to!party!
vanguardism,!it!deviates!from!the!system!of!democratic!centralism!and!collective!
leadership!as!advocated!by!MarxismPLeninism.!
Perhaps!one!of!the!most!fundamental!differences!is!the!racePbased!nationalism!
practiced!by!North!Korea.!While!MarxismPLeninism!advocates!the!unity!of!the!
international!proletariat!in!revolution,!Juche!has!evolved!to!advocate!racePbased!
nationalism!instead.!Ideologies!such!as!“A!theory!of!the!Korean!nation!as!number!one”!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
20!(Marx!and!Engels,!Manifesto!of!the!Communist!Party!1848)!
21!(Shin!2006)!
22!(K.!Lee!2004)!
and!“Socialism!of!Our!Style”!have!highlighted!this!shift!to!a!more!nationalist!ideology23.!
Its!foreign!policy!itself!seems!to!have!retreated!into!one!of!isolationism!as!a!“Hermit!
Kingdom”,!where!instead!of!actively!aiming!to!achieve!proletarian!internationalism,!the!
DPRK!appears!to!be!increasingly!retreating!from!the!international!community.!!
5.2.2
Juche/and)Stalinism)
Stalinism!originated!from!the!ideas!of!Soviet!dictator!Joseph!Stalin.!While!claiming!to!
follow!the!ideals!of!MarxismPLeninism!(indeed,!Stalin!retained!several!of!its!basic!
tenets),!Stalinism!deviates!from!orthodox!Marxism!in!several!significant!areas.!It!is!
distinctly!more!nationalist,!calling!for!the!development!of!“Socialism!in!One!Country”,!
which!advocated!the!development!of!Socialism!in!one’s!own!state!before!attempting!to!
export!the!revolution!elsewhere,!in!contrast!to!Marxism’s!beliefs!in!an!international!
revolution.!In!fact,!according!to!Engels:!
“[The]! communist! revolution! will! not! merely! be! a! national! phenomenon!
but! must! take! place! simultaneously! in! all! civilized! countries...! It! is! a!
universal!revolution!and!will,!accordingly,!have!a!universal!range.”24!
Stalinism!also!called!for!the!state!to!become!stronger!before!it!could!wither!away.!It!
proclaimed!the!“aggravation!of!class!struggle!under!socialism”!through!the!inevitable!
existence!of!class!enemies!within!society,!justifying!the!creation!of!a!powerful!state!to!
destroy!these!elements.!!
Juche’s!nationalist!ideas!do!bear!some!similarities!to!Stalin’s!policies!of!Soviet!
nationalism25,!especially!given!Kim!IlPsung’s!emphasis!on!the!Korean!nature!of!the!
revolution!(refer!to!section!4.1.4).!The!ideology’s!assertion!of!selfPreliance!contain!
underpinnings!of!nationalist!ideas!that!emphasise!the!superiority!of!the!North!Korean!
people!and!political!system.!In!addition,!it!has!also!constructed!an!everPpervasive!state:!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
23!(Shin!2006)!
24!(Engels!1969)!
25!(Dunlop!1983)!
North!Korea!to!this!day!maintains!a!strong!secret!police!network!with!which!to!root!out!
reactionaries,!which!has!parallels!to!the!“aggravation!of!class!struggle!under!
Communism”.!However,!Juche!nationalism!differs!somewhat!from!Stalinist!nationalism!
in!its!emphasis!on!racial!superiority,!which!will!be!elaborated!on!in!a!later!section.!
Furthermore,!the!fundamental!differences!between!Stalinism!and!orthodox!Marxism!
may!limit!the!usefulness!of!such!a!comparison!in!analysing!the!topic.!!Despite!its!
MarxistPLeninist!origins,!its!pursuance!of!a!nationalist!ideology!and!a!strong!state!run!
counter!to!the!nature!of!Communism!and!its!anarchoPsocialist!origins;!some!have!even!
argued!that!this!emphasis!on!the!state!put!Stalinism!closer!to!the!farPright!than!the!farP
left.!The!Juche!ideology!contains!similar!deviations!from!orthodox!Marxism!and!
arguably!escalates!the!domestic!focus!of!Stalinism!to!the!level!of!isolationism..!!
5.2.3
Juche)and)Maoism)
Maoism!originates!from!the!attempts!of!Mao!Zedong!to!adapt!MarxismPLeninism!to!
rural!agrarian!China.!Noting!China’s!strong!peasant!class!but!weak!proletariat,!Mao!
departed!from!orthodox!Marxism!through!a!policy!of!agrarian!socialism–using!the!
peasants!as!the!engine!of!the!revolution!rather!than!the!proletariat.!He!justified!this!
through!the!idea!of!the!“people’s!war!and!the!mass!line”:!in!order!to!have!a!successful!
revolution,!the!party!must!adhere!to!the!needs!of!the!masses,!thereby!making!it!
paramount!that!the!party!focused!on!peasant!interests.!He!also!argued!for!“New!
