CHAPTER TWELVE: CHRISTIANITY
Chapter Outline and Unit Summaries
I. Introduction
A. The Largest Religion in the World with Two Billion Members
B. A Vastly Diverse Religion with Several Common Unifying Themes
1. Jesus Christ is the Center of the Religion
2. Jesus Resurrected from the Dead
3. Jesus Redeems Human Race
4. All People Have Only One Life, and Eternal Destiny in
Heaven or Hell Determined by Decisions in Life
II. The World of the First Century C.E.
A. Christianity Begins as Sect of Judaism in First Century C.E.
B. Roman Empire in First Century Provides Political, Religions,
Economic Conditions for Growth and Spread of Christianity
1. Rome Ruled Much of Europe, North Africa, Mediterranean
2. Empire Provided Common Language (Koine Greek),
Currency, Culture based on Roman and Greek Ideas
3. Romans Build Roads, Clear Seas of Pirates, Generally
Making Travel Safe for Christian Missionaries
4. The Pax Romana: Cruel but Effective Means of PeaceKeeping that Allows Stable Environment in which People
can Focus on Learning, Practicing, and Spreading Religion
5. Greco-Roman Civilization Had No Common, Major Religion
to Give Organized Opposition to Christianity
a. Many Old Greco-Roman Gods and Goddesses
Losing Interest of the People
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b. Spiritual Ferment and Culture of Religious
Exploration Paved Way for a Missionary Religion
to take Hold
c. Rise of Many New Mystery Cults Pave Way for
Christianity
(1) Cults were Egalitarian
(2) Cults Based on Secret Initiation Rituals and
Communal Meals
(3) Christianity able to Build Itself with Many
Converts from Cults
6. Christianity Capitalizes on Growing Sense in Judaism, and
Other Religions, that World Might End Soon and a
Redeeming Messiah Would Come to Usher in a New Age
III. The Life and Teachings of Jesus
A. Objective Facts about Life of Jesus and Origins of Christianity Rare
1. No Non-Christian Sources Mention Jesus Before End of First
Century C.E.
2. Group of People Identified as Christians Recognized in
Roman Empire circa 60-65 C.E.
3. The Christians Arouse Hostility and Persecution in the
Generally Tolerant Atmosphere of the Roman Empire
4. Christianity Grew Despite Persecution and Became Official
Religion of the Roman Empire in Fourth Century C.E.
B. Christianity’s New Testament: Biased but Still the Best Source for
Information about Jesus
1. Four Gospels of New Testament Not Biographies of Jesus
2. Basic Agreements between the Heterogeneous Four Gospels
a. Jesus a Resident of the Village Nazareth in the
Province of Galilee
b. Generally Ignore Details of Childhood and
Adolescence
c. Jesus Presented as in Most Ways a Faithful Jew
within Context of First Century Judaism
d. Jesus’ First Public Act was Baptism in the Jordan
River by a Figure Called John the Baptist
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e. After Baptism Jesus Went into Judean Wilderness
to Fast and Pray for Forty Days, Tempted by Satan
f. Jesus Returns to Galilee to Preach and Gather a
Circle of Disciples who Consider Him a Rabbi
g. Jesus Preached Publicly for One-to-Three Years
h. Jesus Preached in Galilee and in Judea / Jerusalem
i. Jesus Taught with Both Simple, Direct Sayings
(Sermon on the Mount: “Blessed are the poor …
Blessed are the meek …”) and with Parables (i.e.,
short, easy-to-remember stories with very human
characters, for example “The Good Samaritan”)
j. Jesus Worked Miracles, Usually Healings,
Exorcisms, and Feeding Hungry People
k. Some of His Followers before His, and All of them
After, Identified Jesus as the Jewish Messiah
l. Opposition to Jesus Grew as He Became Known in
Galilee and Judea
(1) Pharisees (a liberal-progressive group of
synagogue oriented rabbis that accepted
more than Pentateuch as Scripture) Opposed
Jesus; Many of Jesus’ Followers, and
Perhaps Even Jesus Himself, were
Originally Pharisees) Oppose Jesus
(2) Sadducees (aristocratic-conservative group
associated closely with Temple and its
priesthood) Oppose Jesus
(3) Zealots (revolutionary group of Jews who
seek to end Roman imperial rule of
Palestine; some of Jesus’ followers might
have been Zealots) Oppose Jesus
m. In Jerusalem On Eve of His Death Jesus Has a Last
Supper with His Followers, Possibly a Celebration
of the Feast of Passover
(1) Jesus’ Words at Last Supper Considered
Some of Most Important in the Bible
(2) Catholics and Protestants Disagree on How
to Interpret Last Supper Words “this is my
body … this cup … is … my blood” (see
Luke 22:17-20)
n. Jesus Betrayed by Judas, One Member of His Inner
Circle of Followers
o. Jesus Arrested in Some Joint Conspiracy of Jewish
Leadership and Roman Government
(1) Gospels Focus Much of Blame for Jesus’
Unjust Death on Jewish Leaders and Jewish
Crowds in Jerusalem that Convinced Pilate
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p.
