NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
SCHOOL OF BUSINESS AND HUMAN RESOURCE
COURSE CODE: BHM 776
COURSE TITLE: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND GOVERNNANCE
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2
COURSE GUIDE
COURSE CODE: BHM 776
COURSE
TITLE:
PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
GOVERNNANCE
Course Develop/Writr Plangsat Bitrus Dayil
Department of Political Science,
P.M.B 2084,
University of Jos,
Plateau State, Nigeria.
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
Content Editor
Dr. Bonaventure Nkup Haruna
Department of Political Science,
P.M.B 2084,
3
AND
University of Jos,
Plateau State, Nigeria
Course -coordinators
Caroline Aturu-Aghedo
National Open University of Nigeria
14 – 16 Ahmadu Bello Way, Victoria
Island
Lagos.
Programme Leader
Dr. O.J.Onwe
National Open University of Nigeria
14 – 16 Ahmadu Bello Way, Victoria
Island
Lagos.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
Introduction..............................................................................
What you will learn in this Course............................................
1
1
Course Contents……………………………………………….. 1
5
Course Aims............................................................................... 2
Course Objectives......................................................................
2
Course Materials........................................................................
3
Study Units ............................................................................... 3
Assignment................................................................................
4
Tutor Marked Assignments (TMAs) .......................................
4
Final Written Examination……………………………………
Conclusion................................................................................
5
5
Introduction
The Course Public Administration and Governance (BHM 776) is a core course for all the
students
who
are taking Post Graduate Diploma (PGD) Programmes in the School of Business and
Human
Resource
Mnagement.The course is designed to train middle cadre staff
in
the management
of
organizations
and public Institutions
in the 21st Century and beyond. The course which
carries two
credit units is prepared and made available to all the students with the major aim of
bridging the
6
gap among applicants with a weak first degree in related specialization
areas of Business
Administration
and Human Resource Management. The Course is a useful material
to
you in
youras well as in your workplace as managers and administrators.
academic
pursuit
What you will learn in this course
The Course is made up of fifteen units, covering areas such as the Classification and Typologies
of
organisations; the Bureaucracy; the civil service; its nature, strength and weakness;
featurestype
of bureaucracy;
the
ideal
its functions; public administration and national development;
reforms
of the
civil service
in a modern world; changing role of socio-economic and
political transformation;
international
public administration and its relationship
with
domestic public
administration.
Lastly
course
also explains
the the
major aspects of governance to expose the learner to the main issues
that
are expected of administrators in their act of governance.
This Course Guide is meant to provide you with the necessary information about the course in
very and simple terms. The nature of the materials you will be using and how to
clear
makeof
thethebest
use
materials towards ensuring adequate success in your programme as well as the
practice
of Publi c Administration and Governance in the civil service. The course writer is quite
mindful ofof
theonline studies thus it included in this course guide information on how to make
flexibility
use
youroftime and information on how to tackle the tutor-marked assignment (TMA) questions. As
part the requirement of this course, there will be tutorial sessions during
of
which
instructional
facilitatoryour
will take
you through your difficult areas and at the same time have meaningful
interactions
with your fellow learners.
Course Contents
The course consists of the definition of concepts such as Management,
AdministrationTheand
Organization.
course also made explanations on the Classification and Typologies of
organizations;
the
Bureaucracy; the civil service; its nature, strength and weakness; features
of the ideal type
7
bureaucracy; its functions; public administration and national development; reforms of the civil
service
in a modern world; changing role of socio-economic and political transformation;
international
administration public
and its relationship with domestic public administration.
Course Aims
The main aim of the course is to expose you to the nature of Public Administration and the Civil
in
Developing
countries and particularly Nigeria. The bureaucracy as it has
come to its
be strengths
practiced,
particularly
and weaknesses, and the role of public administration and the civil
service
in
development
and in governance of a country. It is believed that at the end of the course you
will
have greater understanding of public administration and governance not just
as
concepts
centrality
of thebut
civil theservice in delivering governance and in the development of a country.
The aims of the course will be achieved by:
1- Explaining the nature of organizations but public and private;
2- Describing the importance of organizations;
3- Explaining the various the relationship between Management,Adminstratin and Organizations;
4- Describing the origin, Nature and Scope of Public Administration;
5- Discussing the nature of the bureaucracy and the characteristics of the bureaucracy;
6- Explaining the nature of the civil service and its functions over time;
7- Explaining the role of the Civil Service in National Development;
8- Identifying and
service.;
explaining the various efforts of the government to
reform the civil
and
9- Discuss the features of various aspects and features of Good Governance; and
10- Identify and explain the various problems faced by the civil service in delivering development
and suggested ways of over-coming them.
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Course Objectives
After completing this course, you should be able to:
1. discuss the nature the nature of organizations ;but private and public;
2. Explain the importance of organizations;
3. discuss the relationship between the term Management, Administration and Organization;
4. explain the origin, nature and scope of public;
5. explain the nature and characteristics of the Bureaucracy;
11- identify and explain the nature and functions of the civil service over time;
12- Describe the role of the Civil Service in National Development;
13- Identify and discuss the various efforts of the government to reform the civil service.; and
14- Discuss the features and various aspects of Good Governance; and
15- Explain the various problems faced by the civil service in delivering development and ways of
over-coming them.
16-Course Materials
Major components of the course are:
1.0 Course Guide
2.0 Study Units
3.0 Textbooks(Recommended but nit restricted to listed books)
4.0 Assignment Guide
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Study Units
There are fifteen units in this course, which should be studied carefully. And these units include:
MODULE ONE: The
of
Public Administration
Typologies of
Organizations,
Origin
Unit 1: The Typologies of organizations
Unit 2:
The Evolution and Growth of Public Administration
Unit 3: The S c ope of Publ i c A dmi ni str
ation
Unit 4: Char acter i sti c s of P ubli c Admi ni str
ati on Accountability and Control of Public Organizations
Unit5:
MODULE TWO: The Bureaucracy and Development
Unit 6: The Meaning and Nature of the Bureaucracy
Unit 7:
B ureauc ra cy
Unit 8:
The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Bureaucracy
Unit 9:
and Dev elopment
Public Administration (Bureaucracy) and the People
Unit 10: The meaning of the civil service, significance and modern trends.
MODULE THREE: Civil Service, Governance and Development
Unit 11: The Nature of the Civil Service in Nigeria
Unit 12: Civil Service Reforms
Unit 13: The Civil Service and Governance
Unit 14: International Public Administration and Domestic Public Administration
Unit 15: The Problems of Public Service in Nigeria/Ways of solving them.
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and Nature
In the first unit, we have simply presented the general understanding
of organization,of anthe interactions of the term Management, Administration and
understanding
Organization.
the we have also been able to give a background on the subject matter of
second
and thirdInunit,
the
course,
which is Public Administration; its origin, definition, nature, scope and functions. In the
fourthfifth we discussed the characteristics of public administration and the centrality of
and
accountability
and transparency in the public sector to deliver services.
The next four units; five, six, seven eight and nine (5,6,7,8 & 9),explain in details the Nature of
the Bureaucracy; the role of the B ur eaucr acy in Dev elopme nt; its Strengths and Weaknesses
centrality
and the of the people in public administration as part of good governance practice and in line with the 21st century
responsibility of government. This is because once you talk of the bureaucracy, what comes to mind is a
rules
and
system
of rigid adherence to procedures with dwarfing initiative. Hence these units explain the bureaucracy as
quite
alright, but in a positive light towards development.
officialdom
The next unit, which is unit ten (10), is used to give us a background to the next units on the
civil service, because it explains the meaning of the civil service and its significance and modern
trends.
The next five units (11, 12, 13, 14, & 15) are used to discuss the Civil Service, Governance and
Development. These units explained in details ;The Nature of the Civil Service in
Nigeria; Civil
Reforms;
TheService
Civil Service and Governance; the characteristics of International Public
Administration
the Domestic and
Public Administration and concluded looking at the Problems of Public
Service
in
Nigeria/Ways
of solving them.
Each study unit is expected to last at least two hours, and it includes the introduction,
objectives,
main content, self-assessment exercises, conclusion and summary as well as references.
Other
bordersarea on
the
tutor-marked
assignment
questions.
Some
of
the
self-assessment
necessitate
you exercises
using yourwillpersonal experiences and some are basically applied,
thus you
make
effortsshould
to read wider and study the practice of administration and governance in your
various
organizations
11
There are also textbooks under the references and other resources for further
reading.to They
are additional information if only you can lay your hands on any of
meant
give you
them.However,you
are
not restricted to the recommended list on the references alone, but are advised
to reads
as and materials in the course area as possible. You are also advised to
much
books
practice
the
self-assessment
exercises and tutor-marked
assignment
questions for
greater
understanding
of the
course. By so doing,
the stated learning objectives of the course will be achieved.
Assignment:
There are many assignments on this course and you are expected to do all of them by
following
the
schedule prescri bed for them in terms of when to attempt them and submit same for grading
by
your tutor.
Tutor-marked Assignment
In doing the tutor-marked assignment, you are to apply your transfer knowledge and what you
have in the contents of the study units. These assignments which are many in number are
learnt
expected
to be turned in to your Tutor for grading. They constitute 30% of the total score for the course
Final written Examination
At the end of the course, you will write the final examination. It will attract the remaining 70%.
This
makes the total final score to be 100%.
Conclusion
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The course, Public Administration and Governance (BHM 776) exposes you to
the issues involved in public administration, the civil service and governance. It
provides you with recommended solutions on how to solve
some of the major
problems that have lingered and have affected the viability of the public service
to deliver development.
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COVER PAGE
COURSE CODE: BHM 776
COURSE TITLE: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND
GOVERNNANCE
Course Developer/Writer
Plangsat Bitrus Dayil
Department of Political Science,
P.M.B 2084,
University of Jos,
Plateau State, Nigeria.
Email: [email protected]
[email protected]
14
TABLE OF CONTENTS
MODULE ONE: THE TYPOLOGIES OF ORGANISATIONS AND THE
ORIGIN AND NATURE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
UNIT 1:
CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS AND TYPOLOGIES OF
ORGANIZATIONS
TITLE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 DEFINITION OF ORGANISATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3.2 THE TYPOLOGIES OF ORGANISATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
3.3THE IMPOR TANCE OF ORGANISATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
3.4 THE BASIC CHARACTERISTICS, STRUCTURE AND ORGANISATION OF
ORGANISATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.5 PROBLEMS CONFRONTING ORGANISATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
3.6 AD M I NI S TR A TI O N , OR G A NI Z AT I ON A ND M AN A GE ME NT . . . .7
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
MODULE 1: THE NATURE AND TYPOLOGIES OF ORGANISATIONS
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UNIT 1 –Clarification of concepts and Typologies of organisations
1.0-Introduction:
There are basically two types of organisations; the public organisation and the private
organisation. These two are similar in their modes of operation, though distinct in terms of
ownership. Both organisations have legal charter, capital stock and board of Directors as
well as management body which is responsible to the board.
They both provide goods and services to the public on a commercial basis. However, the
private organisations are absolutely profit oriented and are owned by private individuals
who are not officials of the government, even though the government provides for its
regulatory framework.
The public organisations on the other hand are established by specific statutes for the
provision of certain social and welfare services. Public Organisations in some instances
provide commercial services. Its powers, duties and matters relating to finance and
personnel are usually contained in the legislative acts, decrees (Decrees were most popular
during militar y regimes) or edicts which establishes them. (Oyediran et-al.2005: pg 119).
Both the private and public organisations are explained in details below with specific
emphasis on the detailed classification, the scope and organisational structure of these
organisations.
2.0-Aims and Objectives
The aim and objective of this unit is to introduce and expose you to the general
understanding of organisations: Public and Private. It is believed that at the end of this
unit, you will be able to;
-Define both public and private organisations and the basis of their typology
-Know the importance of organisations
-Explain in details the characteristics of organisations
-Discuss the problems facing organisations and ways of solving them
3.0-Main Content
3.1-Definition of Organisation
Organisation can be defined as the act of putting into systematic relationship all those
elements and activities essential for the satisfaction of purpose. According to Milwand
G.E “It is the process of dividing work into convenient task or duties, of grouping such
duties in the form of posts, delegating authority to each post, and appointing qualified staff
to be responsible that the work is carried out”. (ARBITRAGE, 2009)
Bretch defines organisation as involving the design of suitable structure by
-explicit definition of roles, positions and jobs
-Departmentation that groups positions into specialised activities
-Hierarchical authority relationships to cement the departments into an orderly rational
structure with channels for delegation of authority from the top to the bottom of the
organisation.
Argyris on the other hand defines organisations as “intricate human strategies designed to
achieve certain objectives. This definition is closely related to that given by Simon as
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“...Systems of behaviour designed to enable humans and their machines to accomplish
goals, organisational goals must be a joint function of human characteristics and the nature
of the task environment. (G.A Cole; 1987)
These varied definitions suggest that there is no universally acceptable or a superior
definition or even a more preferred definition of organisation. But one fact is quite clear,
that it involves organising a social entity, which has the following features; a purpose,
People and Structure.
The discussions on organisation in this unit cover the above mentioned three features
which are key variables in both public and private organisations. These variables are in
constant interactions with;
-The goals of the Organisation
-The Technology/Skills available
-The culture of the organisation (Its Values, beliefs.e.t.c) (Cole, 1987;pg 8)
These variables interact with each other leading to a change. It is important for you to
understand that when these variables are successfully managed leading to a balance, the
organisation becomes stable, when they are not managed successfully; it leads to
instability and consequently unstable growth.
Self Assessment Exercise 1; In what ways do public organisations differ from private
organisations?
3.2. The Typologies of Organisations
Typologies of Organisations can be based on the following;1-Typology based on Membership; these include Voluntary, Military and Philanthropic
organisations. It also includes Co-operation with stake holders, board of directors,
managers and staff. Family business made up of people related by blood or marriage.
2-Typologies based on Decision Making Strategy
This typology of organisation is based on four decisional modes corresponding to four
organisational structures developed by James Thompson and Arthur Toden to include;
-When there is agreement on the objectives as well as on values in which decision is
rational.
- When there is agreement on the objectives and values, the decisional model is
judgemental i.e. self-governing.
-When there is agreement on values, or on objectives, the decisional mode is compromise.
The organisation is a representative body i.e. the national assembly.
-When there is no agreement on objectives or values, the decisional mode is inspirational.
This situation is characterised by absence of any formal organisation i.e. a mob.
3-Typology based on societal Function
This typology was developed by Talcot Parson to include the following functions
1-Organisations which perform adaptation function
2-Organisations which perform Achievement Function
3-Organisations which perform integration function
4-Organisations which perform latency function
4-Typology based on Prime beneficiary
Organisations classified according to the beneficiaries of their major activities to include;
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-Mutual benefit organisations
-Business concerns in which owners are prime beneficiaries
-Service organisations in which prime beneficiaries are the clients
-Commonwealth organisations in which the prime beneficiaries are the public at large.
5-Typology base on Model of funding
All the other typologies are useful in understanding the operations of modern organisation.
The implication of this is that once an organisation is funded either completely or in part
by the government, the attitudes of the organisation and its member’s expectation of the
public are different.
3.3. The importance of organisations
Organisations are important in the sense that they play an important role in grouping
humans and machines together in a stable and flexible pattern to carry out their duties in
the organisation.
Organisations do that through
-Stating objectives
-Analysing Jobs
-Defining Jobs and Functions
-Allocating Staff Based on Competence
-Coordinating the organisational activities/Departments
-Establishing Physical Conditions
-Measuring Operational Effectiveness
-Adjusting Organisational Structure to cope with environmental Changes
-And Re-aligning Objectives.
Organisations are involved in all the activities that cover actual staffing, Job definition and
selection, training and welfare activities applied in various fields to ensure that initial
targets and objectives are realised. This implies that for organisations to be successful and
positive of it’s role, it has to remain focus and constantly striving to improve
understanding and cooperation.
The successful integration of these processes to form an effective organisation as a whole
depends upon a management(Public Administration) that is able to understand that no two
people are the same in an organisation because each person possess a slightly different
mental make-up that affects his/her view, that attitudes affect ones view of the
organisational structure, that there is a wide range of reasons why individuals remain on
the job, and that views affect the roles of individuals in organisations. This is very
important because if it is misunderstood by employees, it affects the entire functions of the
organisation.
3.4. The Basic Characteristics, Structure and Organisation of
organisations
Public organisations can best be grouped into two;-The civil service and the public
corporations. The civil service mainly concerned with the implementation of public
policies. The public corporations on the other hand are enterprise of government
responsible for the provision of certain services but independent of direct legislative
control. It is very necessary for us to throw more light on certain features of public
organisations and its operations before we move further.
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Public organisations consist of certain basic features. These basic characteristics were
clearly identified by Oyediran et al (2005;pg 121) in their work “New Approach
Government “to include the following;
1. Public Organisations are State owned
2. They are created by specific government Statutes which define their powers and
relations with other governmental institutions
3. They have a legal personality, i.e., they have a life of their own, can sue and be sued,
hold property, enter into contracts, etc.
4. In theory, public organisations are independently financed through their own revenue
and loans.
5. They are not subject to parliamentary financial scrutiny, such as that in which
departments of government are subjected.
6. Their employees are civil servants employed directly by government and subject to
conditions determined by the government.
7. Public organisations that are Corporations are usually administered by boards which are
appointed by ministers.
These public organisations are controlled and managed by the government, Board of
directors and management. The government through the minister is responsible for the
appointment of Board members and some senior members of the corporation spokesperson
at the legistlature.The administrative control of the corporation rest with the Board’s
chairman and members. While management is responsible for effectively carr ying out the
policy of the corporation.
Private organisations on the other hand are private non-governmental organisations, and
are judged by their profit drive activities. They are not often operated within the purview
of accountabotiliy.But the Public organisations are constraints by their bounds to obtain
public accountability
The most important similarity between the two is the fact that both use human and
material resources to achieve their objective. And both of them are interested in socioeconomic matters.
Note. Although most public corporations are not set up primarily for profit, they are
expected to find ways of self sustenance. This is also a strategy to avoid over dependence
on government.
Self Assessment Exercise 2; List and explain the basic characteristics of
organisations.
3.5 Problems confronting Organisations
1-Integration.Which is how to integrate individual needs and organisational goals.
2-Social Influence. The problem of distributions of power and sources of power and
authority.
3-Collaboration.The problem of producing mechanisms for the control of conflict.
4-Adoption.The problem of responding appropriately to changes induced by the
environment.
5-Revitalization.The problem of growth and decay.
6-Undue interference in their activities by the government of the day.
19
These problems confront both public and private organisations and can all be handled
through the following ways;1-Organisations can achieve integration through Humanistic-Democratic ethos,
understanding the personality of individuals and harmonising those needs with that of the
organisation.
2-An absolute reliance on legal-rational power and the complete separation of
management from the ownership of offices, as a means of suppressing negative and
unintended effects of authority is the best method of handling social influence in
organisations.
3-Collaboration can simply be achieved through the application of the rule of hierarchy
and the rule of coordination in the resolution of conflicts.Professionalisation and
specialisation as well as the promotion of interdependence is a step in the right direction.
4-Predictable task routine and adventitious ways of handling jobs helps in handling
unanticipated consequences of environmental changes, thereby promoting adaptation.
5-Consatnt revisions of the entire organisational process, in terms of technologies, raw
materials, man power, norms and values of society will help organisations to cope with the
problems of revitalisation and decay.
3.6 Administration, Organization and Management
The ter m admi nis tr at ion, or gani zat ion and m anage ment ar e not synonymous .
Though t hey ar e dis tinc t f r om e ach ot her , the y ar e c los ely r e late d.
A dmini st r ati on is a det er mi nati ve f unct ion. I t l ays down t he obje ctive s and
poli cie s. O r gani zat ion is the st r uctur e f or the a ttai nment of the obj ect ives of
or gani zat ion. A s G eor ge E. B er kl ey s ays , ‘ all admi nis tr at ion r equir es an
or gani zat ion of s ome s hape , si ze or ki nd and al l or ganiz ati on car r y on some
me as ur e of adm inis tr a tive act ivit y’ .
I f adm inis tr a tion i s a dete r mina tive f uncti on, mana gemen t is an e xecuti ve
f unct ion. I t i s pr i mar i ly conc er ned w it h car r ying out the br oad polic ies l aid
dow n by the a dmini st r ati on. Adm inis tr at ion a nd manage ment ar e r elat ed by
me ans of or ganiz ati on. Or ga niza tion i s t he mac hiner y thr ough w hich
coor di nati on is es tabl is hed bet we en adm inis tr a tion a nd manage ment . Thus the
thr e e conc epts ar e inte r r ela ted. ( L axmik anth, 2005: 3) .
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Organisations as we have discussed can be classified into two broad categories; the private
which are owned by individuals and the Public which are State owned. These
organisations are responsible for the realisation of organisational objectives and for
adjusting organisational scope to cope with environmental challenges. These functions are
achievable because by nature they have certain levels of autonomy to enable them function
effectively.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have been able to clearly explain in this unit the types of organisation and these include
the public and the private organisations. The unit has also exposed us to the importance of
20
organisations be it private or public. We have also been able to identify and discuss the basic
characteristics of organisations including their structure. The unit was concluded with an
explanation of the major differences between public and private organisations.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
-What do you understand by the term Organisation?
-How can you Differentiate Private from Public Organisations?
-What are the problems confronting organisations?
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
- Oyediran, Nwosu, Takaya, Anifowoshe, Badejo, Ogboghodo and Agbaje (2005) New
Approach Government. Longman, Lagos. Pg 119-121.
-P.W Betts; 1977.Essentilas of Staff Management.Macdonalds & Evans ltd, Britain.pg 15
- G.A C ole ;( 1987); Management: Theory and Practice. Second edition, ELBS/DP
Publications, Channels Islands.
-ARBITRAGE, 2009) Arbitrage Consulting Group Financial Training Unit: The Chartered
Institute of Stock Brokers Examination Syllabuses; Stategic Management and Business
Policy: Abuja, Nigeria.
- H er ber t S imon and J am es Ma r ch ( 1959) O rgani zat ions , John W ile y and
S ons, N ew Y or k. pg 169.
- C We st C hur chma n,( 1968) T he Sys tem s Appr oach, D ell , Ne w Y or k.
- E J M ill er and K R ic e ( 1976) , Sys te ms of O r ganiz ation, T avis toc k
P ublic ati on, London. pg. 3.
UNIT 2
THE EVOLUTION, GROWTH AND SIGNIFICANCE OF PUBLIC
ADMINISTRATION
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
21
3.1 EV O LU TI O N A N D G R O WTH O F P U B LI C A DM I N I ST R AT I ON . . 11
3.2 A DV A NT AG ES O F S TU D YI N G PU B LI C A D MI N I S TR A TI O N . . . 12
3. 3S I GN I F I C AN C E OF P UB L I C AD M I NI S TR A TI O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3a As the B as is of Gove r nment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.3b A n I ns tr ument f or I mple ment ing L aw s a nd Pol icie s . . . . . . . 13
3.3c Pa r tic ipati on in P oli cy F or mulat ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3d A G r eat St abili zing For c e in S oci ety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3e Pr ovi des C ontinui ty w hen G over nment C hange . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.3f pr ovi des a w ide V ar i ety of S er vi ces in t he P ublic I nt er es t . . . 15
3.3g A n I ns tr ument of S ocia l C hange and Ec onomic De velopme nt.16
3.4 TH E M EA N I NG O F A D MI N I S TR A TI O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.5 M EA NI N G /D EF I NI T I ON O F P U B LI C A DM I N I ST R AT I ON . . . . . . 18
3.5a S ome Mode r n De f init ions
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Unit 2-The Evolution, Growth and Significance of Public Administration
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion c onsi st s of t he pr ovis ion of s er vic es and r egul ati on
of i nter - gr oup r e lati ons in s ociet y. M ainte nance of law and or de r , def enc e,
w el f ar e of s oci ety, a pplica tion of sc ience and te chnology a nd er adi cat ion
of pove r ty in t he deve loping c ountr ies . I n a wor d, the se cur it y and
i ndependenc e of t he s tate and s ocia l and economi c w elf a r e of a s oci ety i s a
f unc tion of publ ic a dminis tr a tion.B ha mbhr i in Pol inai du ( 2005) sa ys
“ When publ ic a dminis tr a tion is so i mpor tant in our da ily li f e, it s s tudy i s
na tur all y w or thy under t aking”.
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I n or de r to pr oper l y under s tand t he te r m public admi nis tr at ion w e mus t
f i r st be cl ear a bout w hat w e me an by t he adj ecti ve ‘ publi c’ . The wor d
publ ic i s us ed i n a var i ety of me anings but he r e it mea ns ‘ gove r nment al’ .
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion, t her ef or e, si mply me ans gover nme ntal
a dminis tr a tion that oper ate s in polit ica l s et tings . I t’ s f ocus is spe cif i cal ly
on publ ic bur e aucr ac y. A s N ic holas H enr y s ays, “ The s tudy a nd pr act ice of
publ ic bur e aucr ac y is cal led public admini st r ati on”.
T he publi c as pec t of publi c admi nis tr at ion l ends s pec ial char a cte r to it .
W hat i s c r ucial in publ ic a dminis tr a tion is that i t is an a gency of t he
publ ic. I t conce r ns t he mana geme nt of publ ic age ncie s t hat c ar r y out publ ic
pol icie s in or der t o f ulf il st ate pur pose s i n the publi c int er es t. S inc e
gove r nment pr ovides s er vic es f or the pe ople i n t he publi c int er es t t he
a dminis tr a tion of gover nment al af f air s i s know n as public admi nis tr at ion.
A cc or ding to S imon, Sm ithbur g a nd Thoms on, publi c admi nis tr at ion r ef e r s
t o the a ctivi tie s of gr oups c ooper ati ng to a ccompl is h the c ommon goa ls of
gove r nment” S uch comm on goal s i nclude def ence , s af eguar di ng the
f r ont ier s , mai ntena nce of law and or de r , f ir e pr ote cti on, comm unica tions ,
publ ic he alth, educat ion a nd many ot her s er vice s t hat w e e njoy.
I n me aning, public af f air s , publ ic a dminis tr a tion f ocuse s pr i ncipa lly on t he
( i ) planni ng ( ii) or ga nizing ( iii) dir ect ing ( i v) coor dinat ing and ( v)
c ontr olli ng gover nme ntal oper a tions . This l ittl e bac kgr ound f or ms the
m ajor e mphas is of thi s uni t as w e look a ls o at t he natur e and s cope of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion, par tic ular l y as it has come to be r ef e r r ed to a nd
pr a ctic ed t oday.
2.0-Aims and Objectives
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;-Outline the advantages of studying Public Administration
-Explain the meaning and definition of public administration
-Differentiate the traditional from the modern view of Public Administration
-State the various aspects of Public Administration
-Analyse the Nature of Public Administration
-Explain the Characteristics of Public Administration
3.0-Main Content
3.1. Evolution and Growth of Public Administration.
P ublic admi nis tr at ion as an a cti vity i s a s ol d as civil iza tion but as an
ac adem ic di sc ipli ne is a l itt le ove r a hundr ed yea r s old. This , how ever , does
not m ean by i mpli cat ion tha t thi nker s in ea r lie r ages had ne ver s aid a nyt hing
s ignif i cant about publ ic a dmini st r ation. Func tioning of the gove r nmenta l
ma chine r y has att r act ed the att enti on of sc holar s and a dminis tr a tor s s ince t he
ea r lie st per iods of his tor y. K aut ilya’ s A rt hashas tr a, the M ahabharat a, the
Ram ayana a nd the m axim s a nd tea chings of C onf uci us i n the r e alm of
O r ient al t hought cont ain m any pr of ound obs er vat ions about t he or gani zati on
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and w or king of gove r nment . I n the hi st or y of we st er n poli tica l t hought,
Ar is tot le’ s poli tic s a nd Ma chia vell i’ s The Pr ince ar e i mpor ta nt cont r ibutions
to a dmini st r ati ve thought and pr ac tic e.
S cat ter e d thoughts , how ever , do not cons tit ut e a dis cipli ne t hough it i s
int er es ti ng to note that even w it hout s yst emat ic teac hing a nd st udy of the
s ubjec t, gr ea t ci tie s, publ ic w or ks and monum ents have been bui lt, vas t
em pir es adm inis te r ed, huge a r mie s or ga nize d, taxe s c ollec ted, ef f ect ive l aw
and or de r mai ntai ned and e nf or ced t hr oughout his tor y. T her ef or e , public
adm inis tr a tion a s a n act ivit y pr ocee ded long be f or e s ys t emat ic st udy of the
s ubjec t bega n in the eight eent h cent ur y. Of f i cia l ac ademi c s ta tus t o the
dis ci pline did not c ome unt il W or ld Wa r I whe n pr of es si onal c hair s in publ ic
adm inis tr a tion w er e es tabl is hed and s ubje ct t extbooks publis hed.
“ O nl y w he n g ov e r nme n ts c ou ld b e d if fe r e ntia te d f r om oth er so c iet al in stitu
ation
n ds the ir a c tivitie s d e ve lo pe d to the po int w h er e pr of e ssi on al a d min istr
a tor
w
e r se in di spe n sa ble f or the ir ef f e ct ive pe r fo r ma nc e , c ou ld mo de r n
lic istr a tion e me rg e . T h e te r m p ub lic a d min istr a tio n be g a n to c r e ep
ap dubmin
into
E
u ro pe a n la n gu a ge s du r ing th e se ve n te en th c e nt ur y to d istin gu ish b e tw e e n
the
a b so lute mo na r c h’ s a dm inis tra tio n o f p ub lic a f f air s a n d his m a na g e me nt o
is te ho use h old . T h e c o nte mp or a r y di sc iplin e ar o se out o f
pf rih va
e e a uc r a tiz at ion o f th e na tio n- sta te wh e n th e c h ur c h w a s se p ar a te d f
bthur
sr om
ta te thaen d go ve r nm e nt w a s su pe r imp os ed on al l o the r soc ia l in stitu tion s w
a
dithin
e fin ite
te rr itor y . ( Pa ulin a du , 2 00 5:4 )
M oder n publi c adm inis tr a tion w as f ir s t t aught a s a par t of t he tr ai ning c our se
of publi c of f ic ial s- on- pr oba tion i n Pr us s ia. T he s ubjec t w as lar gel y compi led
and t aught i n a des cr i ptive manne r by pr of es sor s of ca mer a l s cie nces , w hich
the n incl uded al l know ledge cons ider e d nece ss ar y f or t he gover nanc e of an
abs olut is t s tat e. The cam er al is t appr oa ch cont inued t o inf luenc e Eur ope an
s tudie s i n public admi nis tr at ion w ell into t he tw ent ieth centur y, until it w as
r epl ace d by the a dmini st r ati ve la w a nd lega l s tudies a ppr oach. I deol ogica lly
ca mer a lis m ga ve w ay to bur e aucr a cy. C ivi l s er vic e r ec r uits had to s tud y
adm inis tr a tive law and gr a duall y all over Eur ope includi ng N iger ia public
s er vic e tr a ining s chool s s ta r ted of f e r ing cour s es on adm inis tr a tive law and
publi c adm inis tr a tion.
3.2 Advantages of studying Public Administration
The st udies of publi c adm inis tr a tion a s a f iel d of act ivit y and an a r ea of
int ell ect ual i nquir y have both uti lit ar ian and int elle ctua l obj ecti ves . The
or igi nal pur pos e of t he s tudy of publi c adm inis tr at ion w as not t o culti vate
know ledge f or its ow n sa ke. I ns tea d, its pur pos e w as explic itl y util ita r ian.
The st udy of admi nis tr at ion w as dir ec ted a t the tw in pur s uits of r ef or mi ng
gover nm ent a nd tr ai ning ci vil s er va nts .
Woodr ow Wi ls on wa s t he f ir s t t o ar ti cula te t he pr inc iples unde r lying t he civi l
s er vic e r ef or m movem ent i n the U S A. W ils on dec lar e d that the c en t ral
p u rp os e of th e s t u dy of p u b lic ad m in is t rat i on w as t o d isc over an d
es t ab lis h a se t of valid p rin ci pl es and t h e m os t ef f ic ien t w ays of
organ iz in g and ru n ni ng t h e e xecu t ive br anc h of gove rn m en t .
