V. THE COPPER AGE
History of the Copper Age | 125
HISTORY OF THE COPPER AGE
(4500/4400–2600/2500 B.C.)
László András Horváth & Zsuzsanna M. Virág
One of the most controversial issues of European prehistory was whether there was an independent Copper Age,
separate from both the Neolithic and the Bronze Age. Hungarian prehistorians have from the very beginning consistently used the term ‘Copper Age’, and even though the internal subdivision of this period has been modified quite often, the independence of the period has never been challenged. Ferenc Pulszky can be credited with the introduction of an independent Copper Age into Hungarian prehistoric research. In his lecture presented at the VIIIth Prehistoric and Anthropological Congress, held in Budapest in
1876, he argued for the interpolation of a Copper Age into
the three-fold division of prehistory – Stone, Bronze and
Iron Age – on the basis of the then known forty-two copper
artefacts. The first truly modern studies, based both on the
examination of copper artefacts, as well as on the excavation
and publication of cemeteries, were written by Jenõ
Hillebrand and Ferenc Tompa in the early decades of the
20th century. János Banner, Ida Bognár-Kutzián and Pál
Patay devoted many studies to various aspects of the Copper Age, including the refinement of the internal chronology of this period, as did Nándor Kalicz and István Torma
in the 1960s and 1970s. János Makkay, Pál Patay and István
Ecsedy contributed much to a better understanding of the
eastern relations of this period, the beliefs of Copper Age
communities and the metallurgy of the age, while Pál
Raczky clarified many important issues of South-East European interrelations and the absolute chronology. As a result, a fairly accurate historical framework for the Hungarian Copper Age could be drawn up by the early 1980s.
In the last phase of the Neolithic, around the mid-5th
millennium B.C., the climate of the Carpathian Basin
Fig. 2. Vessels of the late Lengyel culture. Zalaszentbalázs,
Early Copper Age
Fig. 1. Grave goods from the Tiszapolgár–Basatanya cemetery. Early
Copper Age, Tiszapolgár culture
changed significantly. The Atlantic climate, favourable for
crop cultivation, was replaced by a cooler Subboreal climate
that also affected the environment. Spruce and poplar
woods succeeded the earlier linden, elm, hazel and oak forests, and extensive beech forests also appeared. This, in
turn, had an impact on both Neolithic economy and society. In consequence of the environmental changes, a visible
shift towards animal husbandry can be noted in subsistence
strategies, in spite of the fact that the invention of the
plough and the use of cattle as draught animals can be regarded as significant innovations. The use of yokes, enabling the use of animal-drawn wheeled vehicles, made local transportation and economy more efficient. These new
subsistence strategies led to the emergence of social differences that are reflected in the burials. Earlier prestige articles indicating social status, made from various raw
126 The Copper Age
materials, were replaced by
ones made of copper and
gold. The conscious use of
these two metals during the
Copper Age gave rise to
metallurgy on a truly industrial scale. The changes in
the economy and in lifeways
marked a new period, separate from the Neolithic.
Although the environmental changes affected the
entire region, the transition
from the Neolithic to the
Copper Age differed in the
eastern and western half of
the Carpathian Basin. In
the Tisza region, the environmental changes deepened the economic and social crisis of the Tisza–
Fig. 3. The characteristic “milk
Herpály culture and this
jug” of the Bodrogkeresztúr
brought an end to the cenculture. Pusztaistvánháza,
turies long unbroken develMiddle Copper Age
opment. The survival of
certain elements of the material culture and of various beliefs indicates the continued
existence of the earlier population. Adapting to the
changed conditions, the loose settlement network of large
tells and single-layer settlements of the Neolithic was replaced by a rather dense network of smaller settlements in
the Tiszapolgár culture of the Early Copper Age (Fig. 1).
The distribution of this culture more or less coincided
with that of the preceding Neolithic cultures in the Tisza
region, although smaller shifts can be demonstrated at the
beginning of the Copper Age. This period also saw the appearance of the first gold ornaments and the first massive
copper implements and weapons.
Hardly any differences can be noted in the settlement
patterns of the Late Neolithic and the Early Copper Age in
Transdanubia. The classical phase of the Lengyel culture,
falling into the Late Neolithic, was followed by the late
phase of the culture representing the Copper Age without
any break (Fig. 2). Some villages continued their existence
or were rebuilt in the immediate vicinity of the earlier settlement. Changes can be noted in the pottery, although this
has more of a chronological, rather than a cultural significance.