q.
r.
s.
t.
u.
to Execute Him, Thereby (Inadvertently)
Encouraging Centuries of Christian AntiJudaism
(2) Roman Political Authority Also Shares
Major Blame for Jesus’ Unjust Execution
Jesus Interrogated by Jewish Leaders
Jesus Interrogated by Roman Imperial Governor of
Palestine, Pontius Pilate, Who Suspected Jesus was
a Zealot
Jesus Given Death Penalty by Crucifixion on a
Friday Afternoon
Jesus Placed in a Tomb
Jesus’ Followers Find Tomb Empty on Sunday
Morning, Claim He was Resurrected from the Dead
The Risen Jesus Appears to Followers for a Period
of Time and then Ascends to Heaven
3. Core Message of Jesus in Gospels Difficult to Identify
a. Jesus Seemed to Teach Pacifism / Non-Violence
(see Matthew 15:11: “Do not resist one who is evil.
But if any one strikes you on the right cheek, turn to
him the other also …”) but Allowed Disciples to be
Armed (Luke 22:36)
b. Jesus Seemed to Oppose Interpretations of the
Jewish Law that Put the Law above People, but
Generally was Very Reverent Toward Jewish Law
c. Jesus Seemed Concerned with the Coming End of
an Age and/or End of the World
d. Jesus, Like all Great Teachers, was Concerned with
Human Values, the Perils of Riches, and
Compassion
IV. Early Christianity
A. The Jerusalem Church
1. After Initial Shock and Period of Hiding, Jesus’ Followers
Emerge to Preach that He Was Raised from Dead
a. Followers Claim a “Holy Spirit” was Given to
Them by Risen Jesus
b. Jesus Now Explicitly Identified as Messiah / Christ
2. Earliest Community of Christians (Messiahists) in Jerusalem
Considered Selves a Reformist Sect within Judaism
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3. New Testament book Acts of the Apostles Chronicles Early
Years of the Christian Movement
a. Simon Peter Seems to Have Been Primary Leader
and Spokesman for Early Christians
b. James, Half-Brother of Jesus, Seems to Have Been
Second Most Important Leader; Led Jerusalem
Community when Peter Became Missionary
c. Hostility to Christianity Among Jewish Leadership
Intensifies
d. Stephen, the First Christian Martyr, Preached Jesus
was Messiah to Jewish Leadership and was Stoned
to Death
e. Persecuted Christians in Jerusalem Leave and
Spread their Belief that Jesus is the Resurrected
Messiah to Other Places in Judea and the Empire
B. The Life of Paul
1. Major Figure in the New Testament
a. Half Book of Acts Focused on Paul
b. Fourteen Books in New Testament Traditionally
Considered Authored by Paul
c. Missionary Who Founded Many Early Christian
Communities
d. Considered First Systematic Theologian of the New
Christian Religion
2. Biography of Paul (Saul of Tarsus)
a. Saul: A Diaspora Jew from Tarsus Asia Minor
b. Trained in Greek Philosophy and Rabbinical
Theology by Great Rabbi Gamaliel, Member of
Pharisee School
c. Never Knew Jesus, Originally Strong Opponent of
Christianity and Persecutor of Christians; Likely
Witness to the Stoning of Stephen
d. On Mission to Persecute Christians in Damascus
Saul Has Vision of Risen Christ, Changes Name to
Paul, and Retreats from Public Life
e. Paul Reemerges in Jerusalem, Joins Jesus’
Followers and Begins Missionary Career
f. Strongest Advocate for Controversial Practice of
Allowing Non-Jews (Gentiles) to Join Christianity;
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Did Not Think Gentiles Needed to Follow Jewish
Circumcision Laws to become Christians
g. Paul’s Openness to Gentile Converts Allows
Christianity to Grow, but Distances it as a Religion
from its Parent Religion, Judaism
h. Paul Arrested by Romans, with Encouragement of
Jewish Leadership, Brought to Rome in Chains and
Given Trial
i. End Details of Paul’s Life Uncertain; Possibly Died