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Thus , A dmini st r ati ve the or y gr ew in the lat e nine teent h cent ur y and t he ear l y
tw ent iet h cent ur y wi th the pr ima r y objec tive of making gover nment mor e
ef f e cti ve and e conomi cal in it s w or king t her eby pr om oting gove r nance. This
goal is st ill impor t ant. H ow ever gr a duall y, the s tudy of publ ic a dminis tr a tion
has al so a cquir e d cer t ain i ntel lec tual objec tives . T he benef its or the
adva ntage s of t he s tudy of publi c admi nis tr at ion ma y be br i ef ly s ta ted as
f oll ows . The st udy of public admi nis tr at ion:
i. H elps the st udent l ear n t he bas ic conce pts, pr incipl es and the or ies of
publi c adm inis tr a tion.
ii . H elps expl ain t he pur pos es , f uncti ons, a nd continua tion of gover nment
bur ea ucr ac y.
ii i. P r ovides know ledge of public or ganiz ations a nd the c ontext and
me thods by whi ch the y oper at e.
iv. P r omote s a supe r ior under s ta nding of gover nm ent a nd its r el ati ons hip
w ith t he s ocie ty it gover ns and thus it enabl es us t o lear n mor e a bout
how our countr y i s gove r ned.
v. I s use f ul as tr a ining f or c iti zens hip a nd f or pr epar i ng cit izens f or a n
ac tive par ti cipa tion i n the pr oc es s of de mocr a tic gover nance .
vi. M akes us lea r n how t o pr omote the publ ic i nter e st mor e e f f ect ivel y.
vii . P r omote s a mong the people an aw ar e nes s of t he im por tanc e of the
adm inis tr a tive act ivit y in the ir li ves .
vii i. I s use f ul to m ake publ ic pol ici es , whi ch ar e mor e r e spons ive to public
nee ds.
ix. A s a n appli ed dis ci pline , pr ovides know ledge whi ch is hel pf ul to t he
poli cy ma ker s and to t hose who i mple ment polici es , and
x. P r epar e s s tude nts f or empl oym ent in the gover nme nt s er vic es and
ma kes them aw ar e of t he oppor tuni tie s a nd chall enges of t he public
s er vic e and t hus i s us ef ul as a s elf - s er vi ng inves tm ent.
Self Assessment Exercise 1; wha t is the advant age of s tudyi ng public
adm inis tr a tion t o yo u?
3.3 Significance of Public Administration
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion l ies at the c entr e of moder n s ocie ty, w hich ha s
w it nes se d the e mer genc e of t he ‘ A dminis tr a tive S tate ’ . I n the
a dminis tr a tive s tat e publi c admi nis tr at ion has bec ome a ll e ncompa ss ing
a nd af f ec t the lives of t he people f r om t he w omb to the tomb’ s inc e the end
of t he s econd w or ld w ar gove r nmenta l a ctivi tie s ha ve inc r eas ed m anif ol d
a nd beca me mor e compl ex a nd per vas ive. Publi c adm inis tr a tion ha s
unde r gone f ar - r e aching changes bot h in its obj ecti ves and f unct ions .
C ons eque ntly publ ic a dminis tr a tor s have enter e d new f uncti onal a r eas .
T hey ar e gr appling wi th new pr oble ms in admi nis ter i ng public af f ai r s.
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I t is r ecogni zed t hat publ ic a dminis tr a tion plays cr uci al r ol e in a ll
s oci etie s- develope d and de veloping. I n the mode r n admi nis tr at ive
s ta te,publi c a dminis tr a tion has become s o si gnif ica nt tha t our deve lopme nt,
upl if tme nt a nd pr ogr es s de pend mai nly upon t he ef f ic ient f uncti oning of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion. The di f f er ent r oles pla ye d by public admi nis tr at ion
i n the mode r n s ociet y ma y be anal yzed under the f ollow ing hea ds:
3.3a A s t he B asi s of G overn m en t
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion s er ve s a s t he bas is of gover nme nt. A gover nme nt ca n
e xis t w ithout a le gis latur e or an i ndependent judic iar y. B ut no gover nme nt
c an exi st wi thout a dminis tr a tive mac hiner y. Pa ul H . A pple by r ema r ks,
‘ w it hout admi nis tr at ion gove r nment woul d be a di sc uss ion c lub, if inde ed
i t coul d exis t a t al l. A ll na tions , ir r e spe ctive of thei r s ys te m of
gove r nment, r equir e some s or t of admi nis tr at ive machi ner y f or
i mple menti ng publi c poli cies . T hus, publi c adm inis tr a tion ha s be en the
i nst r ument of anci ent e mpir es , of mona r chie s of both democ r aci es and
di ctat or shi p, of both de veloped and devel oping nat ions . As an a cti vity
publ ic a dminis tr a tion cuts ac r oss dif f er e nt pol itic al i deologi es suc h as
c apita lis m or soc iali s m. A dminis tr a tive pr inci ples as s uch have no
pa r ticul ar i deology a t hea r t. A dminis tr a tion is concei ved as a pur e ly
ne utr al ins tr ument .
3.3b A n I n st r um e nt f or Im p le m en t in g L aws an d P olic ies
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion i s r e spons ibl e f or impl eme nting the la ws and pol ici es
of gove r nment. I n doing thi s publ ic a dminis tr a tion pl ays a cr uc ial r ole. B y
c ar r ying out law s , it r e gulate s the be haviour of the people in s ocie ty. B y
i mple menti ng publi c poli cies a nd pr ogr a mme s, i t del iver s the pr omis ed
goods and s er vi ces to t he int ended be nef ici ar ie s.
I t is sa id tha t the ideal s and obje ctive s of gove r nment may be ver y popula r ,
t he pla ns f or na tional deve lopment may be extr e mel y pr ogr es si ve and t he
na tional r es our ce s of t he countr y may be abundant, but wi thout a n ef f ic ient
a dminis tr a tion nothing c an be a chieve d. I n other w or ds , even t he good
obj ect ives of the bes t poli cies a nd law s of a gover nme nt ma y r ema in as
m er e pa per dec lar at ions of inte nt, i f the ad minis tr a tive mac hiner y doe s not
f unc tion e f f icie ntl y and hones tl y. An e f f icie nt publ ic ad minis tr a tion c an
a void w as te, c or r ect er r or s ; li mit the c onse quences of inc ompet ence , or
i r r es ponsi bilit y w hile imple ment ing l aw s a nd publ ic pol ici es . Thus public
a dminis tr a tion acts a s a n ins tr ument f or tr ans la ting pl ans , law s and poli cie s
i nto r ea lit y. As A .D. G or w ala r emar ks , “ in a dem ocr ac y ther e can be no
s ucc es sf ul planning wi thout a clea r , ef f ic ient and im par ti al
a dminis tr a tion” .
3.3c Part i cip at ion in Pol icy F orm u lat ion
A cc or ding to D imoc k and D imoc k, A dmins tr at ion “I n t he mode r n wor l d
bur e aucr ac y is the chief polic y maker in gover nme nt”. I t is a s our ce of
f a cts and e xper ienc e a s w ell as of idea s and sol ution of publ ic pr obl ems . I n
m ode r n democ r aci es public admi nis tr at or s par tic ipat e in pol icy m aking by
gi ving advi ce t o minis te r s and pr ovidi ng t hem t he nec es sa r y inf or ma tion
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( i .e., f ac ts and f igur e s) w hic h is r eleva nt f or pol icy f or mul ati on. A s S ir
J os iah S ta mp s ays, “the of f icia ls mus t be the ma in s pr ing of the new
s oci ety, s ugges ti ng, pr omoting and advi si ng at e ve r y st age” . The
a dminis tr a tive ta sks of publi c bur ea ucr ac y include f or mula tion of pol ici es
a nd plans , exe cuting and monit or ing pr ogr a mmes , l aying dow n law s r ules
a nd r egula tions , w hich a f f ect human a ctions in almos t all wa lks of l if e.
3.3d A Gre at St ab il izin g F orce in Soc iet y
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion a cts as a gr e at s ta biliz ing f or ce in s ocie ty. I t s et tle s
s oci al t ens ions and conf l icts a nd thus cr eat es s oc ial unity a nd har mony.
T his r ole of publ ic a dminis tr a tion is of par tic ular s igni f ica nce i n the ne wl y
i ndependent A f r o- As ia n developi ng countr i es and N iger i a in pa r tic ular .
P ubli c admi nis tr at or s sol ve s ocial pr oble ms. Thus publ ic a dmini st r ati on
s ta biliz er s s ocial s tr uct ur e, s ocial or ganiz ati on. As P aul Pi gor s s ays , “The
m ain pur pos e of a dminis tr a tion is to pr es er ve the s ta tus quo i n soc iet y” .
T he admi nis tr at ive f unction ‘ ens ur es the c ontinuanc e of the exis ti ng or der
w it h a mini mum of ef f or t a nd r is k. I ts f undament al aim is to car r y on
r a ther t han to ve ntur e a long new and unt r ied pat hs. A dmi nis tr at or s a r e,
t her ef or e, the s ta biliz er s of s ociet y and the guar dia ns of t r adit ion”.
3.3e Provi de s C on t in ui t y wh en Gove rn m en t Ch an ge
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion c ar r ies on gove r nment whe n r uler s change ever y now
a nd then ow ing t o elec tions or r e volutions or coups . A ccor di ng to R am sa y
M uir , “ whi le gove r nments ma y come and go, mi nis ter s ma y r is e and f a ll,
t he admi nis tr at ion of a countr y goe s on f or e ver . N o r evoluti on can c hange
i t and no uphe aval can upr oot it”. I t is a pr oven f a ct of hi st or y that public
a dminis tr a tion sur vi ves even r e volutions a nd c oup d’ éta t or cha nge a
r e gime .
3.3f p rovi de s a w id e V arie t y of S ervi ces in t h e Pu b lic In t er es t
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion i n the mode r n w elf a r e s tate pr ovides a l ar ge a nd wi de
va r iet y of se r vices f or t he people . F elix A N igr o r e mar ks . “t he r eal cor e of
a dminis tr a tion is the ba si c s er vice w hich i s per f or m ed f or the public ”.
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion pr ovi des a number of se r vices i n t he publi c int er es t.
3.3.f a- Pr ot ect i ve f u nc t ion s
F ir s t of a ll, publ ic a dminis tr a tion pr ot ect s t h e lif e an d p rop er ty of the
pe ople by ma inta ining law and or de r . The s ur vival and pr ogr es s of human
be ings in s ocie ty depe nd on the pr oper e nf or cem ent of l aw s a gains t l aw br e aker s . A s C .P . B hambhr l r ema r ks, ‘ ….the ma inte nance of law and or der
i s t he mos t pr i mar y a nd cr ucia l r ol e of public admi nis tr at ion’ . Thi s i s
be caus e t he la w of t he jungl e w ill pr evail in s ocie ty, if publ ic
a dminis tr a tion f ails t o per f or m t his f unction ef f ect ivel y. Na tiona l def e nce
i s a nother pr ot ecti ve f unc tion pe r f or med by publ ic adm inis tr a tion. T his
f unc tion i s e ss ent ial f or the ma inte nance of the independe nce of t he nat ion
a nd pr otec ting i ts f r ontier s .
27
3.3.f b - I n r ec ent t ime s, p rot e ct ion of en vir onm e nt i s a dded to t he
pr ot ecti ve f unc tions of gover nme nt me ntione d in t he pr ece ding li nes . As a
r e sul t of r api d indus tr ial iza tion ther e is the pr obl em of e nvi r onment al
pol lution, whi ch thr e atens our l ives , and ci vili zat ion. B ef oul ed ai r , wa ter
a nd ear t h af f ect our heal th a nd lives . N ow almos t all gove r nment s a r e
m aking e f f or ts at t he enha nceme nt of e nvir onment quali ty. The
e nvir onment al admini st r ati on r egul ates t he r ela tions bet we en ma n and ea r th
w it h its envi r onment. I t mus t ma inta in t he quali ty of ai r , the us es of the
oc ean, a nd the pur i ty of r ive r s a nd st r eams . I t cons ider s man’ s s pir it ual a nd
phys ica l s ur viva l.
3.3.f c - Faci lit at ive s ervi ces
T oday publi c admi nis tr at ion pr ovi des f acil ita tive se r vice s s uch a s
t r ans por tati on, comm unica tions , s upply of pow er , a nd s o on.
3.3.f d - Man agem en t of p ub li c en t er pr is es
P ubli c admi nis tr at or s manage publi c ente r pr is e a nd publ ic ut ili tie s i n the
i nter es t of soc io- ec onomic jus tice . P ublic utili tie s ar e ei ther publ icl y
ow ned or s tr i ctl y r egulat ed i n most count r ies . Gove r nment als o im pose s
c ontr ols over pr i vate economi c a nd busi nes s a ctivi tie s i n the publ ic
i nter es t.
3.3.f e- We lf are se rvic es
T he w elf a r e s er vic es pr ovided f or t he people incl ude s ocia l s ecur i ty, old
a ge pens ions , w elf a r e of the we aker s ect ions , f ami ly pla nning, hea lth,
une mployme nt r e lief , pover ty a llevi ati on, hous ing etc .
3.3. f f - Pr om ot ion of agric ul t ur e, in d us t ry e t c
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion pr omot es agr i cultur e , indus tr y, i nt er nal and
i nter nat ional tr a de, banki ng, ins ur ance etc
3.3.f g- C ul t ur al s ervi ces
I n t he cul tur al sphe r e, publi c admi nis tr at ion under takes ce r tai n f uncti ons
a s pr ovi si on of educa tion, pr omot ion of s ci ence and tec hnology,
e ncour age ment of ar ts and i deology e tc.
3.3.f h - Main t en an ce of P olit i cal s ys t em
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion i s c oncer ned wi th the maint enanc e of the nati on’ s
pol itic al sys tem and na tional unit y. I t is a cont inuous pr oces s in
de ter mi ning t he ac tivit ies of t he gover nme nt. T o be br ief , i t is conc er ned
w it h the pr e se r vation of the pol ity.
T he w ide va r iet y of f unctions pe r f or med by publ ic adm inis tr a tion i s
i nf luence d by deve lopment s in the pol iti cal , econom ic a nd soc ial ar ea .
T he pr ec eding di sc uss ion i ndicat es that public admi nis tr at ion has bec ome a
pa r t of the soc ial, economi c, pol itic al and cult ur al lif e of t he peopl e.
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H ow we ll w e e njoy the se r vice pr ovided by gover nm ent de pend, in l ar ge
pa r t, on how we ll t hey ar e admini st er ed. He nce, in s im pler s oci eti es of
e ar ly da ys good a dminis tr a tion wa s i mpor tant , but i n moder n c omplex
s oci etie s good admini st r ati on is es s entia l. I t ha s t o play a ver y im por tant
r ol e not onl y as an ins tr ume nt of gove r nance but als o as an i mpor ta nt
m eans to a chieve the goals of s ocio- e conomic pr ogr es s a nd nati on buildi ng.
A s Appl eby s ays, “The hear t of admini st r ati on is the manage ment of
pr ogr a mmes de si gned to s er ve the ge ner al we lf ar e.
3.3g A n In s t ru m en t of Soc ial C h ange and E con om ic De velop m en t
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion i s ‘ c oncer ned wi th mana ging c hange in pur s uit of
publ icl y def ine d soc ieta l va lues ”. I n t he devel oping nat ions of As ia , Af r i ca
a nd Lat in A mer ic a publ ic a dminis tr a tion acts as an ins tr ument of soc ial
c hange a nd economi c de velopme nt. The devel oping nat ions ar e m ost ly
t r aditi onal and poor agr i cultur a l s ocie tie s wi thout a dequate bas ic a meni tie s
of good l if e. T hes e nat ions ar e a nxious to achi eve m oder niz ati on of soc iet y
a nd economi c de velopme nt a nd r eali ze we lf ar e goa ls . The s ta te i s c all ed
upon t o achi eve t hes e goals . T hes e obje ctive s ha ve pla ced c hall enging
t as ks on publ ic a dminis tr a tion suc h as f or mulat ion of ec onomic plans and
t heir s ucc es sf ul imple ment ati on to r e aliz e ec onomic gr owt h and s ocia l
c hange a nd we lf ar e goals . The accom plis hme nt of the se goals r equi r es
hone st and compe tent publi c admi nis tr at or s. Without ef f ic ient
a dminis tr a tion soc io- ec onomic pr ogr es s c annot be achie ved. I t i s e xpect ed
t oday to be the a ccel er at or of econo mic and soc ial change . ( Pa ulina du,
2005: 19, 20&21)
S el f As s es sm e nt E xer cis e 2; Li st and br ie f ly expla in t he s ignif ic ance of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion.
3.4 The Meaning of Administration
The Engli sh w or d ‘ A dmini st er ’ is der i ved f r om a combi nati on of tw o Lati n
w or ds, ‘ a d’ + minis tr a r e’ w hich m eans to s er ve , to dir e ct, t o contr ol , to
ma nage a f f air s . I n the wor ds of E.N G ladde n, “A dmini st r ati on is a long a nd
s light ly pompous w or d, but it has a humbl e mea ning, f or i t mea ns to ca r e f or
or to l ook af te r people , to ma nage a f f air s ’ . H e def i nes it a s ‘ de ter m ined
ac tion t aken i n pur sui t of cons ci ous pur pos e.
A dmini st r ati on is a r at ional human a cti vity, w hic h is inher ent in a ny
or gani zed s oci al l if e publ ic or pr i vate . I t occ ur s e ven in s uch a si mple
ac tivi ty as ‘ w hen tw o me n cooper a te t o r oll a st one that neit her coul d have
move d alone ’ . I t cons is ts of al l thos e ope r ati ons, w hic h aim at t he
ac hieve ment of som e pur pos e s har ed by t wo or m or e people .
To put it di f f er ent ly, adm inis tr a tion i s a cooper a tive human e f f or t tow ar ds
ac hievi ng som e com mon goal s. I t is , thus , a goal - or iente d, pur pos ive,
coope r ati ve, joi nt ac tivi ty under t aken by a gr oup of people.
A dmini st r ati on, ther e f or e, exc ludes non- pur pos ive a nd non- cooper at ive gr oup
ac tivi tie s s uch a s t wo m en f ight ing w ith e ach ot her or w atchi ng a s tone . I n
29
thi s e xampl e the tw o men a r e not m utuall y invol ved in a joint endeavour .
A dmini st r ati on als o exc ludes thos e ope r ations t hat c oncer n a si ngle
indi vidual , e.g. one m an movi ng a s tone. T his one- man acti vit y is not
adm inis tr a tion be caus e i t la cks coop erat i ve ef f or t m ade by t w o or m or e
p eop le t o ac com p lis h a com m on goal. Thus w e ca n under s tand w hat
adm inis tr a tion i s: A cc or ding to G eor ge E. B er kl ey, admi nis tr at ion i s:
i. P eople ; bec aus e w ithout the pr e se nce of pe ople t her e ca n be no
adm inis tr a tion
ii. A cti on; peopl e have to do s omet hing bef or e admini st r ati on can enter
the pict ur e; a nd
iii. I nte r act ion; a dmini st r ati on is people inte r act ing w ith ot her people to
ac compl is h tas k. J oint a cti vity i s a n es se ntia l par t of all
adm inis tr a tion. ( P aul inadu, 2005: 3) .
I n it s ge ner ic se nse , admi nis tr at ion is a uni ver s al pr oc es s t hat c an be f ound in
var i ous i nst itut ional se tti ngs s uch a s a busi nes s f i r m; a hospi tal, a univer s it y
a gove r nment depar t ment and s o on. Al l the se diver s e or ga nizat ions us e
com monly t he s ame admi nis tr at ive pr oc es se s ( e .g. planni ng, or ganizi ng,
coor di nati ng, etc ) as we ll a s t he huma n and ma ter i al r e sour c es to achi eve
the ir r es pec tive goals . Thus adm inis tr a tion i s c oncer ne d wi th mea ns to
ac hieve pr es cr ibe d ends . I t is not a n end in i ts elf . T his view of admi nis tr at ion
dis r ega r ds w hat kind of adm inis tr a tion i s i n ques tion. I n t his se nse the t er m
adm inis tr a tion c over s both publi c and pr i vate or ganiza tions .
3.5 ME A N IN G O F PU B L I C A D MI NI S T RA T I ON /C L AR R IF IC A T IO N O F
C ON CE P T S.
D ef in it i on of P ub li c A dm ini st r at ion
A s E .N. G la dden s ays , the f i eld of publ ic a dminis tr a tion is mainl y a de bate
over de f init ions . De spi te m or e tha n a hundr ed yea r s of develop ment, public
adm inis tr a tion l acks a s igni f ica nt def i niti on that is acce ptabl e to all st udents
of publi c adm inis tr a tion. V ar i ous s chol ar s have de f ined i t in di f f er ent wa ys .
Whi le t he tr a diti onal w r it er s have de f ined publ ic a dminis tr a tion in its
nar r ow er s ens e, t he mode r n sc holar s have def ine d it i s i ts wi der s ens e. Let us
exa mine both the view s by quoting s ome impor ta nt de f initi ons.
T rad it i onal De f in it ion s
T he f oll owi ng ar e s ome of the i mpor tant def ini tions of publi c
a dminis tr a tion, whi ch r ef l ect the t r aditi onal view of the di sc ipli nes .
1. P ubli c admi nis tr at ion i s de tail ed a nd sys tem ati c e xecuti on of law . Eve r y
pa r ticul ar a pplica tion of law is an a ct of ad minis tr a tion” .
Woodr ow Wi ls on.
T o Wil son, “ Admi nis tr at ion i s t he mos t obvi ous pa r t of gover nme nt, it is
gove r nment in ac tion, a nd it i s t he exec utive , the ope r ati ve, the mos t
vi si ble s ide of gover nment ”.
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2. “ Publ ic A dmini st r ati on cons is ts of all thos e oper a tions havi ng f or thei r
pur pos e t he f ulf i lment or enf or c ement of public polic y”.
L.D Whi te
3. “ B y public admini st r ati on is mea nt, i n c ommon us age , the a cti viti es of
t he exe cutive br anc hes of the N ati onal, st ate, a nd loca l gover nm ent”
H er ber t A. S im on
4. P ubli c A dminis tr a tion is that par t of the s cienc e of adm inis tr a tion w hic h
ha s t o do wi th gover nme nt, a nd thus concer ns it se lf pr im ar il y wi th the
e xecuti ve br a nch, w her e t he w or k of gover nment is done, though t her e a r e
obvi ousl y admini st r ati ve pr obl ems al so i n connect ion w ith t he le gis lat ive
a nd judic ial br anches ”
Lut her G ulic k
5. “ Publ ic a dminis tr a tion is the ac tion pa r t of gover nm ent, t he me ans by
w hic h the pur pos es and goa ls of gover nment ar e r eali zed.
C or s on and H ar r is
6. “ I n its br oade st se nse , it ( publ ic a dminis tr a tion) de notes the wor k
i nvolved i n the a ctual conduc t of gover nme ntal af f ai r s, r egar dle ss of the
pa r ticul ar br a nch of gover nme nt c oncer ned. I n its nar r ow es t s ens e, it
de notes the oper ati ons of the a dminis tr a tive br anch onl y”.
W.F . Wi lloughby
7. “ … Admi nis tr at ion c onsi st s of ge tting the w or k of gover nme nt done by
c oor dinati ng the ef f or ts of peopl e s o that they ca n wor k t ogethe r to
a ccom plis h the ir s et t as ks” .
P f if f ner ( in P ol inai du,2005:4&5) .
T he def i nitions quot ed above r ef lec t t he nar r ow tr adi tiona l point of view of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion. This vie w l oc ate s publ ic a dmini st r ati on in the
e xecuti ve br a nch of gover nme nt. I t s ma in bus ines s compr i se s a ll t hose
a ctivi tie s that ar e i nvolved i n car r ying out public polic ies as expr e ss ed i n
l aw s ma de by t he le gis latur e and i nter pr et ed by cour t s. I t is denie d any r ole
i n both le gis lati ve ( i .e. poli cy – maki ng) and judi cia l f unct ions . I ts mai n
bus ine ss is to ge t thi ngs done and not to de cide wha t thi ngs t o do.
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion i s t hus i dentif i ed w it h the adm inis tr a tive si de of
gove r nment as oppose d to the legis la tive and judi cia l s ides . The r ef or e, t he
t r aditi onal view is unduly r e st r icti ve a s a n explana tion a nd does not f ull y
c aptur e the s cope of public admini st r ati on. I t e mphas ize s t he loc us but not
t he f ocus of P ublic Admi nis tr at ion. T he r ea son i s t hat a dm inis tr a tion not
onl y car r i es out poli cy but a ls o r ecomm ends it. Admi nis tr at ion is al so
c oncer ned wi th the hear ing and deci ding ca se s and contr ove r si es not
a lloca ted to the judic iar y. F or all thes e r eas ons the tr a diti onal vi ew
pr e se nts too nar r ow , f or mal is tic , and l egali st ic pictur e of P ubl ic
A dmini st r ati on.
3.5a S om e M ode rn De f in it ion s
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S ome moder n t extbook w r it er s suc h as M.E . Di mock, J ame s Fe sl er and
F .A . Ni gr o have us ed t he te r m “P ubli c A dminis tr a tion ‘ in its w ider s ens e.
I n t heir opi nion, publi c admi nis tr at ion has s ome r e spons ibi lit y in
f or m ul at ing gover nme ntal poli cies , be si des execut ing the m. The def ini tions
quot ed bel ow a r e il lus tr ati ve of t he moder n br oader vie w of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion.
1. “… P ubli c adm inis tr a tion i s t he ar e a of s tudy and pr a ctic e w her e law
and pol icy i s r e comm ended a nd car r i ed out” .M.E . Di mock a nd G.O . D imock
2“publ ic A dmi nis tr at ion is poli cy exe cuti ve and a ls o polic y f or mulat ion’
J ame s W . Fe sl er
1. “P ubli c A dmini st r ati on
i. I s cooper a tive gr oup ef f or t i n a publi c s ett ing
ii . C over s al l thr e e br anc hes – exec utive , legi sl ativ e, and j udicia l and
the ir int er r el ati onshi ps.
ii i. H as an im por tant r ole i n the f or m ulat ion of poli cy and i s t hus a par t
of the polit ica l pr oce ss .
iv. I s dif f er e nt in s igni f ica nt w ays f r om pr iva te a dmini st r ati on, and
v. I s clos el y as soc iat ed w ith num er ous pr ivat e gr oups and indivi duals
in pr ovi ding s er vic es to the comm unity.
4.0 Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
O r gani sa tion e manat ed f r om the s ocie tie s need to maint ain l aw and or der
a nd to r egul ate inter - gr oup r elat ions . Wit h the i ncr ea si ng need f or
a dminis tr a tion to go beyond t he nor mal mai ntena nce of law and or der t o
t he pr ovis ion of s oci al s er vi ces , public admi nis tr at ion com e to c over al l
gove r nmenta l a ctivi tie s f r om the f or mulat ion of poli cie s t o the
a ccom plis hment of comm on goal s. I t cover s all ar ea s of planning,
or ga nis ing, budget ing, coor di nating and dir e cting of gove r nment al a f f air s .
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion c ould be s tudi ed as an a cadem ic dis cipli ne or as an
a ctivi ty. A s a dis ci pline it de als w ith s yst ema tic tea ching a nd the s tudy of
t he s ubjec t, gr ea t ci ties , a nd public wor ks , how e mpir e s a r e adm inis te r ed
a nd how l aw and or der i s ma inta ined and enf or ce d thr oughout his tor y.
W hile as an ac tivit y it deals w it h the e nt ir e a ct of gove r nance and al l the
know le dge cons ide r ed nec es sa r y f or gover nance .
T he s tudy of P ublic admini st r ati on is s ignif ic ant be caus e i t expos es the
s tude nts to le ar ning t he pr inc iples a nd t heor ie s of a dmini st r ati on to
pr omot ing s uper i or under s tanding of gover nment among ot her s . This is
be caus e publ ic a dminis tr a tion se r ves as the bas is of gover na nce a nd mor e
s igni f icant ly a s a n ins tr ument f or impl eme nting law s and polic ies , a
s ta bilis ing f or ce i n soc iet y, pr oviding pr ot ecti ve f unc tions among ot her s .
P ubli c A dminis tr a tion has been s ubje cted to var ie d def ina tions ,am ong
w hic h is the de f initi on of publi c admi nis tr at ion as “t he mos t obvi ous pa r t
of gove r nment” , “T he exe cutive br anch of gover nment ”, “ The ac tion pa r t
of gove r nment” . R ega r dles s of thes e de f initi ons one f act r ema in ce ntr al ;
32
t hat publ ic a dminis tr a tion is the ma chine r y thr ough w hich c ooper at ive
e f f or ts can be achie ved a nd sus tai ned.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
I n t his unit, w e ha ve bee n able to look at the or i gin of publi c
a dminis tr a tion as it pr e ceded the mode r n under s tandi ng of the s ubje ct
m atte r . I t i s a ls o st ated her e t hat publ ic a dminis tr a tion c an be s tudi ed as an
a ctivi ty a nd als o as a di sc ipline deal ing w ith a r ange of a cti viti es of
gove r nment and the or is ing the f unctioni ng and e xis tence of gover nme nt.
P ubli c admi nis tr at ion a ls o deals w it h all gover nment al a cti viti es incl uding
t he ar e as of planning, or ganis ing, budge ting, coor di nati ng and dir e cti ng
gove r nmenta l a ctivi tie s. The uni t als o e xplain the s ignif i canc e to t he s tudy
of publ ic a dminis tr a tion, and conc luded by cl ar if yi ng the de f init ion of
c oncept as admini st r ati on, or ganis at ion a nd manage ment .
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment . . . . . . .
- D ef ine and expl ain t he s ubjec t ma tte r of public admin ist r at ion
- Wha t ar e the a dvanta ges of st udyi ng publi c adm inis tr a tion?
- O utli ne and e xplai n f ive s igni f ica nce t o the s tudy of publ ic a dminis tr a tion.
7.0 R ef er en ces /s u gges t ion s f or f ur t he r s t ud y.
A vas thi A and S M ahes hw ar i,( 1983) P ublic Adm inis tr ati on, Agr a, Laks hmi
N ar ai n Aga r wa l.
H eady, F er r e l,( 1984) Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation: A C ompar ati ve P er spe cti ve, N ew
J er s ey, P r enti ce- H al l I nc.
S elf , Pe ter ,( 1984) ,Adm ini st rat ive The ori es and Poli tic s: A n Enquir y i nto the
Str uct ure and Pr oces s of M odem G over nm ent, N ew D elhi , S C ha nd and
C ompa ny.
Pol inaidu S .( 2005) P ublic Adm ins tr at ion,G olgoti a P ublic ations P V T Lt d,Ne w
D elhi pg:3.5.19.20 &21)
U veges , J ose ph A J r ( eds ) ( 1982) Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation: H is tor y and T heor y
in C ont em porar y P er spe cti ve, M ar c el D ekke r I nc, N ew Yor k.
33
UNIT 3:
THE SCOPE OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 TH E S C O PE OF P UB L I C AD M I NI S TR A TI O N . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.1a The Sc ope of P ublic Adm inis tr a tion a s a Di sc ipline . . . . . . . . .23
3.1b The s cope of public admi nis tr at ion as an A ct ivit y . . . . . . . . 25
3. 3.1b - 1 Li mita tions of the PO S DC O R B vie w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.2 S UB J EC T M AT TER V I EW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 TH E V A R I OU S AR E AS O F T HE SC O P E O F P U B LI C
A DM I N I S TR A TI ON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3a P r inci ples of adm inis tr a tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3b P ubl ic pe r sonne l adm inis tr a tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.3c P ubli c f ina ncia l adm inis tr a tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3d Adm inis tr a tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.3e T he ci tiz en’ s chapt er . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.3f C ompa r ati ve publi c adm inis tr a tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3g D evel opment admi nis tr at ion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
34
3.3h Or ga niza tion t heor y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3i P ubli c poli cy ana lys is
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 S C OP E OF P UB L I C AD M I NI S TR A TI O N A S AN A C TI V I TY
EX P LA I N ED F U R TH ER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Unit 3. T HE S CO PE OF PU B L IC A DMI N I ST R A T IO N
1.0 I nt r odu ct i on
Public Administration serves as the ball bearings of government. It is that part of the vehicle
which must function with the minimum of friction if the goals of the state are to be achieved
and realised. It is not just about governmental regulations of individual and group conduct,
protection, assistance and service that government provides, but Public administration
activities fall into four broad categories;-The protection of society as a whole.eg ,the police and fire protection, health care, national
defence,education,safeguarding the environment, and conserving natural resources
;Promotional activities or assistance to particular economic and social groups e.g. farmers,
factory workers, businessmen, women and children in industry, the aged, and the
unemployed; Proprietary activities where government owns and operates enterprises serving
for the public e.g. postal services, port facilities, municipal water, electric-power; Regulation
of particular business or activities through such agencies as the inter-state commerce
commission, the Federal Reserve board, the national labour relations board, and others.