Democracy”–that!society!was!so!backward!that!without!an!improvement!in!living!
conditions,!the!regressive!nature!of!the!people!would!make!socialism!impossible!to!
implement,!making!a!peasant!revolution!more!practical!in!China.!
Maoism!also!called!for!a!constant!struggle!between!the!forces!of!revolution!and!
reactionism.!Similar!to!Stalin,!Mao!argues!that!revolution!will!not!stop!bourgeoisie!
elements!from!remaining!in!society.!In!“On!Contradiction”,!Mao!accepts!the!dialectical!
position!of!Marx’s!idea!of!contradictions–the!opposition!of!social!forces26.!He!argues!
that:!
“The!interdependence!of!the!contradictory!aspects!present!in!all!things!and!
the! struggle! between! these! aspects! determine! the! life! of! things! and! push!
their! development! forward.! There! is! nothing! that! does! not! contain!
contradiction;!without!contradiction!nothing!would!exist.”27!
Mao!hence!calls!for!Cultural!Revolution,!which!rests!on!the!premise!that!there!will!
always!be!bourgeoisie!elements!within!society.!Therefore,!to!ensure!the!preservation!of!
the!revolution,!the!proletariat!must!actively!resist!such!influences.!
While!this!is!not!openly!acknowledged!by!the!DPRK,!Juche!owes!a!significant!ideological!
debt!to!Maoism28.!The!economic!philosophy!of!chajusong!and!the!Chollima!Undong!
movement!seems!reminiscent!of!Mao’s!Great!Leap!Forward,!where!Mao!advocated!the!
use!of!selfPsustaining!communes!and!multiPyear!economic!planning!to!promote!
aggressive!industrial!expansion!and!growth.!!Furthermore,!the!idea!that!Asian!
Communism!was!distinct!from!its!Western!counterpart!is!shared!by!both!ideologies.!
!
!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
26!(Sewell!2002)!
27!(Mao!1967)!
28!(G.!Lee!2003)!
6
Is)Juche)a)distinct)animal?)
In!comparing!Juche!to!classical!Communist!ideology,!it!becomes!apparent!that!it!has!
many!features!that!cannot!be!categorised!under!the!conventional!schools!of!thought.!
While!every!Communist!state!will!naturally!have!its!own!unique!adaptations!of!
Communist!ideology,!it!is!undeniable!that!the!deviations!of!Juche!from!the!main!schools!
of!Communist!thought!are!highly!notable!and!deserve!further!analysis,!particularly!
where!they!directly!contradict!key!tenets!of!Communist!ideology.!
Most!notably,!the!DPRK!ideology!is!distinguished!by!its!reliance!on!a!form!of!racePbased!
nationalism.!In!contrast!with!the!universalism!of!MarxismPLeninism!and!its!emphasis!on!
global!proletarian!revolution,!Juche!focuses!primarily!on!the!sovereignty!and!
independence!of!the!Korean!state.!While!this!may!seem!similar!to!the!Stalinist!doctrine!
of!Socialism!in!One!Country,!it!distinguishes!itself!in!two!respects:!firstly,!its!focus!on!
political!independence!(chaju)!to!the!point!of!isolation,!and!secondly,!its!emphasis!on!
race!as!the!foundation!of!the!nation!and!therefore!the!state.!
The!concept!of!chaju!is!unique!in!Communist!thought!for!its!emphasis!on!equal!
sovereignty!and!nonPintervention!among!nations.!While!the!belief!in!selfPdetermination!
is!hardly!original,!the!DPRK!is!unique!in!the!extent!to!which!it!has!interpreted!this!belief!
as!sceptical!of!most!forms!of!cooperation!with!foreign!powers.!This!refusal!to!
compromise!extends!not!just!to!the!traditional!capitalist!enemies!but!to!“friendly”!
socialist!allies!as!well,!distancing!the!DPRK!from!its!ideological!bloc.!During!the!Cold!
War,!this!insulated!it!from!SinoPSoviet!rivalry;!today,!it!is!used!to!justify!the!DPRK’s!
increasing!isolation!from!international!trade!and!diplomacy,!as!well!as!its!refusal!to!
comply!with!the!pressure!of!even!China,!its!only!remaining!major!ally29.!!
Furthermore,!the!nature!of!the!nation!that!must!remain!independent!is!also!peculiar!to!
