Personality characteristics of bulimic behavior in
college women analyzed with the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
A dissertation submitted
by
LORI LYN ANDERSON
to
LIBERTY UNNERSITY
in partial fulfillment of
the requirement for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
in
PROFESSIONAL COUNSELING
This dissertation has been
accepted for the faculty of
Uberty University by
12
~4G~
Dr. Ron Allen
Chair
Dr. NfichaelFllrrnin
Advisor
Dr. Ron Hawkins
External Reader
Dr. Linda Eure
External Reader
2
Abstract
PERSONALITY CHARACTERISTICS OF BULIMIC BEHAVIOR
IN COLLEGE WOMEN ANALYZED WITH THE
MYERS-BRIGGS TYPE INDICATOR
by Lori Lyn Anderson
Eating disorders are a growing phenomenon in today's society, and adolescent women
are prime candidates for this disorder. The present research study is designed to analyze
bulimic behavior in college age women by administrating the Eating Disorder Inventory2 (Gamer, 1991), specifically focusing on the bulimia sub scale of this self-reported
inventory. The purpose of the study is to measure specialized temperamental
characteristics of persons demonstrating bulimic behavior as analyzed using the MyersBriggs Type Indicator (Myers-Briggs & McCaulley, 1986). The researcher surveyed 221
women from psychology classes at a private Midwest university, and each woman
completed both the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator.
The researcher focused specifically on the Sensing and Judging functions of the MyersBriggs Type Indicator. The researcher hypothesized that the Myers-Briggs type function
of Sensing and Judging would be represented with greater frequency among women who
scored high on measures of bulimia, and the hypotheses were disconfirmed. The
researcher found personality to be a relatively stable factor as opposed to a changing
factor when predicting bulimic behavior in college age women.
3
April 15, 2004
© Copyright by
LORILYN ANDERSON
2004
4
DEDICATION
Dedicated to Connie Ann Anderson, the woman I admire more than
any other woman in the world. Mom, you have been a beautiful
picture of a woman who selflessly loves others. I have been blessed
by God as I have been the recipient of your consistent love and support
throughout the span of my life. My identity as a grown woman has been
shaped greatly by your incredible example. Thank you for your love and
support, Mom. I consider it an honor to call you "Mom" and my dearest
friend in the world. Thank you for being the woman I long to become.
5
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to Dr. Michael Firmin for his
countless hours of supervision and timely words of wisdom. Mike, you have
been incredibly patient with me, and I will never be able to repay you for your
investment in my personal and professional life. Thank you.
I would also like to thank the chair of my committee, Dr. Ron Allen. Thank
you for your encouraging words and helpful advice. It has been an honor to
have you as the chair of my dissertation committee. Thank you for helping me
make the completion of this dissertation a reality.
A special thanks to Dr. Chi-en Hwang and Dr. Michael Lopez for their
graciousness in helping me through the statistical analyses for this research
study. Your expertise was much needed and much appreciated.
I would like to thank Dr. Ron Hawkins for being a part of my
committee. I appreciate your gracious spirit and kind words of encouragement.
I would like to thank Mrs. Sandra Entner and Dr. Michael Firmin for their
sacrifice in scoring the EDI-2 and the MBTI. Your servitude amazes me.
6
I would like to thank my office staff: John Potter, Kim Ahlgrim, Helen
Blumenstock and Desiree' Lynden. Thank you for the many times you have
listened to me and uplifted me. You are such a blessing to me.
I want to express my heartfelt gratitude to my parents, Lyle and Connie
Anderson, as they have loved me and supported me my entire life. I love you
and am so thankful for you. I could never have completed this degree without
you. Thank you for being the best parents in the world.
I would like to thank Eric, Heather, Heidi, and Ellie - my dear brother and
sister-in-law and two precious nieces - for their interest in my life and their love
and support throughout all of my educational endeavors. I love you all.
I want to thank Ed and Amy Oark, my dear Grandparents, for being two of
the biggest prayer warriors on my behalf. I love you and am so thankful for both
ofvou.
7
I want to thank Jason Stevens, the man I love and am so blessed to have
in my life. You have been such an encouragement to me. Thank you for
all of your love and support.
Finally, I would like to thank my Lord and Savior, Jesus Christ. Thank you for
loving me and reminding me always that apart from You, I can do nothing.
8
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION..................................................................... 11
Introduction to the Problem .................................................................. 11
Purpose of the Study ............................................................................13
Hypoth.eses ....................................................................................... 14
Definition of Terms .............................................................................. 16
Significance of the Study ........................................................................ 21
Assumptions and Limitations .................................................................23
CHAPTER TI: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................... 25
Etiology of Eating Disorders ..... '" .................................... '" ...................... 25
Distinctive Characteristics of Bulimic Behavior ............................................. 28
Cognitions and Mood States of the Bulimic IndividuaL ................................. 31
Family Systems and Eating-Disordered Behavior ..........................................35
Psychosocial Components of Eating Disorders .............................................39
Personality Characteristics Related to Bulimic Behavior .................................44
CHAPTER Ill: METHODOLOGy......................................................................48
Population and Sample ................ '" . '" ....................................................48
Instrumentation ................. " ................ " ............................................... 49
9
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator........................................................ .49
Eating Disorder Inventory-2 ......................................................... 51
Procedures ......................................................................................... 54
Design...............................................................................................56
Data Analysis ......................................................................................56
CHAPTER N: RESULTS ................................................................................ 58
Demographic Data ............................................................................... 58
The Eating Disorder Inventory-2.............................................................59
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator............................................................ 60
Findings Related to the Hypotheses ......................................................... 63
Summary of Researcher's Findings ........................................................... 65
CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR
FUTURE RESEARCH ................................................................. 66
Summary ............................................................................................66
Discussion ....................................................... ' ................................... 67
Recommendations for Future Research ...................................................... .70
REFERENCES ................................................................................................ 72
10
APPENDIX A: Letter from Institutional Review Board .......................................... 98
APPENDIX B: Letter of Informed Consent.. ........................................................99
APPENDIX C: SPSS Statistical Analyses .............. '" ............ '" ............................. 100
APPENDIX D: Table 1 Mean Scores ..................................................................106
11
CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION
Introduction to the Problem:
Eating disorders are a growing phenomenon in today's society, and women are
the primary candidates for this emotional and mental problem (Keel, Crow, Davis, &
Mitchell, 2002) that permeates our university campuses. Eating disorders often occur in
adolescent girls due to the many changes undergone through puberty (Dorman, 1984;
Stice, Hayward, Cameron, Killen, & Taylor, 2000). The prevalence of eating disorders
with adolescent girls is due in part to the convergence of physical changes and
psychosocial challenges with family and peers; therefore, adolescent girls who are
vulnerable due to low self-esteem or high stress environments may respond to these
developmental challenges with maladaptive eating behaviors (Attie, Brooks-Gunn, &
Peterson, 1990). Symptoms of eating disorders are often endorsed by the pervasive
college culture that is characterized by the promotion of distorted attitudes toward body
image, exercise and diet (Boskind-White & White, 1983; King, 1994). Among college
students, researchers have established a strong correlation between low self-esteem and
unhealthy eating behaviors (Holston & Cashwell, 2000).
Adolescence is a stage of life when dieting and body image concerns continue to
escalate. Over fifteen years ago, one study (Gray & Ford, 1985) noted that approximatel)
12
13 % of female undergraduate students met the DSM-III criteria for bulimia based on
their responses to a questionnaire designed for the purpose of statistically recording
bulimic sym ptomology. During this time frame.! an overall estimate regarding the
prevalence of bulimia among undergraduate women appeared to be between 5% and
10% (Nevo, 1985). College-age women are adolescents in transition, and this life stage is
a developmental period for the emergence of body dissatisfaction, dieting, and eating
problems (Rosen & Gross, 1987). Dieting occurs in 50-70% of North American
adolescents, with even greater numbers reporting body dissatisfaction and an intense
desire to be thin (Wardle & Marsland, 1990). Such data is alarming when considering
the potential implications regarding college women and the development of eating
disorder behaviors, such as that of bulimia.
The incidence of eating-disorder behavior in the United States has incremented in
epidemic proportions, particularly among women in college (Klemchuk, Huthinson, &
Frank, 1990; Whitaker & Davis, 1989). Past research estimated approximately 65% of
women in their first year of college displayed some behavioral and psychological
characteristics of eating-disordered behavior (Mintz & Betz, 1988). However, when
stricter criteria are used, such as requiring binge eating, coupled with self-induced
vomiting or laxative abuse at a minimum frequency of two times a week for three
months (operationally, the DSM-N-TR purging-type of bulimia nervosa), the prevalence
13
rates drop to around 1 %-2% of high school and college age women. This makes the
diagnosis of bulimia nervosa a very common disorder, but nowhere near the "epidemic"
that some purported (Fairburn & Beglin, 1990).
Dieting behaviors and eating disorders are typically characteristic of women more
so than men. Reviews of eating disorder prevalence rates indicate that 9 out of 10 cases
of eating disorders occur in women (American Psychiatric Association, 2000), while
dieting behaviors are also more likely to occur in women (VVertheim, Mee, & Paxton,
1992; Worsley, Worsley, McCommon, & Silva, 1990). Similarly, adolescent girls and
young adult females, in comparison to their male counterparts, are more inclined to
assume an ideal body size smaller than their existing size (Fallon & Rozin, 1985;
Tiggerman & Pennington, 1990; Wertheim et al., 1992).
Purpose of the Study:
Because the majority of eating-disordered behavior is characteristic of adolescent
women, the researcher focused this study on women who were in college. The purpose
of this study is to measure specialized temperamental characteristics of bulimic
individuals as analyzed using the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Myers Briggs &
McCaulley, 1986). The researcher patterned the study similar to research conducted by
Barresi-Devore (1987) in addressing the question of whether or not the psychological
14
type represented by the Sensing and Judging combination of preferences as scored on
the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator was correlated with bulimic behavior as measured by
the Eating Disorder Inventory-2.
The research literature to date describes mostly bulimic behaviors. A key missing
element seemed to relate to personality characteristics, as little has been reported on this
aspect of the disorder (Bulik, Sullivan, Joyce, Carter, & McIntosh, 1998). There were two
dissertations that inspired the researcher to update prior research studies related to
bulimic behavior and the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. These studies were conducted
by Schmidt-Levy (1988) and Barresi-Devore (1987). The present research advances the
findings in these studies by disconfirming the correlation between personality traits and
bulimic behavior.