(Polinaidu, 2005).
In this unit, we will explain in details the scope of public administration as there are varied
opinions to it. At the end of it all we would have understood fully where governmental
activities start and stop.
2.0 Aims and Objectives.
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;
-Explain the scope of public Administration as a discipline
-Explain the scope of public administration as an activity
- Identify and discuss the various areas within the scope of public administration
3.0 T HE S C OPE O F PU B L I C A D MI NI S T RA T I ON
3.1 The scope of Public Administration;
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F ur ther m or e, the sc ope of publi c adm inis tr a tion r e f er s to it s bounda r ies as an
ac tivi ty, as s et of i nst itut ions and a s ubje ct of s tudy.
H owe ver , f or our pur pos es the s cope of public admini st r ati on ma y
conve nient ly be a nalyze d under t wo he ads ( 1) as a dis ci pl ine, and ( 2) as an
ac tivi ty.
3.1a T h e S cop e of Pu b lic Ad m in is t rat i on as a D is cip li ne
B y a dis cipl ine w e me an a par tic ular ar ea of s tudy s uch a s pol iti cal
s ci ence, economi cs and s ociol ogy. I n this s ens e publi c adm inis tr a tion i s
a ls o a dis ci pline. B ut unli ke othe r dis cipli nes public admi nis tr at ion, as
a lr ead y st ated, lacks c onse nsus about its s cope. C ons equent ly, var i ous
w r it er s have e xpr es se d dif f er ent opinions on i ts sc ope . He nce, i ts sc ope ca n
be exami ned f r om dif f er ent view point .
T hus i n his book “G ener a l and I ndus tr i al M ana gement ” H enr y F ayol
de f ined a dminis tr a tion in te r ms of the f i ve key f unc tional ele ment s: ( 1)
P la nning, ( 2) O r ganiz ing ( 3) comm anding ( 4) coor dinat ing ( 5) C ontr ol ling.
S im ilar l y in hi s P O SD C O R B f or mula Gul ick i dentif i ed s eve n f unctiona l
e leme nts : pl anning, or ga nizing st af f ing, di r ecti ng, coor dina ting, r e por ting
a nd budgeti ng. I n his opinion, t hes e ele ment s s ta nd f or dif f er e nt br anc hes
of t he s ubjec t of admi nis tr at ion. ( T hes e w ill be ela bor ate d a li ttl e la ter i n
t he unit ) .
A cc or ding to P . M acQ uee n, the s cope of admini st r ati on cons is ts of only
t hr ee f a ctor s , name ly me n, mat er ia ls and me thods .
I n hi s book “ Pr i nciple s of Publ ic A dmini st r ati on” Wi lloughby di vided t he
s cope of public admini st r ati on int o t he f oll owi ng f ive c ate gor ies :
1. Ge ne ral A d m in is t rat ion : i.e . who i s t o per f or m t he f unct ion of
dir e cti on, supe r vis ion, and c ontr ol ove r admi nis tr at ion?
2. Or gani zat ion : i.e buildi ng up of the s tr uc tur es f or the act ual
per f or m ance of the a dmini st r ati ve w or k.
3. Pe rs onn el : i.e. w ho ar e to ma nage di f f er ent se r vice s?
4. Mat e rial s an d su p pl y: i.e., t he tool s w it h whi ch the wor k of
adm inis tr a tion i s c ar r ie d on.
5. Fi nan ce :
i.e de ter m inat ion of , and m aking pr ovi si on f or , the
f ina ncia l nee ds of a dmini st r ati on. This is the cr ux of al l the aboveme ntione d pr oblem s.
P f if f ne r divide d the s cope of public admini st r ati on under tw o br oad he ads :
( 1) P r inc iples of publ ic a dminis tr a tion and ( 2) S pher e of publi c
a dminis tr a tion.
W alker divides t he s cope of publ ic a dm inis tr a tion i nto tw o par t s: ( 1)
a dminis tr a tive the or y and ( 2) appl ied a dminis tr a tion.
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I t may be sa id tha t al l the view s on the s cope of publ ic a dmini st r ati on ar e
m ut uall y over l apping a nd can be st udied a s c omplem enta r y and
s upple menta r y to e ach ot her .
F r om t he pr ec eding l ines it become s clea r that the s cope of public
a dminis tr a tion can be exami ned f r om dif f er ent angle s. The dif f e r ent
vi ew points about the s cope of publ ic a dmini st r ati on ar e e xplai ned as
f ol low s:
T he tr a ditiona l na r r owe r view : A cc or ding to s ome tr adit ional wr i ter s , the
s cope of public admini st r ati on is r es tr ic ted to the a cti viti es of the
e xecuti ve br a nch of the gover nment only. I n t heir opini on, public
a dminis tr a tion is wha t the execut ive br anch does , i.e , impl eme nting t he
l aw s, ma de by t he le gis latur e . I t i s not given a ny r ol e in l egis la tive and
j udici al f unc tions . I n the wor ds of F .M. M ar x, P ublic Adm inis tr a tion
c over s ‘ pr ima r ily t he or gani zati on, per s onnel pr acti ces and pr oc edur es
e ss ent ial f or the e f f ecti ve pe r f or mance of the civil ian f unc tions ent r ust ed
t o the e xecuti ve br a nch of the gover nment ”.
A n impor t ant suppor t er of thi s vi ew is Luther Guli ck. Thi s vi ew of Publ ic
A dmini st r ati on is al so s har e d by Si mon, S mithbur g and Thoms on w hen
t hey s aid: “B y P ublic Admi nis tr at ion is me ant, i n comm on usa ge, the
a ctivi tie s of the e xecuti ve br a nches of the na tiona l, s tat e and l ocal
gove r nments .
T he moder n br oader vi ew : M any moder n wr i ter s r ej ecte d the tr adit ional
na r r owe r view of publi c admi nis tr at ion a s unduly r e st r ict ive a s a n
e xplanat ion of i ts sc ope. H ence, they ha ve ident if ie d Publ ic A dmi nis tr at ion
w it h the w hole gover nment - le gis latur e , exec utive and judi cia r y. I n moder n
de mocr a cie s publ ic bur e aucr at s not only exe cute polic ies but a ls o
pa r tici pate in t heir f or mul ati on and a ls o per f or m s ome quas i- judic ial
f unc tions .
F ur the r , the na tur e of a dminis tr a tive oper at ions ar e af f ect ed and s hape d by
t he nat ur e of poli cies ( l aw s) ma de by t he legi sl atur e as we ll a s t he
i nter pr et ati on give n to the m by the judici ar y. T he legi sl atur e exer c is es
c ontr ol ove r admini st r ati on w ith a view to s ee that t he poli cie s a r e
i mple mente d as int ended by i t. The judici ar y has the powe r to r es tr a in
P ubli c A dminis tr a tor s f r om unc onst ituti onal, i lle gal, a nd ar bit r ar y ac ts . I n
doi ng so, t he judi cial is det er mini ng w ha t kind of publ ic s er vi ces ca n be
r e nder ed a nd under w hat c ir cums ta nces . Le gis lat ur e and c our ts ar e t hus a
pa r t of the envir onme nt w it hin w hich publ ic a dminis tr a tion m ust f uncti on.
H enc e, F .A. N igr o a nd L.G . Ni gr o have com e to t he obvious conc lus ion
t hat ‘ a ll t hr ee br a nches of gover nme nt a r e par t of the s tudy and pr a cti ce of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion.
T hough the na r r owe r view is w idel y acce pted one, the br oa der vie w i s m or e
r e alis ti c a s i t r ef l ects t he r eal ity of the f as t gr ow ing dyna mic f iel d of
t oday’ s public admini st r ati on. H ence the w ider vi ew of the s cope of public
a dminis tr a tion is acce ptabl e t o us i n I ndia.
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3.1b T h e s cop e of p ub li c ad m in is t rat ion as an ac t ivit y: w as mad e cl ear
i n the w or ks of Gul ick a nd Ur w ic k in the ir PO DS C OR B view : I n the book
“ Pa per s on the s ci ence of admini st r ati on” ( 1937) , The y pr opounded the
P S DC O R B vie w a s t he s cope of publ ic a dminis tr a tion. I n t he 1930s they
c r eate d the acr onym PO S DC O R B tha t conta ins the f ir s t let ter s of the
f ol low ing s even e leme nts of admi nis tr at ion:
1. P lanni ng
2. O r ganiz ing
3. S taf f i ng
4. D ir ec ting
5. C oor dina ting
6. R epor t ing
7. B udget ing
G uli ck bel ieved that thes e s eve n f unctiona l el eme nts or br anche s of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion cons titut e i ts sc ope.
T he P SD C O R B view , no doubt, gi ves unity, ce r tai nty and de f init enes s to
t he s tudy of publi c admi nis tr at ion. I t makes the st udy of public
a dminis tr a tion mor e s yst ema tic .
S el f As s es sm e nt E xer cis e 1; Di sc uss the sc ope of public A dminis tr a tion a s
a dis cipl ine
3.1b - 1 L im i t at ion s of t h e P OS DC OR B vie w:
H ow ever , t he P SD C O R B view s uf f er s f r om ce r tain limi tat ions :
1. Thi s vi ew is cons ider e d to be a nar r ow empha si s on t he tec hniques
of adm inis tr a tion onl y. The P S DC O R B te chnique s c an be ne ither the
s ole s ubje ct m att er of publi c adm inis tr a tion nor e ven the most
im por tant par t of i t. The y f ail to give us t he know ledge about t he
var i ous f i elds of adm inis tr a tive act ivit y ( e.g. poli ce, e ducati on,
hea lth a nd agr ic ultur e ) in w hich t he P OS D C OR B t echnique s ar e
appl ied. I nt ima te know le dge of the subj ect matt er w it h whi ch an
adm inis tr a tive agenc y is pr ima r ily.
2. M uch of adm inis tr a tion c oncer ns poli cie s a nd pr ogr amme s. B ut the
P OS D C O R B f or mula doe s not conta in any r e f er enc e to f or m ulat ion
and i mple ment ati on of polic ies and pr ogr a mmes . F or thi s r e as on the
P OS D C O R B vi ew is sa id to be f ar the r f r om r ea lit y.
3. The PO S DC O R B vie w i gnor es the hum an f ac tor in a dminis tr a tion. I t
em phas ize s t he te chnique s of a dmini st r ati on, and not t he human
bei ngs w ho us e thos e t echni ques .
4. F ur ther i t is not e nough f or the pr e se nt day a dminis tr a tor t o
s peci ali ze i n admi nis tr at ive t echni ques only. Ther e is a nee d to
s peci ali ze i n spe cif i c s ubjec t ar e as suc h as public polic y- analys is , or
per s onnel admi nis tr at ion or f ina ncia l ma nageme nt.
5. The PO S DC O R B vie w i s i nadequa te i n expla ining t he compl ex
ac tivi tie s of t he pr es ent day adm inis tr a tor . H e is conce r ned w ith
s uch thi ngs a s c ommuni cat ion, le ader s hip s kil ls and dec is ion38
ma king. H e is al so c oncer ne d wi th gr oup pr oce ss and pow er
r el ati onshi p in his age ncy and hi s gove r nment unit.
6. I t als o f ail s t o cover t he em er ging ne w a r eas of s tudy s uch as the
com par at ive publ ic a dmini st r ati on, devel opment admi ni st r ati on,
pr oble ms of human be haviour i n or ganiz ati ons, a dminis tr a tive
ec ology and s o on.
The var ious li mit ati ons of t he P OS D C OR B vi ew , st ate d above, ha ve r idi culed
the conf ine ment of the r a pidly gr ow ing dyna mic in the f ield of Publ ic
A dmini st r ati on to the PO S DC O R B te chniques onl y. He nce, a lthough t he
P OS D C OR B f or mula w as a us ef ul and nec es sa r y devel opment in the 1930s, i t
pr oved t o be too l imi ted i n expla ining t he f ull sc ope of the dyna mic f iel d of
toda y’ s P ubli c A dmini st r ati on. ( Laxm ikanth, 2005:5) .
3.2 Subject Matter View
P ublic admi nis tr at ion dea ls not only w it h admini st r ati ve t echnique s but als o
w ith t he s ubst anti ve f ie lds of admi nis tr ati on s uch as def e nce, e ducati on,
publi c hea lth s oci al, w el f ar e a gr icul tur e, pol ice , f ir e pr ote cti on, and s o on.
The se subs ta ntive se r vice s a r e pr ovide d f or the pe ople by t he var ious
gover nm enta l li ne age ncie s. T he nat ur e of the var ious gover nme ntal agenc ies
and t he s er vic es they pe r f or m ar e not s imi lar . T hey dif f e r . For i nst ance , the
w or k involve d in the admi nis tr at ion of the educa tion de par tme nt di f f er s f r om
the wor k i nvolved i n the a dmini st r ation of polic e depa r tment or public w or ks
depa r tme nt. The y have t heir r e spe cti ve s peci f ic a dminis tr a tive pr oblem s a nd
s peci ali zed t echni ques of thei r own. T his as pect is ignor ed by t he
P OS D C OR B vi ew , whi ch s tr es s es the c ommon a dmini st r ati ve te chniques
appl ica ble t o all or ganiz ati ons. H enc e, the knowl edge of the s ubj ect mat ter
w ith w hic h an adm inis tr a tive agenc y is conce r ned is ver y es s enti al f or the
ef f e cti ve adm inis tr a tion of t hat a gency. T his show s the ne ed to s tudy t he
s ubst anti ve f ie lds of admi nis tr at ion al ong wi th the PO S DC O R B te chniques .
The pr ece ding dis cus s ion s hows tha t both t he P OS D C OR B vi ew and the
s ubjec t ma tte r view ar e compl eme ntar y t o eac h other . B ot h the vie ws
cons ti tute the pr ope r sc ope of the st udy of public admini st r ati on. A s L ew is
M er ia n r ightl y obse r ves : ‘ publi c adm inis tr a tion i s a n ins tr ume nt w ith t wo
bla des like a pai r of sc is sor s . O ne bla de ma y be know ledge of the f ie ld
cove r ed by P OS D C OR B ; the ot her bla de is know ledge of the s ubje ct ma tte r in
w hich t hes e te chnique s a r e appl ied. B ot h blades mus t be good to ma ke an
ef f e cti ve tool ”.
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e2; Di sc uss the subj ect mat ter vi ew of public
A dmini st r ati on
3.3 The various areas of the scope of public administration:
The sc ope of publi c adm inis tr a tion a s a dis cipl ine i ncludes t he f ollow ing
tr a diti onal a s w el l as em er ging ne w a r eas of s tudy:
3.3a Pr in cip le s of ad m in is t rat i on : Adm inis tr a tive pr inci ples s uch as
hie r ar chy, uni ty of com mand, s pan of c ontr ol, c oor dinat ion, and de legat ion
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and s o on f or m t r adit ional par t of t he s tudy of publi c admi nis tr at ion. T he
cor ne r st one’ s of thes e pr i ncipl es ar e e f f ici ency, e conomy and equit y. Their
ai m is to de velop a value f r ee s ci ence of admin is tr at ion.
3.3b Pu bl ic p er son n el ad m in is t rat i on: P ubli c adm inis tr a tion de als w ith t he
pr oble ms of public per s onnel m anage ment . I t is conc er ned w it h manpow er
pla nning and t he es ta blis hme nt of pos ition- clas s if ic ati on s ys te m. I t include s
s uch ma tte r s a s r e cr uit ment , tr ai ning, mor a le a nd moti vation, dis cipli ne,
r et ir em ent, e mployer - empl oye e r e lat ions and othe r r ela ted ma tte r s. The
ef f i cie ncy of adm inis tr a tion de pends upon the e f f ici ency of t he per s ons
em ployed. H enc e, the impor t ance of per s onnel a dminis tr ation.
3.3c P ub li c f in an cial adm ini st r at ion : f ina ncia l adm inis tr a tion de als br oadl y
w ith budge ting pr oc es s, c ontr ol of publ ic e xpenditur e , ac counting and
audi ting, f i nanci al m anage ment is ver y im por tant beca use no public
pr ogr am me c an exi st wi thout f unds . F ur ther , e ver y im por tant act ivit y depends
on the volume of money a vail able to gover nme nt a nd its pr oper s pending.
H ence , the s cope of public admi nis tr at ion inc ludes the pr oblems of f i nancia l
ma nagem ent.
3.3d Ad m in is t rat i on ac cou nt ab il it y: I n the moder n a dmini st r ati ve s tat e,
publi c adm inis tr a tor exe r cis e e nor mous powe r s. T her e a r e as pect s of their
j obs tha t ca n lea d to mi sus e or a buse of thei r powe r s a nd cor r uption as we ll.
H ence , in a de mocr a tic gover nme nt publi c adm inis tr at or s must be hel d
ac counta ble t o the pe ople t hey s er ve f or t heir a ctions and behaviour (A ma jor
com ponent of good gove r nance to be di sc uss ed i n subs eque nt units ) .
A dmini st r ati ve ac counta bili ty is s ecur e d by mea ns of a dminis tr a tive s elf r egul ati on, and a c ompr ehe nsi ve s ys t em of e xter na l contr ol s- legis la tive ,
exe cuti ve, judi cia l and popul ar . A ll t hes e types of c ontr ols f or m pa r t of the
s cope of t he s tudy of publi c adm inis tr a tion.
3.3e T h e c it iz en ’ s c hap t er : Thi s i s a r ece nt conc ept, i s a nother i nst r ument of
adm inis tr a tive acc ountabi lit y. I t em powe r s t he ci tize ns as us er s to demand
f r om the gover nm ent a nd the s er vi ce or ga niza tions ( e.g. hos pita l, pos t- of f i ce
et c) the f undame ntal of acc ountabi lit y, tr ans par e ncy, and qua lit y and choic e
of s er vic es suppl ied t o them .
3.3f C om par at ive p u bl ic ad m in is t rat i on: t he com par at ive publ ic
adm inis tr a tion s tudi es cons tit ute a n impor ta nt a r ea of s peci ali zat ion w ithi n
the dis cipl ine of publ ic a dminis tr a tion. Thes e a r e cr os s - nationa l a nd cr oss cul tur al admi nis tr at ive s tudi es . Thei r aim is to f ocus on comm on ele ment s in
dif f e r ent ki nds of a dmini st r ati ve s yst ems in t he w or ld.
3.3g D evel opm e nt ad m in is t rat i on : I t is ma inly a dmini st r ati on of planne d
cha nge. I t c oncer ns adm inis tr a tion of de velopm ent pl ans and pr ogr amm es
under t aken by t he deve loping na tions . A n impor t ant a spe ct of i t is the
deve lopme nt of adm inis tr a tion.
3.3h Organ iz at ion t he ory: Or gani zat ion the or y is an im por tant eme r ging
ar e a of s tudy in publ ic a dmini st r ati on as a dis ci pline. I t deal s wi th the f or mal
s tr uct ur e, int er nal f uncti oning and pe r f or manc e of or gani zat ions , their
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ext er nal envir onm ent a nd the be haviour of gr oups and i ndividual s wi thin
the m.
O r ganiz ati onal t heor ie s a nd pr ocedur e s i nvolve t he oper at ion of the lar ge
bur ea ucr at ic ne tw or k. Or ga niza tions in t he public s ector s s uch as gover nm ent
depa r tme nts , public cor por at ions , comm is si on etc , get t he bus ines s of
gover nm ent done .
3.3i P ub li c p olic y anal ysi s: P ubli c poli cy ana lys is is anothe r impor t ant
em er ging s ub- f ie ld of the st udy of public admini st r ati on. P ublic polic yana lys is r ef er s to t he s tudy of the pr oces s of polic y maki ng and polic y
output s, i .e. the ef f ec ts of polic y impl eme nt ati on. P ublic polici es ar e made
and i mple ment ed by gover nm ent t o achi eve c er ta in goal s.
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e 2; O uli ne and e xplai n the va r ious ar ea s of t he
s cope of publ ic A dmi nis tr at ion.
3.4 S cop e of p ub li c ad m in is t rat ion as an ac t ivit y e xpl ain ed f ur t he r: P ublic
adm inis tr a tion i s onl y a me ans to at tai n the e nds of s ta te. I t is the
handm aide n of gover nme nt f or ca r r yi ng on it s a cti viti es in the f ulf il ment of
the pur pose s of t he s tat e. H ence , the s cope of public admini st r ati on as an
ac tivi ty is det er mi ned by the sc ope of gover nm enta l f uncti ons. The vol ume of
gover nm enta l ac tivi tie s i n tur n depe nds upon pe ople’ s expec tat ions f r om
gover nm ent. B ut wha t peopl e expe ct f r om gover nme nt var i es f r om ti me t o
ti me.
Thus , f or ins ta nce, i n the 19t h cent ur y lai ss ez - f air e st ate , people expec ted
chi ef ly t o be le f t f or the ms elve s unha mper e d. I n suc h a s tat e public
adm inis tr a tion ha s ve r y lit tle to do bec aus e the acti viti es of gover nme nt ar e
kept down t o abs olute mini mum l aw and or der , de f ence , and r evenue
col lec tion.
C ontr a st ingly, a we lf ar e st ate that eme r ged at the e nd of the S econd Wor ld
Wa r people expec ts many t hings f r om gover nm ent. C ons eque nt ly, t he s tate
ac tivi tie s e ncompa ss ma ny soc io- ec onomic we lf ar e se r vice s f or t he people .
The r e ar e har dly a ny ins tanc es whe r e the ar m of a dminis tr ation is not f elt by
the people f r om the wom b to the tomb. I t incl udes all oper ati ons of
gover nm ent r a nging f r om t he expl or ati on of outer s pac e to s w eeping the
s tr ee ts . The e nor mit y of moder n w el f ar e s ta te a cti viti es means i nevita bly
mor e admi nis tr at ive a cti vity, m or e adm inis tr a tive agenc ies and mor e
of f ic ial s. H enc e, in a we lf ar e st ate the s cope of public admini st r ati on as an
ac tivi ty is ver y w ide .
A gain f r om the 1990s up to t he 20t h c entur y pe ople a r e expe cti ng Good
Gove rn anc e in t he er a of global iza tion, l iber a tion a nd pr ivati zat ion.
P r ivat iza tion a nd libe r ali zat ion im plying de contr ol and deli cens ing have
r es ult ed in s hr inka ge in t he f unct ions of gover nment . A s a r es ult, publ ic
bur ea ucr ac y has had to s hed, s ome of its f unct ions and w eight. He nce, the
s cope of P ubli c A dmini st r ati on as an ac tivit y is ver y l imit ed i n the s ta tes that
adopt pr ivat iza tion a nd libe r ali zat ion.
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H owe ver , publi c adm inis tr a tion t oday ext ends to al l thos e ope r ations a nd
ac tivi tie s of i nst itut ions in the cor por at e s ect or , whi ch depends upon t he
gover nm enta l f unding. T hus ‘ publ ic’ i n public admini st r ati on has al so be en
expa nded to i nclude any adm inis tr a tion t hat ha s c onsi der able impa ct on the
publi c.
A demol okun( 1989) added l ight t o this by s tat ing tha t the sc ope and
com plexi ty of P ublic Adm inis tr a tion c an only be appr eci ate d in N ige r ia w hen
one s tudi es the va r ious cat egor ie s of or ga nis ations w it hin w hich t he w or k of
gover nm ent i s c ar r ie d out in t he count r y .He puts them as f ollow s ;
The f eder a l ci vil s er vi ce
A ll s ta te c ivil se r vice s
A ll l ocal gover nme nt
S tat utor y coope r ati on of the F ede r al a nd St ate gover nment
C ompa nies or ent er pr is es w ith f ul l or ma jor it y owne r shi p by eithe r the
f ede r al or s ta te gove r nment
A uthor it ies or com mis s ions es tabl is hed by the f eder al or s tat e gover nme nt
Educ ati onal i nst itut ions es tabl is hed or f ina nced by t he f eder a l or s ta te
gover nm ents
The Ni ger ia n Pol ice f or ce
The ar me d For c es
The Judi cia r y
The Legi sl atur e
4.0. Summary.
We have be en abl e to de f ine publ ic a dminis tr a tion to coves al l thr e e br anc hes
– exe cuti ve, le gis lat ive, a nd judic ial and the ir inte r r ela tions hips . I t include s
the f or mula tion a nd impl eme ntat ion of publi c poli cies ; the e xecuti ve br anc h
of gover nm ent; Or ga niza tiona l s tr uct ur es and ma chiner y of admin is tr at ion;
A dmini st r ati ve pr oce ss es ; B ur e aucr a cy and i ts act ivit ies ; C oor dina tion of
gr oup ac tivi ty or s ocia l r el ati onshi p; and I nt er ac tion be tw een or ga nizat ions
and t heir e nvir onme nt.
B ur ea ucr ac y has an im por tant r ole i n the f or m ulat ion of polic y and i s t hus a
par t of the pol iti cal pr oces s . I t is dif f e r ent i n si gnif ic ant w ays f r om pr i vate
adm inis tr a tion, but its r es pons ibil ity i s i n f or mulat ing gove r nmenta l pol icie s
and e xecut ing the m.
The pr ece ding dis cus s ion s hows tha t the sc ope of publi c admi nis tr at ion a s a n
ac tivi ty w ith pe ople’ s expe cta tions f r om gove r nment and thei r conce pt of
42
good li f e. F ur ther , i ts sc ope is in di r ect r ela tions hip w it h the s cope of
gover nm enta l f unct ions .( P olinai du,2005 )
The subj ect of today’ s publi c adm inis tr a tion i s va st and var i ed. I t c over s
eve r y ar ea and ac tivi ty gover ne d by public of f ice . Publ ic a dminis tr a tion als o
oper a tes at the na tiona l, s tat e or r egi onal a nd local leve ls s uch as dis tr ic ts ,
bloc ks a nd vill ages . The var ious f ie lds r ange f r om develop ment
adm inis tr a tion t o public polic y anal ys i s. H enc e, it is ‘ r elat ed t o the
oper a tions of gover nm ent w het her ce ntr al or loca l.
5.0. C ON CL U T I ON S
Thi s uni t has bee n able to pr oper l y explai n the meani ng of the ter m public
adm inis tr a tion a nd wa s a ble t o dif f er e ntia te i t f r om t he ter m M anage ment and
or gani sa tion. I t made f ur ther c lar i f ica tions tha t w e ma y sa y that public
adm inis tr a tion ha s t wo i nter r e lat ed and i nter de pendent as pects , nam ely ( 1)
the doing of publi c adm inis tr a tion ( i .e the acti viti es of publi c admi nis tr at ion)
and ( 2) t he thi nking about public admi nis tr ati on ( i.e . the i ntell ect ual inquir y
about admi nis tr at ive a cti viti es ) . The f or m er pr ovide s t he bas is f or the latt er .
O ne ca nnot conc eive of any dis ci pline of public admini st r ati on w ithout
thi nking about its f ie ld of ac tivi ty. A dmini st r ative the or ies , the r ef or e, a r e
la r gely de ducti ons f r om empi r ic s it uati ons. I n ot her w or ds, a dminis tr a tive
the or ies ar e f or mula ted on t he bas is of obs er vat ion of the f ield of
adm inis tr a tive act ivit y, and henc e, the y ar e l ar gel y r eali st ic. A good the or y is
one w hic h is bas ed on f ac ts and pr ac tic es and thus clos er to r eal ity.
A dmini st r ati ve the or ies , in t heir t ur n, ar e a ls o use f ul to a dminis tr a tive
ac tivi ty. A dmini st r ati ve the or ies pr ovide a dis ci plinar y f r amew or k a nd
conc eptua l cl ar it y f or admi nis tr at ive a cti ons. T hus, a dminis tr a tive theor y and
adm inis tr a tive pr act ice s a r e cl ose ly r el ated. As N ichola s He nr y sa ys , “ publ ic
adm inis tr a tion i s a br oad r angi ng and am or phous c ombinat ion of t heor y and
pr ac tic e”. W hile admi nis tr at ive t heor y dea ls wi th gener a liz ati ons a nd
pr inc iple s of publ ic a dmini st r ati on, admini st r ati ve pr a ctic es deal s wi th thei r
appl ica tion t o the va r ious f iel ds of a dminis tr a tive ac tivit y.
A lthough a dmini st r ati ve the or y and adm inis tr at ive pr acti ce ar e cl ose ly
r el ate d, they a r e neve r thel es s s epa r ate d and dif f e r ent. A cc or ding to P r of .
Wa ldo, the dif f er e nce be tw een a dmini st r ativ e the or y and admi nis tr at ive
pr ac tic e “i s a dif f er e nce s im ila r to tha t bet we en biol ogy as the s tudy of
or gani sm and the or ganis ms the ms elve s” .
6.0. T u t or M ark ed As s ign m en t .
- D is cus s the s cope of public admini st r ati on.
- D is cus s the t er m P O SD C O R B .
7.0. R E FE R E N CE S /S U GE S T IO NS FO R F UR T HE R R E SE A R CH
La xmika nth ( 2005) , Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation; f or t he U PSC C iv il Se rv ices
Pr el im inar y Ex ami nation. S ec ond Edit ion. M cG r aw - Hi ll, N ew D elhi .
43
C or ker y J and J B os suyt ( 1990) , Gove r nance and I ns tit utiona l D evel opment in
S ub- S ahar an Af r ic a. S emi nar R epor t , 28- 30, Eur opea n C entr e f or
D evel opment Pol icy M ana geme nt ( EC D P M) .
D imoc k AN D Di mock,( 1936) P ubli c A dminis tr ation, R ineha r t and C o. N ew
Y or k,p.82.
G eor ge C E dwa r ds I I I a nd I r a S har kans ky, ( 1979) T he Pol icy Pr edic ame nt –
M aki ng and I mpl em enti ng Publi c Pol icy , Al lie d Publ is her s , Ne w D el hi,- p.
220- 235.
S eckl er - H udson,( 1957) O r gani zat ion and M anagem ent : The ory and Pr acti ce,
The Am er ic an U niver s it y Pr e ss , Wa shi ngton, p. 71.
L D Whi te ( 1955) , I nt roduc tion t o the St udy of P ublic Adm inis tr ation, Ne w
Y or k, C r owe ll C ol lie r and M acm ill an, p. 1.
M E D imoc k, G O D imoc k, and L W K oenig, P ubli c A dmini st r ati on,
N ew Yor k: Hol t, R ine har t a nd Wins ton, 1958, p. 12
A mit ai E tzi oni,( 1967) “M ixe d Sc anning: A T hir d A ppr oach t o De cis ionM aking” in P ublic Adm inis tr a tion R e view , 27, N o. 5, De c 1967, pp.389- 390.
La r r y L Wa de ( 1972) , the Ele me nts of Publ ic P olic y, C olumbus , O hio, M er i ll,
1972, p. 110.
H A S im on, D W Sm ithbur g, V A Thomps on, ( 1950) , Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation,
N ew Yor k, K nopf , p. 6.
H A S im on,( 1960) The N ew S cie nce of M ana geme nt D eci si on, Ne w Y or k,
H ar per a nd R ow, p. 6.
S ee R K S apr u, P ublic Pol icy F or mul ati on, I mple menta tion and Eva luati on
( S ter l ing, N ew De lhi, 1994) f or a deta ile d dis cus si on on all as pects of publ ic
poli cy ma king.