in Roman Prison, Executed (perhaps with Peter)
During Persecution Campaign by Caesar Nero
C. The Worship of the Early Church
1. Essential Form of Worship Modeled on Jewish Synagogue
2. Christians Use Ritual of Baptism for Initiating Converts into
the Religion
a. Baptize Means “to immerse”
b. Meaning and Purpose of Baptism Not Clear
c. Modified Baptism Ritual from Both Pharisee and
Pagan Cultic Forms
d. John the Baptist Sets Possible Christian Precedent
for Theological Meaning of Baptism: Cleansing of
Sins and Beginning of a Life of Repentance
e. Baptism Originally an Adult Ritual, but Becomes a
Ritual for Infants
3. Eucharist: Communion Meal of Thanksgiving
a. Form Modeled on the Seder Meal of Passover
b. Both Jesus’ Last Supper and His Resurrection are
the Events Commemorated
c. Christians Celebrate Eucharist on Sunday, Making
Sunday, not Saturday, Day of Sabbath
d. Many Christians Consider the Bread and Wine
Consumed to be the Body and Blood of Jesus, but
Much Debate on the Exact Meaning of the Ritual
D. Leadership in the Early Church
1. Early Christian Communities Not Highly Organized
a. Likely Lack of Organization due to Fact Many
Assumed World Would Soon End
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b. As Time Passed, the Need for Organized Structure
Necessary for the Survival of the Religion
2. Early Leaders Did Not Have Clearly Defined Offices
a. Bishop (Greek: episcopos, shepherd) Were
Managers of Local Churches
b. Elders (presbyteroi) Seem to Have Been Senior
Members of the Community Who Made Decisions
and Exercised Most Leadership
c. Other Roles in the Early Church
(1) Evangelists
(2) Prophets
(3) Apostles (Missionaries)
(4) Teachers
d. Exact Duties of Each Role Not Specified by New
Testament
e. Term “Priest” (Greek: hierus) Never Used in New
Testament to Designate a Particular Role or
Ministry within the Christian Church
3. Peter and the Papacy
a. Peter Designated by Jesus as “rock” (Greek: petra),
Assumed by Early Christians to be the Leader and
Cornerstone of Church
b. Tradition Claims Peter Traveled to Rome and Led
Christian Community There
c. Later Leaders of Roman Christians Become Known
as Successors of Peter and Inheritors of His ChristGiven Role as Leader and Cornerstone of Church
4. Early Church Amorphous in Beliefs
a. Paul’s Letters Indicate Great Variety of Beliefs
Among Christians in Different Places
b. Uniform Creed Likely Not Developed Until Late
First or Early Second Century C.E.
E. The Production of the New Testament (Twenty-Seven Books Total)
1. First Christians Had Scriptures Other than Hebrew Scriptures
2. Paul’s Letters (Epistles) to Churches First Christian
Literature Produced (circa 50-60 C.E.)
133
a. Today Scholars Think Not All Fourteen Letters
Traditionally Attributed to Paul Actually by Him
b. Paul’s Letters a Mixture of Practice Advice on the
Life of Faith and Theological Opinion about the
Meaning of Jesus’ Life, Death, Resurrection
3. Memories of Jesus’ Words and Deeds Passed on Orally for
Two Generations Before First Gospel Written
a. Expectation of Imminent End of World Reduced
Motivation to Commit Anything to Writing
b. As Those Who Knew Jesus Began to Die, Decided
to Record the Oral Tradition in Writing
c. Shock of Roman Destruction of Jerusalem and
Temple Might Have Motivated Christians to Write
the Life of Jesus
4. The Four Gospels
a. Mark’s Gospel Written First, Circa 70 C.E.
b. Matthew and Luke’s Gospels Written Circa 80 C.E.,
(1) Matthew and Luke Probably Using Mark’s
Gospel as Base
(2) Luke’s Gospel Likely Included Acts as Its
Second Volume
c. John’s Gospel Written Last, Circa 90-100 C.E.