Hypotheses:
The researcher's hypotheses are as follows:
Hi: The Myers-Briggs type function SJ is represented with greater frequency among
women who score high on measures of bulimic behavior.
H2: There is a greater representation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Sensing
preference among college women who score high on measures of bulimic behavior.
15
H3: There is a greater representation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Judging
preference among college women who score high on measures of bulimic behavior.
The null hypotheses are as follows:
Hl: The Myers-Briggs type function SJ is not represented with greater frequency among
women who score high on measures of bulimic behavior.
H2: There is not a greater representation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Sensing
preference among college women who score high on measures of bulimic behavior.
H3: There is not a greater representation of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Judging
preference among college women who score high on measures of bulimic behavior.
The researcher chose a p value of .05 because this particular p value is most commonly
used in the social sciences and is sufficiently stringent to safeguard against accepting too
many insignificant results as significant, while also not being too difficult to achieve
(Newton & Rudestam, 1999). The researcher believes there is a relatively low likelihood
of negative consequences occurring to potential bulimics should a Type I error occur as a
result of the present study. Therefore, the researcher was willing to enhance statistical
power at the .05 level as a trade off to more conservative options such as .01.
16
Definition of Terms:
The following terms are defined conceptually and operationally. Unless
otherwise indicated, definitions relating to Myers-Briggs characteristics were adapted
from Briggs-Myers and McCaulley (1986).
Anorexia Nervosa: The APA (2000) denotes the criteria for Anorexia Nervosa in the
DSM-IV-TR as follows:
A. Refusal to maintain body weight at or above a minimally normal weight for
age and height (e.g., weight loss leading to maintenance of body weight less
than 85% of that expected; or failure to make expected weight gain during
period of growth, leading to body weight less than 85% of that expected).
B. Intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, even though underweight.
C. Disturbance in the way in which one's body weight or shape is experienced,
undue influence of body weight or shape on self-evaluation, or denial of the
seriousness of the current low body weight.
D. In postmenarcheal females, amenorrhea, i.e., the absence of at least three
consecutive menstrual cycles. (A woman is considered to have amenorrhea if
her periods occur only following hormone, e.g., estrogen, administration.)
17
Restricting Type: during the current episode of Anorexia Nervosa, the person
has regularly engaged in binge-eating or purging behavior (i.e., self-induced
vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas)
Binge-Eating/Purging Type: during the current episode of Anorexia Nervosa,
the person has regularly engaged in binge-eating or purging behavior (i.e.,
self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas).
(APA,2000)
Attitudes: Extroversion and Introversion in Jung's theory.
Auxiliary function or process: The function or process that is second in importance and
that provides balance between perception and judgment and between
extroversion and introversion.
Bulimarexia: identical to bulimia nervosa, except the person needs not to have been
anorexic or very thin. Binging and purging occur together along with several
psychological aspects of anorexia nervosa: preoccupation with food and body
size, perfectionism, social withdrawal, and low self-esteem (Costin, 1997).
Bulimia Anorexia: Meets the DSM-N criteria for anorexia nervosa and bulimia
simultaneously (Costin, 1997).
Bulimia Nervosa: The APA (2000) denotes the criteria for bulimia nervosa according to
the DSM-N-TR as follows:
18
A. Recurrent episodes of binge eating. An episode of binge eating is
characterized by both of the following:
1) eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour period), an amount
of food that is definitively larger than most people would eat during a similar
period of time and under similar circumstances
2) a sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (e.g., a feeling that one
cannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating)
B. Recurrent inappropriate compensatory behavior in order to prevent weight
gain, such as self-induced vomiting; misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or
other medications; fasting; or excessive exercise.
C. The binge eating and inappropriate compensatory behaviors both occur, on
average, at least twice a week for three months.
D. Self-evaluation is unduly influenced by body shape and weight
E. The disturbance does not occur exclusively during the episodes of Anorexia
Nervosa.
Purging Type: during the current episode of Bulimia Nervosa, the person has
regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting or the misuse of laxatives,
diuretics, or enemas.
19
Nonpurging Type: during the current episode of Bulimia Nervosa, the person
has used other inappropriate compensatory behaviors, such as fasting or
excessive exercise, but has not regularly engaged in self-induced vomiting or
the misuse of laxatives, diuretics, or enemas. (APA, 2000)
Bulimic Behavior: For the purpose of this study, bulimic symptoms are used to describe
eating-disordered behavior that does not necessarily denote a diagnosis of
bulimia nervosa according to the DSM-N-TR (APA, 2000). The bulimic
behaviors may include one or more of the following: binging, self-induced
vomiting, misuse of laxatives, diuretics, enemas, or other medications, fasting,
or excessive exercise.
Dominant function or process: The function or process that is assumed to be first
developed, most conscious and differentiated, and which becomes the
governing force in one's life.
Eating Disorder: This term is used interchangeably with the terms anorexia nervosa and
bulimia nervosa (Woodka, 1999).
Extroversion: The attitude that orients attention and energy to the outer world.
Feeling: One of the two judging functions that makes decisions by ordering choices in
terms of personal values.
20
Functions: The four basic mental processes or powers of Sensing, Intuition, Thinking
and Feeling.
Inferior function: The opposite of the dominant function; also called the fourth function.
Introversion: The attitude that orients attention and energy to the inner world.
Intuition: One of the two perceptive functions that attend to meaning, relationships,
symbols and possibilities.
Judgment A term that refers to the two Judging functions: Thinking and Feeling.
Normal-weight Bulimia: Meets the DSM-IV-TR criteria for bulimia but was not formerly
anorexic or very thin. The person may have been formerly overweight, but is
currently within the normal range of weight-for-height (Costin, 1997).
Perception: A term that refers to the two Perceptive functions: Sensing and Intuition.
Preference: One of the four basic dichotomies that, in the type theory, form the
individual's personality.
Process: Synonymous with function.
Psychological Type: The characteristic preference shown by individuals for a certain
behavior or "function" which "types" the individual (Keirsey & Bates, 1984).
Sensing: One of the two perceptive functions that attends to experiences available to the
senses.
21
Thinking: One of the two judging functions that makes decisions by ordering choices in
terms of cause-effect or impersonal analysis.
Significance of the Study:
The frequency of eating disorders has been rapidly escalating (Maxmen & Ward,
1995) and is a growing problem specifically in adolescent females (Erne & Danielak,
1995; Lieberman, et aI., 2001). This study is dedicated to the furtherance of research
findings regarding bulimic tendencies based on specific personality characteristics
utilizing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) personality inventory. Eating
disorders are always life-damaging and potentially fatal (Aronson, 1993; Kaplan &
Garfinkel, 1993; Lucas et al., 1991; Minuchin et aI., 1978).
While the growing prevalence rates of eating disorder behaviors are well
established (Lieberman, et aI., 2001), little is known about personality characteristics of
individuals suffering from these problems. The long-term and short-term consequences
of engaging in eating disorder behaviors can be serious and even life-threatening in
some instances (Aronson, 1993). Consequently, it is imperative for counselors to
understand the dynamics of women suffering from this problem. That is, the better the
problem is understood, the more help the counselor can potentially be to bulimic clients.
22
Personality is a broad construct, obviously, and the present research study cannot
assess all or even many of the facets of this human dynamic. The present researcher
selected the MBTI as one particular element of personality measure due to its popularity
and perceived usefulness among professional counselors. Based on Jung's theory of
psychological types, the system assumes that development is a lifelong process of
increasing consciousness, differentiation, and direction of one's processes (Myers-Briggs
& McCaulley, 1986). As such, the present researcher believes that studying the
connection between psychological types and eating disorder behavior will enhance
counselors' understanding of clients as counselors diagnose and generate treatment
plans for them.
One previous dissertation (Barresi-Devore, 1987) investigated the nature of
personality characteristics as they related to eating disorder behaviors. The researcher
studied one specific personality profile according to the MBTI to see if bulimic behavior
was prevalent for that particular personality type. The results showed that the ISFJ
personality profile did not show a correlation with high levels of bulimic behavior, but
the Sensing factor, when measured separately, was found to be statistically significant.
The present study advances the findings of this study in two ways: First, fifteen years
have lapsed since this study was conducted, which is practically an early generation of
young teens today. Updating the findings of the previous research is salient for
23
knowledge advancement in this counseling domain. Second, the present research study
differed slightly from the previous one, adding new insights to the inquiry. The
researcher of this present study chose to analyze a two-letter combination as opposed to
a four-letter combination utilizing the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator in hopes of adding
statistical power to the study and focusing the research hypotheses in a more prescribed
direction. The SJ combination was chosen based on the perfectionistic tendencies often
common with eating disorder behaviors.
Assumptions and Limitations:
Limitations of this study primarily involve the size of the sample attained in
studying women who have both the same MBTI profile while concurrently
demonstrating some form of bulimic behavior. The sample size affects both statistical
power in the present study as well as external validity. The MBTI personality test profile
(SJ) as well as the self-reported indicators of bulimic behavior according to the EDI-2
were relied upon to obtain data for this research study. Since the MBTI and the EDI-2
are self-report tests, a limitation exists in that some women may have failed to report
fully their symptoms of bulimia (Lacey & Phil, 1982).
Additionally, participants in the present study consisted of all females and were
recruited from a particular educational setting in rural Midwestern America. They are,
24
therefore, most likely representative of similar socioeconomic backgrounds and may not
necessarily reflect the population at large. The researcher chose to study the female
gender exclusively due to the significantly higher prevalence of eating disorders among
women compared to men. The sampling occurred in psychology classes, which also
affects the study's external validity.
Lastly, a limitation of this study concerns the generalization regarding the
severity of the reported bulimic symptoms. The subjects chosen were not clinically
diagnosed with bulimia nervosa. Rather, the researcher operationally assessed bulimic
behavior based on cut-off scores of the Bulimia subscale from the EDI-2.
25
CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
The following is a review of the literature and related research on the subject
of eating disorders, specifically addressing the dynamics of bulimia nervosa. It includes
information relative to the etiology of eating disorders, distinctive characteristics of
bulimic behavior, cognitions and moods involved with eating disorders, family
functions of the bulimic patient, psychosocial components affecting women who
struggle with eating disorders, and personality variables of eating-disordered
individuals.