Development took divergent paths during the transition
from the Early to the Middle Age Copper Age (c. 4000
B.C.). On the testimony of the large cemeteries in the Great
Hungarian Plain and on its fringes, the Tiszapolgár culture
was succeeded by the Bodrogkeresztúr culture without a
break (Fig. 3); in Transdanubia, however, a number of differences can be noted between the Lengyel and the ensuing
Balaton–Lasinja culture. Although the archaeological record does not suggest a complete population change, the
appearance of southern, especially Balkanic cultural traditions as opposed to the Central European traditions of the
Lengyel culture, indicates deeper changes than in eastern
Hungary. Local development only continued in the central
and, to a smaller extent, the northeastern areas of Hungary
where the Ludanice communities, direct descendants of the
local Lengyel culture, maintained close ties with their
neighbours.
The Bodrogkeresztúr period marks the real floruit of the
Copper Age with its golden symbols of power and the heavy
copper axes, many of them heavy to the point of being inutile. Being rare and valuable prestige commodities, these
copper and gold artefacts no doubt belonged to the highstatus worldly or sacral leaders of a given community.
Major changes can be noted at the end of the Middle
Copper Age. Appearing on the western and northwestern
periphery of the Carpathian Basin contemporaneously with
the Balaton–Lasinja and Ludanice cultures, the Stroke Ornamented Pottery culture – so called after its distinctive
decorative technique – occupied the territory extending
from the eastern Alpine foreland to the Adriatic. Its expansion into the Tisza region was checked by the Hunyadihalom culture that succeeded the Bodrogkeresztúr culture.
This cultural complex emerged as a result of the arrival of
various eastern and southeastern population groups. The
number of settlements declined conspicuously in this period, most likely the result of a significant population
Fig. 4. Clay wagon models
from Budakalász and
Szigetszentmárton. Late
Copper Age, Baden culture
Settlements | 127
Fig. 5. Copper disc
from Zalavár–Basasziget.
Middle Copper Age,
Balaton–Lasinja culture
decrease. These two cultures, both new arrivals to the Carpathian Basin, formed the basis of a process of uniformization that led to the emergence of the Baden culture in
the Late Copper Age. The transition between the two is
represented by the Protoboleráz horizon, a brief, but
marked period in the Hungarian Copper Age. Major southern and eastern impacts can be noted in the Carpathian Basin during this period, spanning no more than a few generations. The blend of external influences and local traditions,
some going back for many millennia, eventually led to the
emergence of an unusually large cultural complex. The
unity of material and spiritual culture is especially conspicuous in the Boleráz group, representing the early phase of
the Baden culture. The nature of the cultural force that
forged a uniform culture throughout the entire Carpathian
Basin from the strongly different regional groups remains
unknown. Neither is it clear to what extent the climatic
change, bringing a wetter and, presumably, cooler climate
at the very beginning of the Baden period, played a role in
these changes. The classical Baden phase was marked by the
disintegration of the initial unity and the appearance of a
colourful patchwork of regional Baden groups. This period
saw the appearance of four wheeled vehicles of eastern origin that brought a revolutionary change in transportation
(Fig. 4). The resurgence of metallurgy, disrupted at the end
of the Middle Copper Age, can also be noted. Although the
internal development of the Baden culture is fairly well
known, its close and its relation to the Early Bronze Age is
still unclear. There is no evidence that this unprecedented
development came to a sudden and drastic end.
Steppean Kurgan groups began infiltrating the eastern
half of the Carpathian Basin during the Baden period, in the
later 4th millennium B.C. At present, only the burials of the
Kurgan culture are known: the smaller and larger burial
mounds – called kurgans – dotting the Great Hungarian
Plain usually contain the burials of one or several members
of a community. The archaeological record indicates the
peaceful coexistence of the Baden and Kurgan communities. It seems likely that these Kurgan groups played a role
in the emergence of the Early Bronze Age.
A similar peaceful coexistence can be assumed in the case
of the Kostolac groups on late Baden sites at the close of the
4th millennium B.C. The period named after this southern
population, arriving from the south along major waterways,
such as the Danube, was a brief episode in the Late Copper
Age.
The emergence of the Vuèedol culture at the beginning
of the 3rd millennium B.C., immediately preceding and
surviving into the Early Bronze Age, can be located to
Croatia. This culture was also distributed in southeastern
Transdanubia. The stratified settlements, rich metallurgy
and unique pottery of this culture set it apart from the other
Copper Age cultures of the region.