5. Other New Testament Letters of Peter, James, John
6. Non-Canonical Books Subject of Controversy Then and Now
a. Not All Books by Christians about Jesus and
Christian Faith Included in New Testament
b. Possibly Not Popular or Authoritative Enough
c. Questions about the Canon Linger for Centuries
F. Early Theological Controversies
1. Gnosticism: The First Major Intra-Christian Controversy
a. Material Universe Controlled by Evil Forces
b. Only Spirit is Pure and Divine
c. Humans Contain Divine Spirit / Spark from
Unknown Spirit God; Spark Enables Humans to
Recognize Evils of Material World
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d. Redeemer from Unknown Spirit God Must Come to
Give Human Souls Secret of Escape from Material
World
e. Jesus the Redeemer Cannot Really be Human in the
Flesh, Must be Pure Spirit Appearing to be Human
f. Jesus’ Life, Public Teachings, Death, Resurrection
Matter Little
g. Jesus’ Secret Teachings on Soul’s Method of
Escape from Material World Matter Most
h. Gnostics Syncretism: Blending of Esoteric Ideas
from Jewish, Greek, Persian, Egyptian Religions
i. Mainstream Christianity Resists Gnosticism and
Defends Goodness of Material World and Full
Humanity of Jesus
j. Many Original Gnostic Manuscripts Discovered in
1945 Nag Hammadi, Egypt
2. Marcionism: The Second Major Intra-Christian Controversy
a. Marcion (d. 160 C.E.) Teaches there are Two Gods:
Creator God of the Jews Presented in the Old
Testament, and a Spirit God, the Father of Jesus
b. Spirit God Sent Jesus to Save Humanity from the
Jewish God of the Old Testament
c. Marcion Contrasts Jewish God’s Rigid Legalism
with the Christian God’s Love, Mercy, Forgiveness
d. Marcion Rejects Old Testament as Scripture, and
Most of New Testament as a Jewish Distortion of
True Identity and Message of Jesus
e. Marcion Excommunicated from Church 144 C.E.
f. Church forms Bible Containing both Hebrew and
Christian Scriptures to Refute Marcionism
g. Marcion’s Rival Church Survives Decades, and
Ideas Survive Even Today
3. Montanism: The Third Major Intra-Christian Controversy
a. Montanus (circa Mid-Second Century) Teaches
Against Organized Christianity
b. Spirit Moves Freely Among Christians, Who Speak
in Tongues and Prophesy
c. Church Should Not Stifle Spirit with Dogmas,
Rules, and Leaders
d. End of World Coming Soon
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G. Mainstream Christianity Resists Heretical (partisan) Groups
1. Forms Statements of Faith and the Apostle’s Creed to Ensure
Quality-Control of its Message
2. Forms the Biblical Canon to List Officially Approved Books
of Scripture
V. Growth of the Church of Rome
A. Christianity a Multi-Cultural, Multi-Ethnic, Multi-Racial Phenomenon
1. Great Theologians and Leaders Arise from Alexandria
(Egypt), Antioch (Syria), Caesarea and Cappodocia (modern
Turkey), North Africa
2. Deference to Leader of Roman Church Did not Imply
Absolute and Perpetual Supremacy of Roman Church’s
Leaders or Practices
B. After Period of Sporadic Persecutions (64-330 C.E.) Christianity
Becomes Legal Religion in Roman Empire, and then Becomes the
Official Religion (379 C.E.)
C. Emergence of Christianity as the Religion of the Roman Empire
1. The Place of Peter in the New Testament, and Association of
Peter with Rome, Bestows Special Status on Roman Church
2. Emperor Constantine Moves Capital from Rome to
Byzantium, Leaving Power Vacuum in Rome for Strong
Bishops to Fill
3. Eastern Churches Constantly Split by Doctrinal
Controversies with No Leader Able to Stand Above the Fray
and Act as Unifier
D. Augustine (354-430)
1. Second Only to Paul in Influence Over Development of
Christianity
2. Born in North Africa, Refuses to Believe in Christianity
3. Joins Manichean Sect (Mixture of Christianity and
Zoroastrianism) but Dissatisfied with Manichaeism
136
4. Under Influence of Bishop Ambrose of Milan Augustine
Converts to Christianity
5. Becomes Bishop of Hippo in North Africa
6. Writes Christian Classics, Confessions and City of God
7. Formulates Doctrine of Original Sin and Predestination;
Former Accepted by Christian Mainstream, but not Latter
E. The Monastic Movement
1. Christianity the Only Major Religion of Western World to
Encourage Monasticism
2. Movement Begins in Deserts of Egypt and Syria in Middle of
Third Century C.E.