Etiology of Eating Disarders:
As common with various psychological illnesses, there are numerous research
models offering potential explanations for the etiology of given mental disorders. Eating
disorders are complex problems which appear to be composite with several underlying
factors (Schmidt-Levy, 1988). Some predisposing elements include individual
characteristics, family environments, and cultural pressures. Garfinkel and Garner (1982)
propose the existence of two sets of distinct factors in relation to the etiology of eating
disorders: a) those that serve to predispose the individual to the eating disorder, and b)
those that serve to maintain the behavior.
26
Research related to bulimia's etiology indicates that binge-purge cycles of
eating begin with dysfunctional psychological mechanisms causing the individual to
reject her normal, healthy body weight (Russell, 1979). Similarly, Orleans and Barnett
(1984) suggest the bulimic cycle begins with a restricted dieting plan.
Although various researchers have sought to distinguish key elements related
to the etiology of eating disorders, very little is actually known about the causes of
bulimia (Maxmen & Ward, 1995). Some researchers and biopsychologists have noted a
relationship between bulimia and other psychiatric disorders (Maxmen & Ward, 1995).
Research relating to bulimia and various other mood and personality disorders suggests
that about 75% of bulimics develop major depression (Beebe, 1994; Hinz & Williamson,
1987); 43% have anxiety disorders (Williamson, Goreczny, Davis, Ruggiero, & McKenzie,
1988); 49% have substance disorders; and 50-75% have personality disorders or trait
disturbances (Maxmen & Ward, 1995).
Numerous explanations have been proposed for the etiology and maintenance
of bulimia nervosa, including family predisposition (Kendler et al., 1991), dieting
behavior (Kendler et al., 1991), extreme shape and weight concerns (Polivy & Herman,
1985), and a sociocultural coercion to be thin (Striegel-Moore et al., 1986; Wilson, 1993).
Some researchers have evaluated genetic predispositions of bulimic behavior, and a
recent study was conducted which tested 316 bulimic patients by officiating blood tests
27
(Kaye & Bulik, 2002). Such studies are said to help counselors understand how
differences in the genes of some individuals contribute to the problem of bulimia
nervosa. Kaye and Bulik (2002) claim that despite the progress in understanding the
biological and genetic underpinnings of eating disorders, the perception remains that
these disorders are self-imposed and socioculturally caused problems.
Although various theories of eating disorders have been conjugated into the
vast field of research, it is generally now recognized that a multidimensional approach to
understanding the causes of eating disorders is the most productive (Smukler, Dare, &
Treasure, 1995). Fairburn and Beglin (1990) argue that epidemiological research needs to
shift its focus away from studies of the prevalence of bulimia nervosa to studies of the
nature, cause, and course of the full spectrum of eating disorders. The present research
study contributes to that end.
Some clinicians have noted in their counseling experience that women
suffering from bulimia nervosa often report being sexually abused as children. However,
researchers have uncovered little direct evidence for a link between childhood sexual
abuse and bulimia (Bower, 1993). Other investigators indicate a significant correlation
between the two phenomena (Calam & Slade, 1989; Goldfarb, 1987; Smolak et al., 1990).
Some studies suggest two-thirds of patients with eating disorders have experienced
sexual abuse (Oppenheimer et aI., 1985) while other researchers show samples in which
28
approximately one-third of patients with eating disorders have been sexually abused
(Crisp, 1984; Nash & West, 1985; Palmer et al., 1990; Sloan & Leichner, 1986).
Additionally, some research implies sexual abuse is not unique to eating-disordered
individuals but rather is common in other psychiatric clients as well (Briere & Runtz,
1988; Folsom et al., 1993; Palmer, Chaloner, & Openheimer, 1992; Pribor & Dinwiddie,
1992; Vize & Cooper, 1995). Because of the discrepancies found in the research
regarding sexual abuse and bulimia nervosa, one must cautiously view the potential of a
direct correlation between the two factors. In sum, research suggests a potential
relationship between eating problems and sexual abuse, although the nature of the
relationship remains unclear at present (Goodwin & Attias, 1993).
Distinctive Characteristics of Bulimic Behavior:
Researchers define bulimic behavior in a variety of ways. Bulimia is often
referred to as ox-hunger. The bulimic woman is typically one who gorges herself with
food, especially high caloric food, for periods lasting up to several hours, then in
avoidance of weight gain, she purges herself after each binge through self-induced
vomiting and/or laxative and diuretic abuse. (Maxmen & Ward, 1995). The binge is
typically followed by intense feelings of shame and guilt, which then can lead to the
perpetuation of the eating-disordered behavior. Bulimia is mostly recognized as an
29
abnormal eating pattern characterized by binging and purging. Russell (1979) defines
bulimic behavior as follows: patients suffer from powerful urges to overeat, and then
they try to avoid the consequences of overeating and their fear of weight gain by
inducing vomiting or using laxatives.
Individuals with bulimia nervosa use a number of different kinds of methods
to prevent weight gain, and vomiting as a purging behavior is seen among 80-90% of all
bulimics (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). For many, vomiting appears to
reduce the physical discomfort experienced during and after an intense binge, and it also
serves the purpose of abbreviating the fears associated with gaining weight (American
Psychiatric Association, 2000). Abraham and Beaumont (1982) indicate that bulimia is
characterized by episodes of overeating or binge eating in which a person consumes
large amounts of caloric intakes far beyond the recommended daily food allowance.
These binges are often followed by purging through self-induced vomiting, the use of
diet pills, laxatives or diuretics or excessive exercise (Muuss, 1986).
Diagnosing eating disorders can be difficult due to the frequency of women
who oscillate between the different eating-disordered behaviors. Anorexia nervosa is a
complex emotional disorder characterized primarily by an obsession with food intake
and weight gain and is restrictive in nature (Gilbert & DeBlassie, 1984; McNab, 1983),
while bulimia nervosa is characterized more so with gorging and responding with
30
compensatory behaviors to rid oneself of the food in avoidance of weight gain. When
patients alternate between these two eating disorders, the condition is labeled
bulimarexia (Boskind-White & White, 1986). Anorexia nervosa is often considered the
most serioUS of the eating disorders. However, bulimia nervosa has its own set of
medical complications, including electrolyte imbalance, hypokalemia (low potassium)
leading to serious, even life-threatening cardiac conduction abnormalities, parotid gland
enlargement, menstrual irregularities, dental erosion, gastric or esophageal rupture, and
acute gastric dilation (Maxmen & Ward, 1995).
Root, Fallon and Friedrich (1986) note several significant differences between
anorexia and bulimia. Anorectic women refuse to maintain recommended minimal
weight while bulimic women are usually of normal or near-normal weight. Denial is
much stronger in anorectic women, thus treatment is much more likely to be initiated by
family and friends whereas the bulimic women are much more likely to acknowledge
abnormal eating patterns and seek treatment on their own. Anorectic women outwardly
exhibit more self-control while bulimic women are typically characterized as impulsive.
Finally, both groups tend to have difficulties with intimacy, but the anorectic
woman tends to have a very low tolerance for intimacy, while the bulimic woman is
much more likely to be in a relationship or married. Binge-eating disorder (BED) is
defined within eating disorders not otherwise specified in the 4th edition of the
31
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000). BED is used to identify those individuals who display characteristics
of binge eating as in bulimia nervosa, but they do not partake in the compensatory
behaviors such as vomiting, abuse of laxative or diuretics and/or excessive exercise.
Similar characteristics of both bulimia nervosa and binge-eating disorder include binge
episodes and associated general psychiatric symptoms such as anxiety, dysphoria, and
emotional instability (Fairbum& Walsh, 1995; Polivy & Herman, 1993).
Cognitions and Mood States of the Bulimic Individual:
Sherman and Thompson (1990) describe the complexity of bulimic behavior
with a triad model:
Bulimia has three components: the actual eating and purging behaviors, or
the behavioral component; the way bulimic individuals think about
themselves and their world, or the cognitive component; and the way bulimics
handle their emotions, or the emotional component Understanding bulimia
requires understanding all three parts of the problem. (p. 6)
Bulimia is one means by which some individuals may seek to gain control in their lives
when feeling a control loss. Distorted thoughts are characteristic of those who struggle
32
with eating disorders and the sudden sense of loss of control may revolve around a fear
of fatness and a strong desire to be thin (Nasser, 1997).
Gamman and Makinen (1995) compare bulimia with sexual fetishism.
Fetishism is described as being available to women, being as much about the disavowal
of individuation as of sexual difference, carrying a strong oral component, and allowing
direct sensual gratification.
According to Homme (1999), eating becomes an eating disorder when the
primary need it satisfies habitually becomes psychological, not physical. For example,
the binging and purging aspects of bulimic behavior may be maladaptive tools used to
manage uncomfortable emotions. Homme ( 1999) elaborates:
.... Eating behaviors have become a vehicle for the expression of problems in
personal identity and in relationships with others. An eating disorder is not
merely a problem with food or weight. It is an attempt to use control to solve
unseen emotional conflicts or difficulties that in fact have little to do with
either food or weight. An eating disorder is someone's attempt to feel better
about himself/herself or to help him/her function in a world that feels
intimidating. (p. 5)
33
Bulimia not only has negative medical ramifications, but it also produces
detrimental emotional conditions for the bulimic individual as well. Woodside and
Shekter-Wolfson (1991) state: "Bulimia Nervosa is a symptom cluster that can carry
chronic emotional consequences, including depression, generalized anxiety, difficulties
with intimacy, and deficits in the ability to tolerate conflict" (p. 69). Research suggests
that the bulimic individuals experience emotions during a binge which demarcate
themselves from those emotions experienced during a regular meal, and whether or not
it is planned, the episode usually begins with feelings of tension, boredom, and stress
(Levine, 1987).
Frequently, bulimic individuals are preoccupied with their appearance, body
image, and sexual attractiveness (Maxmen & Ward, 1995). Fairburn and Cooper (1989)
also hypothesize that irrational cognitions, especially about one's physical appearance,
are the most important factors of the starvation-binging cycle in many bulimic patients.
The temporal association of negative affect with binging (Arnow, Kenardy, & Agras,
1995; Paxton & Diggens, 1997; Polivy & Herman, 1993) has led some researchers to
suggest that binge eating attempts to manage, alleviate, or avoid painful affect. Vitousel
(1996) emphasizes the role of starvation and distorted and dysfunctional beliefs about
food, weight, and body shape, but he claims this cognitive-behavioral model is not
sufficient to explain conclusive evidence of bulimic psychopathology. Waller, Ohanian,
r
34
Meyer, and Osman (2000) have shown that binge-eating and vomiting behaviors are
associated with different pattems of core beliefs, such as defectiveness/shame and
emotional inhibition.