The absolute chronology of the Copper Age of the Carpathian Basin is based on calibrated radiocarbon dates. The
Early Copper Age can be dated between 4500/4400–
4000 B.C., the Middle Copper Age between 4000–3600/
3500 B.C., while the Late Copper Age between 3600/3500–
2600/2500 B.C. This chronology is also supported by the
evidence from cross-dating and traditional archaeological
comparisons. One case in point is the copper disc found at
the Zalavár site of the Balaton–Lasinja culture – similar
discs were still popular during the Stroke Ornamented Pottery period (Fig. 4). A similar disc was brought to light near
Lake Boden on a settlement that was dated to the early 4th
millennium using dendrochronology. This date supports
the calibrated radiocarbon dates for the Middle Copper Age
cultures of the Carpathian Basin.
SETTLEMENTS
Zsuzsanna M. Virág & Mária Bondár
Our knowledge of Copper Age settlements has been greatly
enriched by the large-scale excavations conducted over the
past few years. This is especially true of Transdanubia,
where there is now evidence for above-ground houses (Fig.
6). These new finds have modified earlier views on the use
of pit-houses and suggest that the pits provided with
Fig. 6. Aerial photo showing the outlines of Early and Middle Copper
Age houses. Gyõr–Szabadrétdomb
128 The Copper Age
Fig. 7. Exvated houses from the Middle Copper Age settlement at
Zalavár–Basasziget. Balaton–Lasinja culture
Fig. 8. Reconstruction of a Middle Copper Age house. Zalavár–Basasziget, Balaton–Lasinja culture
hearths or ovens were not necessarily residential structures,
but served other purposes.
Compared to the Early Copper Age, a dense settlement
network covered Transdanubia in the Middle Copper Age.
In contrast, only a few Bodrogkeresztúr settlements are
known from the Tisza region. The reason for this divergence can most likely be sought in the nature of the subsistence strategies adopted by these two populations. The
stockbreeding communities in the Tisza region had an essentially mobile lifestyle and the small, temporary campsites
left few traces in the archaeological record. In
Transdanubia, however, settlements were established in locations with a favourable environment near water; these
settlements often lay quite close to each other and some had
apparently been occupied over a longer period of time as
shown by the abundance of finds. The remains of houses
erected around a framework of massive timbers also suggest
the longer occupation of these sites.
Most settlements were established on low islands or peninsulas that were especially suited to occupation in dry
weather. Much more is known about the settlements of the
Early and Middle Copper Age in Transdanubia owing to
recent investigations.
The almost completely excavated Middle Copper Age
settlement at Zalavár–Basasziget, sited on a small peninsula
extending into the marshland of the Little Balaton, covered
an estimated 5000 m2 and can be assigned to the Balaton–
Lasinja culture. The house remains, the refuse pits and the
clay extraction pits indicate a continuous occupation. The
settlement had two to four contemporaneous houses during
the various occupation phases (Figs 7–9).
The sites investigated around Gyõr in the Hanság
marshland offer a similar picture. The Middle Copper Age
communities in this area lived in small hamlets with a few
houses; these sites covered no more than 1–2 hectares.
Scattered around the houses were storage bins and clay extraction pits that were eventually filled with refuse.
The one or two-roomed houses were 7 m wide on the average, their length often reached 20 m, although shorter
houses about 10 m long were also quite frequent. The upright timbers reinforcing the walls and supporting the roof
structure were set into a foundation trench or, more rarely,
into a posthole. The use-life of these settlements was determined by a subsistence strategy based on animal husbandry.
In contrast to the more briefly occupied settlements, the
sites with massive timber structures can be regarded as
more permanent settlements, although judging from the
Fig. 9. Map of the excavated section of the Middle Copper Age
settlement at Zalavár–Basasziget. Balaton–Lasinja culture
Early metallurgy in the Carpathian Basin | 129
finds uncovered on these sites, they were not particularly
long-lived either. One unusual phenomenon is that the
Ludanice communities of the early phase of the Middle
Copper Age also settled in caves in the Budapest region and
northeastern Transdanubia.
In the later phase of the Middle Copper Age, the number of settlements decreased in Transdanubia. The temporary settlements of this loose settlement network are
marked by scattered pits. In contrast to the Tisza region,
where village-like settlements with several houses have
been uncovered, no houses have yet been found in Transdanubia from this period. The most thoroughly investigated site is the Tiszalúc settlement of the Hunyadihalom
culture in the Great Hungarian Plain. The core of the settlement, a roughly 150 m by 100 m large area, was enclosed
by a palisade fence of closely spaced posts set into a foundation trench. The houses in this protected area had been renewed several times; the pits yielded a varied assemblage of
pottery fragments and animal bones, mainly from cattle.
The timber framed, two-roomed houses measured 10–12
m by 6–7 m. The archaeological record indicates that there
were twenty to twenty-two houses during one occupation
phase (Fig. 10).