a. Early Monasticism Tinged with Traces of Gnostic
Disdain for Bodily, Material Reality
b. Monastic Ascetics (Greek ascesis: discipline)
Practice Bizarre Feats of Self-Destruction
c. Under Pachomius, Cassian, Basil, Benedict
Monasticism Gradually Becomes Less Ascetic,
More Communal, and Focused on Contemplative
Prayer, Work and Study in Service to Church
d. Monasteries Become Houses of Study, Producing
Some of Church’s Best Theologians and Mystics
e. Monasteries Preserve Western Culture in Europe
When Roman Empire Disintegrates into Chaos
VI. Medieval Christianity
A. Division Between Eastern and Western Christianity
1. Political, Geographic, Theological, Ecclesiological,
Linguistic Differences Begin to Separate Roman Christians
from Eastern Christians
2. A Clash of Religious Sensibilities: Roman Christianity Tends
Toward Practical, Eastern Toward Doctrinal-Speculative
3. Issues of Papal Authority Divide Roman and Eastern
Christians
137
a. Bishop of Rome Saw Self as Only Figure Capable
of Unifying Fractious Eastern Patriarchs
b. Eastern Church Leaders (Patriarchs) Oppose
Perceived Arrogance of the Bishop of Rome
4. 1054 C.E. Controversy Over Trinitarian Doctrine Leads Pope
Leo IX and Patriarch Cerularius of Constantinople to
Excommunicate Each Other
5. 1204 C.E. Roman Catholic Crusaders on Way to Holy Land
Stop at Constantinople and Sack the City, Ensuring Lasting
Bitterness Between the Two Major Branches of Christianity
B. The Medieval Papacy
1. Roman Catholic Church Led by Popes Had Virtual
Monopoly on European Religion for Centuries
2. As Roman Empire Crumbled, Papacy Increased in Religious
Authority, Political Power, and Worldly Wealth
3. Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085 C.E.) Wins Contest of
Authority Over Emperor Henry VI (d. 1106 C.E.),
Establishing Papacy’s Power over Temporal Rulers
4. The Avignon Papacy Crisis (1309-1377 C.E.) Diminishes
Papal Prestige and Authority
5. The Great Schism: Three Rival Popes Compete for the
Loyalties of European Christians (1378-1418 C.E.), Further
Diminishing Papal Authority
C. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274)
1. Intellectual Revival / Revolution Gripping Europe from
Tenth to Fourteenth Centuries C.E.
a. Rediscovery of Ancient Greek Philosophical Texts,
Particularly Aristotle, Causes Theological Ferment
b. Muslim Scholars of Aristotle, Like Maimonides,
Challenge Christianity’s Intellectual Hegemony in
Europe
2. Issues of Relationship of Faith and Reason, Grace and
Nature, Science and Religion Grip European Intellectuals
Reading Aristotle’s Philosophy
138
3. Aquinas, Dominican Friar, Writes Influential Theological
Synthesis of Christianity and Aristotle’s Philosophy
a. Aquinas’ Theories on the Unity of Christian Faith
and Reason, Grace and Nature, Have Long Lasting
Impact on Christian Theology
b. Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Century Popes
Virtually Coronate Aquinas as the Official
Theologian of Roman Catholicism
c. Late Twentieth Century Catholicism Seeks to
Reduce the Earlier Over-emphasis on Thomism
VII.
The Protestant Reformation
A. Causes and Consequences of the Reformation
1. Causes
a. Rise of European Nationalism
b. Emergence of New Intellectual Systems and
Learning in the Renaissance
c. Decline of the Papacy’s Prestige and Authority
2. Consequences
a. Destroyed Christianity’s Unified Hold on European
Culture and Politics
b. Sparked Long Period of Intra-Christian Civil War
c. Indirectly Inspired the Creation of Modern Notions
of Separation of Church-State and the Freedom of
the Individual who Conscientiously Dissents from
the Majority
B. Early Reform Movements
1. England: John Wycliffe (1320-1384 C.E.)
a. Believed Common People Should have Access to
the Bible, Translated Latin Bible (Vulgate) to
English
b. Organized Band of Wandering Preachers, the
Lollards, to Preach and Teach
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2. Bohemia: John Hus (1374-1415 C.E.)