Bulimic individuals encounter various mood states before, during, and after
the binge-purge cycle. Bulimia nervosa patients describe themselves as generally sad,
lonely, weak, irritable, passive and pressured, and their mood is typically more negative
before binge eating occurs (Alpers & Tuschen-Caffier, 2001). Sadness and anxiety are
specific mood states mentioned most often in the literature regarding emotional eating
(Bulik, Beidel, Duchmann, Weltzin, & Kaye, 1991; Cooper & Boskwill, 1986; Johnson &
Larson, 1982; Kaye, et al., 1986). Bulimic individuals have difficulty identifying and
articulating their internal states, and they have highly variable moods and low selfesteem, combined with high aspirations (Johnson & Conners, 1987).
Some of the cognitions and mood states of the bulimic individual include:
problems with interpreting their internal states, highly variable mood, impulsiveness or
weak impulse control, a strong need for immediate satisfaction, high levels of anxiety
and tension, and low adjustments to social norms (Bergh, 1988). Palme and Palme (1999)
conducted a study that measured personality traits of bulimic, obese, and alcoholic
women, and the results indicate the personality traits of women seeking treatment for
obese, bulimic, and alcoholic problems are very similar. The scales where bulimics
35
differed significantly from obese subjects were on the suspiciousness, psychasthenia,
irritability, and guilt subscales as measured by the Karolinska Scales of Personality
(Palme & Palme, 1999). Higher levels of negative affect have been associated with the
onset of binging and compensatory behaviors in non-clinical populations (Stice & Agras,
1998; Stice, Killen, Hayward & Taylor, 1998).
Family Systems and Eating-Disordered Behavior:
Problematic family functioning can perpetuate the distorted thinking already
present in women who struggle with eating disorders. According to Friedlander and
Siegel (1990), college women report that family impairment and a diminished sense of
individuation are related to bulimic and anorexic behaviors. Although many researchers
point to the negative evaluations bulimic individuals provide as evidence that family
dysfunction contributes to the development of eating disorders, Young, McFatter, &
Oopton (2001) indicate the relationship between family functioning and potential eating
disorders in nonclinical samples is unclear. Tseng (2001) purports the family as being
the basic sociocultural unit acting as a nest for growth of an individual, a resource for
social support, and the institution through which culture is transmitted. Weme (1996)
supports this when writing:
36
There is little doubt that regardless of how the problem arose in the first pace,
the eating disorder symptoms become intertwined with family relationships,
dominating family life in a way that makes the whole family feel paralyzed,
stuck, and unable to find a way out of their predicament (p. 220)
Parents may serve as great supports or sustainers of their daughter's eatingdisordered behavior. Garner and Garfinkel (1985) report that parents often need help
with their own anxieties to permit the daughter more individual freedom. Specifically,
Gilbert and Commerford (2000) assert
Just as one family pattern is to overwhelm children with too much food and
love, another may convey the message that whatever a child does, it is never
good enough. Parents may mean well by this-they may only want to urge
their children to (be better.) But a sensitive child who is already predisposed
to disordered eating may respond by using food to strive for
perfection. (p. 12)
Research shows a higher incidence of various psychopathological disorders in
the families of persons with eating disorders (Strober & Katz, 1988). Strober, Lampert,
Morrell, Burroughs, and Jacobs (1990) concluded anorexia is intergenerationally
transmitted: "It is roughly eight times as common in female first-degree relatives of
anorexic probands as in the general population, and is absent in relatives of probands
37
with other types of deviance" (p. 249). Although bulimia does not appear to agglomerate
to the same extent, Strober, et al. (1990) found the lifetime prevalence of this condition in
sisters of bulimics was four times that of the general population. Bulik, Sullivan, and
Kendler (1999) have recently found moderately high heritabilities for both latent binge
eating (82 %) and broadly defined bulimia nervosa (83 %). Further research is needed to
examine whether bulimic families are predisposed to the later development of eating
disorders (Strober & Katz, 1988).
Humphrey's (1986, 1987, 1989) research findings showed the nature of a
female adolescenfs eating disorder may be associated with a nonpareil pattern of
disturbed family relationships. Also, the portrait of the classical anorexic's family
displayed behavior that was both too nurturant and too neglectful, while the bulimic
family was distinguished by little affection or support in their interactions, but instead
were enmeshed in a hostile manner. When compared with normal women, bulimics in
treatment report poorer family adjustment and more problems with their parents
(Humphrey, 1986; Mitchell, Hatsukami, Eckert, & Pyle, 1985; Norman & Herzog, 1984;
Sights & Richards, 1984). Bulimics in treatment may not be representative of all
bulimics; their personality functioning as well as their family relationships may differ
from those bulimics who do not seek treatment (Kent & Oopton, 1992).
38
One possible mechanism by which parents may influence their children's
perspective of weight and body image concerns is via modeling weight loss behaviors
(Wertheim & Paxton, 1999). In two studies, mothers' dieting or weight concerns were
associated with adolescent (Pike & Rodin, 1991) and grade 4 (Ruther & Richman, 1993)
daughters' individual weight concerns. However, three other studies found no
significant relationship between mother and daughter eating concerns when studying
adolescents (Attie & Brooks-Gunn, 1989; Moreno & Cooke, 1994; Thelen & Cormier,
1995). Although the role played by familial factors in the etiology of eating disorders has
ignited a great deal of theoretical interest, empirical data are fragmentary and highly
speculative (Kog & Vandereycken, 1985; Strober & Humphrey, 1987). A family systems
approach does not see the family as the cause of an eating disorder, but rather it
emphasizes the family as the context within which the eating disorder is embedded
(Eisler, 1995).
Adolescents are prime candidates for eating disorders, and Smets and Hartup
(1988) indicate adolescents are in the process of learning to separate from their families
and developing independence, and as a result, their psychological well-being is often
less directly linked to family systems. Individuation is the process by which one learns
to differentiate between important self-other distinctions and moves toward gradually
forming an assured self-identity (Lopez, 1992). Achieving a balanced capacity for
39
autonomy and intimacy in the process of individuation is a difficult, but important
developmental challenge of adolescence (Grotevant & Cooper, 1986; Youniss & Smollar,
1985). Some prominent characteristics associated with codependents and women with
eating disorders who have separation-individuation problems include a high need for
control, distorted self-other boundaries, and the displacement of repressed feelings by
way of self-destructive behaviors (Meyer & Russell, 1998).
Psychosocial Components of Eating Disorders:
There is a close relationship between dieting behavior promoted by society
and bulimic symptoms, which tend to develop within a year from the onset of dieting,
particularly in women who have poor impulse control (Nasser, 1997). Psychosocial
stressors have not proven to be exclusively causative in the development of eating
disorders, but biology, personality, family environment, as well as psychosocial
components together have allowed research to form some conclusions about the etiology
of eating disorders (Cooper, 1995; Halmi, 1992; McFarland, 1995; Woodside, 1993).
Non-western cultures have long been considered relatively immune from
dev~loping eating disorders,
oY~rvalue
by reasons of different authentic cultural values that do not
thinness and possibly associate plumpness with positive attributes of wealth,
40
fertility, and femininity. Even obesity in some societies was once seen to reflect desirable
sexual characteristics (Nasser, 1997).
Although bulimia is becoming more cross-cultural in some senses, many
bulimics come from similar white, middle to upper-class backgrounds (Hall & Cohn,
1986). Americans typically worry a great deal about external life factors, including what
they will eat and wear (Kilbourne, 1999). Many researchers suggest a link between
increases in the cultural emphasis on thinness and the escalation of disordered eating
patterns in young women (Striegel-Moore, 1993). According to studies conducted by
Williamson, Cubic, and Gleaves (1993) and Stice and Agras (1998), bulimic women
exhibit a tendency to prefer thinner ideal body sizes on silhouettes than other women,
which implies women with bulimia internalize thin-ideal images to a greater extent than
do other women.
Peer pressure is the primary mechanism which transports group norms and
encourages or discourages certain attitudes and behaviors. Because adolescent women
are susceptible to internalizing others' opinions, eating-disordered behaviors have the
potential of escalating based on negative peer influence through the realm of bodyimage fixation and teasing. Stice (1998) defines social reinforcement as comments or
actions of others that serve to support and perpetuate the thin ideal body image for
women, such as criticism regarding weight (i.e., teasing) and encouragement to diet.
41
The sociocultural model of disordered eating purports that individuals who live in a
sociocultural environment favoring values related to the significance of thinness and
dieting will be more likely to adopt such values (Levine & Smolak, 1992).
Dieting is a rapidly growing trend that encompasses the minds of girls and
women of all ages (Hill, Draper & Stack, 1994; Hill, Oliver, & Rogers, 1992; Wardle &
Beales, 1986). Adolescence is an important developmental stage of life for the emergence
of body dissatisfaction, dieting, and eating problems (Crisp, 1980; Rosen & Gross, 1987).
Wardle and Marsland (1990) indicate that dieting occurs in approximately 50-70% of
North American adolescent high school girls, with even greater numbers reporting body
dissatisfaction and expressing a desire to be thin. Horm and Anderson (1993) report that
40 % of individuals in their sample were dieting at any time, and Furnham and Greaves
(1994) indicate that 87 % of their sample had dieted at some time. Rosen, Tacy, and
Howell (1990) surveyed 1,373 high school students and found on the day the study was
conducted, 63% of the girls and 16.2% of the boys were dieting to lose weight despite the
fact that most of these adolescents were already at a normal weight level. Similarly,
Miller, Coffman and Linke (1980) conducted a study and found 61% of college women
were dieting to lose weight, even though only 35 % of the students in the survey were
classified as overweight.
42
The importance of the role of dieting in the formation of eating disorders is
well documented (Fairburn & Cooper, 1984; Polivy & Herman, 1985, 1987, 1995;
Williamson, 1990; Wilson, 1995). Dieting alone is not excluSively the only potential cause
of eating disorders, but its significant impact on young adolescent women has been
verified by various researchers throughout the last two decades. Several studies offer
evidence that dieting behavior in conjunction with personality factors may lead to the
onset of eating-disordered behavior Gohnson-Sabine et al., 1988; Patton, 1988; Szmukler,
Eisler, Gillis, et al., 1985). Just as dieting can be a psychologically contagious behavior,
bulimic symptoms have the potential of being very communicable as well. Crandall
(1988) conducted a study that found women in two college sororities reported a positive
relationship between binge eating and popularity, suggesting that binge eating is
primarily acquired through peer modeling. Schwartzberg (1998) says adolescents see
themselves in their peers and develop a concept of self through the eyes of others.