UNIT 4:
44
CH AR A CT E R I ST I C S O F PU B L I C A D MI NI S T RA T I ON
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 C H AR A C TE R I ST I C S OF P UB L I C AD M I NI S TR A TI O N . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 TH E D I F FE R EN C E B E TWE EN P U B LI C A N D
A DM I N I S TR A TI ON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
TE
3.3 R EA S ON S FO R TH E G R O WI N G I M PO R TA N C E
LIDM
C I N I S TR A TI ON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
A
3.4 M A I N A P PR O A C HE S TO TH E S TU DY O F
A DCMI N I S TR A TI O N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
LI
PR I V A
OF
PUB
PU B
3.4a H is tor i cal Appr oa ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4b Le gal A ppr oac h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
3.4c I nst itut ional Appr oa ch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4d A ppr oache s a nd R ela tions w ith O the r Subj ect s . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.4e B ehavi our al A ppr oac h. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4f S ys tems A ppr oac h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.4g S tr uc tur al- Func tional A ppr oach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4h Ec ologic al A ppr oac h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.4i Publ ic P oli cy A ppr oach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .49
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
U NI T - 4: C HA RA C T E RI S T IC S OF P UB L I C AD MI N IS T R AT I ON
45
1.1. I n t rod uc t ion : Publ ic a dminis tr a tion is the non- pol itic al publ ic
bur e aucr ac y oper a ting i n a polit ica l s yst em unde r the di r ect ion of
pol itic al leade r shi p. I t ha s c er tai n char a cte r is tic s r a nging f r om i t’ s
be ing a bus ine ss of gover nme nt t o the f a ct t hat i t is an ac adem ic
di sc ipline tha t dea ls wi th the acti viti es of man a nd the e ntir e soc ioe conomic tr a nsf or ma tion of the s ocie ty.
T his unit a ls o deal s w it h the a ppr oaches to t he s tudy of publi c
a dminis tr a tion and the sc ope of public admi nis tr at ion. I t l ooks a ls o
a t publi c admi nis tr at ion a s t he bas is of gover nme nt conc er ned w it h
l aw s, pol icy f or mul ati on and t he impl eme ntat ion of the se polic ies f or
t he pur pos es of develop ment.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The main objective of this chapter is to expose you to the following
a-The Characteristics of Public Administration
b-The Role of Public Administration in Modern Society
c - The D ef i nition of Publ ic A dmini st r ati on
d- T he dif f e r ences be tw een P ublic and P r ivat e A dmini st r ati on
e - Appr oa ches to t he S tudy of P ublic Admi nis tr at ion
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 C HA R AC T E R IS T I CS OF PU B L IC A DM IN I ST R A T IO N
A n ana lysi s of both the tr adit ional and mode r n def ini tions of publi c
a dminis tr a tion quoted i n the pr oc eeding pa ges show w hat publ ic
a dminis tr a tion st ands f or and w hat a r e its i mpor tant char a cte r is tic s. T hes e
a spe cts ar e br ief l y st ated as f ollow s :
2. P ublic admi nis tr at ion is the non- polit ica l publi c bur ea ucr ac y
oper a ting i n a poli tic al s ys tem under the dir ec tion of pol itic al
le ader s hip
3. I t is t he monopol y of the s ta te. A s suc h it de als w ith t he ends of the
s tat e, the sove r eign w il l, the public inter es ts and law s , the coer ci ve
el eme nt in s oci ety.
4. A lthough i t te nds m ainl y to be c oncentr ated in the execut ive br anch,
it is the w hole gover nme nt in a cti on. Si nce gove r nment is a big
af f a ir , publi c adm inis tr a tion i s a ls o natur a lly a big and c omplex
or gani zat ion.
5. A s t he bus ines s si de of gover nm ent publ ic a dminis tr a tion is
conc er ned w it h polic y exec ution, but it ha s a ls o r es ponsi bilit y in
poli cy- ma king.
46
6. P ublic admi nis tr at ion is a m eans to a n end, and not an end i n its elf .
I t involves the enti r e ac tivi tie s of gove r nment and the pr oces s es
invol ved in t he im plem enta tion of i t’ s polic ies and t he pr ovis ion of
var i ous s er vi ces f or the people at m inimu m cos t i n or der to a ttai n
good li f e.
7. I t dif f er s s ignif ic antl y f r om pr iva te a dmini st r ati on; es pec ial ly in i ts
em phas is on public good, but it f ind par t ial anal ogies in pr i vate
adm inis tr a tion.
8. I t is i nter di sc ipli nar y in t heor y, f or it embr a ces in i ts f old s ever a l
s ocia l s cie nces s uch as poli tic al s ci ence , soc iology, ps ychology,
ec onomie s a nd mana geme nt s cie nce.
9. P ublic admi nis tr at ion is a pr a cti cal dis cipl ine, be it a n ar t of a
s cie nce; it ha s ne xus w it h polit ica l and s ta te a ctivi ty, w hich has
bec ome a ll- pe r vas ive. I t has an appl ied na tur e f oc usi ng main ly on
the pr oblem s of s oci ety a nd polit y.
10. I t is a n ongoing pr oce ss . The r e is no end t o it. I f one acti vit y is
com plet ed, a ne w one wi ll c r op up. ( Pol inai du,2005)
S el f As s es sm e nt E xer cis e 1; De sc r ibe t he char a cte r is tic s of publ ic
A dmini st r ati on
3.2. The Difference between Public and Private Administration
The r e ar e tw o dif f er e nt vie ws on the r ela tions hip be tw een publ ic and pr ivate
adm inis tr a tion. O ne gr oup of t hinker s , li ke U r wi ck, F olle tt a nd Fa yol , ar e of
the view tha t adm inis tr a tion i s a n indivi si ble e ntit y, and it s ba si c pr inci ples
ar e appli cabl e equa lly t o all or ganiz ations w het he r public or pr ivat e. Thi s
vie w i s obvi ousl y bas ed on ce r tai n cle ar ly obs er va ble s imi lar i tie s in the
pr ac tic e of publi c and pr i vate admi nis tr at ion.
I n the f ir s t pla ce, i t is ext r eme ly dif f i cult to cl ear l y demar cate the sphe r es of
the tw o types of adm inis tr a tive act ivit y. Though the acti viti es per f or me d by
gover nm ent a genci es ar e de f ined a s publ ic a dminis tr a tion, ther e ar e ma ny
pr iva te a genci es whi ch al so pe r f or m ta sks w hich a r e s tr ic tly publi c s er vic e or
w elf a r e or ie nted. C onve r se ly, the r e ar e many t as ks pe r f or med by t he
gover nm ent bur e aucr a cy w hich m ay be of a pr ivat e nat ur e.
S econdl y, met hods a nd wor k pr oc edur es ma y be com mon to bot h public and
pr iva te a dmini st r ati on. Ac counti ng, st atis ti cs , of f ic e mana geme nt and
pr oce dur es and s tock t aking a r e pr oble ms of admini st r ati ve ma nagem ent
com mon to bot h public and pr iva te a dminis tr a tion.
Wi th the conti nuous e xpans ion of the public se ctor i n indus tr ial ente r pr is es
and t he s tea dy gr owt h of public cor por at ions , gover nment has been dr aw ing
hea vily upon t he bus ines s knowl edge a nd exper ti se of pr ivat e a dminis tr a tion
to r un t hes e ent er pr is es . I n f ac t, in m any count r ies , inc luding I ndi a, ther e is a
gr ow ing int er ac tion be tw een t he publi c and pr i vate se ctor s . I n I ndia
ca ndidat es f r om pr iva te e st abli shm ents have of ten be en r ec r uited to s enior
adm inis tr a tive posi tions in t he gover nme nt. E ver s ince pr ivate ente r pr is es
have been de velopi ng into huge admi nist r ati ve gi ants , w ith w ide ning netw or k
47
of of f ic es all over the countr y, pr i vate admi nis tr ati on has beco me as
im per s onal a s publ ic a dmini st r ati on. Al so w it h the popul ar iza tion of the
conc ept of de mocr a tic we lf ar e st ate , the pr i ncipl es of democr a tic contr ol ,
publi c ac counta bili ty and popul ar che cks on admini st r ati ve be havior ar e
inc r eas ing i n all pr ivat e or gani zat ions .
H owe ver , im por tant the s im ila r iti es may be , it c annot be denied that ther e
s til l r em ain f unda ment al di f f er enc es betw ee n the t wo. T he maj or points of
dif f e r ence ar e i n the s pher e s of “ unif or mi ty and i mpar t ial ity, r e spons ibi lit y,
ac counta bili ty and s er vi cea bili ty.” T he f our ma in pr inc iples w hich
dif f e r enti ate public f r om pr iva te a dmini st r ati on ar e:
a) unif or m ity;
b) ext er nal f inanc ial contr ol ;
c) mi nis ter i al r e spons ibi lit y; and
d) ma r ginal r etur n
The popular i dea of publ ic a dmini st r ation is that it i s bur e aucr at ic,
cha r act er iz ed by r edt apis m, i nef f ic ienc y and ine r tia, whe r eas pr ivat e
adm inis tr a tion i s e f f ici ent a nd busi nes sl ike. T h e f ol low in g are t h e
d if f e ren ces b et w een t h e t w o t yp es of ad m in is t rat i on:
1. Pol iti cal di re cti on or m ini st er ial r es pon si bili ty: U nli ke pr iva te
adm inis tr a tion, publ ic a dmini st r ati on is subj ect ed to pol itic al dir ect ion i n
mos t pol icy m att er s . I t is the mini st er w ho lays dow n br oad poli cy outl ines .
U nder w hich t he bur ea ucr at has to im pleme nt t he polic y. O per ati onal
aut onomy is , how ever , gr a nted t o a gr ea t ext ent t o public admini st r ator s ,
w ho ar e not r es ponsi ble f or t heir a cti ons t o the l egis lat ur e. I t is the mi nis ter
w ho r epr es ent s hi s de par tm ent i n the l egis la tur e, a nd is held r e spons ible f or
al l ac ts of omis s ion and c ommi ss ion of hi s a dmini str ative juni or s t o
P ar li ame nt.
2. Pr of it moti ve or m ar gin al r et ur n : Publ ic a dmini st r ati on is se r vice
or ie nted a nd pr of it m aking i s not its goal . A bus ine ss ma n wi ll ne ver
under t ake a ventur e whi ch is not l ikel y to yiel d any pr of i t to hi m. I n public
adm inis tr a tion, t her e i s no c or r ela tion be tw een i ncome and expendi tur e, si nce
mos t gove r nment depar t ment s a r e s pending de par tm ents and e ven in the s oca lle d r evenue pr oducing de par tm ents , the pr imar y motiv e is alw a ys publi c
s er vic e. P ublic util ity s er vi ces of the Gove r nment of I ndia of t en r un as a l oss ,
yet the gove r nment is duty- bound to s pend on t hem.
3. S ocial ne ces s ity : Publ ic a dmini st r ati on cat er s to s ocia l nee ds a nd
publi c uti lit ies . F or exam ple, i t ma inta ins r ail wa ys t o f aci lita te moveme nt of
goods and pas s enger s ; t he pos t and t ele gr aph net wor k f a cili tat es
com munic ati ons; hospi tal s a nd dis pens ar ie s a r e me ant t o pr ovide me dica l ai d
and publ ic he alt h se r vice s t o the pe ople. T he s cope of pr i vate admini st r ati on
is nar r ow er . I t is mos tly c oncer ne d wi th pr ovidi ng mar ke tabl e cons umer
goods to the public , car i ng f or the e conomi c nee ds of c itiz ens . B es ides , the
nat ur e of s ome of t he gover nm ent s er vi ces is s o wi de, compr e hens ive and
expe nsi ve tha t no pr iva te a dmini st r ati on can unde r take them, e.g mai ntai ning
a va st netw or k of poli ce, a r my, r ai lw ays or post and te legr aph.
48
4. Pu bli c r es pons ibi lit y: The public admi nis tr at or s a r e tr a ined a nd dutybound to r e spe ct t he w is hes of the publ ic a nd cate r to t heir ne eds . I n the
w or ds of A pple by, “G over nme nt adm inis tr a tion di f f er s f r om al l othe r
adm inis tr a tive wor k by vi r tue of i ts public natur e , the w ay i n whi ch it is
s ubjec t to publ ic s cr ut iny and out cr y.” P r iva te a dmini str ati on has no suc h
obli gati on; it s m ain obj ect ive i s t o se cur e i ts own e nds.
5. U ni f orm ity of tr eatm en t: P ublic admi nis tr at ion s hould be c onsi st ent i n
pr oce dur e and uni f or m in i t’ s public deal ings . This pr inc iple is mor e
appl ica ble t o public admi nis tr at ion tha n the ot her beca use the f or mer is
mos tl y r egula ted by c ommon a nd unif or m l aw s a nd r egula tions . P ublic
adm inis tr a tion i s s ubje ct t o the pr i ncipl e of ext er nal f inanci al contr ol.
G over nme nt r eve nues ar e c ontr oll ed by the people ’ s r e pr es enta tives thr ough
the legi sl atur e . I n pr ivat e adm inis tr a tion, f i nances a r e not c ontr olle d by any
outs ide agenc y.
6. C on f orm ity to law s an d re gul ation s : The publ ic a dmini st r ator s ca nnot
do anyt hing cont r ar y to, or i n exce ss of le gal pow er . I t has to f uncti on w ithin
the lega l f r am ew or k; it can ne ver br ea k the l aw . I f it doe s s o, its ac tions ca n
be de cla r ed inva lid or , u lt ra- v ir es by the c our ts . Pr i vate admi nis tr at ion has
no s uch r es pons ibil ity.
Self Assessment Exercise 2; Outline and explain the differences between public and
private administration.
3.3 Reasons for the Growing Importance of Public
administration
A number of f act s ha ve cont r ibuted to the s igni f ica nce of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion in the moder n s oci ety. T hey ar e br ief l y st ated a s f ol low s:
T h e s cie nt i f ic an d t ech n ology d evel opm e nt
T he s cie ntif ic dis cove r ies and t echnologi cal advanc es have gr e atl y
c ontr ibute d to t he vas t i ncr eas e in the s cope of the a cti viti es of public
a dminis tr a tion. The de velopme nts in mode r n s cienc e and t echnol ogy have
l ed to r e volutiona r y cha nges in tr ans por ta tion a nd comm unica tion s ys tem .
T he inve ntion of t elephone , te legr aph, r ailw a ys , and a ir w ays has made big
gove r nment and la r ge- s cale admi nis tr at ion pos s ible. The int r oducti on of
m echani cal devi ces in t he of f ice admi nis tr at ion s uch as t ype wr i ter s , te le
pr i nter , a nd calc ulat or s, photocopying machi nes , per s onal compute r s, f a x
a nd the e lect r onic mail has br ought a bout even mor e r evol utiona r y change s
i n the w ays and me thods of admi nis tr at ion. T he se devic es have f a cil ita ted
t he mana geme nt of bi g and compl ex mode r n or ganiz ati on wi th ea se and
s pee d.
I nd u s t rial revolu t ion
I ndus tr i al r e volution, a cons eque nce of t he s cient if ic invent ion and
t echnologi cal deve lopment s, br ought about cer ta in cha nges in s ocie ty. I t
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l ed to t he gr ow th of la r ge- s cal e indus tr ie s and f act or y pr oducti on,
ove r cr ow ded indus tr i al t owns , and ur ba n sl ums. The f a ctor y s yst em a ls o
r e sul ted i n suc h evils a s t he gr ow th of capi tal is m, la r ge s cal e
une mployme nt, e xploita tion of labour l onger hour s of wor k and l owe r
w age s, e mployme nt of c hildr en in haza r dous occupat ions , heal th haz ar ds ,
e tc. I n t he int er es t of s oci o- economi c j ust ice, gover nment s i n the
de veloped and deve loping c ountr ies ha ve been compel led t o as sum e new
r e spons ibi liti es to s et r ight t he bad e f f ects of the above e vils . A s a r es ult,
t he ta sk a nd r es ponsi bilit ies a s w el l as the i mpor ta nce of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion have va st ly inc r eas ed.
E c onom i c p lan ni ng
E conomic pla nning is anot her f ac tor that has contr i buted t o the i ncr ea si ng
i mpor tanc e of publ ic a dminis tr a tion, par tic ular l y in the devel oping nat ions
of A f r ic a and A s ia. M oder n gove r nments ha ve r es or ted to planni ng as a
m ethod of a chievi ng ec onomic develop ment and goals of w elf a r e s tat e. The
A f r o A si an deve loping na tions have under take n devel opment planni ng to
r e sha pe the ir ec onomies a nd soc ieti es . The new r espons ibi lit ies r el ati ng to
pl anning a ctivi tie s. i.e., pl an f or mula tion and impl eme ntat ion, and c r eat ion
of e labor at e ne ces s ar y admi nis tr at ive machi ner y have natur a lly w ide ned
t he s pher e of publ ic a dminis tr a tion. How ever , in the w ake of the ne w
l iber al ize d ec onomic r ef or ms planni ng as a me thod of ec onomic
de velopme nt a nd the a dminis tr a tive f uncti ons r elat ing to i t ar e gr adual ly
ge tting dimini she d.
War s
W ar s have a ls o contr ibut ed t o the i mpor tanc e of publi c adm inis tr a tion. I n
t imes of w ar publ ic a dminis tr a tion is entr us ted wi th the r e spons ibi lit y of
m obi liz ing ne ces s ar y manpow er and r es our ces f or the pur pose of wa r .
C e r tain acti viti es ac quir ed by publ ic a dminis tr a tion dur i ng wa r - tim e ma y
c ontinue even a f ter t he ter minat ion of w ar . F or ins tanc e, the Se cond Wor l d
W ar had a n impac t on t he avai labi lit y of f ood ( s hor tage of f ood) a nd the
pr i ces of goods . C onse quentl y, the gove r nment intr oduce d the s ys tem of
c ontr ols and quot es on the di st r ibution a nd cons umpti on of cer t ain
e ss ent ial goods a nd commodi tie s. The s ame s ys te ms have be en w ith t he
publ ic a uthor iti es in I ndi a unti l the i ntr oduct ion of new poli cy of ec onomic
l iber al iza tion in the 1990s. T hus, w ar s have their i mpac t on the sphe r e of
a ctivi tie s of public admini st r ati on in pr ovidi ng goods a nd se r vice s f or t he
pe ople.
C alam i t ies an d C ri se s
N at ur al c ala miti es like ear t hquakes , f loods dr oughts , and c yclone s ha ve
a ls o enhanc ed the impor ta nce of public admini st r ati on. I n the e vent of
oc cur r ence of s uch natur a l c alam iti es the public a dmini st r ator s have to ac t
qui ckly a nd under take r es cue oper ati ons in or der to pr e vent l oss of li f e and
pr ope r ty of the af f ect ed pe ople. T hus c r is is manage ment is an im por tant
f unc tion of publ ic a dminis tr a tion. To give an exam ple, a cr is is ma nagem ent
gr oup w as f or med to dea l w ith t he s itua tion i n M aha r as htr a a nd Ka r nata ka,
w hic h we r e r ocke d by an ear t hquake on Se ptembe r 30, 1993. The c r is is
50
m anage ment gr oup, under the chair mans hip of t he U nion C abine t s ecr e tar y,
c oor dinate d and s uppor te d the a ctivi tie s of t he var i ous c entr a l mi nis tr ie s
a nd depar t ments . A n eme r gency contr ol r oom w as als o s et up in t he H ome
M ini st r y to monit or the si tuat ion. The pur pos e of a ll t his ar r ange ment wa s
t o pr ovide s pee dy, r elie f to t he vict ims a nd sur vi vor s of the ear t hquakes
di sa st er s .
I n t he thi r d wor l d countr i es ver y of te n the publi c aut hor iti es have t o
m anage the r e cur r ing c r is es r es ulting f r om s ocial upheava ls suc h as cla ss
a nd cas te conf lic ts , comm unal r iots , tr iba l a nd ethnic viole nce. T hes e dar k
f or c es thr eat en s oci al ha r mony and pe ace and the f a br ic a nd in ti mes of
c r is es r es ulting f r om the ir ac tivit ies t he public admi nis tr at or s ha ve to
qui ckly r e st or e pea ce a nd pr otect the lives and pr ope r ty of the people . This
r ol e of publi c admi nis tr at ion ha s a ls o incr ea se d its im por tanc e.
R api d gr ow th of p ub li cat ion an d t h e p rob le m s of m et rop olit an ci t ies
T he r api d gr owt h of populati on in a lmos t al l the countr i es of the w or ld,
e spe cial ly i n the de veloping countr ie s, has compli cat ed the pr oblem s of
pr ovi ding f ood, s helt er , educ ation, healt h and s ani tati on, tr ans por t
f a cili tie s and the like to the people. The ta ckli ng of thes e pr obl ems has
pl aced additi onal r es ponsi bilit ies upon publi c bur ea ucr ac y.
T he gr ow th of met r opolit an c itie s has als o cr ea ted cer ta in pr oble ms
pe culia r to t hem. S ome of the pr obl ems of the m etr opol ita n cit ies inc lude
c onges tion, gr ow th of s lums , hous ing s ca r cit y, ins uf f icie nt w ate r suppl y,
i nadequat e t r ans por tati on, incr e as ing ur ba n cr ime r ate and viol ence , etc .
T he r es pons ibili ty f or t ackli ng the se acute s ocial and ec onomic pr oblem s
ha s de volved upon publ ic bur e aucr ac y and inc r eas ed i ts sphe r e of ac tivi ty.
E m er gen ce of w el f are s t at e
T he eme r genc y of we lf ar e st ate in moder n time s has added ma ny new
a ctivi tie s and r es pons ibili tie s to the exis ting f unc tions of publi c
bur e aucr ac y. The we lf ar e st ate is a s ocial s er vice s tate . I ts mott o is
pr omot ion of huma n w elf a r e and good l if e f or t he people . I n the i nter e st of
s oci o- economi c j ust ice, the pos iti ve w el f ar e s tat e ac ts as a pr ote ctor , a
di spe nse r of soc ial se r vices , a pr ovider of es s enti al commodi tie s, a
m anage r of key indus tr i es and banking se r vices , and a contr ol ler a nd
r e gulator of pr ivate ec onomic enter pr i se s and act ivit ies . Thus as H er ma n
F ine r sa ys , “ The s ta te i s e ver ywhe r e; it l eaves har dl y a gap” Wal do sa ys ,
“ Publ ic a dminis tr a tion is a par t of the cul tur al compl ex, and i t is not onl y
a cted upon, but al so a cts , it is indeed a gr eat cr ea ted f or c e w ith m an’ s
w el f ar e a s i ts ideal ”. T his change in the pol iti cal philos ophy of s tat e f r om
ne gative to pos it ive r ol e has natur a lly incr ea se d the i mpor ta nce of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion.
D eve lop m en t s i n t h e 1990s ; T h eir Im p act
T he new li ber ali zed economi c r e f or ms in the 1990 – gl obali zat ion.
L iber al iz ati on and pr iva tiza tion – have de manded the r oll back of t he
w el f ar e s ta te. A s a r es ult, gover nment has had to shed some of its f unct ions
51
a nd we ight. G over nme nt i s now bei ng call ed upon to pl ay mor e and mor e
‘ e nabling’ r ole t han the tr adit ional ‘ doing’ r ol e. I t no longe r plays the r ole
of a dir ec t pr ovide r of goods a nd se r vices . I ns tea d, G over nment may
ope r ate indir ec tl y as enable r , all owi ng non- gover nme nt age ncie s t o oper at e
di r ectl y in a wi de r ange of soc ial acti viti es . Thus the f unc tions of the st ate
ha ve bee n r educed to the minim um.
S el f As s es sm e nt E xer cis e 2; - Out line and expla in t he r eas ons behind t he
gr ow ing i mpor tanc e of publ ic a dminis tr a tion.
3.4. Mai n A p pr oach es t o t he St u d y of Pu bl ic A d m in is t rat ion .
S inc e 1887 the r e have been di f f er ent appr oache s to the s tudy of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion whe n this s ubjec t as a s epa r ate acade mic dis cipl ine w as
bor n. T he tr a ditiona l a ppr oaches c oncentr a ted on t he f or ma l, le gal a nd
i nst ituti onal as pects of or ga nizat ions . The methods em ployed i n the s tudy
w er e mainl y his tor i cal and des cr ipt ive. The ma jor conc er ns of the ol der
l iter a tur e on admini st r ati on w er e t he s tr uctur e of per s onnel a nd f inanc ial
a dminis tr a tion, the a dminis tr a tive mac hiner y, bur e aucr a cy and f unc tions of
publ ic a dminis tr a tor s . The new appr oache s whic h mai nly appe ar ed a f ter
W or ld Wa r I I came as a r e acti on to the older appr oache s,
3.4a H is t orical A pp roac h
T he his tor i cal appr oach is es se ntial ly bas ed on the bel ief t hat know le dge of
hi st or y is abs olute ly es s entia l f or a n in- depth st ud y of a ny subj ect . For a
pr ope r under s tanding of the s ubje ct t he s tudy of public admi nis tr at ion of
t he pas t i n par tic ular per iods is nece ss ar y to link up w it h the pr e se nt
a dminis tr a tive s ys te ms . F or , exampl e, f or pr ope r under s tanding of t he
ba ckgr ound and gr ow th of a dminis tr a tion in I ndia , a his tor ic al pe r spe cti ve
i s e ss ent ial. To under s ta nd the e volution of the adm inis tr a tive s ys te m in
I ndi a, the char ac ter i st ics of B r i tis h I ndian Admi nis tr at ion and als o the pr e B r i tis h per i od have t o be s tudie d. White 's tw o volumes . T he F eder ali st s
( 1948) a nd The Jef fer s onian ( 1951) , ar e impor ta nt s tudi es of the f e der al
a dminis tr a tion of the U S A dur i ng the ea r ly yea r s of t he R epubl ic,
B i ogr aphica l a nd 'autobi ogr aphic al s tudi es ar e a ls o clos el y r elat ed, to the
hi st or ical appr oa ch, the Eur ope a nd Ame r ica re minis ce nces of exa dminis tr a tor r e veal many i mpor tant , f act s of admini st r ati ve pr oce ss es ,
S eve r al vol umes in t he R ule s of I ndi a s er ies a nd s pec ial ize d st udies
de aling wi th te nur es of par tic ular gover nor - gener a ls dur ing the B r iti sh e r a,
a r e impor t ant to the st udy of admini st r ati on of thes e per iods .
3.4b L egal Ap p roach
E xpor ter s of thi s a ppr oach w ould l ike t o st ud y publ ic a dmini st r ati on as
pa r t of the f or mal legal s tr uct ur e and or ga nizat ion of publi c bodie s. I t ’ s
c hief c oncer n ha s be en w ith pow er —it s st r uctur e and f uncti ons. I t ’ s
s ucc es se s, t he f or mal or ganiz ati on of of f ice s, of f icia l duti es , lim ita tions of
pow er a nd dis cr eti onar y a uthor it y of admini st r ator s . I t s ma in s our ces ar e
c onst ituti ons, codes of la w, of f i ce ma nuals of r ule s a nd r egula tions and
52
j udici al de cis ions . M any count r ies of Eur ope, like Ge r many and B e lgium ,
ha ve par t icula r ly a pplied the l egal appr oach to the s tudy of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion. I n thes e c ountr ies t her e a r e t w o pr incipa l divi si ons of law
—c onst ituti onal and admi nis tr at ive. Wher ea s cons titut ional law dea ls wi th
t he thr e e mai n or gani sa tions of the gover nment , thei r inte r r ela tion a nd the
di st r ibution of powe r among t hem, a dminis tr a tive law is ma inly c oncer ne d
w it h the s tr uc tur e a nd f unctions of publ ic bodie s, de par tm ents and
a uthor iti es . The legal appr oa ch is valua ble f or the under s ta nding of the
l egal f r amew or k w it hin w hich t he admi nis tr at ive sys tem has to oper a te, but
by ne glect ing t he inf or ma l f or c es oper ati ng in t he or ganiz ati on ( the
s oci ologica l a nd psychol ogica l va r iable s) , it r e mains to a gr eat exte nsi on
i ncomple te appr oach to the st udy of public a dmini st r ati on.
3.4c In s t it u t ion al A pp roac h
T his appr oac h es tabli she s linkage s betw een the s tudy of publi c
a dminis tr a tion and the ins titut ions of gover nme nt. I t a ppr oache d the s tudy
of a dminis tr a tion thr ough the st udy of the s tr uct ur e and f unc tioni ng of
s epa r ate ins titut ions and or ga nizat ions of the s ta te—s uch a s t he exe cuti ve,
t he le gis latur e , the depar t ments , gove r nment cor por ati ons, boa r ds a nd
c ommis s ions . S chola r s of t his sc hool def i ned the tas k of admi nis tr at ion as
non- pol itic al or techni cal w hich l ay mer e ly in the f ie ld of poli cy
i mple menta tion. They w er e mainl y advoca tes of the polit ics - adm inis tr a tion
di chotom y and the ir ef f or t s w er e channel ize d tow ar ds dis cover i ng
' pr incipl es ' of publi c admi nis tr at ion. H owe ver , the maj or ity of s chol ar s of
t his appr oac h like L D White and L uther G ulic k we r e cont ent m er el y wi th
de sc r iption of ins titut ional s tr uct ur es wi thout a ny a tte mpt a t the or y
bui lding. T his is es se ntial ly de sc r iptive though at tem pts have be en ma de by
s ome thinke r s t o combine nor mat ive ele ments w it h the des cr i ptive . Som e of
t hes e have not only de sc r ibed t he ins tit utions but a ls o sugge st ed ide as f or
r e f or m, w her e ne ces s ar y. The tr adit ional is ts beli eved that t he ma jor
pr obl ems of admi nis tr at ion a r e r el ated to the legal f or mal s tr uctur e of
or ga nizat ions and t heir s olut ion ca n als o be f ound in m odif ying or
c hanging t his st r uctur e.
3.4d A pp roac he s an d Re lat ion s wi t h O t he r S ub j ec t s
T his appr oac h cons ider ed the s tudy of or ga nizat ions , thei r pr inci ples , goal s
a nd st r uctur e as pr imar y to the st udy of admini st r ati on. H ist or y and la w
w er e the t wo ma in s our ce s of t he older st udies . The e xponents of the se
s chool s ga ve s er ious at tenti on to t he pr oblem of dele gati on, coor dina tion,
s pan of c ontr ol a nd bur eaucr a tic s tr uctur e . I niti all y w r iter s on publi c
a dminis tr a tion we r e mos t c oncer ned wi th w ays and met hods t o impr ove
a dminis tr a tive ef f i cienc y and e conomy. Thi s gave r is e t o many t heor ie s.
P f ei f f er & P r es thus , Wa ldo, G ulick & U r wi ck, Ta yl or , F ayol, M ooney, e tc
w er e pr ima r ily c oncer ned wi th f inding wa ys a nd means of i mpr oving
or ga nizat ional w or k, methods a nd pr oces s es , in or der to r a is e the ir output
a nd ef f ic ienc y.
T he mai n li mita tions of t hes e appr oa ches we r e a t otal negle ct of
e nvir onment al and inf or ma l f a ctor s on admi nis tr at ion. B y ne glect ing othe r
53
va r iable s like soc iologic al and ps yc hologic al f or ces on admi nis tr at ive
s it uations a nd pr oblems , t hes e appr oa ches r ema ined t o a gr ea t ext ent
i ncomple te, one- s ided a nd lacki ng in a nalyti cal conte nt
A cc or ding to D w ight- W aldo, 1940 w as the ye ar of divi de bet we en old a nd
ne w a ppr oaches t o public admini st r ati on. S om e of the new tr ends tha t ca me
t o be noti ced w er e :
a)
A r ej ect ion of poli tics - a dminis tr a tion dichoto my.
b)
T he ide a of unive r sa lly va lid pr i nciple s of admini st r ati on we r e f ound
t o be la r gely i nvalid in dive r se admini st r ati ve e nvir onment s,
c ) T he goal s of a dminis tr a tive ef f i cienc y and ec onomy w er e
s upple mente d w ith ne w goa ls like soci al a nd econom ic pr ogr e ss . .
d) Wi th the advent of ex- col onial st ate s on t he admi nis tr at ive sc ene
em phas is cam e to be lai d mor e on t he com par at ive a nd ecol ogi cal
appr oa ches to t he s tudy of adm inis tr a tion.
e) E f f or ts we r e bei ng made to s tudy the pr oblem s of a dminis tr a tion
s cie ntif i cal ly by adopt ing the lat es t te chnique s i n manage ment met hods
and ot her ma them ati cal tools of ana lys is , among t he older appr oache s
the sc ient if ic mana geme nt appr oa ch, the cla ss ica l appr oa ch and t he
huma n r ela tions appr oa ch ma y als o be i nclude d. Thes e t hr ee appr oa ches
have been di sc uss ed i n the ne xt cha pter .