The unification process affecting the entire Carpathian
Basin during the Late Copper Age is also reflected in the
settlements. The over 1600 sites of the Baden culture
from Hungary reflect a relatively dense settlement network. The Baden communities settled in a variety of enviFig. 10. Map of the excavated section of the Middle Copper Age
settlement at Tiszalúc–Sarkadpuszta. Hunyadihalom culture
Fig. 11. Oven plastered with pottery sherds. Sármellék–Égenföld,
Late Copper Age, Baden culture
ronments, ranging from the plainland to upland locations,
as well as settlements near waterways and in caves. Beside
small, temporary campsites, a number of several hectares
large villages have also been identified (for example at
Pilismarót–Szobi rév). The excavations on Baden sites
brought to light hearths plastered with pebbles and
sherds, smaller ovens, as well as storage bins and refuse
pits (Fig. 11). The archaeological record only offers a partial picture of the residential buildings since burnt daub
fragments (clay mixed with vegetal remains) are all that
survived of the one-time houses. The archaeological remains suggest that these buildings had terre pisé walls or
were log cabins.
The late Baden settlements established near larger lakes
and waterways indicate a contemporary occupation by
Kostolac communities. The location of these settlements
was no doubt influenced by the importance of fishing in
the subsistence and the importance of waterways for transportation and communication. The briefly occupied Kostolac settlements had temporary, hut-like structures. The
Baden population often established protected, fortified
settlements in upland locations in northeastern Hungary
during this late phase. The several meters high occupation
deposits indicate a longer occupation. Some upland sites,
such as Salgótarján–Pécskõ, were inhabited up to the Early
Bronze Age. The stratified settlements of the Vuèedol culture, surviving into the Early Bronze Age, appeared at
roughly the same time in the southwestern part of the
Carpathian Basin.
EARLY METALLURGY IN THE
CARPATHIAN BASIN
Zsuzsanna M. Virág
The earliest appearance of metals and metal artefacts, as
well as lumps of worked copper preceded the Copper Age
proper. The first use of copper can already be observed in
the Neolithic. It would appear that Neolithic man began
130 The Copper Age
collecting nuggets of malachite-azurite and native
copper owing to their attractive appearance and
colour in order to experiment with this unusual
raw material and to manufacture various prestige
items – such as small beads, pins, rings, armrings –
signalling the special status of their wearer. The
occasional use of copper in the early phases of the
Neolithic was by the earlier 5th millennium B.C. replaced by a more conscious usage, as shown by the growing
number of copper finds recovered from
the settlements and burials of the
Tisza–Herpály–Csõszhalom and Lengyel cultures. The various small articles made
from native copper contained very little of this
raw material and their form essentially imitated
various stone, shell and bone ornaments and
artefacts. Most of these copper articles were
made by hammering, although rare instances of
copper smelting have also been documented
from this period (Zengõvárkony, Berettyóújfalu–Herpály).
As a result of this centuries long experimentation with copper, a genuine and well
organized copper metallurgy emerged by
the Early Copper Age (4500/4400 B.C.).
The technology of smelting copper from its
ores was discovered, together with the melting of
the smelted metal for casting, leading to the processing of
copper ores on a large scale and the mass production and
widespread use of heavy copper implements. The exploitation of the rich copper deposits in the Carpathian Basin and
the northern Balkans gave rise to a flourishing South-East
European copper metallurgy. The distinctive products of
this metallurgy, axe-adzes and various axes, appeared during the Early Copper Age Tiszapolgár culture. These were
manufactured at several locations throughout South-East
Europe, where the smelting procedures necessary for this
early metallurgy were known and practiced. This is also
confirmed by the presence of pottery kilns in which graphitic pottery needing a high firing temperature was produced. The sudden upswing of copper metallurgy also
wrought changes in the fabric of society. The copper implements were not simply utilitarian articles – being commodities with a specific value, they were often a measure of
wealth, signalling the power and status of their owner. It
has been suggested that these copper implements perhaps
also had a sacral function (Fig. 12).
The Copper Age also saw the appearance of gold, most
likely as a result of the rather frequent joint occurrence of
copper and gold; the various objects made from this metal
Fig. 12. Hoard from Szeged–Szillér. Early Copper Age, Tiszapolgár
culture
Fig. 13. Native copper from Rudabánya
represented a special value. The melting point of
these two metals is similar (1083 °C and 1063 °C)
and their contemporaneous utilization can in part be
attributed to the similar techniques necessary for
their processing. There is little evidence for the use
of gold before the Copper Age; articles of gold only
appear in greater number from the Early Copper
Age, usually from burials and hoards. The continuity of Late Neolithic traditions is indicated by the gold discs that imitated earlier perforated shell ornaments. Beside their value expressed
in the material itself, these gold articles were also vested with a symbolic
meaning. Most prehistorians agree that the gold
discs, with two small embossed knobs and a large
central perforation, are stylized representations of
the female body (cp. Fig. 14).