Mintz and Betz (1988) postulate that up to 65% of women in their first year of
college display some behavioral and psychological characteristics of disturbed eating,
while Drewnowski, Yee, Kurth, & Krahn (1994) and Joiner & Kashubeck (1996) indicate
prevalence studies suggesting that around 30% of college students experience various
degrees of eating-disordered behaviors such as binge eating, purging, caloric restriction,
and unhealthy weight loss. College is a time of transition from childhood to adulthood
43
in that frequently adolescents are independent from their parental support systems for
the first time in their lives. The modulation from dependence on family to independence
while at college typically increases some levels of stress for the adolescent seeking to find
her identity separate from that of their families (Dickstein, 1989; Hotelling, 1989; Howard
& Porzelius, 1999; and Rhodes & Kroger, 1992;).
Striegel-Moore, Silbertstien, and Rodin (1986) suggest college campuses are
stressful semiclosed environments that intensify sociocultural pressures to be thin.
Mintz and Betz (1988) reported that in a sample of over 600 nonobese, nonanorexic
college women, only 33% could be characterized as having normal eating habits, while
61 % were found to have some intermediate form of eating-disordered behavior. These
behaviors ranged from chronic dieting to binge-eating and purging, but at the time of
the study, they did not meet the DSM-ill-R criteria for an eating disorder (American
Psychiatric Association, 1987). The mean age of onset for bulimia nervosa is
approximately eighteen years old, although the disorder can develop in childhood as
well (Sokol, Steinberg, & Zerbe, 1998; Steiner & Lock, 1998). Because the average age
onset for bulimic behavior coincides with college age students, studies conducted with
college females are Significant to the field of research related to eating disorders.
44
Personality Characteristics Related to Bulimic Behavior:
Some emotional difficulties are commonly associated with bulimic individuals.
Low self-esteem (Kirkpatrick & Caldwell, 2001), anxiety, emotional instability, dysphoria
(Edwards & Nagelberg, 1986; Eldredge, Wilson, & Whaley, 1990; Herman & Polivy,
1988; Johnson & Maddi, 1986), alienation, self-consciousness, lack of assertiveness,
inadequate emotional expression (Norman & Herzog, 1984; Pyle et al., 1981), feelings of
inadequacy, helplessness, ineffectiveness, guilt, and self-doubt (Garfinkel & Garner,
1982) all have been found to portray emotional problems of the early bulimic child.
Some researchers believe eating disorders result in exaggerations of certain personality
disorders as a result of the starvation effects, dietary chaos, and emotional turmoil
associated with eating-disordered behavior (Vitousek & Manke, 1994; Wonderlich &
Mitchell,1992).
Steiger et al. (1997) found that bulimic individuals showed elevated rates of
narcissistic traits, even after they had recovered from their bulimic illness. In addition,
they also found that active and remitted bulimic subjects showed greater increases in
self-criticism and deterioration in mood following stressful interpersonal transitions than
did normal eaters. Impulsivity is a common characteristic of the individual who
struggles with control in the intake of his or her food portions. Steiger, Lehoux, and
Gauvin (1999) found that bulimic individuals who had elevated levels of trait
45
impulsivity displayed a weaker association between dietary restraint and daily binging
behavior than did subjects lower in impulsivity. Borderline personality traits are
commonly observed in bulimic patients, such as interpersonal distress, suicidal and selfdestructive behavior, and a greater use of psychotropic medications and inpatient
treatment Gohnson, Tobin, & Dennis, 1990; Vitousek & Manke, 1994; Wonderlich &
Swift, 1990; Wonderlich & Mitchell, 1992). Anorexia and bulimia nervosa inevitably
affect personality development if they are severe, prolonged, or occur at critical
junctures in development (Schwartzberg, 1998).
Perfectionism is a characteristic seen repeatedly in women who struggle with
eating disorders. The cycle begins with the person unrealistically desiring to perform at
perfection, inevitably falling short of the perfectionistic standard, and this results in a
decreasing of the already low self-esteem in the eating-disordered individual often
contributing to the person's poor sense of worth and increasingly low self-esteem
(Kirkpatrick & Caldwell, 2001). Perfectionism is associated with the psychological and
Cognitive dimensions of eating disorders, and Brownell (1991) believes perfectionism
may be the prime motivation of unhealthy weight loss. Hewitt and Flatt (1991) purport
perfectionism, including the follOwing: setting unrealistic standards, fear of failure,
shame, and strict self-evaluations. Vohs, Joiner, et al. (1999) have found some
46
prospective support for their hypothesis that perfectionism combines with weight
dissatisfaction and low self-esteem to increase the risk of developing bulimic symptoms.
Some researchers contend that both anorexic and bulimic women share
perfectionistic traits which playa crucial role in the development and maintenance of
their eating disorders (Flett & Hewitt, 2002). Hewitt, Flett, and Ediger (1995) studied
perfectionism and supported Strober's (1991) psychobiological and multidimensional
model of perfectionism that implied perfectionistic personality traits may have a genetic
basis. Flett and Hewitt (2002) conclude the following:
... the role of perfectionism in cognitive-behavioral models of eating disorders
appears to be linked to the development and maintenance of faulty cognitions
that reflect unrealistic standards about shape and weight and to the interpretation
of 'failures' to achieve desired weight loss. (p. 323)
According to Flett and Hewitt (2002), a review of literature reveals that research on
eating disorders and perfectionism has evolved from studying only the prevalence of
perfectionistic traits in eating-disordered individuals to now incorporating more current
research which explores the role of perfectionism in the etiology and maintenance of
anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa. When bulimic individuals avoid disclosing
imperfections to others, it can be significantly related to purging behaviors. This
suggests that people who avoid disclosing facets of their lives that they perceive to be
47
imperfect tend to actively pursue weight loss by vomiting, abusing laxatives, or
exercising excessively. Traits such as perfectionism and other related dispositions may
create vulnerabilities which interrelate with life stressors and body dissatisfaction to
promote disordered eating (Joiner, Heatherton, Rudd, & Schmidt, 1997; Leon, et al.,
1995).
48
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Population and Sample:
The participants in this study were female college students enrolled in
psychology courses at a private comprehensive university in the Midwest. The
participants were recruited from undergraduate psychology classes, with extra credit
offered for taking the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2.
The number of sampled women available, based on the nine classes surveyed, was 248,
ranging from freshmen to seniors in college.
All subjects were screened for subclinical bulimic behavior as opposed to
clinical cases of bulimia nervosa according to the DSM-N-TR (American Psychiatric
Association, 2000). They were administered the Eating Disorder Inventory-2 and the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) in a single contact session. The purpose of
administering the MBTI was to view the "5" (Sensing) and "J" Gudging) components of
the females' personalities, while the administration of the EDI-2 was for identifying
bulimic behavior.
49
Instrumentation:
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator was developed by Katherine C. Briggs and
Isabel Briggs Myers and has been used extensively in various fields of study: education,
counseling, career guidance, and communication-building activities for places of
employment (Myers & McCaulley, 1985). The MBTI is a self-report inventory developed
to measure personality variables associated with the Jungian psychological typology.
The MBTI (Form G) consists of 126 forced-choice phrases, to which the respondent
responds on a scan-tron answer form. The questions yield information regarding the
four functions and the two attitudes. The attitude-and-function profile is assessed on the
basis of the individual's preferences on items that require a choice between opposing
functions such as Thinking versus Feeling, or Sensing versus Intuiting or opposing
attitudes such as Introversion versus Extroversion (Barresi-Devore, 1987). Four
literature reviews examined the research on the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (Carolyn,
1977; Carskadon, 1979; Carlson, 1985; Murray, 1990), and they concluded that the MBTI
possesses sufficient psychometric validity for research purposes, even if further studies
are needed in particular regarding its construct validity. Reliabilities remain stable up to
twenty-five omissions for Form G, and these cut-off points can be used to determine the
pumber acceptable for research studies (Briggs-Myers & McCaulley, 1986). Test-retest
50
reliabilities of the MBTI show consistency over time, and when individuals report a
change in type, it usually occurs in only one preferences or in scales where the original
preference score was low (Briggs-Myers & McCaulley, 1986).
There are a total of sixteen different 4-letter personality profiles using the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (e.g., ESFJ, INTP, ENFP, ISFJ, etc.). Scores on the
extroversion scale correlate with social adjustment, leadership, assertiveness,
gregariousness, desire for affiliation and affection and altruism. Scores on the
introversion scale are attached to reflective observation, autonomy, and interest in
privacy. Scores on the sensing scale correlate with measures of practical outlook and
occupations relating to economic gain while scores on the intuitive scale have significant
correlations with measures of flexibility, artistic sensitivity, independence,
innerdirectedness, and liking to use the mind. Scores on the thinking scale have
correlations with measures of dominance, abstract conceptualization, assertiveness,
achievement, and aggression. Scores on the feeling scale correlate with measures of
concern for others, nurturance, sociability, deference, blame avoidance, and creative
occupations in the arts and humanities. Scores on the perceptive scale correlate with
measures of complexity, flexibility, autonomy, succorance, and imagination, while scores
on the judging scale have significant correlations with measures of order, self-control,
achievement, leadership, and endurance (Briggs-Myers & McCaulley, 1986).
51
Kiersey and Bates (1984) focused on four temperaments, which include
combinations of two-letter types (e.g., NF, NT, SJ, SP). For the purposes of this study,
the researcher is focusing on the "SJ" component of the personality. Some of the
characteristics of the "SJ" quadrant of personality are as follows: bound by a sense of
duty; yearn to belong to meaningful institutions; are trustworthy, loyal, helpful,
reverent, and stabilizing traditionalists; love to organize people, furniture, schedules,
timetables, and organizations; find fulfillment in administration because of their
dependability and ability to take charge; love to take charge of the home; need family
roles and rituals to be clearly defined; and keep the fabric of our society together as they
seek to do the right thing at the right time. Another characteristic of the "SJ"
temperament is they gather information in a practical, structured, and realistic way
(Kiersey & Bates, 1984).