A mong t he cur r e nt new appr oa ches w e s hall dis cuss the behavi our al,
s yst ems , s tr uc tur al- f unctiona l a nd the e cologic al appr oache s t o the s tudy of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion.
3.4e B eh aviou ral A p pr oach
M oder n be haviour al is m w hic h develope d in t he lat e 30s and 40s of this
c entur y i s ma inl y concer ne d w ith t he .s cient if ic s tudy of human be haviour
i n diver s e s oci al e nvir onment s. I t s tar te d as a pr ote st agai nst tr adi tiona l,
hi st or ical , nor mat ive and la r gely de sc r iptive appr oac hes in the soc ial
s ci ences . I n publ ic a dminis tr a tion behaviour a lis m as a dis tinc t li ne of s tudy
s ta r ted i n the 1930s w ith t he H uman R e lati ons M ovem ent a nd wa s l ate r
de veloped by C hes ter B a r nar d,' H er ber t Si mon and ot her s . Si mon obs er ved
t hat " adm inis tr a tive behavi our " is a par t of the be haviour al s cienc es and
t he s tudy of publi c admi nis tr at ion s hould invol ve the st udy of indivi dual
a nd coll ecti ve huma n behavi our in a dminis tr a tive si tuat ions . I t br ings to
be ar upon admi nis tr at ive pr oblems a n inter di sc ipli nar y appr oa ch w hich
i ncludes s oci ology, s ocial ps yc hology a nd c ultur a l ant hr opology. The
be haviour al appr oa ch in a dminis tr a tive s tudies has the f ollow ing Sa lient
f e atur es :
1.
I t ’ s l iter a tur e is des cr ipti ve, r a ther t han pr es cr ipt ive, w it h the s tudi es
on mot ivat ion.
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2. I nc r eas ed a ttent ion i s pa id to t he indivi dual ba se d on mor e r e ali st ic
r e se ar ch- c oncer ning motiva tion, decis ion- making pr oces s es a nd the na tur e
of a uthor it y.
3.
S tr es s is lai d on inf or ma l r el ati onshi ps a nd comm unica tion pa tter ns
am ong mem ber s of an or gani zat ion.
4.
I t emphas iz es oper at ional def ini tion of t er ms and e mpir i cal st udy bas ed
on r igor ous me thods , suc h as f iel d st udy, labor a tor y expe r iment s or use
of othe r st ati st ica l me thods ,
5.
I t is c hief l y, though not e xclus ive ly, conc er ned w it h quantif i cat ion, a nd
f or ma l the or y cons tr uct ion.
6.
I t is i nter di sc ipli nar y in c har ac ter , a nd make s c onsi der abl e us e of
pr opos iti ons dr a wn f r om other s oci al s ci ence s.
I n s hor t, t he beha viour li st s s ought to a dopt an i ntegr a ted a nd
i nter dis ci plina r y appr oa ch, f or acc or ding t o them all human ac tions ar e
m ot ivat ed by s oci al, e conomic , polit ica l, or ps ychologi cal envir onm ent
f r om whi ch the y come. This appr oa ch ai ms at s ubs titut ing e mpir ic al and
r e alis ti c j udgments f or t he pur el y value or iente d. I t al so e mphas iz es a
s ci entif i c a ppr oach t o the s tudy of a dminis tr a tive pr oblem s a nd thei r
s olut ion.
D ec is ion- maki ng s tudie s e mphas izi ng pr ima r ily .cogniti ve pr oce ss es and
t he; r ati onal envir onme nt of beha viour . The behavi our al a ppr oach ha s be en
c r itic ize d; f or be ing of li mite d util it y in the anal ys is of al l type s of
a dminis tr a tive phenome na. I t is contende d that the s tudy of m an as a s oci al
a nimal , though, i n its elf pr ais ew or thy, c annot be c onsi der ed a par t of t he
a dminis tr a tive s cie nces unles s the r es ulting know le dge is par t icul ar ly
a pplica ble to the ‘ admini st r ati ve ma n'. M or eover , i n the be haviour al
s ci ences , i t is mai ntai ned a nd is lar gel y vali d and appl ica ble t o sm all soc ial
gr oups , w her ea s t he s tudy of publi c admi nis tr at ion dea ls wi th la r ger
c ommunit ies . S ec ondly, the total exc lus ion of value s f r om a s tudy of
a dminis tr a tive pr oble ms and phenome na w il l make the s tudy of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion r ather st er ile and i r r eleva nt to the vit al i ss ues of the moder n
a ge. H uman va lues , nee dles s to s ay, ar e not dir ec tly quantif i able , or
obs er va ble t o the de gr ee t hat phys ica l pheno mena ar e or ca n be.
T he beha viour al appr oach, ther ef or e , appea r s, to be of li mit ed r el evanc e in
de aling wi th .al l types of a dminis tr a tive pr oble ms and thei r sol ution, s inc e
t he compl exit y and va r iabil it y of hum an nat ur e, mot ivat ions and beha viour
pr e clude the a ttai nment of pr eci si on that is s o char ac ter i st ic of t he phys ica l
s ci ences . V al ue- or ient ed or nor ma tive pr oble ms and is s ues of or ga niza tion
c annot r e all y be expl ained or inter pr e ted in, ter m s of the beha viour al
a ppr oach.
3.4 .f S ys t em s Ap p roach
O ne of t he mos t s igni f icant la ndmar ks in t he evolut ion of or gani zat ion
t heor y is the develop ment of gener al s ys te ms conce pt f or or gani zat ional
55
a nalys is . The or igin of ge ner al sys tem s is tr ace d to the thinki ng of the
bi ologis t V on B er t alanf f y, in the tw entie s. B ut it w as only due to the ques t
of a number of pos t- W or ld Wa r I I sc holar s f or a body of c oncepts le nding
uni ty to s tudi es , under ta ken in va r ious dis cipli nes .
T he conc ept of 's ys tem ' w as develope d. I n s hor t, gener a l s yst ems the or y
or i ginate s in a move ment ai med a t the uni f ica tion of s ci ence and s cie ntif i c
a nalys is . The ter m 'sys te m' ha s be en def ine d as a com plex w hole , a s et of
c onnecte d thi ngs or pa r ts . Ac cor ding t o this appr oac h in or gani zat ional
a nalys is , an or ga nizat ion c an be c ons ide r ed a soci al s ys tem to be s tudi ed in
i ts tota lit y. I n other w or ds , a s ys te m i s a colle cti on of inte r r ela ted pa r ts
w hic h r ece ives I nputs , ac ts upon them in an or ga ni zed or pl anned m anner
a nd ther e by pr oduces ce r tain outputs .
T her e i s a gr owi ng tr end t o place all types of or ga nizat ions wi thin t he
br oa d f r ame wor k of ge ner al sys tem s theor y. A s ys te m i s s een as an
a ss em bl y of int er depende nt pa r ts ( sub- s yst ems ) w ho inte r act among
t hems elve s." I nt er depe ndence impl ies tha t a c hange i n one par t inf lue nces
t he othe r par ts , ult imat el y af f ect ing t he enti r e s yst em. I ndi vidual s a r e
vi ew ed as the bas ic uni t of or ganiz ati onal sys tem s.
A ll human or ga nizat ions ar e open s ub- sys tem s engaged in tr ans ac tions
w it hin the lar ge r soc ial sys tem , that is , s ociet y. A ll s ub- s ys te ms r ece ive
i nputs in the f or m of human and mat er ia l r e sour c es f r om the l ar ger s ys tem ,
w hil e givi ng out output s i n the f or m of pr oduc ts , s er vice s or r e wa r ds t o its
m embe r s a s w el l as to t he lar ge r s ys te m.
O the r f eat ur es of or ganiza tiona l s ub- s ys te ms ar e: the y ar e ada ptive ; the y
a f f ect the l ar ger s yst em as we ll as ar e af f ec ted b y i t; t hey ar e dynami c
be caus e t hey under go c ontinuous change as a r es ult of inte r act ion w ith
ot her s ub- sys tem s wi thin t he la r ger s ocial s ys te m.
T he chi ef cont r ibutor t o sys tem s anal ys is i n or ganiza tiona l the or y is
H er be r t S imon. S imon view s the or ga nizat ion a s a total - s ys te m, a
c omposi te of all the s ub- s ys te ms w hich s er ve to pr oduce t he des ir e d
out put. H is bas ic a ss umpti on is tha t the elem ents of or gani zat ional
s tr uc tur e a nd f unction emana te f r om the char ac ter i st ics of huma n pr oblem s olvi ng pr oces s es and r at ional choice . Ther e f or e, the or ganiz ati on is
vi ew ed as a s yst em compr is ing individua ls maki ng choic es and beha ving on
t he bas is of the ir r ea ctions t o their needs and envi r onment .
T he chi ef val ue of the sys tem s appr oach lies in the s yst ema tic se ar ch f or
s igni f icant int er act ions w hile evalua ting pol ici es or act ions of any
or ga nis ation. What sys tem s anal ys ts a r e s et to achie ve is to pr e dict the
s yst em' s m oveme nts by inte r pr eti ng the r e lat ions hi ps betw ee n its par t s.
T he s ys te ms appr oa ch is par t icula r ly r e levant to the s tudy of lar ge public
or ga nizat ions oper a ting i n lar ger soc ial, politi cal and ec onomic
e nvir onment s.
W es t C hur chma n dr aw s a tte ntion t o f ive ba si c cons ide r ations in r elat ion to
t he s ys te ms appr oa ch to ma nagem ent:
56
1. T he tot al obj ect ives of the sys tem and t he mea sur e s of sys tem
pe r f or mance .
2.
T he s ys te m's envi r onment act ing as a c onst r aint .
3.
T he s ys te m's r es our ce s t hat a r e put t o use in per f or m ance .
4.
T he s ys te m's com ponents and i t’ s goals and a ctivi tie s.
5. T he mana geme nt of t he s ys te m ( t he r egula ting a nd deci si on- maki ng
a spe ct) .
T he or gani zati on has bee n concei ved by ma ny admi nis tr at ive t hinker s as a
s oci o- tec hnical s ys te m c ompr is ing bot h the s ocia l and t echni cal var ia bles .
I t is not mer e ly a n as se mbly of bui ldings , mone y, machi nes and pr oce ss es .
T he s ys te m c onsi st s i n the or ga nizat ion of pe opl e ar ound va r ious
t echnologi es , w hose motiva tion, behaviour and r ela tions hips det er mi ne
bot h the qua lit y and quant ity of i ts inputs and output s.
A s Mi lle r and R ic e put i t
A ny ente r pr is e ma y be s een a s a n open s ys t em w hic h has
cha r act er is ti cs in com mon w ith a biologi cal or ganis m. A n open
s yst em e xis ts , and ca n exis t, onl y by excha nging ma ter i als w ith
it s e nvir onme nt. I t i mpor ts ma ter i als , tr a nsf or m s t hem by m eans
of conve r si on pr oces s es , cons umes the pr oducts of conve r si on f or
int er nal mai ntena nce, a nd expor ts the r es t. D ir ec tly or i ndir ect ly,
it excha nges its output s f or f ur t her int ake, i ncluding mor e
r es our ce s t o .mai ntai n its el f . Thes e i mpor t- c onver s ion expor t
pr oce ss es ar e the w or k the ente r pr is e has to do i f it i s t o live.
T he s ys te ms appr oa ch to or ga nizat ional anal ysi s is now w idel y use d. This
a ppr oach c an ta ke into account mor e var iabl es and int er r el ati onshi ps w hil e
l ooking at an or gani zati onal pr oblem in the f r a mew or k of a l ar ger s ys tem .
A nothe r impor ta nt di mens ion i s t he int er act ion bet we en a s ys tem and it ’ s
e nvir onment . The under lying as sumpt ion of t he s ys te ms appr oac h is that
t her e i s a continuous mut ual inter a cti on betw ee n the s ys tem and it ’ s
e nvir onment .
S el f As s es sm e nt e xe rci se 3; e xplain the B eha viour al Appr oa ch to
unde r st anding publ ic A dmini st r ati on.
3.4g S t ru ct u ral - Fu nc t ion al A pp roac h
T he s tr uct ur al- f unc tional appr oa ch as an ana lyti cal tool i n the s oci al
s ci ences de veloped f r om the wor k of t he anthr opol ogis t M ali nows ki a nd
R a dC lif f e B r own i n the e ar ly yea r s of the pr e se nt cent ur y. The i mpor ta nt
f ol low er s of this appr oa ch ar e Ga br iel Al mond, D avid A pter , Talc ott
P ar s ons , R ober t M er t on and F r ed R iggs . The tw o concept s ba si c to t he
a ppr oach a r e s tr uct ur e and f unc tion. A ll soc ial st r uctur es exi st to per f or m
c er tai n f unct ions . While f uncti ons concer n the cons eque nces of pat ter ns of
a ction," s tr uc tur es r ef e r to the patt er ns of act ions and the r es ulta nt
i nst ituti ons of the S yst ems t hems elve s.
57
T he s tr uct ur al- f unc tional f r ame wor k pr ovides an i mpor tant mec hanis m. For
t he ana lysi s of dif f er ent s ocial pr oces s es in s tr uct ur al f unctiona lis m, s oci al
s tr uc tur e i s vi ew ed as 'any pa tte r n of behavi our whi ch has bec ome a
s ta ndar d f ea tur e of a soc ial sys tem ’ . Ther e may be 'conc r ete ' st r uctur e s
( e .g., gover nment depa r tment s and bur eaus ) or 'a nalyti c'.( e g, st r uctur e of
a uthor it y or powe r ) . Al l s ocial s tr uct ur es per f or m s ome f unctions . I n
s tr uc tur al- f unctiona l t er ms , a f unc tion i nvolves a pat ter n of
i nter depe ndence betw ee n tw o or mor e st r uctur es , a r elat ions hip bet we en
va r iable s. I t r ef e r s t o any cons equenc es of a s tr uct ur e in s o f ar a s t hey
a f f ect other s tr uc tur es or the total s ys te m of w hich they ar e a par t .
T he s tr uct ur al- f unc tional ca tegor ie s pr es uppos e a s ys te ms f r ame wor k. T he
e xper ts ca n locat e t he s tr uctur e s they w ant to anal yz e a nd thei r f uncti ons;
e .g. to ana lyze the w or king of bur e aucr ac y in an y soci ety i t is f ir s t de f ined
a nd ident if ied in s tr uct ur al- f unc tional ter m's . St r uctur a lly, bur e aucr a cy is
vi ew ed as an a dminis tr a tive s ys te m pos s es si ng f eatur e s such as hi er ar c hy,
S pec iali zat ion, s yst em of r ules , and r ol e s pecif i cit y. The se t of behavi our al
c har act er is ti cs ident if ie d w ith bur e aucr ac y ar e r a tiona lit y, impe r sona lit y,
r ul e or ie ntati on and ne utr ali ty. H ow ever , i t may be cla r if ie d at t he outs et
t hat t her e i s no c lear and dir ec t r e lati onshi p betw ee n st r uctur e s a nd
f unc tions . A ll s imi lar st r uctur es do not neces s ar il y per f or m si mila r
f unc tions . A soc ial st r uctur e may pe r f or m mult iple f uncti ons a nd si mil ar ly
one f uncti on may be per f or med by mor e t han one s tr uct ur e. S tr uct ur alf unc tional is ts have helped to cla r if y t he gener a l mi sc oncept ion tha t s imi lar
s tr uc tur es in di ver s e envi r onments pe r f or m s imil ar f unct ions or that
a bse nce, of c er tai n s tr uctur e s impli es that par ti cula r f uncti ons a r e not
be ing per f or me d in pa r ticul ar s ocia l s yst ems .
N otw it hst anding t he f ac t tha t s tr uct ur e and f unc tions ar e not unif or m i n all
s oci etie s var ious s chola r s of t his appr oach have la id dow n wha t the y
c onsi der ce r tain neces s ar y s tr uc tur al and f uncti onal pr e r equis it es f or the
e mer genc e of a soc iet y. Though var ious s chola r s have hid dow n dif f e r ent
" pr e r equis ite s," t hes e r equi si te f unc tions have been gr e atl y helpf ul in the
c ompar a tive anal ys is of di f f er ent soc ial sys tem s.
A cc or ding to R i ggs, t her e a r e f ive f unctiona l r e qui si tes of any s oci ety.
T hes e ar e economi c, s ocia l- c ommunic ati onal, symbol ic a nd polit ica l. H e
ha s a pplied thes e f unc tional r equis it es to t he st udy of the a dmini st r ati ve
s ub- s ys te m. L ater he deve loped hi s A gr ar ia - Tr ans it ia- I ndus tr i a M odel f or
t he compa r ati ve s tudy of a dminis tr a tive s ys te ms as a par t of the w ide r
s oci al s yst em.
S inc e the n var ious othe r thinker s ha ve adopte d this appr oa ch in
c ompar a tive public admini st r ati on. This a ppr oach has hel ped to pr ove the
vi tal points of dif f e r ences be tw een t he admi nis tr at ive c ultur e and pr oce ss es
of t he deve loping a nd develope d s ociet ies .
C e r tain, st r uctur es of de veloping soc ieti es w hich though a ppar ent ly
dys f unct ional f r om the we st er n point of view , ma y pr ove to be f unc tiona l
i n thei r own s oci al or pol itic al mili eu. I n de veloped s oci eti es , st r uctur e s
a nd f uncti ons ma y be r e lati vel y dif f er ent iat ed and autonomous in
58
ope r ation, unlike developi ng ones w her e f unct ions may be dif f er e ntia ted,
but the s tr uc tur es w hich pe r f or m the se f unctions a r e r ar el y s epar at e or
di st inct.
3.4h E col ogical Ap p roach
V ar i ous s chol ar s and admi nis tr at or s have of t en r ef er r e d to the need t o
r e late publi c admi nis tr at ion t o the e nvi r onment in w hich i t f unct ions .
' Ecology' r ef er s to " the mutua l r el ati ons, c olle cti vely, be tw een or ga nis m
a nd thei r envir onme nt" . The ecol ogica l per s pec tive in the st udy of public
a dminis tr a tion wa s i ntr oduced pr imar i ly t hr ough the w r iti ngs of J ohn G aus ,
w ho f ir s t e labor at ed t his appr oach in his Re flec tions of Public
A dmi nis tr ation 1945. G aus advoc ated the c oncept of r elat ing gover nm ent
f unc tions to t he envi r onment whi ch inc luded s uch f a ctor s as people ,
s it uation, sc ienti f ic technol ogy, s ocial tec hnology, w is hes and ide as ,
c atas tr ophe and pe r sona lit y. Thes e f a ctor s , he conc luded, m ust be inc luded
i n the 'e cologi cal ' s tudy of public admi nis tr at ion,"
T he ec ologica l a ppr oach a ss umes tha t adm inis tr a tive behavi our is
pe culia r ly moul ded by t he val ues of the adm inis tr a tive cult ur e in w hic h it
f unc tions , the admini st r ati ve c ultur e in tur n be ing an outgr ow th of t he
i nter ac tion of values a nd tr ait s of the a dminis tr a tive s ys te m w ith t he s ocia l
s yst em as a w hole.
T he ec ologica l a ppr oach i s f ur t her bas ed on the idea that an adm inis tr a tive
s yst em may not act as an indepe ndent var iabl e in a ll c ir cum st ance s. I t act s
a nd r eac ts under the inf luenc e of va r ious sub- s yst ems s ur r ounding it . Ther e
i s a gr eat degr ee of inter de pendenc e bet we en al l s ocia l or gani zat ions and
t heir e cologic al se ttings w hich include among ot her topogr a phy,
popul ation, leve l of physi cal and s ocia l t echnology a nd the
i nter r el ati onshi ps- and int er act ions betw ee n people and or gani zat ions .
O r gani zati ons, st r uctur es , pr oc edur es and goa ls ar e la r gely c r eat ed and
c hanged a s a r es ult of t he inte r act ion bet we en an or ga nis ati on and it s
e nvir onment . Thus , if a n or ganis ati on is to s ur vive i t mus t a dapt i ts elf t o
t he cha nging nee ds a nd conditi ons of i ts exte r nal e nvir onme nt w hich i s
c ontinuous ly c hanging. I n a highly i ndus tr i ali zed a nd devel oped s ocie ty
l ike t he U SA the sys tem of gover nme nt a nd a dmini st r ati on mus t not onl y
c ater to publi c nee ds a nd demands , but als o to the compul si ons of t he
A mer i ca n econom y. The l evel of pr oduction and cons umpti on of mat er ia l
goods is the highes t i n the U SA com par ed t o any othe r countr y i n the
w or ld. T her ef or e, the a dminis tr a tive f r ame wor k most f avour ed in that
c ountr y is a f r e e mar ke t s yst em thr ough w hich A mer i cans ar e able to ma ke
f r e e choi ces in pr oduc tion a nd cons umption. A ca pita lis ti c ec onomy w ith a
de mocr a tic sys tem of mini mum st ate inter ve ntion and contr ol s i s w hat the
A mer i ca ns ha ve f ound s uitabl e a nd that has exis ted in the c ountr y w ith
onl y minor va r iati ons f r om ti me t o time .
I n de veloping countr ie s the t wo ma in goal s of a dmini st r ati on ar e na tionbui lding a nd soc ioecono mic pr ogr es s. A dmini st r ati on in the se countr i es
f unc tions in a n envir onme nt of s ca r cit y and mult iple pr es sur e s a nd
c ontr ols .
59
M os t of the se ex- col onial developi ng countr i es inher i ted a n author i tar i an
a nd unr es ponsi ve admi nis tr at ive cultur e , f r om t heir c olonial days , whi ch
t hey ca r r ied i nto the ir s ys te ms even af ter the pos t- inde pendenc e adopt ion
of r a tional is t w es te r n models of a dminis tr a tion. I t has of ten been f ound
t hat me r e i mposi tion of we st er n admi nis tr at ive sys tem s on the deve loping
s oci etie s did not l ead t o their f unctioni ng in the sa me m anner a s t hey did i n
t he We st .
F r ed W R iggs is one of the f or emos t e xponents of the e cologi cal appr oac h
i n public admini st r ati on. O n the ba sis of ce r tai n f uncti onal pr e r equis it es of
a soc ial sys tem , R iggs at tempt ed a var iet y of model s a nd typologi es suc h
a s t he " Agr a r ia- t r ans iti a- indus tr i a" and f us ed- pr i sm ati c- dif f r a cted
s oci etie s, Hi s que st , f or an ec ologica l- pe rs pec tive in cr os s - cult ur al s tudi es
l ed him mainl y to t he f ie ld of deve lopment admi nis tr at ion. H is ecol ogica lm ode ls empha si ze an open s yst em per s pecti ve tha t at tem pts to des cr i be and
a nalyze the inter a cti on betw ee n the admini st r ati ve s ub- s ys te m and t he
w ide r soc ial sys tem .
R obe r t D ahl’ s advoc acy of a n ecologi cal appr oac h w as ba se d on wha t he
s ta ted w er e thr ee pr oblema tic is s ues :
( i ) Admi nis tr at ive gener al iza tions ba se d on the expe r ienc e of one na tion
s ta te c annot be univer s all y appli ed t o admini st r ati ve s yst ems in a s ki nds of
di ver s e envi r onmenta l s et tings .
( ii ) B ef or e f or m ulat ing the or ies and c oncept s of a dmini st r ati on, it i s
nec es sa r y to em pir ic all y tes t t heir va lidi ty in a ll t ype s of soc ial se tting
to s ee wha t is unive r sa l.
T his impli es tha t publi c admi nis tr at ion mus t be tr uly i nter di sc ipli nar y and
e cologic al in cha r acte r , not onl y to w iden it ’ s hor i zon but t o make its s tudy
m or e s cie ntif ic and r e levant to a ll t ype of s ociet ies
T he gr ea t mer i t of t his appr oach lies i n the va lue and r e leva nce of s tudyi ng
pe ople i n r elat ion t o their envir onme nt, ta king int o cons ider a tion t heir
pe culia r cha r acte r is tic s and pr oble ms. Publi c coope r ati on is a vit al i nput
f or t he s ucce ss f ul ope r ation of any admi nis tr at ive sys tem unles s the
a dminis tr a tion cate r s to par t icula r public needs , w is hes , act ivit ies and
pr obl ems it cannot as k f or public cooper at ion to t he ext ent de si r ed. I n the
T hir d Wor l d countr i es , public admini st r ati on is r idden w it h cor r upti on,
i ner tia and i nef f ici enc y. To impr ove its f unc tioning one has to s ugges t
s olut ions and thi s i nf or ms keepi ng in mind t he pec ulia r his tor y, cus tom s,
t r aditi ons and cul tur e of t he peopl e couple d wi th the ir pr es ent needs and
a spi r ations . E ver y popula r , ef f ici ent and democ r ati c adm inis tr a tion m ust be
e cologic al in cha r acte r and appr oa ch.
3.4i Pu bl ic P olicy Ap p roach
T he gene r al c oncer n of t he s ocial s cienc es f or soc ial engine er ing ha s
r e sul ted i n the l aying of e mphas is on public polic y. The s tudy of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion has als o bee n inf luenc ed by t he public polic y per s pect ive.
60
T he aba ndonment of the pol itic s- admini st r ati on dichot omy ma de the public
pol icy a ppr oach a gr eeabl e t o admini st r ati ve ana lys is .
E vidence f r om t he pr ac tica l w or ld of a dminis tr a tion has bought out the
c r iter i a of a clos e ne xus be tw een poli tic s and admi nis tr at ion. A s
gove r nments s ee k to f or mula te and impl eme nt mor e and mor e we lf ar e
pr ogr a mmes , pol icy s tudi es in publi c admi nis tr at ion w ill gathe r
m omentu m. A t thi s s ta ge, the st udy of public admini st r ati on has no doubt
be en gai ning in s oci al r e levanc e, but it’ s boundar ie s as a des cr ipt ive s tudy
a r e not a s c lear l y dis tingui sha ble now a s t hey use d to be i n the ol den days
of pol itic s- admini st r ati on dic hotomy. T he dis cipl ine t o many publ ic
a dminis tr a tion anal ys ts , ha s ga ined i n vigour , but it has suf f e r ed a c r is is of
i dentit y w ith i ts diver s if i cati on and s tr e tch.
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The unit has been able to explain the characteristics of Public Administration as the nonpolitical public bureaucracy operating in a political system, it is under the direction of
political leadership, it is the monopoly of the state, government in action, the policy making
unit, it is inter- disciplinary in theory, a practical discipline, an ongoing process and it differs
significantly from private administration especially in its emphasis on public good.
Public Administration can be differentiated from the private administration on four main
principles which include; Uniformity, external financial control, ministerial responsibility and
managerial return.
Public Administration serves as the basis of government. It is the administrative machinery of
government right from the ancient empires, and covers such political ideology as capitalism
and socialism. Public Administration also serves as an instrument for implementing laws and
policies, providing continuity when government change, provides a wide variety of services
in the public interest, protects life and property,facilitate,promote and manage services and it
is essentially for the development of civilisation.
We have been able to identify in this unit the major approaches to the study of public
administration which include among other the Historical approach, Institutional approach,
Legal Approach, behavioural Approach and its relationship with other subjects. Though all
these approaches have their limitations, but all the same, they generally help improve the
functioning of government.
The unit concludes with a discussion on the Scope of Public Administration as the ball
bearings of government. As that body involved in the protection of society, and in advancing
promotional activities of government and the assistance to groups, propriety activities and the
regulation of particular businesses.
5.0 Summ ary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
This unit was able to successfully discuss the basic characteristic of public administration. It
also differentiated it from the private administration particularly on the basis of public good.
The unit discussed extensively on administration as the basis of government, which provides
for its continuity. The unit also identified and explained the major approaches to the
understanding of administration.
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The unit concluded by explaining the scope of public administration to include but not
restricted to the ball bearings of government.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignm ent
- Identify and explain the basic characteristics of public administration.
-List and explain five approaches to the study of Administration.
7.0References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C hes te r B ar nar d,( 1938) T he F uncti ons of the E xec utiv e, H ar var d U nive r si ty
P r es s , C a mbr idge .
H er ber t S imon,( 1987) Adm ini st rat ive Behav ior , Ma cmi lla n, Ne w Y or k.
R ober t Pr es thus,( 1964) “ B ehavi or and B ur ea ucr ac y in M any C ultur e s” P ublic
A dmini st r ati on R evie w, X I X ( 1959) , pp.25- 35;
M icha el C r oz ier , ( 1987) T he B ure aucr atic Phenom enon, U nive r si ty of
C hic ago P r es s, C hi cago.
R am es h K A r or a,( 1979) ,C om par ativ e Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation: A n Ecologi cal
Pe rs pec tiv e, A ss oci ate d Publ is hing H ouse , Ne w D el hi. p.16.
R am es h K A r or a, op c it, p. 106.
F W R iggs ,( 1962) “T r ends in the C ompar a tive St udy of Admi nis tr at ion” in
I R A S 18
J M G aus ,( 1947) Re fle cti ons of Publi c Adm ini st rat ion, U niver s it y of Al abam a
P r es s ,
F r ed W R i ggs,( 1964)
M if f li n C o, B ost on.
Admi nis tr ation i n De vel oping C ountr ie s, H oughton
R yan C A ma cher , R . D Te lli son a nd T D Wel let ( eds ) ,( 1976) , The Econom ic
Appr oach t o Publi c Pol icy , C or nell Uni ver s ity P r es s , I thac a.
62
UNIT 5:
ACCOUNTABILITY AND CONTROL OF PUBLIC ORGANISATIONS
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 P UB L I C A C CO U NT AB I L I TY AN D C ON TR O L . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 P UB L I C A C CO U NT AB I L I TY C ON TR O L M EA S UR E S. . . . . . . .54
3.2a Le gis lat ive C ont r ol in I ndi a/N ige r ia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2b Exec utive C ontr ol of P ubli c A dmini st r ati on . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2c J udic ial C ontr ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 J UD I C I AL R EM ED I ES F O R L AW SU I TS A GA I NS T
EN
T O FF I C I A LS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A
ND
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
. .
.
. .
.
. .
. 60
3.3a H abea s C or pus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.3b Ma ndamus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
3.3c Pr ohibi tion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
3.3d C er ti or ar i . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.3e Quo- Wa r r anto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
63
G O VE R NM
3.3f Li mit ati ons of J udic ial C ontr ol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Unit 5 – Accountability and Control of Public Organisations
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Public Organisations are created to deliver social services, make and implement policies
and also to safeguard life and property among other functions. These enormous
responsilities require the use of power, authority and at time the use of force to carry them
through. And in other to make these organisations responsible to the society,
accountability measures have been put in place to ensure that these organisations do not
misuse the powers given to them in the discharge of their duties and also measures put in
place to ensure that they function with the minimum level of friction.
The unit is also explains the legislative control through elected representatives, which is
done through debates, motions, questions, budgetary control and parliamentary
committees. The Executive also control public organisations through policy making,
budgetary system framing, recruitment and law making.
In order to ensure proper accountability, the unit also explains the judicial remedies for
law suits against government officials to ensure that the citizen’s rights are safeguarded
and that the rule of law is upheld even in the discharge of public responsibilities.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;
-Define and explain public accountability.
-Explain the control of public organisations.
-Explain judicial control in India/Nigeria.
-Explain Executive control in India/Nigeria.
3.0 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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3.1. Pu b lic Ac cou nt ab il it y an d C on t rol
O ne of the nor ms of democ r ati c adm inis tr a tion i s t hat pow er s hould be
com mens ur at e w ith r e spons ibi lit y and the holder s of publi c of f ic e s hould be
ac counta ble t o the pe ople f or t he exe r cis e of a uthor it y. This is cons ider e d an
ef f e cti ve s af egua r d agai nst the m is use of powe r and abus e of publi c
aut hor ity. V ar i ous f or m s a nd mea sur e s of publ ic a ccount abil ity of
adm inis tr a tion ha ve bee n devis ed i n all democ r ati c s tate s. I n Ni ger ia,
S ER V I C OM w as ins tit uted by t he the n Oba sa njo’ s admi nis tr ati on al ong si te
the Om budsm an to e nsur e acc ountabi lit y and tr a nspa r ency i n the s ect or .