There is only meagre evidence for the use of gold
in the early phase of the Hungarian Copper Age. A
number of burials in a contemporaneous cemetery in eastern Slovakia yielded a variety of gold
pendants and copper axes. A gold hoard is also
known from Hungary: found at Hencida, its
ornaments evoke the types and traditions of
South-East European metallurgy.
The copper deposits exploited during the
Copper Age lay in the Mátra Mountains (Recsk), in
the Mecsek Mountains, in the Zemplén Mountains
(Telkibánya) and in the Rudabánya area (Fig. 13).
Some of these were probably already known in the Neolithic.
Although the source of the gold used for the manufacture of
gold articles has not been identified yet, the known gold deposits of the Carpathian Basin suggest that these should be
sought in the Transylvanian Ore Mountains, as well as in the
mining areas of the Selmec and Körmöc Mountains, where
the auriferous ores could be mined from surface deposits.
Gold was perhaps also panned from the Körös, the Maros,
the Szamos and the Aranyos rivers.
Early metallurgy in the Carpathian Basin | 131
Fig. 14. Gold pendants and tubes from the Middle Copper Age
cemeteries of Jászladány and Magyarhomorog. Bodrogkeresztúr
culture
The unbroken continuity of metallurgy during the
florescence of the Hungarian Copper Age (4000–3600/
3500 B.C.) meant that the use of copper and gold became
truly widespread. During the Bodrogkeresztúr period, the
eastern half of the Carpathian Basin was part of the SouthEast European metallurgical province, extending from
eastern Slovakia to Greece. The production of heavy copper implements continued and it is also possible that the
manufacturing centres were relocated to the Carpathian
Basin. One new type among the massive implements is a
heavy axe. The manufacture of gold articles also continued. One distinctive product of eastern Carpathian and
South-East European gold metallurgy was the tabbed pendant with a perforated circular lower part and a small tab
for suspension, whose form evokes the Early Copper Age
discs. These large ornaments, often with a diameter of
15 cm, are known from various hoards (Tiszaszõlõs and
Mojgrád in Transylvania). The wear traces suggest that
they were breast ornaments strung onto some kind of cord.
Their smaller variants were recovered from burials, where
they were usually found lying by either side of the skull,
suggesting that they had perhaps ornamented a headdress
(Fig. 14). Other gold ornaments include small rods and
pins, small tubes, wire spirals, rings with overlapping terminals, biconical beads and conical ornaments of sheet
gold. Metallurgy spread to the Alpine region at this time,
although it was practiced on a more modest scale in that
area. The massive copper implements and the copper ornaments were both produced in local workshops. Raw material for the emerging eastern Alpine metallurgy was no
doubt procured from the rich copper and gold deposits in
Carinthia and the Salzburg region.
In the western half of the Carpathian Basin, the most distinctive Balaton–Lasinja metal products were the large
gold, silver and copper discs ornamented with three embossed knobs and répoussé work. These metal discs, found
mainly in hoards, were worn as breast ornaments. Even
though these discs differ from the ones found east of the
Danube, their symbolism suggests that some similar meaning was attached to them (Fig. 15). The gold pendant found
at Hatvan shows a unique blend of these two metalworking
traditions (Fig. 16).
The decline of metallurgy in the later phase of the Middle Copper Age is reflected by the scarcity of metal finds in
the Hunyadihalom culture of the Tisza region and the
Stroke Ornamented Pottery culture of Transdanubia. This
period was characterized by small metal articles with a negligible ore content and it seems likely that some of the earlier workshops in which heavy copper implements had been
mass-produced ceased their turn-out of these products.
There is evidence for metalworking on the village level in
Transdanubia: moulds and crucibles containing copper slag
Fig. 15. Gold discs. Csáford, early phase of the Middle Copper Age, Balaton–Lasinja culture
Fig. 16. Large gold pendant. Hatvan, Middle Copper Age, Bodrogkeresztúr culture
132 The Copper Age
COPPER AGE RELIGION AND BELIEFS
(cemeteries, cult places, art)
Eszter Bánffy, Mária Bondár &
Zsuzsanna M. Virág
Fig. 17. Crucible and copper ornaments. Zalavár–Mekenye, late
phase of the Middle Copper Age, Stroke Ornamented Pottery culture
have been found on several settlements of the Stroke Ornamented Pottery culture at Zalavár, Bak and Pusztaszentlászló (Fig. 17).