Eating Disorder Inventory-2
The EDI-2 is a 91-item, standardized self-report measuring symptoms
commonly associated with a range of eating disorder behaviors, including bulimia
nervosa and anorexia nervosa. The inventory is dissevered into two clinically relevant
domains: ego-dysfunction characteristics and eating attitudes (Valdiserri & Kilhlstrom,
1995). The three eating attitude subscales are as follows: Drive for Thinness (a
52
preoccupation with dieting and fear of weight gain); Bulimia (a tendency to think about
and engage in binging behavior); and Body Dissatisfaction (extreme dissatisfaction with
overall shape and parts of the body). The eight ego-dysfunction subscales include:
Ineffectiveness (feelings of emptiness, aloneness and lack of control over one's life);
Perfectionism (the belief that only the highest standards are acceptable); Interpersonal
Distrust (the need to keep others at a distance); Interoceptive Awareness (confusion and
mistrust in recognizing and accurately responding to emotional states); Maturity Fears
(the desire to retreat back to the security of childhood); Asceticism (the practice of selfdenial, self-restraint and self-discipline); Impulse Regulation (a tendency towards
recklessness, impulsivity, and hostility); and Social Insecurity (the belief that
relationships are unrewarding and disappointing). In all cases, higher scores are
equivalent with a greater level of eating and related psychopathology (Garner, 1991).
The EDI-2 is a well recognized assessment tool which distinguishes between
clinical and nonclinical eating disorders. Reliability coefficients for the original EDI
subscales were between .83 and .93 for the eating disorder sample (Garner & Olmsted,
1984). In a research study conducted by Wear and Pratz (1987), the retest reliability was
.90 for respondents who scored high on the Bulimia subscale. Crowther et al. (1990)
conducted a large study and found the internal consistency reliability was .69, and the
test-retest reliability in this study was .44. According to the EDI-2 manual, lower
53
reliabilities for the Bulimia subscale may relate to the probable fluctuation of eating
behaviors and affective content over time (Garner, 1991).
Criterion validity is the ability of items to discriminate between eating
disorder and nonpatient samples, and all of the items in the original EDI validation
study met this standard (Garner, Olmsted, & Polivy, 1983a). Concurrent validity was
established by comparing patient self-report profiles with the judgments of experienced
clinicians who were aware of the patients' clinical presentation (Garner, 1991). A
discriminate function analysis reported that all of the EDI subscales correctly classified
85% of the subjects into bulimic and restrictor subtypes (Garner, Olmsted, & Polivy,
1983a).
The EDI-2 measures cognitive and behavioral aspects associated with bulimia
nervosa and anorexia nervosa. Participants respond to the Likert-type scale on the 91
inventory items as follows: always (3), usually (2), often (1), sometimes (0), rarely (0),
and never (0). This scoring system is designed to differentiate between those with eating
disorders and the occasional dieters with partial syndromes. The EDI has been used in
multiple studies and has been found to successfully discriminate between subjects with
and without eating disorders (Garner, et al., 1983). The EDI-2 is not to be used in
isolation from other assessments when diagnosing eating disorders, but in nonclinical
settings it may be used to identify eating disorder behaviors not technically diagnosed
54
according to the DSM-N-TR. Individuals with subclinical eating disorders are at risk for
developing clinical eating disorders, and the EDI-2 offers useful insight regarding some
potential eating-disordered behaviors that, if apprehended in time, may suspend the
eating disorder from becoming a serious life-threatening problem.
Procedures:
All subjects were administered both the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and the
Eating Disorder Inventory-2 in order to determine if the MBTI personality traits of "S"
(Sensing) and "J" (Judging) correlated with high scores on the bulimic subscale of the
EDI-2. The researcher was looking for bulimic behaviors associated with personality
traits common to those of the Sensor and Judger. The researcher analyzed the Sensing
function of the MBTI because of the congruence between the impulsive behavior of
bulimic individuals (Herman & Polivy, 1988) and the tendency to focus on the
immediate experience and present moment of the Sensor (Briggs-Myers & McCaulley,
1986). The Sensor focuses on immediate gratification, which may lead to impulsive
behaviors without consideration of consequences. The researcher analyzed the Judging
attitude of the MBTI because this characteristic is commonly associated with individuals
who make decisions and devise a plan to bring about closure without gathering
sufficient information before making a decision (Briggs-Myers & McCaulley, 1986).
55
Bulimic individuals struggle with binging and purging, and they often times neglect to
consider other more productive behaviors when dealing with intense emotions. The
"SI" factors of the MBTI typically characterize a perfectionistic person, and individuals
who struggle with eating disorders often times are perfectionistic, especially as they seek
to attain unreasonable goals with weight and body image (Flett & Hewitt, 2002).
The participants were asked to complete the two inventories at the conclusion
of their final exam in their respective psychology classes. Each professor agreed to offer
extra credit to those who choose to participate in this study, and the researcher read the
informed consent to the class before the exams began. Participants received a short
debriefing as to the nature of this study, agreeing to write a coded identification number
on both of the inventories as a written form of their consent to participate in this research
study. The subjects were thanked for their willingness to participate in the study and
received assurance of the anonymity of their information. The students were instructed
to follow the written instructions provided in the test booklets for both the EDI-2 and the
MBTI. The researcher was available to answer any questions individuals had as the tests
were completed.
56
Design:
A correlational design was utilized in this study, which was intended to
describe the nature of the existing relationship between the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator
temperaments ("SI") and bulimic behavior based on the bulimia subscale of the EDI-2.
The data obtained from the hypotheses in this study may be used for further clinical
decisions in research. This study is considered exploratory research since the research
literature does not provide a definitive direction regarding specificity in directional
hypothesis testing.
Data Analysis:
The researcher utilized correlation coefficients to quantitatively describe
the strength and direction between two variables utilizing the Pearson-Product Moment
Correlation Coefficient personality traits from the MBTI and bulimic behavior
according to the Eating Disorder Inventory-2. A chi-square test of independence was
calculated comparing the "S}" personality factors of the MBTI with the bulimia subscale
on the EDI-2. A chi-square test of independence was calculated comparing the "5"
personality factor of the MBTI with the bulimia subscale on the EDI-2. A t-test was also
conducted comparing the mean score of subjects who were identified as "5" nonbulimic
females to the mean score of subjects who were identified as "S" bulimic females. A chi-
57
square test of independence was calculated comparing the IT' personality factor of the
Myers-Briggs Type Indicator with the bulimia subscale on the EDI-2. An independent
t-test was also conducted comparing the mean score of subjects who were identified as
"1" nonbulimic females to the mean score of subjects who were identified as "1" bulimic
females. When two continuous variables are compared, Isaac and Michael (1995) claim
that utilizing the Pearson-Product Moment Correlation test is most appropriate.
58
CHU\PTER4:RESULTS
This chapter presents demographic information and normative information
relevant to the scoring of the Eating Disorder fuventory-2 as well as content related to
the objectives of The Myers-Briggs Type fudicator Test Finally, the results of the
statistical analyses and findings related to the hypotheses are reported at the conclusion
of this chapter.
Demographic Data:
The total sample consisted of 221 female subjects who were students at a local
college. The subjects' ages ranged from 18-22 years old and represented freshmen,
sophomore, junior and senior status in college. The subjects were identified as either
characterized with bulimic or nonbulimic behavior based on their scores on the EDI-2.
The response rate was 91 % based on the 221 subjects that completed both the EDI-2 and
the MBTI. The researcher believes this high response rate is due in part to the
graciousness of the psychology department in offering extra credit for the students who
completed both inventories. Four individuals filled out a majority of the inventories, but
their data was unable to be used because some answers were left blank. Unanswered
59
questions skew the results of the MBTI personality profile, and the scores on the Bulimia
subscale of the EDI-2 cannot be computed accurately unless all questions are answered.
The Eating Disorder Inventory-2 Bulimia Subscale:
There are seven questions specifically related to bulimic behavior on the
Eating Disorder Inventory-2, each with a potential score of 0-3 points. Therefore, the
range of scores for each individual subject is from 0-21 points, with the higher number
representing more severe bulimic behavior. Utilizing the EDI-2 profile form for an
authoritative cut-off point, anything above a score of 3 insinuates bulimic behavior in
female college students. Scores considered significant on the profile form do not indicate
DSM-N-TR diagnoses of bulimia nervosa, but rather these scores indicate problematic
patterns in this domain.
The Bulimia subscale assesses the tendencies to think about and indulge in
periodic times of uncontrollable overeating (bingeing). The presence of binge eating is
one of the defining features of Bulimia Nervosa and differentiates the bulimic and
restrictor subtypes of Anorexia Nervosa (Garner, 1991). Research has shown that
bulimia is common in individuals who do not meet all of the criteria to qualify for a
formal diagnosis of an eating disorder (Pyle, Halvorson, Neuman, & Mitchell, 1986). In
60
most severe cases of clinically diagnosable bulimia nervosa, individuals will have high
levels of psychological distress (Garner, 1991).
Norms for the female college sample are based on the 770 nonpatient female
college students who participated in the original EDI validation study (Garner, Olmsted,
& Polivy, 1983a; for Interoceptive Awareness and Maturity Fears subscales, the norms are
based on only 273 women who completed the final version of the EDI that included all
of the final items for these subscales). These women were the first and second year
psychology classes at the University of Toronto (Gamer, 1991).
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator:
The MBT! is an ipsative instrument because it requires a forced choice
between two contrasting responses, but each response alternative is scored on a different
scale (Myers & MaCaullay, 1988). Because of this separate scoring and the omission
issue, the shortcut of scoring an exclusive part of the scale is not recommended. Form G
was used for this research project, of which the standardization was based on 1,114
males and 1,111 females, grades four through twelve in three public schools in Bethesda,
Maryland, and in four private schools in the suburbs of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. The
analyses included a rescoring of a sample of 3,362 University of Florida freshmen tested
in 1972 and 1973 (Myers & McCaullay, 1988). Form G of the MBTI was published in
61
1977, and it elitninated 38 research items not previously scored for type in Form F, added
one neW l·te~ and dropped two items that no longer met the criterion for inclusion
J.J.L'
(Myers & McCaullay, 1988). Some of these items were eliminated due to the changes
taking place culturally as well as the need to eliminate ambiguity or awkward
alternatives.