A ccor di ng L D Whit e, P ubl ic a ccount abil ity c onsi st s of t he “s um t otal of the
cons ti tuti onal, s ta tutor y, a dmini st r ati ve and j udicia l r ul es and pr ece dents and
the es tabl is hed pr ac tic es by mea ns of w hic h public of f icia ls may be held
ac counta ble f or t heir of f i cia l ac tion.” I n other w or ds , public account abil ity
r ef e r s t o the l iabi lit y of gover nme nt s er vant s t o give a sa tis f ac tor y acc ount of
the use of of f ici al pow er or di sc r eti onar y aut hor ity t o the pe ople. T his is
cons ide r ed a c heck a gains t a r bitr a r y use of author i ty. V ar ious f or mal and
obje cti ve me thods and pr oce dur es ( legi sl ati ve, exe cutiv e and j udicia l) have
bee n gr adual ly evol ving to e nsur e the publ ic s er va nt’ s account abil ity and
r es pons ivene ss to t he publi c w ill in democ r aci es .
Wi th the ever - i ncr ea si ng f uncti ons a nd impor t ance of public admini st r ati on in
mode r n we lf ar e st ate s t he is s ue of publi c ac countabi lit y has as s umed gr ea t
im por tanc e. The civi l s er vant s not only im pleme nt pol icy but in a l ar ge
me as ur e ar e act ivel y r es ponsi ble f or t heir i niti ation and f or mula tion. I n the
Thi r d Wor ld c ountr ie s w her e the bur e aucr a cy bec omes the chie f agent of
s ocia l and e conomi c cha nge and pr ogr e ss , the y have to be given a w ide r ange
of dis cr e tiona r y author i ty to pe r f or m the ir f unct ions . No c lear nor ms and
pr ec edent s e xis t and i n many s it uati ons bur e aucr at s ar e la r gely lef t to
the ms elve s t o take deci si ons. I n t he aut hor itar i an a dminis tr a tive cult ur e,
w hich pe r vades ma ny of the T hir d Wor l d countr i es , an ef f e ctiv e s ys t em of
publi c cont r ol over a dmini st r ati on is a gr ow ing impe r ati ve t o cur b all kinds
of aut hor ita r ian t endenc ies .
A suc ces s f ul s yst em of a dmini st r ati ve cont r ol s hould s tr ike a bala nce betw een
the ef f ec tive use of public author i ty and t he democ r at ic r ight s of the peopl e.
The exte nt and r a nge of publi c ac counta bilit y var ie s accor di ng to the
cons ti tuti onal f r a mew or k of the countr y. I n di r ect democ r aci es like
S wi tze r land, t he cont r ol of the people over admi nis tr at ion i s f a r mor e di r ect
and e f f ect ive t han in i ndir ec t dem ocr ac ies . I n com munis t c ountr ies li ke the
S oviet Uni on and C hina , public acc ountabil it y, in ef f e ct, me ans
ac counta bili ty of the admi nis tr at ion to t he comm unis t pa r ty. I n indir e ct
dem ocr ac ies , the maj or agenc ies , w hich e xer t c ontr ol ove r admini st r ati on, ar e
the legi sl atur e , exec utive and the judic iar y. I n t he cabi net f or m of
gover nm ent, a s i n Engla nd and I ndia , legi sl ati ve cont r ol is mor e ef f ect ive
tha n in the pr es ident ial f or m. We wi ll be looking a t the exampl e of I ndi a
bec aus e N iger i a’ s public admi nis tr at ion has bor r ow ed a l ot f r om i t.
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e 1; - What is you r under s tandi ng of the t er m publ ic
ac counta bili ty.
65
3.2 Public Accountability control measures.
3.2a L egi sl at ive C on t rol i n I n di a/N iger ia
I n mode r n democ r aci es people exer c is e cont r ol over t he admi nis tr at ion
thr ough t heir e lec ted r e pr es enta tive s i n the l egis lat ur e. I t is the le gis lat ur e,
w hich l ays down t he poli cy and s et s t he admi nis tr at ive whe els in mot ion. I t
cha lks out the natur e and s cope of a dminis tr a tive act ion, de ter mi nes the
numbe r of admi nis tr at ive pe r sonne l, bes ide s s anc tioning r equis ite f unds f or
the impl eme ntat ion of gover nm ent pol ici es . The c ontr ol of t he legi sl atur e
does not e nd her e. I t als o cont inues to s uper vi se , dir ect and c ontr ol t he
im plem enta tion of a dmini st r ati on.
I n par l iam enta r y f or ms of gover nme nt, it is the pol itic al execut ive, the
mi nis ter , w ho is ac counta ble t o the l egis la tur e f or t he admi nis tr at ive acts of
the depar t ment al he ads . The publ ic of f i cial s ar e not per s onall y answ er a ble t o
the par li ame nt f or the ir of f ic ial act s t hough they ma y have to appea r bef or e
par l iam enta r y comm itt ees to de f end ce r tai n legi sl ativ e pr opos als .
I n I ndia , the pr i ncipa l me thods of legi sl ati ve cont r ol ar e of thr ee types , that
is , cont r ol over ( i ) polic y ( ii) de par tm enta l ac ts , and ( iii ) f inanc es .
The var ious me thods of exer c is ing s uch cont r ol ar e :
D eb at es and D is cu ss ion s
The par li ame nt ma y exer c is e cont r ol thr ough va r ious debate s and dis cus s ions ,
w hich pr ovi de an oppor t unity f or t he r evi ew of gover nment al polici es and
the ir im plem enta tion. T he mor e notabl e occ as ions f or dis cus si on among
the se ar e dur i ng the pr e si dent’ s ina ugur al s pee ch to bot h house s of t he
par l iam ent, t he budget spe ech of t he f ina nce m inis ter or dur ing the
int r oducti on of new legi sl ati ve pr opos als .
The r e ar e als o s ome ot her occ as ions , whe n var ious as pect s of admini st r ati on
ar e put up f or le gis lat ive c omme nt or cr i tic is m.
R es olu t ion or Mot i ons
The legi sl atur e has the pow er t o pas s r e sol utions on any ma ter
mot ions to ens ur e a par ti cula r mini st er or the gover nment as
mos t i mpor ta nt mot ions ar e c all ed at tent ion mot ion, adj our nment
pr ivi lege moti on and the no- conf ide nce m ot ion. A r es olut ion is
be r e comm endat or y whe r eas ce nsur e moti ons, i f pas se d, make
f or the gover nme nt to r e si gn.
or move
a w hole. The
motion,
only me ant to
it c ompuls or y
Qu es t ion s
I n a pa r lia ment ar y f or m of gove r nment , legi sl ati ve ques tions be come the mos t
cont enti ous a nd vocal met hod of the pe ople’ s r epr e se ntati ves to exe r cis e t heir
s cr uti ny over the act s of om is si on and com mis s ion of the gover nment .
66
D ur ing the ques tion hour i n par li ame nt any me mber can a sk a ny ques tion
s eeki ng inf or ma tion on a ny mat ter . T he mi nis ter c oncer ne d r epli es to thes e
ques ti ons w it h the a id of the bur eauc r ats and s ec r etar i es in his depa r tme nt. I f
the ans we r given t o a ques ti on does not s ati sf y t he ques tione r , s uppleme ntar y
ques ti ons c an al so be as ked to w hic h mini ste r s ar e e xpecte d to give
s ati sf a ctor y r e plie s. T he ma in pur pos e of the ques tion hour i s t o ventil ate
publi c gr ie vance s a nd to dr aw the att enti on of the pe ople t owa r ds var i ous
f ac ili tie s of t he gover nm ent. S inc e the ques tion m ay cover any f iel d or
br anc h of admi nis tr at ion, the public of f ici als ar e cons tantl y ale r t,
cons ci enti ous a nd r es ponsi ble f or t heir of f i cia l ac ts .
B u d get ary C on t rol
I n eve r y democ r ati c count r y, the l egis la tur e c ontr ols the nation’ s pur s e
s tr ings . N o money c an be s pent by the e xecuti ve w it hout legi sl ati ve s anct ion.
The budget pr opos al s a r e ext ens ivel y debat ed in t he par li ame nt bef or e being
vote d upon. Wit h the r ul ing par t y enjoyi ng a ma jor it y in the par lia ment , in
par l iam enta r y democ r aci es the de mand f or gr a nts can ne ither be r eje cte d nor
r educ ed, but pr ovi des an oppor tuni ty f or a ge ner al r eview of publ ic pol icy. I t
is al so t he duty of t he par l iam ent t o se e tha t the money s anc tioned has been
s pent e conomi cal ly and i n acc or dance wi th the guideli nes lai d dow n by it.
Thi s r e quir es pr oper a udit of gove r nment al e xpendit ur e, w hich i s t he duty of
the compt r olle r and audi tor gene r al of I ndi a. The auditor gener al w hile
audi ting t he gover nm enta l expe nditur e exam ines w hether the mone y s pent had
le gis lat ive s anc tion a nd whe ther i t w as spe nt f or the pur pose f or whi ch
s anct ion w as made . I t al so e xami nes gover nme ntal expendit ur e f r om the
pr inc iple s of e conomy a nd f inanc ial pr opr iet y.
Par liam e nt ar y Com m it t ees
M oder n par l iam ents ar e so ove r bur dened w it h wor k t hat t hey neit her ha ve the
ti me nor t echni cal exper t is e or know ledge to go into the de tail s of the
w or king of var i ous a dmini st r ati ve age ncie s a nd gover nment al depar tm ents .
Thus , the par li ame ntar y c ommi tte e s ys t em w as evol ved to a ct as a wa tchdog
on publi c adm inis tr a tion a nd gover nme ntal f unctioni ng. S ome of t he
im por tant comm itt ees of par l iam ent i n I ndia a r e P ublic Ac counts C ommi tte es ,
Es ti mat es C ommi tte e, C omm itt ee on P ubli c U nder ta kings , and C ommi tte e on
S ubor dinat e Le gis lat ion and s o on.
The Publ ic A cc ounts C ommi tte e exa mine s t he r epor t of the a uditor ge ner al
r ega r ding the pr opr iet y of expendi tur e i ncur r ed by gove r nment depar t ments .
The Es tim ate s C om mit tee exam ines the budgeta r y es tim ates s ent by dif f er ent
mi nis ter s to s ugges t e conomi es in expe nditur e .
The Publ ic U nder t aking C om mit tee is r es ponsi ble f or s cr ut inizi ng the r epor ts
and a ccount s of t he publi c s ect or under ta kings in I ndia to s ee w hethe r the y
ar e being m anage d in ac cor danc e w ith s ound bus ines s pr incipl es .
The mai n pur pose of the C om mit tee on Subor di nate Legis la tion is to exe r cis e
a ne ces s ar y che ck over de lega ted l egis la tion w hic h is typica l le gis lat ive
67
outgr ow th of m oder n par l iam enta r y st ate s. T he le gis lat ur e us uall y lays dow n
the br oad pr inc iple s a nd outli nes of law s delega ting author it y to t he
adm inis tr a tion t o f ill in the deta ils . The above c ommit tee in I ndi a is char ge d
w ith t he r es pons ibil ity of s ee ing w hethe r the pow er s del egate d by the
par l iam ent ha ve bee n pr oper ly e xer ci se d wi thin t he f r am ew or k of the
par l iam enta r y st atut e del egat ing s uch aut hor ity.
L im i t at ion s of L e gis lat ive Con t rol
The r ela tive inef f e cti venes s of legi sl ati ve cont r ol in t he moder n age is a
unive r sa l phenom enon in a ll de mocr a tic countr i es . Legi sl atur es nei ther have
the tim e nor the exper t is e to e f f ect ivel y contr ol all sphe r es of admini st r ati on.
The ir cont r ol is s por adic in nat ur e and t hat t oo meant to hi ghlight cer ta in a cts
of omi ss ion a nd comm is si on, whi ch mi ght have been br ought to the ir noti ce
by the public or the pr e ss . I n the pr es identi al f or m, congr e ss ional contr ol
over a dmini st r ati on is ver y li mit ed in na tur e a nd sc ope. I n par li ame ntar y
count r ies li ke I ndia /N iger i a le gis lat ive c ontr ol i s c onsi der abl y r educed and
r es tr i cte d in ef f e cti venes s due to t he f oll owi ng r eas ons :
a) The exec utive plays a ke y r ole i n f or mula ting pol icie s. The
le gis lat ive l eade r shi p ther e f or e r es ts mor e wi th the gover nmen t.
b) The expans ion i n the vol ume a nd var ie ty of admi nis tr at ive wor ks
has le d to the incr e as ing inc apac ity of t he le gis latur e s of
ef f e cti vely c ontr ol t he eve r - gr owi ng bur eauc r acy.
c) B udget ar y cont r ol is al so l imi ted by t he f ac t tha t s ince voting i s
al wa ys on pa r ty li ens any gover nm ent w it h the r e quir ed
le gis lat ive m ajor i ty ca n get a ny dema nd f or gr ant pa ss ed i n the
par l iam ent. H enc e the legi sl ati ve cont r ol over a dminis tr a tion is
mor e ill usor y t han r ea l or s ubst anti ve in na tur e.
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e2; - D is cus s the va r ious as pect of legi sl ativ e cont r ol.
3.2b E xecu t ive Con t rol of Pu bl ic A d m in is t rat ion
I n a pa r lia ment ar y f or m of gove r nment , it i s t he counc il of mi nis ter s t hat a r e
col lec tive ly r es pons ible to the legi sl atur e f or all the de par tme ntal act ivit ies .
Ea ch mi nis ter i s a ls o indivi duall y r es ponsi ble f or t he ac ts of omis si on and
com mis s ion of his depa r tme nt and m ay have to r es ign i f a no- conf ide nce
mot ion is pas s ed aga ins t him any ti me. I n hi s a dminis tr a tive w or k, the
mi nis ter i s a ss is te d by the s ec r eta r y of the de par tm ent a nd other high of f icia ls
w ho ar e c oncer ne d wi th the oper at ional as pect s of r out ine ad minis tr a tion
r at her tha n the m inis te r who l ays down t he br oad a dminis tr a tive polic ies of
the depar t ment . The m ain ne ed f or exe cuti ve contr ol over publi c
adm inis tr a tion l ies in t he f ac t tha t under t he cl oak of mini st er ia l
r es pons ibil ity t he pow er s of the c ivil se r vants ar e gr owi ng ever yw her e, and
henc e the mini st er s may f i nd it ne ces s ar y to ke ep a c heck on the ir pow er s
s ince the ul tim ate legi sl atur e r es ponsi bili ty is the ir s . The c hief e xecuti ve
f or mul ate s pol ici es whos e i mple ment ati on depends ent ir el y on the c ivil
s er vant s. T he ci vil s er va nts ar e of t en cons er va tive.
68
V er y of te n the gove r nment f inds it di f f icul t to i mplem ent pr ogr amme s whi ch
in s ome wa y or other di st ur b the ve st ed int er es ts of the civil s er vants , f or
exa mple , in the US A dur ing the Pr e si dent R oos eve lt’ s te nur e, the bur eaucr a cy
w as f ound to be a n obst acl e in t he s peedy i mple ment ation of the N ew D eal
P r ogr amm e. I n Engl and too, t he ci vil s er vi ce pr ove d to be a n impedi ment to
the soc ial is tic pr ogr amm es of the L abour G over nment af te r the Se cond Wor ld
Wa r . I n I ndia, t he gover nm ent of t en com plai ns of t he inf le xible att itude of
the admi nis tr at or s w ho ar e acc use d of being not suf f i cient ly c ommit ted to the
s ocia lis ti c pr ogr am mes of the gover nme nt.
The r e ar e many m ethods of exe cuti ve cont r ol of adm inis tr at ion, but accor di ng
to E N G la dden, the r e ar e thr ee impor t ant c ontr ols of the execut ive on the
ci vil s er vi ce, na mel y, polit ica l dir e cti ons t hr ough minis te r ial admi nis tr at or ,
the oper at ion of the nati onal budge tar y s ys tem and r ecr ui tme nt by a n
inde pendent author i ty.
Pol icy M aki ng
I t is t he ta sk of t he chi ef exe cuti ve to f r a me a dminis tr a tive polic ies . I n the
U SA , the pr es ident dete r mine s t he br oad out lines of a dminis tr a tive polic y.
H e has the powe r to del egat e the polic y- making powe r to var ious he ads of
depa r tme nts wi thin t he over a ll f r a mew or k of his guide lines w it hout in a ny
w ay del egat ing his ma in r es pons ibil ity of di r ect ion, s uper vis ion a nd contr ol.
I n a pa r lia ment ar y gover nm ent, i t is the cabi net w hic h is in char ge of polic y
ma king, over a ll di r ect ion and c oor dinat ion of the dif f er e nt br anche s of
adm inis tr a tion, be si des indivi dual m inis te r s e xer cis ing contr ol over public
of f ic ial s i n thei r r es pect depar t ment s.
B u d get ary S ys t em
I t is t he exe cuti ve w hich i s r e spons ibl e f or the f r aming of the budge t, gett ing
the dema nd f or gr ants pas s ed in pa r lia ment , and the n alloc ati ng nece ss ar y
f unds to ea ch depa r tme nt f or expe nditur e . Ever y de par tm ent s ubmi ts its
annua l f ina ncia l dem and to t he exe cuti ve bef or e the budget is f r ame d, whi ch
has to be f ir s t appr ove d by the c abine t bef or e it f i nds i ts place in t he f inal
budget es tim ate s.
R ecr ui t m en t
The chie f exec utive lays dow n the br oa d pr incipl es of r ecr ui tme nt. The
mi nis ter s the ms elve s s el ect the s ec r eta r ies and de puties of the ir depa r tme nts .
O ther r e cr uit ment s t o the c ivil se r vice ar e, how eve r , done on the
r ec omme ndati on of an inde pendent r ecr ui ting boa r d – the P ublic S er vice
C omm is si on’ s – i n mos t dem ocr at ic c ountr ie s. I n t he U SA the chief
exe cuti ve s eeks s enat or ial appr oval of the of f i cia l appoi ntment s he make s but
he ha s t he exc lus ive pow er of di sm is sa l of his ca binet and top a ides .
E xec ut i ve L aw Mak in gD ele gate d legi sl ati on becom es an im por tant tool of e xer ci si ng exec ut ive
cont r ol over publ ic of f i cia ls . Mos t of t he la ws pas s ed by the par lia ment
pr ovide a br oad f r a mew or k and t he mi nor deta ils ar e f ille d in by t he
adm inis tr a tor s in the ir dai ly appl ica tion of l aw s. T his is an impor t ant method
of exe cuti ve cont r ol over a dmini st r ati on and ca n be us ed in c ontr olli ng
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adm inis tr a tion by l aying dow n r ule s a nd r egula tions to be obse r ved in t he
im plem enta tion of a par ti cula r law conc er ned.
Exe cuti ve cont r ols ar e ve r y impor t ant be caus e t hey ar e se lf - cor r e ctive and
cont inuous in nat ur e. H owe ver , the ef f ec tive nes s of t hes e contr ol s depends
muc h on the c ivil se r vice - mini st er r el ati onship es pecia lly in the higher
ec helons of the bur eauc r acy. T he mi nis ter w ho is an a mate ur in
adm inis tr a tion ha s t o depend on t he adm inis tr at ive abili tie s of his se cr eta r ies
in t he depa r tme nts who a r e cons ide r ed expe r ts in the f iel d. Si nce gover n ment
com pr is es both the wi ngs ( pol iti cal and per ma nent) of the e xecuti ve, an
ef f e cti ve coor di nati on betw ee n the t wo l eads to ha r monious f uncti oning of
the admi nis tr at ive de par tm ents . The mini st er and hi s a dmini st r ator
col lea gues shoul d wor k t ogethe r as a te am ba se d on mutual tr us t a nd
under s ta nding. The mini st er s hould la y down pol icie s and s uper vis e
w her eve r nece ss ar y w it hout int er f er i ng in the deta ils of admi nis tr at ion.
B ef or e taki ng impor t ant de cis ions the mini st er s hould ta ke all r epr es ent ati ve
opini ons i nto cons ide r ati on though he i s not bound by any advi ce. T he civi l
s er vant s on t heir pa r t ca n inf lue nce, pe r sua de or advi se the mi nis ter in
w hate ver w ay the y choos e, but i t is the ir of f ic ial duty to i mplem ent a polic y
as f ai thf ull y as poss ibl e once a dec is ion is ta ken by the minis te r .
Self Assessment Exercise 3;-I de ntif y a nd expla in the var ious as pec ts of
le gis lat ive c ontr ol.
3.2c Ju d ici al C ont r ol
I n dem ocr ac ies , the judic iar y pl ays an im por tant r ole i n upholding t he
s anct ity of t he C ons tit ution a nd pr otec ting t he r ight s a nd liber t ies of t he
peopl e.
L D Whi te e xplai ning the impor t ance of judic ial contr ol wr i tes The sys te m of
f or ma l ext er nal contr ol over of f ic ial s a nd thei r act s f a lls , pr ima r ily into tw o
ma in divi si ons—t hat e xer ci se d by the l egis la tive bodies and t hat i mpose d by
cour t s. T he pur pos e of le gis lat ive s uper vi si on is pr incipa ll y to cont r ol the
poli cy and t he expe nditur e of the e xecuti ve br a nch, the end s ought by judic ial
cont r ol of adm inis tr a tive act s i s t o ens ur e the ir le galit y and t hus- t o pr otect
ci tiz ens agai nst unlaw f ul t r es pas s on t heir c onst ituti onal or other r i ghts .
The mai n tas k of the judic iar y i s t o pr otect indi vidual citi zens w heneve r the
of f ic ial author i ty enc r oache s on t heir c onst ituti onal or st atutor y r ights . The
nec es si ty of cont r ol has give n bir th t o the doc tr ine of r ule of l aw , a conce pt
tha t w as made f amous by the B r iti sh c onst itut ional law yer , A V Di cey. I n t he
f oll owi ng pas sa ge f r om; Di cey's book, the r e is cl as si c expos it ion of thi s
conc ept no m an is punis habl e or ca n be la wf ul ly mad e to s uf f er in body or
goods exce pt f or a di st inct br eac h of law es ta blis hed i n the or di nar y lega l
ma nner
bef or e t he or dina r y cour ts of the land, no m an is above the l aw , but
eve r y man, w hat ever be his r ank or condi tion, i s s ubje ct t o the or di nar y law
of the r eal m and a mena ble t o the j ur is dict ion of the or dinar y t r ibunals ...the
gene r al pr i ncipl es of C onst itut ion...ar e wi th us the r e sul t of judi cial deci si ons
det er mi ning the r ights of pr iva te pe r sons in pa r ticul ar c as es br ought bef or e
the cour t.
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S cope of Ju dic ial I n ter ve nt ion
T he judi ciar y can i nter f er e w ith a dminis tr a tive or der s w he never t hey ca use
pr e judic e to t he r ight s' of pe r sons due t o lac k of jur is dic tion, pa tent er r or
of l aw and f ac t, and a buse of powe r or ir r egula r iti es of pr ocedur e . The
c aus es of judic ial inter ve ntion can be elabor a ted a lit tle f ur ther .
L eek of j ur is dicti on: E ver y publi c of f ic ial is to act w ithin the cl ear l y
de f ined l imit s of author it y ent r ust ed to hi m mos t of t en f or a c er tai n per iod
a nd a s pecif i ed a r ea. I f he contr ave nes the l imi ts of the s cope of author i ty
c ontent per iod/a r ea wi se , his acti ons may be de cla r ed uncons ti tuti onal by
t he cour t s.
E r r or s of l aw : J udici al r e medie s may be sought by citi zens , if any of f ici al
m isi nter pr e ts the law and i mpose s on the c itiz en's duti es and obli gations
w hic h ar e not r equir ed by the c ontent of law . A citi zen w ho has s uf f er ed on
a ccount of an er r or of l aw has the r i ght to c laim dama ges in cour t s.
E r r or of f act f inding: Ther e may be cas es in w hich the of f ic ial has er r ed i n
f i nding f ac ts and ac ted on w r ong pr es umpti ons, whi ch may af f ect a ci tiz en
w r ongly, w ho ca n br ing thi s ma tte r to li ght in c our ts .
A bus e of aut hor ity of a public- of f icia l a buse s hi s of f ic ial author i ty to
i nf lict s uf f er ing or i njus tice on any pe r son, t he cour ts have the pow er t o
i nter vene and puni sh t he of f ic ial.
E r r or s of pr oc edur e: I t is the duty of publi c of f ic ials t o act accor di ng to
c er tai n la id- dow n legal pr ocedur e s in. the exer ci se of author i ty. I f any
publ ic of f i cial does not f ol low the pr e sc r ibed pr oce dur e, the cour ts have a
r i ght to pr onounc e on the legal it y of his acti on.
W ith t he inc r eas e i n powe r , number a nd f unc tions of adm inis tr a tive bodies
t he r ight s of c itiz ens ar e als o pr otec ted by the quas i- j udici al t r ibunal s,
w hic h exis t i n most democ r ati c c ountr ies .
S el f As s es sm e nt e xe rci se 4; - lis t and expla in the caus es of j udi cia l cont r ol
3.3 Judicial Remedies for Lawsuits against Government and
Officials
J udic ial inter ve ntion can be in the f or m of s uing the gove r nment its el f ; or
t he publi c of f ic ial concer ne d agai nst w hom any ci tiz en ma y wa nt a r e pr is al
of hi s gr i evance . The posi tion r e gar ding t he s uitabi lit y of the gover nment
a nd public of f icia ls dif f e r s i n the c ountr ies f ol lowi ng the s ys tem of r ule of
l aw f r om thos e f ol low ing the admini st r ati ve la w. T he r ule of law s yst em
pr e vails i n England, the U S A a nd most C ommonw ea lth c ountr ie s i ncludi ng
I ndi a. The admini st r ati ve l aw sys tem is pr act ice d in F r ance and s ome
c ountr ies of E ur ope.
T he r ule of law s ys te m e st ablis hes t hat t he public of f ici als ar e subj ect to
t he or dina r y law s of the l and and c annot s ee k of f i cia l pr ote cti on/or ac ts
pe r f or med i n their of f icia l c apaci ty f or w hich they ar e per s onall y lia ble or s uabl e in c our ts . How eve r , ther e ar e a lw ays cer ta in high of f i cia ls who
71
e njoy le gal i mmunit y f or of f ic ial acts i n all countr ie s like t he B r it is h
M onar c h, the A mer i can pr es ident, and the pr es ident of I ndi a and gove r nor s
of I ndi an s tat es . This abi lit y of the s ta te in I ndi a is gover ne d by Ar t icl e
300 of t he C ons tit ution, w hic h clea r ly s ta tes that the s ta te i s s uabl e f or
c ontr act s, that is , tr ading f unctions a nd is not sua ble f or t he tor t uous a cts
of i ts of f ici als . I n pr ac tice , how ever , t he s tate is of ten held r es pons ible f or
t he il legal ac ts of its publi c of f ici als .
O n the other ha nd, in the countr ie s wher e the s ys tem of admi nis tr at ive l aw
pr e vails , t he s tat e is li able and s uable f or a ll i lle gal a cts of it s of f i cia ls .
T he er r a nt of f ic ials i n thes e c ountr ies a r e tr ie d not in or di nar y cour t s but in
t he admi nis tr at ive cour ts w hich ha ve the power s to a wa r d dama ges f r om
t he publi c f unds to the aggr ieve d par ti es .
E xt raor di nar y Jud ic ial R em edi es in In d ia/N ige ria
T he cour t s i n I ndia ha ve al so be en cons tit utiona lly pr ovi ded w ith a number
of w r it s, w hic h may be use d by them to pr ote ct c itiz ens ' r ight s a gains t
a r bitr ar y violat ion by t he gover nme nt or publ ic of f ic ial s.
3.3a H abe as C orp u s: Ha beas cor pus , w hich l iter a ll y means , " to pr oduc e
t he body of is a pr e r ogative w r it me ant to pr ovide i mme diat e r el ief f r om
a r bitr ar y conf ine ment or r es tr aint and i s i ss ued f or t he vindic ati on of the
i ndividual r ight to per s onal liber t y by s cr uti ni si ng the l egal ity of t he
c onf ineme nt by t he cour t . I t is an obl igator y pow er of t he cour t s t o is sue
t his wr i t if t her e i s a pr ima f acie cas e of suppos ing tha t the per s on deta ined
i s unl aw f ully de pr ived of hi s r i ght to l iber t y. The w r it w il l nor ma lly be
i ss ued i f the c our t f ee ls sa tis f ied that the de tenti on has not bee n made in
a ccor danc e w it h the pr oc edur e es ta blis hed by law ( Ar t icl es 21 and 22) and
t he per s on det ained has not been pr oduced bef or e the m agis tr a te, w it hin
t we nty- f our hour s of his ar r es t. H ow ever , t he P r eventi ve D et ention A ct b
I ndi a r es tr i cts the over all mer i t of t his wr i t to a gr eat extent . B ut eve n this
A ct has been he dged in w it h cer ta in s af egua r ds to pr event its ar bi tr ar y us e.
A per s on ca nnot be de taine d f or a pe r iod of mor e than thr e e mont hs unl es s
t he ca use of detent ion i s i nves tigat ed by an a dvis or y boar d cons is ti ng of
pe r sons of the st atus of a j udge of a hi gh c our t w ithi n that per iod a nd the
boa r d has upheld t he ca use of suc h detent ion.
3.3b Man d am us ; The wr i t of mand amus is a c ommand is sue d by a comm on
l aw cour t of c ompete nt j ur is dicti on dir ec ting any per s on, cor por at ion or
i nf er ior c our t r equi r ing him or them to do s ome pa r ticul ar thi ng spe cif i ed
t her ein whi ch conc er ns this or thei r of f ice and is in t he nat ur e of publi c
dut y. This w r it c annot be clai med, as a mat ter of r ight and i ts is sua nce i s
e ntir el y opti onal a nd dis cr eti onar y by t he cour ts . I t is a wr i t is s ued to a
publ ic of f i cial to pe r f or m an of f i cial duty, w hich he has f ail ed to do,
nor ma ll y, the w r it is not is s ued, unle ss the r e is an a lter na tive r eme dy,
w hic h is se lf - s uf f icie nt, be nef ici al and ef f ec tive .
3.3c Proh ib it i on: P r ohibi tion i s a judic ial wr i t is s ued by a hi ghe r to a
l owe r cour t f or pr e venting it .f r om usur pi ng jur is dic tion w hich i t has not
be en le gall y ves ted w it h. The w r it thus comma nds t he low er c our t not t o
72
e xer cis e its pow er and a uthor it y over a ma tte r , w hich is not i n its s pher e of
onl y agai nst judic ial and quas i- j udicia l t r ibunals .
3.3d C ert i orari: The w r it of cer ti or ar i means the dir ec tion of a supe r ior
c our t to a n inf er ior cour t f or t r ans f er r ing t he r ecor ds of pr oc eedings of a
c as e pendi ng wi th it f or the pur pos e of det er mi ning the lega lit y of the
pr oc eedings a nd f or giving mor e s atis f ac tor y e f f ect to them than could be
done in the inf er ior cour t c oncer ned. The w r it can be m ade a vail able to
a djudic ate upon the va lidit y of judi cial deci si ons. T his wr i t us uall y
uphol ds or nul lif ie s the j udgment of the i nf e r ior cour t
3.3e Qu o Warran t o: The lite r al meani ng of the wor d " quo w ar r ant o"
m eans " wha t w ar r ant y or author i ty" . The wr i t of quo w ar r ant o is is sue d by
t he cour t to enqui r e int o the l egali ty of the cla im w hic h a par t y as se r ts to a
pe r manent publi c of f ic e or f r anchi se and to r emove him f r om the pos t if hi s
c lai m is f ound to be ille gal. The bur de n of pr oof t o pr ove his cl aim lie s on
t he r es pondent .