a. Influenced by Wycliffe
b. Denounced Evils of the Papacy
c. Denounced Indulgence System Whereby People
Paid Money to Church to Buy Forgiveness for the
Sins of Those in Purgatory
d. Condemned by Council of Florence in 1415 and
Burned at the Stake
3. Italy: Girolamo Savonarola (1452-1498 C.E.)
a. Preached Against Moral Laxity in Florence
b. Offended Loose-Living Pope Alexander VI, Who
Excommunicated Him
c. Savonarola Hanged with Two Disciples
C. Martin Luther (1483-1546 C.E.)
1. Young Luther Planned Career in Law, But Near-Death
Experience Led Him to Join Augustinian Monastery
2. A Zealous, Scrupulous Anxious Monk
a. Extreme in Practice of Fasting, Vigils, Confession,
Self-Mortification
b. Believed He Could Earn Salvation with Pious Acts
3. Discovers St. Paul’s Theology of Faith and Grace
a. Paul’s “the just shall live by faith alone” Changes
Luther’s Life
b. Luther Studies Paul’s Letters Galatians and Romans
4. Advocates Moral Reform, End of Indulgence System
a. Post Ninety-five Theses on Door of Church in
Wittenburg, October 31, 1517
b. Sparks Widespread Public Controversy
5. Advocates Universal Priesthood of all Believes and Universal
Access to the Bible
6. Luther’s Opinions Spread Widely Due to Printing Press
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7. 1521 Luther Goes into Hiding from Political and
Ecclesiastical Enemies
a. While in Hiding Luther Translates New Testament
into German
b. Writes Nearly Dozen Books
8. 1522 Returns to Wittenberg to Oversee Process of
Reformation His Writings Inspired
a. Opposed Those Reformers who Argued Only that
Which is Explicitly Taught in Scripture is Valid in
Christianity
b. Luther Taught that Only that Which Was Explicitly
Contrary to Teachings of Scripture Should be
Removed from Christianity
c. Luther Marries, Encourages Other Monks and Nuns
to Break Their Vows and Marry Too
9. Luther Grows More Conservative in Last Years
a. Writes Bitter Anti-Judaic Polemics
b. Encouraged German Nobility to Violently Slaughter
Peasants who Rebelled
10. Germany and Northern Europe Become a Patch-work of
Catholic and Protestant Zones
a. Regions Followed Lead of their Princes
b. Scandinavian Nations Become Lutheran
D. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531 C.E.)
1. Swiss Reformer, Contemporary of Luther
2. Nearly Identical in Theology to the German Reformers
3. Disagreed on Question of Whether or Not Christ was
Spiritually Really Present in Eucharistic Bread and
Wine—Zwingli Believed Eucharist Only Symbolic Memorial
E. John Calvin (1509-1564 C.E.)
1. Greatest and Most Influential Mind of the Reformation
2. Writes Institutes of the Christian Religion
141
a. Sets Forth Ideal Christian Religion Untainted by
Roman Corruption
b. Deeply Influenced by Augustine’s Theology
c. Teaches Predestination
3. Leads Reformed Church in Geneva
a. Very Austere Vision of Christianity
b. Encouraged Capitalist Enterprises and Lending
Money at Interest
c. Encouraged Education
d. Influence Reaches Into France, Scotland, and
England
F. Other Reformation Leaders and Movements
1. Protestantism Becomes Vehicle of National and Regional
Independence Movements from Rome and Rome-Aligned
Kings and Princes
a. Church of England Established Under Henry VIII
b. Numerous Political Struggles in France Between
Protestants and Catholics, and Pro- and Anti-Roman
Catholics
2. After Luther’s Death Hundreds of Protestant Denominations
Emerge throughout Europe
a. Doctrine of Universal Priesthood of All Believers
Encourages Religious Individualism and
Undermines Organized, Communal Religion
b. Scriptural Interpretation No Longer Governed by a
Set of Long-Standing Community-Based Rules
c. Anabaptists (literally: those who baptize a second
time) Baptize Adults, Develop into Numerous
Sectarian Movements, Persecuted by both
Mainstream Reformers and Catholic
d. French Huguenots Suffer Persecution
VIII. Modern Christianity
A. The Catholic Counter-Reformation
1. Many Roman Catholics Recognized Corruption of Church,
Desired Serious Reform
142
2. The Council of Trent (1545-1663 C.E.)
a. Generally Reforms Clearly Delineated Catholicism
in Ways that Made Reconciliation with Protestants
Difficult
b. Taught Scripture and Tradition Co-Equal
c. Includes Books in the Old Testament not
Considered Scripture by All Protestants
d. Taught there are Seven Sacraments
e. Supported Relics, Veneration of the Saints, Sacred
Images
f. Sale of Indulgences Controlled and Other Abuses
Corrected
3. The Formation and Rise of the Jesuit Order
a. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556 C.E.) Writes Spiritual