North!Korean!ideology.!Unlike!the!internationalism!of!MarxismPLeninism,!the!DPRK!
emphasises!race!as!the!basis!of!its!nation!and!its!state,!declaring!in!the!party!newspaper!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
29!(G.!Lee!2003)!
that!“MonoPethnicity!is!something!that!our!nation!and!no!other!on!earth!can!pride!itself!
on...There!is!no!suppressing!the!nation’s!shame!and!anger!at!the!talk!of!‘a!multiPethnic,!
multiPracial!society’...which!would!dilute!even!the!bloodline!of!our!people.”30!The!
legitimacy!and!supremacy!of!the!North!Korean!nation!thus!derives!from!its!position!as!
the!“true!historic!seat!of!Korean!ethnicity”31,!historically,!ideologically,!and!racially!
purer!than!the!corrupted!and!downtrodden!South.!So,!for!instance,!Pyongyang!is!
described!as!“steeped!in!the!fivePthousandPyearPold,!jadePlike!spirit!of!the!race”!and!
“imbued!with!the!proudly!lonely!lifePbreath!of!the!world’s!cleanest,!most!civilised!
people”32.!!
The!legitimacy!of!the!North!Korean!nation!thus!justifies!the!legitimacy!of!the!North!
Korean!state.!B.R.!Myers!argues!that!in!this!conception!of!history,!the!Korean!people!are!
portrayed!as!virtuous!but!vulnerable!and!downtrodden,!and!therefore!in!need!of!the!
protection!of!the!Supreme!Leader!and!the!KWP,!which!is!described!as!a!“mother!party”!
to!whose!protection!citizens!entrust!themselves!like!children33,!such!as!in!the!poem!
“Mother”,!in!which!the!poet!declares!to!the!Party,!“I!will!forever!cry!out!in!the!voice!of!a!
child,!/!Mother!!I!can’t!live!without!Mother!”34!Meanwhile,!hatred!of!the!Japanese!and!
American!enemies!is!conveyed!in!not!just!ideological!but!racial!terms35,!as!they!are!
described!as!physically!animalistic36!and!associated!with!soPcalled!“perversions”!such!as!
incest!and!homosexuality37.!Thus,!American!imperialist!hostility!is!not!merely!
ideological!but!racial!and!inherent;!a!wellPknown!saying!declares!that!“Just!as!a!jackal!
cannot!become!a!lamb,!the!US!imperialists!cannot!change!their!rapacious!nature”38.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
30!(Myers!2010,!72)!
31!(Cha!2012,!34)!
32!(Myers!2010,!78)!
33!(Cha!2012,!41)!
34!(Myers!2010,!80)!
35!(Myers!2010,!135P136)!
36!Ibid.!
37!(Myers!2010,!138P139)!
38!(Myers!2010,!142)!
Since!conflict!is!inevitable,!the!protection!of!the!Party!and!the!Leader!is!eternally!
necessary,!indefinitely!justifying!their!continued!rule.!
This!framing!of!international!conflict!in!racial!rather!than!ideological!or!class!terms!has!
been!described!as!closer!to!“the!extreme!right!than...the!far!left”39,!and!has!in!fact!been!
compared!to!the!fascist!nationalism!of!imperial!Japan40.!This!racePbased!nationalism!is!
the!area!in!which!DPRK!ideology!deviates!the!furthest!from!classical!Communist!
thought,!fusing!racialism!with!the!cult!of!personality!to!create!a!unique!ideology.!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
39!(Myers!2010,!15)!
40!Ibid.!
7
Conclusion)
The!DPRK!is!often!seen!as!the!last!outpost!of!Communism!in!the!postPCold!War!world.!In!
many!respects,!this!continues!to!be!true.!Certainly,!the!collectivist!economic!system,!lack!
of!private!property!or!enterprise,!and!state!ownership!of!means!of!production!suggest!
that!the!economic!system!of!the!DPRK!continues!to!conform!to!classical!Communist!
ideology.!In!addition,!the!ideology!of!Juche!draws!heavily!on!elements!of!major!
Communist!schools!of!thought,!notably!the!MarxistPLeninist!concept!of!party!
vanguardism,!the!Stalinist!emphasis!on!the!state,!as!well!as!the!economic!principles!of!
Maoism.!
However,!Juche!is!also!clearly!distinct!from!other!forms!of!Communism.!These!clashes!
include!philosophical!differences!pertaining!to!historical!dialectics,!as!well!as!political!
differences!pertaining!to!the!organisation!of!the!state,!notably!the!explicit!centralisation!
of!power!in!one!“Great!Leader”.!However,!the!most!notable!deviation!is!the!DPRK’s!use!
of!racePbased!nationalism!to!legitimise!its!nation!and!therefore!its!state.!Although!
nationalism!is!not!unprecedented!in!Communist!ideology,!notably!Stalinism,!the!DPRK!is!
unique!in!its!heavy!employment!of!racial!rhetoric!and!imagery!to!set!the!Korean!people!
above!all!other!peoples!and!the!North!Korean!state!as!its!only!legitimate!uncorrupted!
representative.!This!reframing!of!international!conflict!in!racial!and!therefore!
immutable!terms!rather!than!in!ideological!ones!represents!a!radical!departure!from!the!
at!least!nominal!internationalism!of!other!schools!of!Communist!thought.!
!
!
8
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