I t is now c lear that the w r it s di sc uss ed a bove ar e in the na tur e of j udici al
c ontr ol ove r judic ial as we ll a s a dminis tr a tive act s. The S upr eme C our t in
I ndi a has bee n empow er ed under the C onst ituti on to is s ue dir e cti ons, w r it s,
a nd or der s in the natur e of habeas c or pus, ma ndamus , pr ohibi tion, quo
w ar r a nto and c er tior a r i f or t he enf or ce ment of the f undament al r i ghts of
t he I ndia n citi zens a nd the hi gh c our ts have be en em powe r ed w ithi n thei r
j ur is dict ion to i ss ue di r ecti ons, or der or w r its f or the e nf or cem ent of
f unda menta l r i ghts and f or any ot her pur pos e. Thus , it w ould be obse r ved
t hat t he pow er s . of high cour t s a r e- w ider t o the ext ent t hat be si des is sui ng
w r it s t hey ca n als o is s ue othe r dir ect ions and or der s as ma y be f ound
ne ces s ar y not onl y f or the e nf or ceme nt of f unda menta l r ight s but als o f or
a ny other pur pos e,
L im it ations of J udicial C ontr ol
J udic ial r emedi es ar e no doubt a gr e at bulw ar k of individua l r ight s a nd
l iber ti es but t hey ar e als o hedged in w ith ce r tai n lim ita tions , w hich of t en •
r e st r ict their gener al us ef ulnes s . F ir s tly, a ll a dminis tr a tive act ions ar e not
s ubje ct t o judic ial contr ol. Se condly, e ven w ithin their s pher e of
j ur is dict ion, the judic iar y c annot i nter vene on its ow n but ca n inte r vene
onl y on the r e ques t of inj ur ed par t ies w ho may or ma y not choos e t o se ek
j udici al r e dr es s, A la r ge f r act ion of c as es of admini st r ati ve exc es se s do not
e ven come bef or e the c our ts becaus e.- he judic ial pr oces s being s low ,
c umber s ome and expe nsi ve many do not like to t ake adva ntage of judic ial
r e medie s even t hough they ma y be a wa r e of them .
Self Assessment exercise 4;-I dentif y and expla in f our j udi cia l
r e medie s in admi nis tr at ion.
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We were able to state clearly in this unit that the responsibility of office holders is to be
accountable to the people in the discharge of responsibility.Varoius measures of
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accountability have been devised by all democratic states of which we have used India
majorly as our example and Nigeria sparingly. This is because public accountability has
become so central because of the ever increasing importance and functions of public
administration in modern states.
The control of these public organosations comes in the form of; - legislative control, which is
done through elected reperesentatives; Debates and discussions, which provide an
opportunity to review government policies and their implementation; Resolutions/Motions
adopted as control and check of abuse of office; Questions, which is the most contentious
means of vocal control of representatives; Budgetry control, where budget proposals are
extensively debated before they are voted upon. Public accounts are examined by the public
accounts committees to suggest any amendment, correcteness and economic aquracy among
others.
Public officers and individuals can also seek redress whenever there is prejudice to the rights
of such persons due to lack of jurisdiction, payment error of law and facts. Redress can also
be sought in situations which range from errors of law, abuse of authority and negligence.
It is important that this unit mention and explain the remedies available to redress some of
these administrative lapses to include:-Habeas corpus, which is meant to provide immediate
relief from arbitrary confinement or restrain.Mandamus,which is meant to compel public
officials to perform an official duty which they fail to perfom;Prohibition,is issued to prevent
a lower court not to exercise its powers of authority over a matter by a higher court;
Certiorari is meant to order an inferior court to transfer its records of proceedings of a case to
a higher court to determine its legality , and Quo Warranto is issued by a supreme court to
inquire into the legality of claims.
However, these remedies are limited by the fact that, it is not all administrative actions that
are subject to judicial control and the judiciary can only intervene on a matter only upon the
request by of the injured parties.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In this unit, we have been able to successfully explain the entire process of public
accountability and control of public offices as a means of safeguarding against the misuse of
power and abuse of public authority, which arises out of the ever-increasing functions and
importance of public administration in the development of society.
These control range from legislative control; which include debates and discussions,
Resolutions and motionsd, questions, budgetry control and parliamentary committees. This
legislative though effective is limited by the fact that it neither has the time nor expertise to
effectively control all the spheres of administration.
We also discussed the executive control of public administration which lies with the minster,
who are responsible for the control of their ministries or departments.Thius is so because the
policies made by the chief executive is implemented by the civil servants. This executive
control is exercised through political directions by the minister. It is also exercised through
approval of budgets and recruitments.
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Judicial control plays an important role in upholding the sanctity of the constitution and
protecting the rights and liberties of the people. This control is exercised when there is lack of
jurisdiction, errors in law, errors in fact finding, procedure and abuse of authorities.
There are however a range of remedies available for redress in case the control measures do
not perfectly fit in, these include; Habeas corpus, Mandamus, Prohibition, Certiorari and Quo
Warranto.These remedies are at times limited by a number of factors which include;-The fact
that not all government actions are subject to judicial control and secondly the availability
and willingness of affected parties to seek redress.
6.0. Tutor Marked Assignment
-What do you understand by public Accountability?
-How does the executive control public administration?
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A f anas yev, V G , ( 1971) T he Scie ntif ic M anage me nt of Soc iet y, M osc ow,
P r ogr es s Publi she r s.
A lbr ow , Ma r tin,( 1970)
Bur eaucr acy, L ondon, Pa ll M al l.
A li, S hum S hun N is a( 1984) ,Em ine nt Adm ini st rat ive Thi nker s , Ne w D el hi,
A ss oci ate d Publ is hing H ouse .
G oel, S L, ( 1994)
Advance d Publi c Adm ini st rat ion, N ew De lhi, S te r ling,
H eady, F er r e l,( 1984) Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation: A C ompar ati ve P er spe cti ve, N ew
J er s ey, P r enti ce- H al l I nc.
H enr y, N ichol as ,( 1975) Publi c Adm ini st rat ion and Publ ic A ffair s , N ew
J er s ey,P r enti ce- H al l.
H ill , Mi chae l J ,( 1972) ,T he Sociol ogy of P ublic Adm inis tr ati on, London,
We idenf i eld & Ni cols on.
H ough, Je r r y F a nd Me r le P ai nsod,( 1979) H ow the Sovie t U ni on i s
G over ned,C a mbr idge , MI T , Ha r var d U niver s it y Pr e ss .
J ain, R B ,( 1976) C ont em porar y I s s ues in I ndian A dmi nis tr ation,, Del hi,
V is ha! P ublis her s .
N igr o, F eli x A, ( 1970)
R ow .
M ode rn P ublic Adm inis tr ati on, Ne w Y or k, H ar per a nd
P anandi kar , V A P al and S S K s hir s agar ( e ds) B ure aucr acy and D ev elopm ent
Adm ini st rat ion, N ew De lhi, C e ntr e f or P oli cy R es ea r ch, 1978.
R iggs , F r ed W ( 1961) The E cology of Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation, B om bay, A si a
P ublis hing H ous e.
MODULE 2: THE BUREAUCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT
75
U N IT 6:
THE MEANING AND NATURE OF THE BUREAUCRACY
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1a.TH E O R I G I N/ DE FI N I TI O N OF TH E B U R EA U C R AC Y . . . . . . 67
3.2 M AX WE B ER ’ S B UR E AU C R A C Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.3 TH E S T RU C TU R E OF B UR E AU C R A C Y. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
3.4 C H AR A C TE R I ST I C S OF TH E B U R EA UC R A C Y . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5 TY P ES O F B U R EA UC R A C Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.5a The Gua r dian B ur e aucr a cy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.5b The C a st e B ur ea ucr ac y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.5c Me r it B ur ea ucr ac y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Unit 6 -The Meaning and Nature of the Bureaucracy
76
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
It is commonly held that the unplanned "anarchic" nature of society and capitalist production
necessitates bureaucratic regulation to prevent economic and social chaos. Thus the
bureaucracy is merely the by-product of an administrative structure that separates the workers
from the actual management of the economy. Since the owners make the decisions, all others
must ultimately take their orders from this small group. Since that would be impracticable in
an industrial economy, the problem must be handled by a division of responsibility which in
turn entails layers of bureaucracy. The government makes the decisions which are then
filtered down the bureaucratic pyramid. This means that the workers must wait to be told
what to do by their immediate superiors, who in turn must wait for instructions from their
superiors, and so on.
It is important to realize that these bureaucratic features are a product of capitalism itself,
rather than the nature of large-scale production. Where capitalist property relations prevail, it
is futile to fight against bureaucrac.To change the situation it is necessary first of all to
eliminate private ownership of the means of production. Bureaucracy was the inevitable
consequence of the development of property relations at a given stage in the division of
labour and in economic integration. Consequently, it is also inevitable that at some point
there will be no further need for an administrative apparatus separated from society, because
subjective and objective conditions will be ripe for direct self-administration.
The bureaucracy has come to be known as the public service in most countries of the world
and in Nigeria in particular. It has certain features that make for the attainment of organised
goals and allot for the effective utilisation of human and material resources for the collective
good of society and also for the attainment of common good.
The bureaucracy which has been associated to the works of Marx Weber in trying to explain
the organised task can be carried out in society following laid down rules and regulations.
This will be the main concern of the unit under discussion and we will try as much as
possible to explain also the origin of the Bureaucracy and its main characteristics.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;-Explain the origin of the bureaucracy.
-Max Weber’s type of Bureaucracy.
-The characteristics of the bureaucracy.
-The types of Bureaucracy and
-The Nature of the Bureaucracy.
3.0 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 T h e ori gin /D ef in it i on of t h e B u re auc racy.
The ter m ‘ bur eauc r acy’ m ay be t r ace d to the Fr e nch w or d bur eau, me aning a
w r iti ng tabl e or des k. B ur ea ucr ac y, thus , si mply m eans ‘ des k gover nme nt’ .
F ollow ing t he mode l of the def ini tion of ‘ de mocr a cy’ , one ma y def i ne
bur ea ucr ac y as gover nme nt of the bur eau, by t he bur ea us, a nd f or the
77
bur ea us. T he te r m w as coine d in ei ghtee nth ce ntur y F r ance , and f ir s t
appe ar ed i n Engli sh i n 1818 and it ‘ si gnif ie s t he conc entr at ion of
adm inis tr a tive powe r in bur ea us or de par tm ents , and t he undue i nter f er e nce
by of f ic ial s i n mat ter out si de the sc ope of s tat e inte r f er en ce. I n the w or ds of
J ohn A. V ie g, “Thr ough di st or tion a nd car i cat ur e, the ter m ‘ bur eaucr a cy’ has
com e to i mply bungl ing, ar bi tr ar i nes s, w as te f ulnes s , of f icious nes s and
r egi ment ati on. How eve r , som eti me t he te r m is us ed w ith a ppr obation, and a
bur ea ucr at symb oliz es a ma n emi nent f or e xper ie nce, f or know le dge and f or
r es pons ibil ity. F or ins ta nce, i n Eur ope t he te r m or dina r ily de notes the body
of r egul ar gover nm ent s er va nts and is em otiona lly ne utr al in cont ext. I t only
s hows tha t the ter m is sus ce ptibl e to m or e tha n one mea ning. F or s tein M.
M ar x indi cat es f our se nse s i n whi ch the ter m is use d.
The Oxf or d D ic tiona r y of Pol iti cs def ine d the bur e aucr ac y as gover nme nt by
per m anent of f ice holder s the f ir s t w r ite r to vie w bur e aucr a cy mor e f avour abl y
w as Ma x Webe r . He ar gued t hat w or king t o the r ul es in a hi er ar chi cal of f ice
of w hich a ppointm ent a nd pr omoti on we nt by mer i t w as r at ional than ma king
appoi ntme nts on other ba si s s uch a s pa tr onage .
The B ur eauc r acy i s a f or mal , r ati onall y or ganis ed s oci al s tr uc tur e w hic h
invol ves cle ar ly de f ined pa tte r ns of a cti vity i n whi ch; i deall y, ever y se r ies of
ac tions is f unct ional ly r el ate d to the pur pose s of t he or ganis at ion. I n s uch a n
or gani sa tion t her e i s i ntegr a ted a se r ies of of f ic es , of hier a r chies s ta tus es , i n
w hich a number of obl igat ions and pr ivi leges c los ely de f ined by l imit ed a nd
s peci f ic r ul es .
B ur ea ucr ac y as a par t icul ar f or m of or ga niza tion, m or e s peci f ical ly a s ge ner al
des ign f or a conduct of public admi nis tr at ion P f if f ner us es the ter m in this
s ens e: “ B ur eauc r acy i s t he s ys t emat ic or ganiz ation of tas ks and indivi duals
int o a pat ter n w hic h can m ost ef f ec tive ly ac hieve the e nd of coll ecti ve
ef f or t s. Gla dden too us es the ter m to me an ‘ a r e gulat ed adm inis tr at ive sys tem
or gani zed a s a se r ies of int er r el ate d of f ice s.’ A cc or ding to M ax W eber
( 1864- 1920) , det ail ed ana lys is of bur eauc r acy, bur e aucr a tic or ganiz ation
dis pla ys t he f oll owi ng ch aract e ris t ic s:
(i) as s ignme nt of s peci f ied dut ies to e ver y me mber t o dis char ge the
as s igned dut ies ;
( ii ) me thodic al pr ovi si on f or the r e gular pe r f or manc e of the se duties ;
( ii i) the buildi ng up of the or ga niza tion on hi er ar chi cal pr inci ple;
( iv) r el ianc e on w r itt en docum ents or r ec or ds;
(v) f or mul ati on of r ules to gove r n the t r ans act ion of bus ines s ; and
( x) R ec r uitm ent a nd spe cia l tr a ining of t he f unct ionar i es .
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e; - D ef i ne the ter m B ur eauc r acy
3.2 Max We be r B u reau cr acie s
78
M ax W eber ( 1864- 1920) , t he G er man soc iologis t, wa s the f ir s t s ocia l
s ci entis t to have sys tem ati cal ly s tudi es bur eaucr a cy. I ndee d, his name is
i ndis sol ubly as s ocia ted w it h any s tudy of bur eauc r acy, s o muc h so t hat i t is
c onsi der ed t o be r at her impr ude nt a s w el l as impude nt on the par t of a
s tude nt of moder n bur eaucr a cy not to s how a cquaint ance wi th We ber ’ s
w r it ings on this s ubjec t. Thi s, of c our se , does not sugge st or impl y that his
vi ew s a r e abs olut ely i nf alli ble; indee d, s ome of his conc epts have been
m eeti ng w ith a dver s e cr i tici sm . M ax Webe r devel oped a t yp ology of
a uthor it y and dis ti nguis hed thr e e ‘ pur e’ t ype s- ‘ tr adit ional ’ , char i sm ati c’ ,
a nd ‘ lega l;- T he C har i sma tic A dminis tr a tion dominat ed by lo ya lti es to the
w hims a nd capr i ces of one ma n w ho is judge ove r hi s f ol low er s ; The
T r aditi onal Admi nis tr at ion domi nate d by loyal tie s to the a ge- hal low ed
c ust oms and tr a ditions ; - B ur eaucr a tic or ganis at ions domina ted by the
l oya lti es to i mper s onal r oles and r e gulati ons.
H e r e gar ded bur e aucr ac y, s ust ained and s ancti f ied b y t he pur es t t ype of
e xer cis e of legal author i ty ( ‘ r a tional lega l) , f or ma lis ed and deper s onal is ed
a dminis tr a tion as the mos t ef f ici ent f or m of or ganiz ati on. “E xper ienc e
t ends univer s al ly to s how that the pur e ly bur eauc r ati c type admi nis tr at ive
or ga nizat ion … i s, f r om a pur el y techni cal point of vi ew , capa ble of
a ttai ning t he highe st degr ee of ef f ica cy and is in this s ens e f or ma lly t he
m os t nati onal know n mea ns of car r ying out impe r ati ve c ontr ol over hum an
be ings .( Ma hes hwa r i,2005:356)
I t is s uper i or to any ot her f or m i n pr eci si on, in s tabi lit y, in the st r ingenc y of
it ’ s di sc ipli ne and i n it’ s r el iabi lit y. I t, thus , make s poss ibl e a pa r ticul ar ly
high de gr ee of c alc ulabi lit y of r es ults f or the heads of the or ganiza tion and
f or thos e a cti ng in r el ati on to it . I t is f ina lly s uper i or both in i ntens ive
ef f i cie ncy and i n the s cope of its oper a tions , and i s f or ma lly capabl e of
appl ica tion t o all kinds of admi nis tr at ive t as ks.
3.3 T h e s t ru ct u re of B u re auc racy.
The idea l type of suc h f or mal or ganis at ion is bur ea ucr ac y. I t invol ves a cle ar cut divis ion of i ntegr a ted a cti viti es whi ch ar e r egar de d as duties inhe r ent in
the of f ice . Eac h of thes e of f i ces cont ains an a r ea of i mputed compet ence and
r es pons ibil ity. O f f ic ial act ion or dina r ily oc cur s wi thin t he f r am ewor k of pr eexi st ing r ule s of or ga nis ati on.
The sys te m pr es cr i bes r ela tions bet we en the occupa nt s manif e st ed f or ma lly,
w hich i s i ntegr a ted i n the di st r ibuti on of author i ty w ithi n the s yst em. This
f or ma lit y f aci lit ate s t he int er ac tion of t he occ upa nts of of f ice s des pite their
pr iva te a tti tudes tow ar ds othe r s, a nd in a w ay t he s ubor dinate is pr otec ted
f r om the ar bi tr ar y a cti on of his supe r ior .
Wi thin t he s tr uct ur e of hie r ar chi cal ly ar r a nged aut hor ity, t he act ivit ies of
tr a ined a nd sa lar i ed expe r ts , gover ned by ge ner al , abs tr ac t, and c lear l y
def i ned r ule s w hic h pr elude the ne ces s ity f or t he is s uance of ins tr ucti ons f or
ea ch s peci f ic c as e. The gener a lit y of the r ul es r equir e s t he cons ta nt us e of
ca tegor i zat ion, w her eby i ndividua l pr oble ms and cas es a r e cla ss if i ed and a r e
tr e ate d acc or dingly.
79
I n the pur e bur ea ucr ac y, of f ici al a ppointm ent i s ba se d on the exe r cis e of
im per s onal c ompet iti on and te chnic al pr oc edur es ar e f ollow ed. M os t
B ur ea ucr at ic of f i ces expe ct a lif e long te nur e, pens ions , and i nc r eme ntal
s ala r ies and r e gular i se d pr ocedur e s f or pr om otion t o ens ur e devote d
per f or m ance of of f ici al dut ies , w ithout r egar ds to e xtr ane ous pr e ss ur es . H igh
pr em ium i s pl ace d on tec hnica l ef f i cie ncy, pr ec is ion and opti mal r etur n on
input s.
The st r uctur e is one w hich a ppr oache s t he com plet e eli mina tion of
per s onal is ed r el ati onshi p and non- r at ional cons ider a tions ( hos tili ty, a nxiet y,
af f e ctua l invol veme nts , and e.t .c) .I t ke eps valua ble i nf or mat ion conf ine d
f r om pr ivate compe tit or s or f r om f or eign a nd potent ial ly hos tile poli tica l
gr oups .
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e 2; - E xplai n the m ain s tr uc tur e of t he ide al t ype
B ur ea ucr ac y.
3.4 Characteristics of the Bureaucracy.
B ur ea ucr ac y is a f or m of or ga niza tion w hic h has cer t ain e ss ent ial
cha r act er is ti cs and the se Webe r had hims e lf ca r ef ull y lis te d. T hes e ar e
(i) s epar a tion of of f i ce a nd it’ s inc umbent ,
(ii) the of f ici al i s s ubje ct t o dis cipl ine a nd contr ol whi le pe r f or ming hi s
of f ic ial wor k,
( ii i) hie r ar chy of of f i ce,
(iv) al loca tion of a cti viti es of the or ga niza tion ne eded t o f ulf il it’ s
obje cti ves
( v) al loca tion of a uthor it y r equir e s t o dis char ge thes e a ctivi tie s, and
(vi) S tr ic t adhe r ence to r ule s
M ax We ber s peaks him se lf about the pur e st type of bur e aucr ac y, he
opine s t hat; T he pur es t t ype of exe r cis e l egal author it y is that w hich em ploys a
bur e aucr at ic admini st r ati ve s ta f f . Onl y the S upr eme chie f of the
or ga nizat ion oc cupies hi s pos iti on of author i ty by vir t ue of appr opr i ati on,
of e lect ion, or of ha ving bee n des ignate d f or the succ es si on. He nce, hi s/ her
a uthor it y cons is ts in a s pher e of legal ‘ compe tenc e’ . The w hole
a dminis tr a tive s taf f s under t he s upr eme author it y then consi st in the pur es t
t yp e, of indi vidual of f icia ls w ho ar e a ppointed and f uncti on acc or ding to
t he f oll owi ng cr it er ia:
1. The y ar e pe r sona lly f r e e and s ubje ct t o author i ty only w it h r es pect
to t heir i mper s onal of f ici al obl igat ions .
2. The y ar e or ga nize d in a c lea r ly def i ned hie r ar chy of of f i ces .
3. Ea ch of f ic e has a c lea r ly def i ned s pher e of c ompete nce in the legal
s ens e.
80
4. The of f ice is f ill ed by a f r e e cont r act ual r e lat ions hip. Thus , in
pr inc iple , ther e is f r ee s el ect ion.
5. C andi date s a r e s ele cte d on the ba si s of t echnic al qualif i cat ions . I n
the mos t r at ional cas e, t his is tes te d by exam inati on or guar ant eed
by dipl omas ce r tif yin g tec hnica l tr a ining, or bot h. They a r e
appoi nted, not ele cte d.
6. The y ar e r e muner a ted b y f i xed s ala r ies in m oney, f or the mos t par t
w ith a r ight t o pens ion. O nly under c er ta in ci r cums tanc e doe s t he
em ploying author it y, in pr iva te or ga niza tions , have a r ight to
te r mina te t he appoi ntme nt, but t he of f ic ial is alw ays f r ee to r es ign.
The sa lar y s ca le i s pr i mar i ly gr ade d acc or ding to r a nk in the
hie r ar chy; but in a dditi on to thi s c r ite r ion, the r es ponsi bilit y of the
pos iti on and the r equir e ment s of t he inc umbent’ s s oci al s ta tus may
be i nto ac count.
7. The of f ice is tr ea ted a s t he s ole, or a t le as t the pr imar y occupat ion
of the incum bent.
8. I t const itut es a ca r eer . T her e i s a sys te m of ‘ pr omot ion’ ac cor ding
to s eni or ity or t o achi evem ent, or bot h. Pr om otion i s de pendent on
the judgem ent of s uper i or .
9. The of f ici al w or k ent ir el y se par at ed f r om ow ner s hip of t he me ans of
adm inis tr a tion a nd wi thout a ppr opr iat e of his pos ition.
10. H e is s ubjec t to s tr i ct s ys tem ati c dis ci pline and contr ol in t he
conduc t of the of f ice .
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e 3; - O utl ine t he ma jor cha r act er is ti cs of the
B ur ea ucr ac y3.5 T Y PE S OF B U R E AU C RA C Y
A cc or ding to F or s tei n M. M ar x, t her e a r e f our types of bur e aucr ac y:
( 1) T he G uar dia n B ur eaucr a cy,
( 2) T he C as te B ur eaucr a cy,
( 3) T he P atr ona ge B ur ea ucr ac y, and
( 4) T he M er it B ur eaucr a cy.
3.5a T h e G uar di an B u re auc racy. M ar x c ites t wo e xample s of ‘ Gua r dian
B ur e aucr a cy’ viz C hines e bur e aucr ac y up to the advent of the S ung per i od
( 960 A .D .) and the Pr us s ian C i vil S er vi ce dur i ng 1640 a nd 1740. This type
m ay be de f ined a s “ a s cholas ti c of f ic ial dom tr a ined i n r ight c onduct
a ccor ding to the clas s ics “ ( Ma r x) . Suc h civil s er vice r egar de d its el f as
c ust odians of publi c int er es t, but wa s inde pendent of and unr es pons ive t o
t he publi c opini on. I t w as r ighteous , inc or r uptibl e, ef f i cie nt, com pete nt and
be nevolent on the one hand, but a uthor it ar ia n and r es pons ive on t he othe r .
3.5b T h e C ast e B ur eau cracy has a cla ss a nd ‘ ar is es f r om the cla ss
c onnecti on of thos e i n the c ontr olli ng posi tion’ . ( M ar x) . S uch t ype is
w ide ly pr eva lent in oli gar chic al politi cal s ys te ms . U nde r suc h sys te ms only
pe r sons bel onging to uppe r clas s es or higher cas tes ca n becom e publi c
of f i cial s. Thus , in anc ient I ndia, onl y B r anhmins a nd K s hatr i yas could
81
be come high of f ic ials . A nothe r wa y in w hich s uch a type ma nif es ts is
‘ l inking t he qual if ica tions f or t he highe r pos ts w ith a r r angem ents tha t
a mount t o cla ss pr ef e r ence. ( Ma r x) . This is w hat Wi lloughby has des cr ibed
a s t he ar i st ocr ati c t ype exis ti ng in E ngland t ill r ecent ly. The B r iti sh r ul er s
i ntr oduced the c las s char ac ter in the I ndian ci vil s er vi ces as w ell . The
‘ c ivil line s’ w her e almos t all the ‘ c ivili ans ’ live d w as just the c ounter pa r t
of t he ‘ ca ntonment ’ in w hic h the mi lit ar y f or ce s l ived. C onc entr a tion of
of f i cer s in s pac ious bungalow s in one l ocali ty a way f r om the c ity,
e xclus ive clubs of of f ic er s , and dis tanc e f r om the publi c, of f ic ious nes s,
a nd love of pr e cedenc e, s ec r ecy and f or mali sm w er e the mani f es tat ions of
t he cl as s c har act er of I ndi an civi l s er vic e. Eve n today t he ci vil s er vi ce i n
I ndi a has not be en abl e to s hed c omplet ely its cla ss cha r act er . I n the wor ds
of A pple by, “per s onnel … ar e a r r anged s elf - cons cious ly in too f ir m
‘ c las s es ’ and too f i r m and t oo many s peci al ‘ se r vices ’ w ith bar r ier s
be tw een c las s es and s er vice s too high … the r e is too m uch and t oo cons tant
c onsc ious nes s of r a nk, clas s , tit le and s er vice mem ber s hip, too l itt le
c onsc ious nes s of me mber s hip in the public se r vice.
A nothe r name f or the pa tr onage bur eaucr a cy is the ‘ s poil s sys t em . The r e is
a subt le di f f er ence betw ee n thes e tw o ter ms – pat r onage, a nd spoi ls sys te m.
I n bot h, the r e cr uit ment is bas ed on f avour it is m. B ut in patr ona ge, the
pe r son w ould c ontinue in empl oyment w hile i n spoi ls the be nef ic iar i es
ha ve to qui t w hen the gover nment change s. I n contr as t t o the s poil s t he
be nef ici ar ie s have t o quit w hen t he gover nme nt cha nges . I n contr a st to the
s poil s s yst em, patr ona ge pr ovide s s ta bilit y of tenur e . The t r adit ional home
of s poil s ha s be en the U.S .A . patr onage had f ul l sw ay i n the U .K ., til l the
m iddle of the ni netee nth c entur y.
T his type of c ivil se r vice exis ts w her e publ ic jobs ar e given a s a per s onal
f a vour or polit ical r ew ar d. T he s ys te m, i t is inte r es ting t o note, w or ked
di f f er entl y in t he tw o count r ies ment ioned above. I n the U.K . pat r onage
bur e aucr ac y mar c hed s ide by si de w ith an ar is tocr a tic soc ial or der and
f ul f ille d it s pur pos e. T he pat r onage i n B r itai n wa s us ed onl y f or the be nef it
of t he s cions of the nobilit y. I n the Unit ed S tat es , on the c ontr ar y, t he
s poil s s yst em wor ke d quite dif f er ent ly a nd jobs we nt as spoi ls to the
vi ctor ious pol itic al par ty. T he A mer ic an pa tr onage w as , thus , an e xer ci se
i n ‘ democr a cy’ . T he s ys te m of s poils be gan on a mi nor sc ale and
a pologeti cal ly w it h Was hington, Je f f er s on, and A dams , beca me a tor r ent in
1829, w hen J ac kson c ame into of f i ce, a nd f r om that tim e unti l 1883, s we pt
t hr ough all the of f i ces of gover nme nt w it hout let or hindr anc e, and m ost
us ual ly w ithout mor al inhibit ions .
T he ca se f or the s poil s s yst em wa s put at i ts bes t by P r es ident J ac kson i n
t he f ir s t a nnual me ss age to c ongr es s i n 1829. “The dut ies of al l publi c
of f i cer s ar e , or at l eas t a dmit of being ma de, s o plai n and s impl e tha t me n
of i ntell igenc e ma y r ea dily qua lif y t hems elve s f or their pe r f or manc e; a nd I
c annot but belie ve t hat mor e is los t by t he long cont inuanc e of me n in
of f i ce t han is gene r all y to be ga ined by t he exper i ence …. No one man ha s
a ny mor e i ntr ins ic r ight t o of f icia l s ta tion t han anothe r ”. S uch a s ys tem ,
how eve r , could not pr oduce a civil s er vice compe tent to cope wi th the
e ver - gr ow ing compl exit ies of t he gover nme ntal f uncti ons af ter the s ett ing
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i n of the i ndust r ial r evoluti on. “T he pat r onage s yst em s tood c ondemne d as
a n anac hr onis m f or it ’ s l ack of t echnic al compet ence , it’ s s lip s hop
di sc ipline , it s c onceal ed r a pacious nes s , it’ s er r a tic w ays, i t’ s par ti sa nshi p,
a nd it’ s w ant t o spi r it.
3.5c Mer it B u reau crac y has , as its bas is , me r it of the publi c of f ic ial and,
a s i ts aim, ef f ici enc y of the c ivil se r vice. I t aim s at ‘ ca r eer ope n to ta lent ”.
I n ot her w or ds, t he at tempt is to r e cr uit the bes t m an f or the public se r vice ,
hi s me r it being j udged by obje ctive s tandar ds . T his is t he me thod in vogue
i n all civi lize d count r ies . A ppointme nt t o publ ic s er vi ce i s no l onger
gove r ned by cl as s c onsi der ati ons, and it is no mor e a gi f t or a f a vour . Nor
i s t he publi c s er vant any longe r the s elf - appointe d guar dia n of the pe ople.
T he ci vil s er va nt in a moder n de mocr ac y is r eal ly an of f icia l in t he s er vic e
of t he peopl e, and i s r e cr uite d on the bas is of pr e sc r ibed qua lif i cat ions
t es ted obj ect ivel y. He owe s hi s j ob to no one exc ept t o his indus tr y,
i ntell igenc e, a nd luck.
S el f As s es sm e nt E xer cis e 4; - B r ief l y Di sc uss the wor ki ngs of t he thr ee
t yp es of B ur eauc r acy e xplaine d above.
4.0 C ON CL U T I ON S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The B ur eauc r acy i s t r ace d to the Fr e nch w or d ‘ B ur eau’ , m eaning a w r iti ng
ta ble or de sk. B ur e aucr a cy has s ince then c ome t o be know n as Des k
gover nm ent or gove r nment of the B ur e au w ho poss es s gover nme ntal
pow er s . I t connot es a body of r egul ati ons de f ined pa tter n of acti vity, in
w hich s er i es of act ions ar e f unc tiona lly r e lat ed to t he pur pos es of
or gani sa tions and de f ined by s pec if ic r ules .
The B ur eauc r acy i s c har ac ter i se d by as si gnment of spe cif ic duti es whic h
ar e per f or me d r egula r ly, thr ough a sys te m of hie r ar chy, w r it ten r e cor ds
and a st r ict adher e nce t o lai d down pr oc edur es .
The ter m B ur eauc r acy w as s ys t ema tic all y use d f ir s t by a G er ma n
S ociol ogis t; M ax W eber t o mea n of f ice r ule a nd it ha s s inc e been adopted
by ma ny countr i es as the be st f or m or w ay in w hic h public or ganis ati ons
ar e or ganis ed a nd the w ay i n whi ch gover nm ent a ctivi tie s can bes t be
del iver e d. This pr ac tic e of B ur ea ucr ac y usua lly f a lls w ithi n f our types as
outl ined by F or s tei n; The Gua r dian, C a st e, P atr ona ge and M er i t
B ur ea ucr ac y, wi th ea ch havi ng its oper a ting pr i nciple .