Exercises, Creates New Activist Catholic
Movement
b. Francis Xavier (1506-1552 C.E.) Brings Jesuit
Catholicism to India and Japan
c. Jesuit Order Grows, Evokes Fear and Suspicion
Among Protestants and Some Catholics
B. Catholic Dogmas Since the Counter-Reformation
1. The Immaculate Conception of Mary (1854 C.E.)
Promulgated by Pope Pius IX Teaches that Mary Born
without Original Sin
2. Papal Infallibility (1870 C.E.)
a. Pope Infallible on Faith and Morals
b. Pope Must Claim Special Infallible Status Ex
Cathedra “from the chair”) for Teachings
c. Everything Pope Teaches Not Automatically
Counted as Infallible, but only Very Rare, Limited
Teachings Given Ex Cathedra
d. Still the Dogma Deeply Offends Non-Catholic,
Christians
3. The Bodily Assumption of Mary into Heaven (1950 C.E.)
a. Pope Pius XII Teaches Mary’s Body Did not Decay
in Tomb after Death
b. Mary’s Body Taken Directly to Heaven
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C. Vatican II (1962-65)
1. Called by Pope John XXIII to Revitalize Catholic Church’
2. Enacts Sweeping Changes in Catholicism
a. Non-Catholics Officially Recognized as True
Christians
b. Affirms Use of Vernacular in Worship
c. Index of Prohibited Books Abolished
d. More Congregational Participation in Worship
Encouraged
e. Officially Declares that Not All Jews Responsible
for Death of Jesus
f. Opens Door to Reconciliation with Protestants and
Eastern Orthodox Christians
IX. Modern Movements
A. Modern Protestant Movements
1. The Four Main Branches of Protestantism
a. Lutherans, Based Primarily in German and
Scandinavian Countries, and in Countries with
Large Immigrant Populations from Them
b. Reformed and Presbyterian, Based in Central
Europe, Scotland, Parts of England, and United
States, Canada, New Zealand, Australia
c. Anabaptists, Including Baptists, Mennonites,
Amish, Based in Germany, Eastern Europe, Canada,
United States
d. Church of England / Anglican and Methodists
2. Methodists
a. Eighteenth Century Offshoot of Church of England
b. Founder: John Wesley (1703-1792)
c. John and Charles Wesley Attempt to Revive
Emotional Zeal and Spiritual Commitment of
Church of England
d. Movement Nicknamed “Methodist” Because of
Wesley’s Emphasis on Disciplined Methods of
Piety and Religious Devotion
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e. Encounter Moravians, Begin to Emphasize
Conversion as Central to Faith
f. Emotional, Pious Intensity Appeals to Working
Class, Lower Class English
g. Movement Spreads to American Colonies, Becomes
Second Largest Religion in America
3. Christian Groups Reach Out to Poor, Uneducated,
Marginalized in Urban Industrial Western Societies
a. The Salvation Army
b. The Young Men’s Christian Association
c. The Sunday School Movement
B. The Missionary Movement
1. Missionary Work Part of Christianity from Earliest Days
2. Catholic and Protestant Missionaries Work in Almost All
Corners of the Globe
C. The Ecumenical Movement
1. Twentieth Century Origins
a. World Council of Churches Formed in 1948
b. Actual Reunion Between Churches Has Proven
More Difficult than Anticipated
2. Divisions Between Christians East and West, Protestant and
Catholic, Protestant and Protestant Remain Insurmountable
3. Division Hinders World Missionary Work
X. The Christian Calendar and Holy Days
A. Sunday
1. Early Jewish-Christians Considered Saturday the Sabbath
2. Sunday Becomes Sabbath Day because Believed to be Day
Jesus Rose from Dead
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B. Advent, Christmas, Epiphany
1. Advent (Late November, December) a Period of Spiritual
Preparation for Christmas
2. Christmas (December 25th in West, January in East)
Celebrates Birth of Jesus
3. Epiphany (January 6th—Twelve Days After Christmas)
Commemorates Wise Men Who Visited Infant Jesus
C. Easter
1. Oldest, Most Widely Accepted, Most Important Christian
Holy Day Commemorates Resurrection of Jesus
2. Date Varies, Based on Lunar Calendar; Generally Connected
to Vernal Equinox (March-April)
3. Lent: Forty Day Season of Repentance and Purification
Before Easter
4. Holy Week: The Week Before Easter Commemorating Jesus’
Entry into Jerusalem, Last Supper, Arrest, and Crucifixion