A conspicuous decline of copper metallurgy and copper
finds can be noted in the Baden period (Late Copper Age,
3600/3500–2800/2700 B.C.). Gold articles also disappeared.
The decline of the flourishing South-East European metallurgy is usually attributed to the arrival of various groups
from Eastern Europe and the north Pontic steppe, as a result
of which the trade and cultural relations between the various
metallurgical workshops were disrupted. To this we may
perhaps add the exhaustion of the surface ore deposits in the
Carpathian Basin. The drop in the number of copper articles during the Baden period can perhaps also be associated with changes in the attitude towards the
social and economic role of copper and it is possible that the accumulation of copper articles lost
its former significance. Copper finds, such as
breast ornaments, spiral armrings, neckrings
and diadems, are rare over the entire, rather extensive Baden distribution; these copper articles were probably insignia of power or personal ornaments of high status individuals, or
perhaps the paraphernalia of rituals. Copper
daggers were also rare (Fig. 18).
Aside from a range of new copper types indicating eastern connections, the simple copper
beads and rings from the burials and the small
copper awls from settlements were no doubt local
products. The crucibles found on sites in the
Mecsek Mountain s(Lánycsók) and eastern Slavonia indicate the continuity of local metallurgy, although on a much smaller scale. The Baden period
also saw the use of new raw materials – provenance
studies indicate the use of arsenic copper for the production of metal articles that had earlier only been
used in the east and in the Alpine region.
The changes in the later half of the 5th millennium B.C.,
marking the advent of the Copper Age, also influenced religious beliefs. In spite of the survival of some earlier beliefs,
the finds that can be associated with religion testify to substantial changes.
One of the most important indications of this change is
the transformation of funerary practices following the
abandonment of the large, permanent settlements. The
small, briefly occupied Copper Age settlements could not
serve as an adequate resting place for the deceased. This
led to the emergence of independent cemeteries, in which
the burials were arranged into rows. Cemeteries, rather
than settlements, became the symbol of permanence and
the survival of the community. Many large cemeteries that
had been established in the Early Copper Age were still in
use during the Bodrogkeresztúr period of the Middle Copper Age (Tiszapolgár–Basatanya, Magyarhomorog Tiszavalk–Tetes).
In contrast to the Tisza region, a different attitude towards the deceased can be noted in Transdanubia, where
hardly any burial grounds are known from the Early and
Middle Copper Age. The few solitary graves and grave
groups from the Ludanice distribution indicate the survival
of inhumation. The burials found on settlements preserved
many Neolithic traditions.
The treatment of the deceased is in many cases an adequate reflection of the society of the living and, at the
same time, it also reveals much about the community’s beliefs concerning the afterworld. In the
cemeteries of the Tisza region, the deceased were
laid to rest in a contracted position on their side
and provided with various articles that were believed to be necessary in the afterworld. Multiple
burials were also quite frequent. Copper weapons
and long stone knives were laid beside the mens’
skulls, while women were usually provided with
pottery vessels and copper ornaments, as well as
small stone and bone implements. The belts strung
of beads (Fig. 19) were part of the female costume,
as were gold pendants that were fastened onto
headbands and worn by high status individuals (cp.
Fig. 14). Boar mandibles were only recovered from
male burials. The richness of the grave goods from a
few male and female burials exceeds by far that of the
average grave: the reflection of social differences in
burials can already be noted at the end of the Neolithic. Gold articles were probably acquired by high
Fig. 18. Copper dagger. Sármellék, Late Copper Age,
Baden culture
Copper Age religion and beliefs | 133
Fig. 19. Middle Copper Age female burial, with a multiple string of
stone beads around the waist. Szihalom–Pamlényi-tábla,
Bodrogkeresztúr culture
Key: 1–7. vessels, 8. animal bone, 9. string of beads
status individuals only – this increased the value of gold and,
at the same time, it enhanced its role as marking social status. The possession of gold articles was also important for
the living and gold articles were no doubt part of the paraphernalia used in various rituals and ceremonies.
The gold hoards from Hencida, Tiszaszõlõs and Csáford also indicate the role of gold in Copper Age society.
The gold discs, stylized female depictions, are important
relics of human representations in an age when these declined significantly (cp. Figs. 14–16). There are very few
idols made from clay or other materials from this period.
Their buxom form recalls the traditions of Neolithic statuettes (Fig. 20).