The main objective of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator is to identify four basic
preferences. The indices (El, SN, TF, and JP) are designed to point in one direction or the
other; they are not designed as scales for measurement of traits or behaviors (Myers &
McCaullay, 1988)· The intent of this test is to reflect a habitual choice between rival
alternatives. Every person is assumed to use both poles of each of the four preferences,
but to respond first or most often with the preferred functions or attitudes. The type
deSCriptions include a model of development that continues throughout life (Myers &
McCaullay,l988).
There are a variety of uses for the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. Some may
use it for the purpose of understanding learning styles in educational settings as well as
helping individuals in their choice of school majors, professions, occupations, and work
settings. Other purposes for the MBTl are as follows: selecting teams, task forces, and
work groups with sufficient diversity in personality to solve problems; helping those
Who work or live together to understand how previously irritating and obstructive
62
differences can become a source of amusement, interest, and strength; and, creating a
climate where differences are seen as interesting and valuable rather than problematic.
In counseling, the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator may be used for the following purposes
(Myers & McCaullay, 1988):
* To help others find direction for their lives by understanding the strengths
and gifts of their preferences
* To help individuals cope with their problems by showing them how to use
their problems as a laboratory for developing their powers of perception
and judgment and to thereby gain more satisfactory direction in their
lives
* To help couples and families learn the value of both their differences and
their similarities
* To help parents accept their children as they are (however different the
child's type is from that of the parent)
* To help children follow their different roads to excellence without external
disparagement or internal guilt. (p. 4)
The researcher chose to analyze the Sensing and Judging types due, in part, to
the majority of individuals representing these two MBTI factors. Isabel Myers (1962)
63
made the following estimates of type in the general population relative to the above
study:
* About 75% of the population in the United States prefer "5" (Sensing).
* About 55-65% of the population in the United States prefer "J" (Judging).
Findings Related to the Hypotheses:
Alternative Hypothesis 1 stated: 'The Myers-Briggs type function 'Sf 'is
represented with greater frequency among women who score high on measures of
bulimia.
11
A chi-square test of independence was calculated comparing the "SI"
personality factors of the MBTI with the bulimia subscale on the EDI-2. The selection of
this statistical test is consistent with Barresi-Devore's dissertation data analysis of similar
variables, the study after which the present dissertation is patterned. The most
commonly used value is the Pearson chi-square (value of .76). No significant
relationship was found (chi-square(l) = .76, p> .05). A chi-square test that is not
significant indicates there is no significant dependence of one variable on the other
(Newton & Rudestam, 1999). The data failed to support the researcher's (alternative)
hypothesis.
64
Alternative Hypothesis 2 stated: 'There is a greater representation of the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator Sensing preference among women who score high on
measures of bulimia. "
A chi-square test of independence was calculated comparing the "S"
personality factor of the MBTI with the bulimia subscale on the EDI-2. No significant
r-elationship was found (chi-square(l) = .25, p> .05). A t-testwas also conducted
comparing the mean score of subjects who were identified as "S" nonbulimic females to
the mean score of subjects who were identified as "S" bulimic females. No significant
difference was found (t(219) = .75, P > .05). The mean of the "S" nonbulimic females (M =
16.79, SD = 7.85) was not significantly different from the mean of the "S" bulimic females
(M = 15.85, SD = 8.37). Newton and Rudestam (1999) indicate using a Pearson
correlation when both variables are continuous. There was no significance found in the
correlation between the "S" raw score and the bulimia subscale score (r value = -.025 and
p value = .713). The data failed to support the researcher's hypothesis.
Alternative Hypothesis 3 stated: 'There is a greater representation of the Myers-
Briggs Type Indicator Judging preference among college women who score high on
measures of bulimia.
11
A chi-square test of independence was calculated comparing the "J"
..~
65
personality factor of the MBTI with the bulimia subscale on the EDI-2. No significant
relationship was found (chi-square(l) = 1.11, P > .05). A t-testwas also conducted
comparing the mean score of subjects who were identified as "J" nonbulimic females to
the mean score of subjects who were identified as "J" bulimic females. No significant
difference was found (t(219) = .-1.37, P > .05). The mean of the "J" nonbulimic females
(M = 14.57, SD =6.93) was not significantly different from the mean of the "J" bulimic
females (M = 16.11, SD =7.86). A Pearson Correlation was also calculated, and the
correlation between the "J" raw score and the bulimia subscale score was not statistically
significant (r value = .063 and p value = .354). The researcher's hypothesis was rejected.
Summary of Researcher's Findings:
Results of the statistical analyses in relationship to the hypotheses were
reported in this chapter. Hypotheses 1, 2, and 3 produced no statistical significance, and
the researcher's hypotheses were rejected. The researcher also looked at the liS" and "J"
factors of the MBTI and conducted Pearson chi-square tests and Pearson correlational
t-tests with the other 10 subscales presented on the EDI-2, and no statistical significance
was found with any of these subscales as well.
66
CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY, DISCUSSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
This chapter presents a summary of the study, a discussion of the results of the
statistical analyses, and some potential recommendations for future research.
Summary:
The present study examined the psychological and temperamental
characteristics of individuals displaying bulimic behavior relative to the bulimia
subscale on the EDI-2. The study proposed to view bulimic behavior in college women
based on the high prevalence of eating-disordered behaviors in adolescent women. With
the frequency of eating disorders rapidly escalating (Maxmen & Ward, 1995), the
researcher sought to study personality traits potentially connected with women inclined
to bulimic behavior. The study proposed to investigate the differences between
psychological subscales of the MBTI and the EDI-2.
The general hypothesis was that measures of bulimia correlate with the
attitude and functions of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator. More specifically, the
hypotheses introduced in this study were that a particular typology, represented by the
Sensing and Judging preferences, would positively correlate with various measures of
67
bu.JjJ:nic behavior. The hypotheses consisted of testing separately the Sensing and
Judgi1lg preferences of individuals with bulimic behavior as well as testing the two-letter
Myers-Briggs combination of the Sensing and Judging preferences with bulimic
behavior.
To test the hypotheses, 221 students from a local college were given the MyersBriggs Type Indicator and the EDI-2. The subjects were divided according to their
Myers-Briggs type preference, and the researcher chose to focus on the Sensing (S) and
Judging ill preferences. Once the MBTI preferences were divided (SJ's and non SJ's), the
researcher examined the bulimia subscale scores on the EDI-2. Subjects who scored 3 or
higher -were recognized as displaying bulimic behavior according to the EDI-2 female
college norm profile scale. The hypothesis of a defined typology characteristic of
individuals who score high on measures of bulimia was not upheld. No statistical
significance was found between the "SJ" types and the other types on measures of
bulimia. The alternative hypotheses 1, 2 and 3 were not accepted according to the .05
level of significance.
Discussion:
Given that the present research hypotheses were shown to be untenable, the
researcher believes the present study provides important insight into better
68
understanding bulimic behavior in women. In particular, personality characteristics,
such as those assessed with the MBTI, generally are thought to be stable through the
adult lifespan (Derlega, Winstead, & Jones, 1999). In contrast, bulimic behavior is
considered by clinicians to be dynamic and treatable (Garner, 1991). Since these two
variables do not appear to correlate, then stable personality characteristics should not be
thought to impede or prohibit change in malleable behavior;;tl choices, such as bulimic
behavior.
Moreover, since bulimic behavior is changeable, the research frequently
addresses the significance of the individual's psychosocial environment as a predictor or
sustainer of eating-disordered behavior (Joiner, Heatherton, Rudd, & Schmidt, 1997;
Leon, et al., 1995). Behavior is affected by processes external to the individual's inner
processes. At the same time, behavior is also affected by attributes and processes within
us; we also respond on the basis of our goals, motives, needs, self-esteem, feelings, and
other intrapersonal features (Derlega, Winstead, & Jones, 1999).
Bulimic behavior is characteristically viewed as impulsive and an immediate
means to deal with the stressors of life (Steiger, Lehoux, & Gauvin, 1999). Because one's
personality is, for the most part, stable throughout the course of one's life, it allows the
researcher to view this stability as a deterrent in predicting the fluctuating and impulsive
aspects of bulimic behavior. The researcher looked specifically at the Sensing preference
69
due to the inclination of this type as resistant to change. This personality preference
contests change and views things as concrete rather than abstract. Sensing personality
types may settle for faulty solutions to problems because they lack the intuitives'
capacity to see possibilities. For instance, bulimic individuals may respond and react to
present circumstances by impulsively indulging in binging & purging cycles because
they are hesitant to objectively view other healthier options of dealing with life stressors
(Steiger, et al., 1999).
The heterogeneity of bulimic behavior has well been recognized since the
inception of studies on eating disorders (Kirkpatrick & Caldwell, 2001; Herman &
Polivy, 1988; Johnson & Maddi, 1986). Given the intricate etiology of bulimia, it is not
surprising that, as yet, there is no research showing one specific cause for bulimic
behavior. The present study attempted to overcome, at least partially, this convoluted
task by analyzing a variety of variables associated with bulimic behavior based on the
EDI-2 and examining potential correlations with personality preferences in relation to
the MBTI. No single preference was associated with bulimic behavior, and this study
reinforces the view that btilimic behavior is a complex pattern of dynamiCS, unable to be
directly correlated with personality traits.
70
Recommendations for Future Research:
Utilizing assessment measures beyond self-report questionnaires should be
considered when designing future research studies in this area. Participants may wish
to appear healthier than they are in actuality by omitting, distorting or in some other
way, altering the truth. This phenomenon may have led to a bias in the present study,
especially since the tests were taken in an academic classroom with peers surrounding
them. A qualitative study may offer additional insight and provide a greater level of
subject vulnerability by means of in-depth interviews, in addition to the standardized
questionnaires utilized in this study.
The hypotheses of this study were unable to be confirmed, so the researcher
conducted a post-hoc analysis of the eleven additional subscales on the EDI-2, looking
for correlations between eating-disordered behavior and the MBTI preferences (Sensing
and Judging). None of the eleven scales showed any type of correlation between
personality and eating-disordered behavior. This is significant in that, according to
these two instruments, eleven factors related to both anorexic and bulimic behaviors
were in no way correlated with personality preferences. Because personality is generally
stable, with change occurring only over long periods of time, a longitudinal study might
reveal insightful findings. Clearer distinctions between bulimic and nonbulimic groups
would allow for stricter control over the results as well. Other psychometric measures of
71
human behavior, such as the Taylor-Johnson Temperament Analysis, could be utilized to
provide additional findings relating to personality and bulimic behaviors. Overall, the
researcher believes this study showed the need to explore additional potential factors
relevant to the nature of eating disorders, including influential psychosocial facets such
as familial, social, and peer relationships.