5. Good Friday: Commemorates Day of Jesus’ Crucifixion
6. Holy Saturday: Commemorates Jesus’ Time in Tomb
7. Easter Sunday: Commemorates Jesus’ Resurrection
8. Ascension: Forty Days After Easter, Commemorates Jesus
Ascending to the Father
D. Pentecost
1. Ancient Christian Holiday Corresponding to Jewish Shavuot
(Commemorating God Giving Law to Moses on Sinai)
2. According to Acts of Apostles Risen Christ Sent Holy Spirit
to Followers on Pentecost, Exactly Fifty Days After
Resurrection, on Jewish Feast Day of Shavuot
3. Pentecost Considered the Birthday of the Church, Marked
Beginning of Christianity’s Missionary Work in World
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XI. Christianity Today
A. World’s Largest Religion
1. Nearly 34,000 Christian Denominations
2. Deeply Divided Along Theological, Political, Nationalistic,
Geographic, Cultural Lines
3. Christianity in Decline in Secular Europe
a. Church Attendance as Low as Two Percent in Some
Countries
b. Roman Catholicism Faces Shortage of Priests
B. Liberation Theology
1. Arises in Latin America in 1960s and 1970s
2. Interprets the Message of Christianity in terms of the Needs
of the Poor and Marginalized of Society
3. Opponents Accuse Liberation Theology of Being Very Close
to Marxist Doctrine
C. Fundamentalism
1. Begins as Nineteenth Century North American Attempt to
Defend Literal Inerrancy of Scripture in Face of Scientific
Critique
2. Develops into Political-Cultural Movement Seeking to
Expunge “Liberalism” and “Relativism” and Homosexuality
from Western Society
D. New Christianities
1. Mormonism / Church of Latter Day Saints
a. Founder: Joseph Smith in Nineteenth Century America
b. Smith Claimed to Receive Instruction in Visions from
God the Father, Jesus, John Baptist, Several Apostles,
and an Angel Named Moroni
c. Smith Believed the Angel Moroni Led Him to Discover
the Book of Mormon
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d.
e.
f.
g.
(1) Long Lost Sacred Book Written on Golden
Tablets in Strange Ancient Language
(2) Moroni Guides Smith in Interpreting Words
on Golden Tablets
(3) Tablets Tell Story of Nephite
Prophets—Ancient Israelites who Migrated
to the Americas
(4) Tablets Recount Story of Risen Christ
Appearing to Native American Descendants
of the Nephites
(5) Smith Records Further Revelations
Concerning Doctrine and Ritual in
Doctrines and Covenants
(6) Third Mormon Scripture Known as Pearl of
Great Price
Mormons Consider Selves Only True Christians,
Consider First Nineteen Hundred Years of
Christianity an Long Age of Apostasy
Early Mormons—Including Smith—Preached and
Practiced Polygamy
(1) Teachings on Polygamy Led to Persecution
by Other Christian Groups
(2) Early Mormons Migrate from Ohio,
Missouri, Illinois, Settle in Utah in 1847
Later Mormonism Claimed God Gave New
Revelation Forbidding Polygamy
Mormons Aggressive Missionaries, Leading to
Phenomenal Growth of their Denomination
2. Protestant Mega-Churches
a. Use Mass Media Effectively
b. Run Dozens of Ministry Programs and Seek to be
Total Presence in Lives of Members
E. Christianity Fastest Growing Religion in Developing Countries
1. Christians Outnumber Muslims in Africa
2. Christianity in Korea Grows at Ten Percent a Year from
Grassroots Efforts
3. After Colonialism African Christianity has Developed into
Indigenous Movement Containing Many Elements of
Traditional African Religion
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Key Names, Concepts, and Terms
Jesus
resurrection
parable
Sermon on Mount
Peter and James
Paul
Gospels
New Testament
Last Supper
Acts of Apostles
Pentecost
Holy Spirit
Bishop
Gnosticism
Marcionism
Montanism
Bible
Creed
Baptism / Eucharist
Constantine
Trinity
Bishop of Rome / Pope
Augustine
Monasticism
Eastern Orthodoxy
Patriarch
Avignon Papacy
Great Schism
Aquinas
Wycliffe, Hus, Savonarola
Luther, Calvin, Zwingli
Reformation
priesthood of all believers
Henry VIII
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Anabaptists
Methodists
John Wesley
Council of Trent
Jesuits
Papal Infallibility
Vatican II
missionary
ecumenical
Mormonism
Book of Mormon
mega-church
Liberation Theology
Fundamentalism
Lent / Easter
Advent / Christmas
Ascension