The continuity between Neolithic and Copper Age beliefs is also indicated by a number of buildings and other
phenomena that can be associated with cults and rituals. In
the Neolithic, these were usually performed within the settlement, while in the Early Copper Age, special cult places,
entirely separate from the settlement, also appeared, parallel to the emergence of independent cemeteries. The sacrificial pit too survived into the Copper Age as shown by a ritual child burial from the Little Balaton region dating to the
Middle Copper Age. The pit with an omphalos-like floor uncovered at Balatonmagyaród contained the skeleton of a 5–
6 years old boy, provided with a few vessels and a grinding
stone that was practically inutile. The omphalos (central
place, centre of the universe), the body of the boy still not
entirely divorced from the world of the ancestors and the
symbolic grinding stone are all elements well known from
various Neolithic sacrificial assemblages.
Enclosures were also built during the Early and Middle
Copper Age. A huge oval enclosure was identified at Balatonmagyaród, a site dated to the latest phase of the Lengyel
culture extending into the Copper Age (c. 4300 B.C.); the
enclosure ditch reflects the continuity of Central European
Neolithic traditions. One of the gates of this enclosure was
also excavated (Figs. 21–22).
Lying farther to the east, a Middle Copper Age enclosure uncovered near Füzesabony is perhaps even more significant. An enclosure of two concentric, slightly oval
ditches was identified at Füzesabony–Pusztaszikszó. The
width of the two V sectioned ditches was a mere 50 cm,
suggesting that they could hardly have been defensive in
nature (Figs. 23–24). The enclosure was interrupted by a
gate on the southern side. A row of heavy posts was aligned
along the inner ditch – these can perhaps be interpreted as a
row of columns resembling the slightly later structures of
massive stone blocks, such as the one at Stonehenge. The
most important area of the site was again the ‘navel’, the
centre of the area enclosed by the ditches, where an almost
5 m deep sacrificial pit was found. Intact vessels and animal
bones, the remains of meat offerings, were deposited into
the pit during the periodically repeated rituals. An intact,
articulate goat skeleton, most likely the offering presented
during the consecration rite, lay on the floor of the pit. The
most intriguing aspect of the enclosure and its finds is that
even though the Füzesabony site lies in the Bodrogkeresztúr distribution, the enclosure has a distinctly Central
European ancestry, and the finds too have more in common
with the cultures succeeding
the Lengyel complex than
with the Bodrogkeresztúr
culture.
A similar sacrificial site or
cult place was uncovered at
Szarvas; the finds suggest
that this site was the scene of
bloody offerings.
The Late Copper Age Baden period shows a colourful
variety of beliefs based on
both local traditions and cultural influences from other
culture provinces. Similarly
to the earlier phases of the
Copper Age, the paraphernalia of rituals were for the
Fig. 20. Clay idol. Tiszafüred, later
phase of the Middle Copper Age,
Hunyadihalom culture
134 The Copper Age
N
Lake
Balaton
Fig. 21. Groundplan of an Early Copper Age enclosure.
Balatonmagyaród–Hídvégpuszta, late Lengyel culture
Fig. 23. Aerial view of a Middle Copper Age enclosure during
excavation. Füzesabony–Pusztaszikszó, Ludanice culture
Fig. 22. Excavated section of the Balatonmagyaród enclosure, with a
section showing the infill levels
Fig. 24. Plan of the excavated section of the enclosure. Füzesabony–
Pusztaszikszó, Middle Copper Age, Ludanice culture
Copper Age religion and beliefs | 135
different types of representations – such as
greater part made from perishable materials.
the face pots and idols – of Neolithic and
The cult objects include anthropomorphic
Copper Age small sculpture were in esurns and the flat, headless, female statuettes of
sence the expressions of the same set of beclay (Fig. 25), found throughout the entire
liefs. The symbolism of fertility and femiBaden territory. Probably broken as part of a
ninity, the association of women with the
ritual, the idols were thrown into the refuse pits
concept of birth and death, as well as rebirth,
of the settlements. Some sites – such as Gyõr–
was at least three thousand years old by the
Szabadrétdomb and Tököl – yielded an unusually
Baden period.
high number of idols, while only a few were
Beside the cremation of their dead, the
brought to light at others, such as Pilismarót.