72
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CEDARVILLE
UNIVERSITY
November 26, 2003
Dr. Ronald Allen
Liberty University
1971 University Blvd
Lynchburg, V A 24502-2269
Re:
Lori Anderson's Dissertation Research
This memorandum is to confirm that Lori Anderson was given permission by Cedarville
University to do her dissertation research involving human subjects (some of our female
students). Her research is being conducted from January 2003 through January 2004.
Sincerely,
DN~tf.tJJ
Dr. DuaneR. Wood
Academic Vice President
'It::1
l\.T
'lK_!_
C' .........
~_..J
____ :11_
r"\.L:_
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.... __________ .J ____ ~11 _ _ ...1 __
INFORMED CONSENT
From: Lori Lyn Anderson, M.S., L.P.C.
RE: Voluntary Informed Consent
My name is Lori Anderson, and I am a licensed professional counselor who works in Counseling Services
at Cedarville University. I am currently working on my Ph. D. in Professional Counseling at Liberty University
and am in the process of conducting my dissertation study focusing on personality characteristics commonly
associated with eating disorders. I specialize in working with women who struggle with eating disorders, and
along with my supervisor, Dr. Michael Firmin, I am interested in assessing eating behaviors utilizing the MyersBriggs Type Indicator and the Eating Disorder Inventory-2. These tests are each approximately 20 minutes in
length.
You have been selected to participate in this study based on your enrollment in Psychology classes at
Cedarville University during the spring semester. Your involvement is strictly voluntary and will in no way
negatively affect your grade for this course or your status at the university; now or in the future. There is minimal
risk of mental, physical or emotional harm as pertaining to this study. You have the freedom at any time to
withdraw from this study without any penalty. By writing your identification number (minus the last number) on
the answer sheets you are offering your informed consent to becoming a participant in this study. Your personal
information will be kept confidential and will be used only for the purposes ofidentifyingdata for this research
project.
For answers to questions pertaining to the research, research participant's rights, or in the event of a
research-related injury, you may contact me at (937)-766-7855 or Dr. Michael Firmin, Chair ofthe Psychology
department at Cedarville University, at (937)-766-7970.
Thank you for your willingness to participate in this research endeavor.
Sincerely,
Lori Lyn Anderson, M.S., L.P.C.
Department ofCounseIing
Cedarville University
crosstabs
Case Processing Summary
,...
Valid
I
I
N
S or N * BULIMIC
221
N
Percent
98.2%
Cases
Missing
J Percent
1.8%
41
Total
J
N
2251
Percent
100.0%
S or N * BULIMIC Crosstabulation
S or
S
N
N
Total
BULIMIC
bulimic
non bulimic
114
34
77.0%
23.0%
54
19
74.0%
26.0%
168
53
76.0%
24.0%
Count
% within S or N
Count
% within S or N
Count
% within S or N
Total
148
100.0%
73
100.0%
221
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Value
.250D
.111
.248
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity Correctiona
Likelihood Ratio
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
df
1
1
1
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sidedf
.617
.739
.619
Exact Sig.
(2-sided)
Exact Sig.
(1-sided)
.619
.249
1
.366
.618
221
a. Computed only for a 2x2 table
b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 17.51.
Crosstabs
Case Processing Summary
Valid
N
J or P * BULIMIC
221
I
I
Percent
98.2%
N
Cases
MissinQ
Percent
1.8%
41
1
J or P * BULIMIC Crosstabulation
J or
P
J
P
Total
Count
% within J or P
Count
% within J or P
Count
% within J or P
BULIMIC
non bulimic
bulimic
94
34
73.4%
26.6%
74
19
79.6%
20.4%
168
53
76.0%
24.0%
Total
128
100.0%
93
100.0%
221
100.0%
Total
N
1
2251
Percent
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
~earson Chi-Square
Value
1.111°
.800
1.124
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided).
.292
.371
.289
df
1
1
1
continuity Correctiona
Likelihood Ratio
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
1.106
Association
N of Valid Cases
221
a. Computed only for a 2x2 table
Exact Sig.
{i-sided}
Exact Sig.
(2-sided)
.186
.340
1
.293
b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 22.30.
crosstabs
Case Processing Summary
Cases
MissilN
N
Percent
Valid
N
T or F * BULIMIC
Percent
221
98.2%
Total
N
225
1.8%
4
Percent
100.0%
T or F * BULIMIC Crosstabulation
Tor
F
T
F
Total
BULIMIC
non bulimic
bulimic
44
12
78.6%
21.4%
124
41
75.2%
24.8%
168
53
76.0%
24.0%
Count
% within T or F
Count
% within T or F
Count
% within T or F
Total
56
100.0%
165
100.0%
221
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity Correctiona
likelihood Ratio
Fisher'S Exact Test
linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
.268°
.113
.273
df
1
1
1
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sidec!t
.605
.736
.601
Exact Sig.
~2-sided)
Exact Sig.
(i-sided)
.718
.267
1
.605
221
a. Computed only for a 2x2 table
b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 13.43.
Crosstabs
.374
Case Processing Summary
Cases
Missina
N
Percent
Valid
N
=
s n = 1 and Lp 1
(FILTER) * BULIMIC
s_n
=
s_n 1 andLp
1 (FILTER)
=
Percent
98.2%
221
4
Total
N
1.8%
Percent
225
100.0%
=1 and Lp =1 (FILTER) * BULIMIC Crosstabulation
non sj
BULIMIC
non bulimic
bulimic
97
27
Count
% within s_n = 1 and
j P 1 (FILTER)
Count
% within s_n = 1 and
j P 1 (FILTER)
Count
% within s_n = 1 and
Lp 1 (FILTER)
=
sj
=
Total
=
Total
124
78.2%
21.8%
100.0%
71
26
97
73.2%
26.8%
100.0%
168
53
221
76.0%
24.0%
100.0%
Chi-Square Tests
Pearson Chi-Square
Continuity Correction a
Likelihood Ratio
Fisher's Exact Test
Linear-by-Linear
Association
N of Valid Cases
Value
.755°
.505
.752
df
1
1
1
Asymp. Sig.
(2-sided)
.385
.477
.386
Exact Sig.
(2-sided)
Exact Sig.
(i-sided)
.429
.752
1
.386
221
a. Computed only for a 2x2 table
b. 0 cells (.0%) have expected count less than 5. The minimum expected count is 23.26.
.238
THIN
perfectionism
non perf
* body disatisfaction * perfectionism Crosstabulation
THIN
not want thin
want thin
Total
perfect
THIN
not want thin
want thin
Total
bocIIL disatisfaction
satisfied
disatisfied
119
26
82.1%
17.9%
11
18
37.9%
62.1%
130
44
25.3%
74.7%
16
5
23.8%
76.2%
7
20
25.9%
74.1%
23
25
52.1%
47.9%
Count
% within THIN
Count
% within THIN
Count
% within THIN
Count
% within THIN
Count
. % within THIN
Count
% within THIN
T-Test
Group Statistics
S raw score
N raw score
J raw score
P raw score
BULIMIC
non bulimic
bulimic
non bulimic
bulimic
non bulimic
bulimic
non bulimic
bulimic
N
Std. Deviation
7.85356
8.36981
5.61963
6.19623
6.92703
7.86096
7.27076
8.26138
Mean
16.7857
15.8491
9.4762
10.6226
14.5655
16.1132
12.6012
11.6660
168
53
168
53
168
53
168
63
Independent Samples .Test
Levene's Test for
Equality of Variances
F
S raw score
N raw score
J raw score
P raw score
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Sig.
.549
.460
1.039
.309
2.688
.103
1.980
.161
Std. Error
Mean
.60592
1.14968
.43356
.85112
.53443
1.07979
.56095
1.13479
Total
145
100.0%
29
100.0%
174
100.0%
21
100.0%
27
100.0%
48
100.0%
Independent Samples Test
t-test for Equality of Means
95% Confidence Interval
of the Difference
Std. Error
Difference
Lower
Upper
S raw score
N raw score
J raw score
P raw score
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assurned
1.25707
-1.54085
3.41417
1.29958
-1.64819
3.52151
.90774
-2.93547
.64256
.95519
-3.04704
.75414
1.12799
-3.77084
.67538
1.20480
-3.94578
.85032
1.18439
-1.29911
3.36941
1.26586
-1.48446
3.55477
Correlations
Correlations
S raw score
N raw score
J raw score
P raw score
bul
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
..
**. Correlation IS significant at the 0.01
Correlations
S raw score
1
222
-.896*
.000
222
.470*'
.000
222
-.466*
.000
222
-.025
.713
221
level (2-talled) .
N raw score
-.896*
.000
222
1
222
-.452*
.000
222
.457*
.000
222
.068
.314
221
J raw score
P raw score
-.466*'
.000
222
.457*
.000
222
-.975*'
.000
222
222
-.975*'
1
.000
222
222
.063
-.017
.354
.798
221
221
.470*
.000
222
-.452*'
.000
222
1
bul
-.025
.713
221
.068
.314
221
.063
.354
221
-.017
.798
221
1
224
Independent Samples Test
t-test for Ec ualitv of Means
S raw score
N raw score
J
raw score
P raw score
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Equal variances
assumed
Equal variances
not assumed
Siq. (2-tailecl)
df
t
Mean
Difference
.745
219
.457
.9367
.721
82.907
.473
.9367
-1.263
219
.208
-1.1465
-1.200
80.795
.234
-1.1465
-1.372
219
.171
-1.5477
-1.285
79.119
.203
-1.5477
.874
219
.383
1.0352
.818
79.048
.416
1.0352
APPENDIXD
Table 1
Mean Scores and Standard Deviations on the SIN and JIP Dimensions for Bulimics
and Nonbulimics
SD
t (219)
BULIMIC
N
M
S raw score
nonbulimic
bulimic
168
53
16.79
15.85
7.85
8.37
.75
N raw score
nonbulimic
bulimic
168
53
9.47
10.62
5.62
6.20
-1.26
Jraw score
nonbulimic
bulimic
168
53
14.57
16.11
6.93
7.86
-1.37
P raw score
nonbulimic
bulimic
168
53
12.60
11.57
7.27
8.26
.87