Baden communities also practiced inhumaThe clay mask found at Balatonõszöd, a unique
tion. The deceased were laid to rest in burial
find from this period, was probably used during
grounds separate from the settlements. In adrituals (Fig. 26).
dition to small burial grounds containing no
In contrast to the earlier sporadic occurmore than ten to twelve graves, large cemerences, the custom of cremation became more
teries used over a longer period of time are
widespread in the Baden period, a practice that
also known. At the same time, some individucan no doubt be associated with the belief in
als were buried in or very near to the settlethe cleansing properties of fire. In the cemetery Fig. 25. Headless idol.
ment; the reason for this practice is not
at Pilismarót–Basaharc, containing a total of Zamárdi, Late Copper Age,
known.
110 burials, the ashes of the deceased were scat- Boleráz group
Mass graves containing both regularly intered on the ground and the vessels used in the
terred individuals and skeletons suggesting that the corpses
funerary rite were placed beside them. A mound of flat
had been simply thrown into the pit have also been found.
stones was raised above the grave at the end of the burial ritThe reason for these mass graves remains unknown: perual (Fig. 27). In some cases the ashes were collected and
haps they are indications of an illness or a plague that led to
placed inside an urn. Quite unique anthropomorphic urns
the more or less simultaneous death of several members of
were found at Ózd–Center; their faces recall the depictions
the community (Fig. 28).
on the anthropomorphic vessels from Troy, even though
The largest cemetery of the Baden culture, containing a
we now know that the Ózd urns predate the latter (Fig. 29).
total of 437 burials, was uncovered at Budakalász. The earliComparable vessels have been found at a number of other
est burials in the cemetery, used for an estimated two hunsites in the region, for example at Méhi (Vèelince, Slovakia),
dred years, were cremation burials. After the burial of the
where one of the burials yielded an urn modelled on the feashes, the graves were covered with stones. Stones were also
male body and a small female statuette, suggesting that the
Fig. 26. Clay mask, modelled on the human face. Balatonõszöd–Temetõdûlõ, Late Copper Age, Baden culture
136 The Copper Age
Fig. 27. Late Copper Age grave with stone packing. The discoloured
patch of the grave pit can be seen beside the stones. Pilismarót–Basaharc, Boleráz group
Fig. 28. Mass grave from a Late Copper Age settlement. Sármellék–
Égenföld, Baden culture
thrown into inhumation burials as part of the burial rite. The
separate, smaller grave groups can perhaps be interpreted as
the burials of one family. Powerful symbols of social cohesion, the burial grounds containing the remains of the ancestors were revered as sacred places by later generations.
These burial grounds contained not only human remains, but also a wide range of pottery, tools, implements
and ornaments, as well as animal remains. The clay wagon
models used as ceremonial vessels, such as the ones found at
Budakalász and Szigetszentmárton, no doubt had a unique
function (cp. Fig. 4). Cattle were also revered in some form
as shown by the cattle burials, found both on settlements
and in cemeteries, where they
were buried either alongside their
owners or in separate graves. One
of the graves in the Budakalász
cemetery contained the bodies of a
man and a woman, as well as two
cattle skeletons; the position of the
human and animal skeletons suggested that a wooden cart had
probably also been placed into
the grave. It seems likely that
only high status individuals
had the right to take these
valuable animals with them to
the afterworld.
At the close of the Copper
Age, we witness the appearance of
certain finds reflecting beliefs that
can be associated with the appearance of eastern, steppean groups in
the Carpathian Basin. These steppean nomadic communities lived peacefully with the local Copper Age population
of the Tisza region. The Baden communities apparently
adopted the custom of erecting stone grave markers (steles)
from these eastern groups: the oldest stone stele from Hungary, found at Mezõcsát, was no doubt erected to protect
the entire cemetery. This almost two meters high stele was
found in the Great Hungarian Plain, a region poor in stone
resources (Fig. 30). The transportation of this heavy stone
from the Northern Mountain Range called for the concerted activity of many individuals even if we assume the use
of wheeled wagons.
The Kurgan people often buried their dead in Baden
cemeteries, indicating the joint use and, also, the reverence
of burial grounds as sacred areas. The grave
pit under the burial mound (kurgan) was usually covered with
wooden planks; the grave goods
included carpets, furs and textiles
(Figs 31–32). The presence of red
ochre in these burials can also be
related to religious beliefs.
The colour red had a special
meaning in Copper Age beliefs; its use suggests that the
deceased were symbolically
restored to life before departing to the afterworld.
Fig. 29. Anthropomorphic urns.
Ózd–Center, Late Copper Age,
Baden culture
Copper Age religion and beliefs | 137
Fig. 30. Stone stele, during
excavation. Mezõcsát, Late
Copper Age, Baden culture
Fig. 31. Burial mound (kurgan), during excavation. Kétegyháza,
Late Copper Age
Fig. 32. Excavation drawing of a kurgan burial. Kétegyháza, Late
Copper Age