5.0 S UM MA RY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have be en abl e to di sc uss in t his unit t he or igin of the w or d
B ur ea ucr ac y and how it ha s c ome t o be under s tood a nd pr acti ced.M ax
We ber expl aine d it a s t he s uper ior f or m of of f ice manag emen t guide d by
s tr ic t adhe r ence to the r ules and r e gulat ion of the of f ice whic h oper at es
im per s onall y.
The B ur eauc r acy ha s c er ta in cha r act er is tic s, whi ch inc lude; se par ati on of
of f ic e and i ts incum bent; the of f i cia l is s ubjec t to di sc ipline and c ontr ol
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w hile per f or mi ng his of f ici al w or k; hi er ar c hy of of f ice ; al loca tion of
ac tivi tie s of t he or gani zat ion nee ded to f ul f il i t’ s objec tives ; alloc ati on of
aut hor ity r e quir es to di sc har ge t hes e ac tivi tie s, a nd St r ict adher enc e to
r ule s.
T he types of bur e aucr ac y ident if ie d and dis cus s ed in this unit i nclude ; The
G uar di an B ur ea ucr ac y; The C as te B ur ea ucr ac y; The P atr onage B ur eauc r acy
a nd The M er i t B ur ea ucr ac y. Each type in cons tant Se ar ch for rationality,
Technical Specialisation, Value system and I mpe r sona tion of of f i ce f r om of f ice
hol der .
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment.
- I de ntif y a nd dis cus s t he cha r acte r is tic s of the B ur ea ucr ac y
- L is t and e xplain the t ype s of B ur eaucr a cy.
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
C r ozi er , M icha el, ( 1964) t he Bur eauc rat ic P henom enon, C hic ago, U niver s it y
of C hic ago P r es s.
R ober t Pr es thus( 1959) “ Behav ior and Bur eaucr acy in M any C ul tur es ” P ublic
A dmini st r ati on R evie w, X I X ,pp.25
M icha el C r oz ier ( 1964) T he B ure aucr atic Phenom enon, U nive r si ty of C hic ago
P r es s , C hi cago.
The Oxford Dictionary of Politics Edited by Iain Mclean, Oxford Univ4ersity Press, New
York.1996.
Andras Hegedus(1970) "Marxist Theories of Leadership and Bureaucracy: A Marxist
Analysis," Political Leadership in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, Ed.: R. B. Farrell
Chicago, pp. 53–54.
Israel Kirzner,(1963) Market Theory and the Price System ,Princeton.
For a good. Summary of this process see Herbert Levine, "Input-Output Analysis and Soviet
Planning," American Economic Review (May, 1962), pp. 128–31.
Ludwig von Mises,(1961), Bureaucracy ,New Rochelle, p. 33.
UNIT 7:
THE BUREAUCRACY AND DEVELOPMENT
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
84
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 B U R EA UC R A C Y A N D D EV EL OP M EN T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.2 B U R EA UC R A C Y I N D EV EL OP I N G C O U NT R I ES . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.2a C H AR A C TE R I ST I C S OF N AT I ON A L B UR E AU C R A C I ES I N T HE
D EV ELO P I NG C O UN TR I E S; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.3 R O LE O F B UR E AU C R A C Y I N D EV ELO P I NG C O UN TR I E S . . . . 81
3.4 B U R EA UC R A C Y I N D EV EL OP ED C O UN TR I E S . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.5 C H AN G ES TO
FI T B UR E AU C R A C Y I N TO D EV ELO P ME NT AL TA
.SK
. . .S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Unit 7; Bureaucracy and Development
1.0 Introduction
The B ur eauc r acy ha s be en r ef e r r ed to i n our st udy as the public service
responsible for the attainment of organised goals for the effective utilisation of human and
material resources for the collective good of society and also for the attainment of common
good. This responsibility conferred on this body the powers to implement policies, in our
own case development policies. I t w ill als o look a t the pecul iar c halle nges of
publi c adm inis tr a tion i n gener a l, and bur e aucr a cy in pa r ticul ar , in the cont ext
of deve lopme nt.
85
This unit explains the role of the bureaucracy in the development of a country, paying
particular attention to the role of the Bureaucracy in developing countries. Outlining the
various characteristics of the Bureaucracy in developing countries in the struggle to achieve
development.
2.0Aims and Objectives of the Unit. . . . . . . . . . .
A t the end of thi s uni t, you w ill be abl e to;
- Expl ain t he r ole of the B ur e aucr a cy in D eve lopmen t
- D is cus s t he cha r act er is ti cs of the B ur e aucr a cy in D evel oped count r ies .
3.0 Main content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 B U RE A U CR A CY A ND D E VE L O PME N T
T he topi c ‘ bur ea ucr ac y and devel opment ’ is of pr of ound si gnif ic ance both
f or t he ac ademi c s ee king to unr a vel the devel opment al phe nomenon i n
s oci etie s inhabit ed by ne ar ly t wo- t hir d of the w or ld’ s tot al popul ati on and
f or t he count r y as a w hole. A t t he s ame time , the s ubje ct i s m ulti di mens ional , bei ng amena ble to dis cus s ion f r om a va r iet y of angle s a nd
pe r spe ctive s. One shoul d, ther ef or e , tur n t o the l atte r to gai n a mor e st able
a ppr ecia tion of the c hanges dema nded in, and chal lenge s e ncounte r ed by
t he bur ea ucr ac y as we ll a s by t he lar ge r polit ica l s yst em i n the pur s uit of
de velopme nt.
N eve r thele ss , t he ine sc apable tr uth is that no pol iti cal exec utive may
e xpect to ac compli sh mor e t han it’ s publ ic a dminis tr a tion pe r mit s i t to do:
T he bur ea ucr ac y is capabl e of co mpell ing us to ini tia te t ime ly me as ur es
c alcul ate d to r a is e and di ver s if y admi nis tr at ive leade r shi p and ca pabil ity
t hat c ould enc our age a nd suppor t develop ment.
T he cha llengi ng ta sks f or N iger i a ar e the enor mous e xact ing dem ands on
publ ic a dminis tr a tion, much mor e on the c ountr y’ s polit y. This is bec aus e
a ny devel opment plan de mands tota l pol itic al suppor t a nd dis cipl ine
r e gar dles s of f ede r al bounda r ies . A lthough t he pr es ent unit is f ocus ed on
t he bur ea ucr ac y and devel opment , ment ion her e mus t be m ade of t he
de pendence , in mul tipl e w ays and i n var ying i ntens iti es , of public
a dminis tr a tion on the l ar ger s yst em of polit y. The poli tic al l eade r shi p mus t
s et an exa mple to othe r s by;1- I t’ s devot ion to publ ic i nter e st ,
2- I nte gr ity a nd har d w or k,
3- s ince r ity of pur pos e,
4- A ust er it y and f ir m nes s, a s a tar ge t f or the devel opment of the c ountr y.
A s the gove r nment in a w el f ar e s ta te i nevita bly em er ges as per ha ps t he
bi gges t s pender of mone y and di spe nse r of soc ial se r vices , the polit ica l
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l eader s hip must s pell out cl ear l y wha t it woul d like t o acc ompli sh, a nd in
t his ar ti culat ion t her e mus t not be l ef t a ny r oom f or ambi guity or
a mbival ence .
O ne ma y al so s ugges t a sui table s tr engthe ning, both qua lit ati ve and
qua ntita tive , of the politi cal w ing of the gove r nment . Eac h mini st r y shoul d
ha ve, in a ddition to the minis te r , a f e w j unior mini st er s , dependi ng upon
t he nat ur e, var i ety a nd volume of wor k. T he polit ica l le ader s hip s hould,
w it h cr us ader ’ s ze al, a ddr es s i ts elf t o the ta sk of laying dow n, in f ul l
c onsul tati on w ith t he ci vil s er vi ce, c lear l y def ine d polic ies , pr epa r ing
t ime- bound pr ogr amme compa tibl e w it h thes e poli cie s, a nd over s eei ng
t heir i mplem enta tion in ac cor dance w ith the ti me s chedul e.
T he point r egar di ng need f or ut most cl ar it y in the enuncia tion of pol ici es
c annot be over empha si zed. I t is f air l y w ell know n by now that not muc h
he adw ay coul d be made in i mplem enti ng the m uch- ta lked- a bout la nd
r e f or ms in the countr y, t he f ai lur e f or t his lying not as m uch in
a dminis tr a tive ine ptitude as polit ica l i ndecis ive nes s, i r r es oluti on or whi ch
i s e ven mor e pr obably di sbe lief in the pr of es se d pr ogr a mme s t hems el ves .
A t t he s ame time , publi c admi nis tr at ion ca n be expe cte d to r em ain e f f ici ent
a nd se nsi tive to popula r as pir ati ons only w hen it r e mai ns unde r cons tant
pol itic al sur ve illa nce, contr ol and guidanc e.
F ull r eal izat ion of obj ect ives lai d dow n in the countr ie s pl an docum ent
de pends , in dec is ive w ay, upon t he compe tenc e, par t ici pati on and
c ooper ati on of al l thr e e leve ls of gover nme nt in the count r y the c entr a l, the
s ta te a s w el l as the local gover nme nts . A lthough thi s s hould l ook se lf e vident, it i s t he age of cooper at ive f eder al is m, it s s pec ial ment ion is
a bsol utel y neces s ar y i n view of not s uf f ici ent atte ntion ha ving bee n
be st owe d on this as pec t in t he pas t. I t is a bsol utel y nece ss ar y t hat e ach
de velopme nt pl an is f ir ml y bac ked by an a ppr opr iate admi nis tr at ive pl an
de tail ing me as ur es of s tr engt hening of t he admi nis tr at ive a ppar at us of t he
l and.
T he s tat e publi c admi nis tr at ion i s ne ces s ar il y t o be ca lle d upon to bea r
br unt of the ne w t as ks, a nd ther ef or e , w ill have t o be cons ider a bly
s tr e ngthened, both in t er ms of qual ity a nd quantit y so t hat i t bec omes an
a pt ins tr ume nt f or unde r taking pr ogr amme s of develop ment. A s er ie s of
m eas ur es ar e imper a tive ; t he s tate s ar e w ell advis ed t o s can the r epor ts of
t he al l admi nis tr at ive r ef or ms comm itt ees , s et up by them f r om ti me to
t ime si nce 1947t o the pr e se nt , and t o se e that the ur ge nt r ef or m s a r e
s w if tl y car r i ed out. T he w ell known t enur e s yst em whic h oper at es r athe r
e r r atic all y at pr es ent ne eds to be enf or c ed mor e s ys te mat ica lly. N ot onl y
s hould a civi l s er vant coming to the centr a l gover nm ent on a tenur e r ever t
t o the s ta te ( or , s er vi ce) of hi s pos ting af ter comple tion of hi s s pel l of
dut y, the t enur e s yst em shoul d als o be a ppl ied i n an or der l y wa y wi thin a
s ta te i ts elf , e nsur i ng r egular exchange of per s onnel be tw een t he f ie ld and
t he hea dquar ter s . M ea ningf ul t r aining pr ogr amme s should be or ganiz ed f or
s ta te l evel per s onnel i n var ious ar ea s to impr ove thei r f uncti onal
pr of i cienc y.
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T he pla n mor e t han any t hat ha s pr e ceded it, dem ands , a w ide r a nge of
e xper tis e, and s kills i n public admini st r ati on. To r ec r uit pe r sons pos se ss ing
t hes e and t o place the m in pos iti ons w it hout los s of tim e, s uita ble
s tr uc tur al changes i n the c ivil se r vice would se em ur gent ly ca lle d f or . A
m uc h la r ger number of exper ts a nd spe cial is ts w ill ne ces s ar il y have t o be
i nducted into t he ci vil s er vi ce a nd their r ol e and pl ace in the gener a lis ts domi nate d s yndr om e of bur e aucr ac y has to be appr opr iat ely r eor ganiz ed.
M ea sur e s t owa r ds e nhancem ent of admini st r ati ve ca pabil iti es at a ll l evel of
gove r nment and al l al ong the hi er ar ch y must be f or mul ate d and put i n
ope r ation r ight now w ithout any f ur the r wa iting. S tr e ss ma y her e be lai d on
t he nee d f or exper ts a nd spe cial is ts acqui r ing adm inis tr a tive exper i ence
a nd tr ai ning to e nable them to move into pos iti ons of a dmini st r ati ve
r e spons ibi liti es in va r ious ar eas a nd level s of gove r nment .
B ur e aucr a cy, at any r ate , a cons ide r able s egment of it, i s unde r an
i nes capabl e obl igati on to i nculca te a dis pos ition t owa r ds w or k in t he f ie ld
m or e es pec iall y in t he r ur al ar eas and amongs t the vulner a ble s ec tions of
t he popula tion. T he r ur al and the soc ial admini st r ator be ar a c r ucia l
i mpor tant r es pons ibili ty i n putting thr ough the va r ious devel opment
pr ogr a mmes of a ction. This dema nds st r uctur al and pr oc edur al changes in
publ ic a dminis tr a tion and at titudi nal c hanges in t he bur ea ucr ac y. A
br oa dening of t he s ocial bas e of t he lat ter would a ls o se em ne ces s ar y.
F or exa mple the F ede r al gove r nment Na tional Econo mic Empow er me nt
S tr a tegy ( N EE DS ) , is a pl an tha t ca lls f or f ina ncial r es our ces on an
unpr e cedent ed s ca le, t he extr a cti ve f unct ion of publi c adm inis tr a tion
c ollec tion of taxes i s t o be s imult aneous ly accor de d the hi ghes t
i mpor tanc e. T ax admi nis tr at ion a t all the thr ee level s of gove r nment mus t
s tr e amli ne a ll pos s ible loopholes t o be plugged. A ls o the pr eval ent s ys tem
of f i nancia l c ontr ol, w hic h is evident ly out of t une w ith t he nee ds of a
de veloping econom y, st ands in nee d of r ef or m.
P opula r ur ges and as pir a tions mus t be continua ll y l ed int o public
a dminis tr a tion at a ll l evels . S igni f icant in t his r egar d i s t he need f or
i ncr eas ed and mor e meani ngf ul pa r tici pati ng of cit ize ns a nd inte r es t gr oups
i n the pr oc es se s of gove r nmenta l pol icy- ma king a nd its impl eme ntat ion.
F ina lly a nd mos t impor t antl y, poli tica l s kil l and a dminis tr a tive ener gy
s hould be cea se les s ly dir ec ted to conver t all condit ions that toget her ma ke
a countr y unde r develope d. This c alls f or mor e s oc ial dis cipl ine, l egis la tion
a nd in par t icula r la w obs er va nce a nd enf or cem ent.( A vas thi & M ahes hw ar i,
2005: 485- 489)
Self Assessment Exercise 1; Explain the ways in which the public bureaucracy can
achieve development.
3.2 Bureaucracy in Developing Countries
S .N . Eis ens ta edt de sc r ibes the gr owt h of bur eaucr a cie s f r om s tr uctur a l
f unc tional angl e in c olonial and non- c olonial devel oping count r ies . I n the
88
de veloping countr ie s whi ch had be en under col onial r ule, t he
a dminis tr a tive s tr uct ur es we r e inher i ted f r om the colonia l per i od. They
w er e highly c entr al is ed w it h sma ll amount of inter na l dif f e r enti ati on. Thei r
f unc tions w er e l imit ed t o bas ic a dminis tr a tive s er vice s l ike r e venue a nd
l aw and or der . T hey hel ped to e st ablis h t he f r ame wor k of moder n le gal a nd
a dminis tr a tive pr ac tice s. They w er e highly apol iti cal i.e. pol iti cal ly
ne utr al. They s er ve d the c olonial mas te r s who w er e not polit ica lly
r e spons ibl e. The se bur eaucr a tic s tr uctur e s we r e inher i ted b y t he exc olonia l
c ountr ies w hen t he col onial r uler s lef t the m.
T her e i s a se cond la ye r of the bur eaucr a cie s i n thes e c ountr ie s w hic h
c onsi st s of t hose depar t ments a nd st r uctur es w hich we r e cr ea ted a f ter t he
a ttai nment of inde pendence . H er e a new civil s er vice wa s de velope d new in
pe r sonne l, goal s, de par tme nts and a ctivi tie s. This dr ew new r ecr ui ts , mos t
of w ho had pa r tici pate d in t he nati onal m oveme nts . They w er e the be ar er s
of t he new types of goa ls like economi c deve lopme nt, s ocia l and
e ducati onal advance ment etc . M os t of thes e new r ec r uits us uall y had a
m uc h cl ear er , mor e a r ticul ate polit ica l or ie ntat ion and a s ense of polit ica l
r e spons ibi lit y than di d the f or me r col onial civil se r vice . ( Ava st hi &
M ahe shw ar i ,2005:486)
T he bur ea ucr aci es in de veloping countr ie s whic h have not been unde r
c olonial r ule exhibit a s omew hat dif f er e nt pa tter n. A tr a diti onal
bur e aucr ac y exi st ed in t hem w hethe r it was r oyal as in the . M iddle E as ter n
c ountr ies or " oli gar chi cal r epubli can" a s i n mos t La tin A mer i can countr ie s.
T hey domina ted the pol itic al sc ene unti l the end of the Se cond Wor l d War .
S ome tr adi tional el ement s we r e mixe d w ith mor e modem ones whi ch w er e
bor r ow ed f r om some Eur ope an count r ies . The y usua lly uphe ld the i nter e st s
of t he r uli ng oliga r chies a nd imple ment ed r a ther li mit ed ec onomic and
s oci al obj ect ives . The impac t of gr ow ing mode r niza tion, inter na l
de mocr a tiz ati on and the develop ment of new soci al, politi cal and ec onomic
goa ls caus ed t hes e bur eauc r aci es to ext end the sc ope of the ir ac tivi tie s a nd
r e cr uit new per s onnel.
3.2a C h aract e ris t ics of n at ion al b u reau cr acies i n t h e d eve lop in g
c oun t ri es ;
1. The
bas ic pa tte r n of
admi nis tr at ion is
imi tat ive
r ather
than
indi genous ;
2. The bur eauc r aci es ar e de f ici ent i n ski lle d manpow er ne ces s ar y f or
deve lopme ntal pr ogr amm es ;
3. The se bur eauc r aci es empha si se or ient ations t hat a r e othe r than
pr oduct ion or ie nted i .e. the y wor k f or t he r ea liz ati on of goals other
tha n the a chie veme nt' of pr ogr am me obj ect ives ;
4. Wi des pr ead di sc r epanc y betw ee n f or m and r e ali ty;
5. O per at ional autonom y. Thes e f e atur e s c ombine and mi lit ate agains t
bur ea ucr at ic l egit ima cy, ef f i cie ncy and pol itic al
r es pons ive nes s.
89
6. S uch bur ea ucr ac ies te nd to be ve r y hier a r chic al a nd dominat ed by a
gr oup w hich i s c ultur a lly a nd
soc iall y unr epr e se ntive
popula tion a t la r ge.
of
the
H e s ugges ted s eve r al c ate gor ies of adm inis tr a tive types in the se countr i es :
T rad it i onal Au t ocr at ic ; Suc h as f ound in S audi A r abi a, M or occo, P ar a guay
et c. I t i s t r adit ional in it s s tyl e of r ule . The dom inant politi cal eli tes a r e
dr aw n f r om f a mil ies w ith m onar chi c or ar i st ocr at ic s ta tus , and ar e dependent
on ci vil a nd mil ita r y bur eauc r acy f or pol icy c hanges . P oliti cal eli tes ar e lit tle
com mit ted ( e xcept the oi l pr oduci ng countr i es ) to ec onomic pr ogr es s a nd
deve lopme nt.
B u reau cr at ic E l it e. S uch as in T hail and, P akis ta n, B r azi l, S udan, P er u,
I ndones ia etc . Tr adi tiona l el ite s ha ve bee n dis place d f r om ef f ecti ve pow er
al though the y r eta in s ome pr e se nce. P oli tic al pa r tic ipat ion by the people is
ver y l imi ted. P oli tic al pow er i s l ar gel y in the hands of civil and mi lit ar y
bur ea ucr ac y.
Pol y aren a C om pe t it ive ; s uch as in P hil ippine s, M al ays ia, C os ta R ica,
G r eec e et c. P olit ica l s tr uct ur es in the se countr i es r es emble thos e in Wes ter n
Eur ope and the Uni ted S ta tes s o f ar as popula r par tic ipat ion, f r e e ele cti ons,
int er es t- or i ente d par ti es and poli cy ma king aut hor ity gr a nted t o
r epr e se ntat ive gove r nment ins tit utions ar e conce r ned. The r e ar e occas iona l
'i nter r upti ons by mili tar y inter ve ntion, although t hat i s c lai med t o be
te mpor ar y. T her e i s a gr eat er s ocia l mobi lit y than i n many t r adit ional
s ocie tie s. T her e a r e s ever a l poli tic al e lit es whos e pow er bas e i s s pr ea d among
ur ban m iddle cla ss , la ndlor ds , mil ita r y of f ice r s, l abour le ader s and
pr of es s ional s. G over nm ent pol ici es ar e us ual ly pr agm ati c.
D om in ant - Part y Mob il izat i on ; Suc h as in A lger i a, B oli via, E gyp t Ta nzani a,
Tuni si a, M ali etc . Ther e is lit tle per mi ss ive nes s i n politi cs . The dominant
par t y may be the onl y lega l par t y whi ch as s ur es its pos ition by coer ci ve
te chnique s. T he gover nm ent f ol low s a cer t ain i deology a nd ther e ar e ma ss
dem onst r ati ons of l oya lt y to the gover nme nt the r uling e lite s ar e us uall y
young, ur ban, i ll- e ducat ed and s ec ular but of ten t hey ar e led by a char is ma tic
le ader . T her e i s a gr eat st r es s on a pr ogr amme of deve lopmen t and
nat ional is m.
O . Gl enn S tahl lis ts s ome f a ctor s w hich c ontinue to inf l uence the publ ic
adm inis tr a tions in m ost of the de veloping countr i es . Thes e a r e cult ur al
cons tr a ints , f or me r coloni al s ta tus , entr e nched e lit es , low pr es tige of
s peci ali st s, t he br ai n dr ain a nd the gove r nment as a mer e f igur e ( I t mea ns that
w her e t her e i s no ot her w ay of pr ovidi ng livel ihood, publ ic j obs be come a
mode of we lf ar e as si st ance , whe ther t he jobs ar e r eal ly nee ded or not) .
3.3 R ole of B ur eau cracy in De velop in g C oun t ri es
I t wa s m entione d- ea r lier that public bur eaucr a cy has com e to be the
domi nant st r uctur e in deve loping c ountr ies . I n t he abs ence of other s tr ong
i nst ituti ons, the r ol e of publi c bur eauc r acy ha s be en of cr uc ial impor t ance .
90
6. The mos t im por tant f uncti ons a r e dir e cte d tow ar ds nation building and
ec onomic gr owt h. " The i mpor tanc e of publ ic a dminis tr a tion in the
em er ging c ountr ie s of A f r ic a and A s ia goe s be yon d dir ec ting t he
or gani sa tiona l pr oce ss in e conomi c and s oci al f i elds . I t ha s t he
im mens e t as k of cr ea ting a nati onal uni ty and na tional per s onali ty
ca pable of sur m ounting t he ce ntr if uga l f or ce of tr iba l and r e gional
r iva lr ie s a nd on the ot her hand, i nst illi ng the f er ment of cha nge in
tr a diti onal s oci eti es . Di f f er enc es of r ace , ethni cit y, langua ge, r el igion,
r egi on and tr i be of te n thr ea ten t he unit y, st abil ity a nd pr ogr es s of ma ny
deve loping c ountr ie s. T her ef or e , it i s t he ta sk of publ ic bur e aucr ac ies
to e ithe r eli mina te or s at is f act or ily e nmes h the sub- c ultur a l dif f e r ences .
Thi s t as k may pr ove to be m or e dif f i cult than e conomic devel opment ,
7. A nother a r ea i n whi ch publi c bur ea ucr ac ies in de veloping countr ie s
ma y play a cr it ica l r ole , is the e st abli shm ent of de mocr ac y. M os t of
the se countr i es lac k a genui ne com mit ment to democ r ati c val ues and
pr oce ss des pit e the lip s er vi ce t hey pay t o them. I n some countr i es like
I ndia . I sr ael a nd Me xico, de mocr a cy r anks w ith e conomi c deve lopment
as a m ajor goa l. The is sue is impor t ant be caus e bur e aucr a cy is
inhe r entl y undemoc r ati c and a st r ong bur eauc r acy m ay be a thr eat to
dem ocr ac y. ( For f ul ler di sc uss ion of t his topic , se e the chapte r on
bur ea ucr ac y) .
8. Ei se nst adt obs er ve s t hat bur e aucr a cie s i n devel oping count r ies helpe d
to m aint ain t he f r am ew or k of a unif i ed poli ty as w ell as the c apaci ty to
abs or b var i ed dem ands and to r e gulat e- the m ef f e ctiv ely. N ot onl y we r e
the y impor t ant i nst r ument s f or uni f ica tion a nd cent r ali sa tion, but they
ena bled t he r ule r s t o impl eme nt cont inuous polic y. I n additi on, the y
al so s er ve d as impor t ant i nst r ument s f or m obili zat ion of r es our ce sta xes , man- pow er a nd polit ica l s uppor t.
9. I n ma ny of thes e c ountr ie s bur e aucr a cy per f or m s t he impor tant
f unct ion of poli tic al s oci ali sa tion. I n m any ca se s, i n additi on to be ing
adm inis tr a tive ar m, i t cons ti tute s i ts elf a s a n ef f ec tive execut ive or par t
of it . I t pla ys a par t i n se tti ng up, dete r mining and impl eme nting
poli tic al goa ls , and es ta blis hing m ajor pol icy di r ecti ves . I n many
deve loping c ountr ie s, a par t f r om the he ad of the exec utive, it is the
only body c apabl e of f or mul ati ng cle ar poli tica l or a dminis tr a tive
obje cti ves .
10. B ur ea ucr ac y is one of the mai n channe ls of polit ical s tr uggle in w hich
dif f e r ent
i nter e st s
are
r egul ate d
and aggr e gated.
11. B ur ea ucr ac y in mos t of t hes e count r ies is al so t he maj or ins tr ume nt of
s ocia l cha nge. I t m aint ains s er vic e or ie ntat ion to bot h the r ul er s and
the maj or st r ata of soc iet y.
S el f As s es sm e nt E xe rcis e 2; Explai n the r ole of t he B ur eauc r acy in
D eve loping c ountr ies .
3.4 Bureaucracy in Developed Countries
I r a Sha r kans ky r ef er s to t hr ee c har act er is ti cs of bur eauc r aci es in mor e
de veloped countr ie s:
91
I . B ur ea ucr ac ies ar e lar ge , having num er ous sub- uni ts wi th s peci alis ed
em ployees w hic h r ef le ct t as k spe cia lis at ion and w ide r ange of
gover nm enta l ac tivi tie s.
I I . B ur ea ucr ac y acc epts dir e cti ons f r om other l egit imat e br a nc hes of
gover nm ent.
I I I . B ur ea ucr ac y is cons ider e d to be pr of e ss iona l a s ign of s pec ial is ation
am ong bur eauc r ats .
F er r el H eady outl ines the f ollow ing c har ac ter i st ics of bur eauc r acy in
the se countr i es .
1. The Publ ic S er vi ce i s l ar ge- s ca le, c omple x and ins tr um enta l i.e . its
mi ss ion i s unde r st ood to be t hat of c ar r ying out the pol icie s of the
poli tic al de cis ion m aking.
2. The bur eauc r acy e xhibit s a se nse of pr of es si onali zat ion in the s ens e of
ide ntif i cat ion w ith t he publi c s er vic e as a pr of e ss ion, a nd in the se ns e
of bel onging to a nar r ow f iel d of pr of es si onal or t echni cal
s peci ali sa tion w it hin the se r vice .
3. The bur eauc r acy i s hi ghly s peci ali se d and r ef l ects i n its r anks mos t of
the pr of es si onal a nd occupa tiona l ca tegor i es f ound in the soc iet y.
4. The r ole of bur e aucr a cy in t he poli tic al pr oc es s i s f a ir ly c lear and the
li ne of dem ar ca tion be tw een t he bur ea ucr ac y and other politi cal
ins ti tuti ons i s ge ner al ly def i nite and ac cept ed. This i s due to the f act
tha t the polit ica l s yst em a s a whol e in r e lati vel y st able and mat ur e and
the bur eauc r acy i s m or e f ull y devel oped.
5. The bur eauc r acy i s s ubje ct t o ef f ec tive
polic y contr ol
by
othe r f uncti onall y spe cif i c poli tic al i nst itut ions.
S el f As s es sm e nt E xer cis e 3; I dentif y and expla in t he char a cte r is tic s of
B ur e aucr a cy in de veloped countr ie s .
T he bur ea ucr aci es in mor e devel oped count r ies ar e , ther e f or e, r ega r ded as
m or e le gitim ate , ef f i cient and pol itic all y r es pons ive. The y f ulf il a gr ea t
numbe r and va r iet y of f unctions . C ons eque ntly t he ir pene tr at ion of s ocie ty
i s mor e ext ens ive. T hey ar e mor e i mper s onal in thei r inte r act ions wi th
c lient s. Their r ecr uit ment patt er ns ar e achie veme nt or ie nted.
T he cha nging r ole of bur eaucr a cy i n developm ent admini st r ati on is
c har act er is ed in s uch phr as es as 'deve lopme nt bur ea ucr ac y' , and nonW eber ia n model of bur ea ucr ac y' . What is inte nded is to m ake t he
gove r nmenta l or ga nis ations , s tr uc tur all y and be haviour al ly, gea r ed to t he
t as k of devel opment.
3.5 changes to
fit bureaucracy into developmental tasks
1. S tr uct ur all y ther e shoul d be de- e mphas iz ing of hie r ar chy t o get r i d of
the convent ional or ganis at ional pyr amid whi ch le ads to cent r ali sa tion
and i nter pe r sona l conf l ict s.
2. The r e is nee d to r ede si gn or ganis at ions to ena ble c ooper ati ve dec is ionma king and pr om ote c olla bor ati ve pr oble m- s olving.
92
3. A uthor it y shoul d be dec entr a lis ed t o enabl e the f ield units to t ake
dec is ions on the s pot a s f a r as poss ibl e, w ithout wa iting indef ini tel y f or
ce ntr al cle ar anc e.
4. C omm unica tion or f r e e f low of inf or m ati on unhinder e d by the s ta tus -
le vels in t he or gani sa tion s hould e xis t f or s peedy a nd ef f ect ive
dec is ion- ma king.
5. P er s onnel s tr uc tur e of bur e aucr a cy s hould be ba se d on mer i t, and t hat
s hould al so be the c r ite r ion f or w or k eval uati on and pr omoti on in t he
or gani sa tion.
6. B ur ea ucr ac y mus t s ecur e the c ooper at ion and pa r tic ipati on of the
peopl e in de velopm ent w or k.
7. S upr ema cy of the polit ici an mus t be acc epte d and bur ea uc r acy must
w or k alongs ide him a s a co- par t ner in t he deve lopment ente r pr is e.
8. B eha viour al change s a r e nee ded to m ake t he bur eauc r acy
9. C hange - or ient ed, r es ult - or ient ed and pe ople- or i ente d
10. P r of es s ional m obili ty s hould be e ncour age d.
4.0 C ON CL U T I ON S
The r e ar e
cons ider a ble di f f er enc es
in bur eauc r ati c f or ms
and
pr oce dur es among t he mor e devel oped count r ies . The se dif f er enc es r ef le ct
the ir pec ulia r his tor ic al e xper ie nces . F or examp le, i n Fr a nce a nd Ge r many
bur ea ucr ac y, par ti cula r ly at the hi gher le vels have achie ved a di st inct s tatus ,
f r om ot her occ upati onal gr oups in s oci ety. W her ea s i n B r itai n and U .S .A. i t is
not s o. H owe ver , mos t of t he deve loping c ountr ies f a ce t he pr oble m of
inc oher enc e in r e lat ions betw ee n numer ous s er vic e and r egul ator y
age ncie s. T he pr oble m is
cr e ate d by the e nor mous number
of
f unct ional
and te r r itor i al a uthor it ies
w hich de si gn and impl eme nt
the ir ow n pr ogr amm es at di f f er ent leve ls as we ll a s i mplem ent pr ogr amme s
des igne d and par t ly due t o the c olonia l inhe r ited sys tem of admi nis tr at ion.
To tr ans f or m the soc iet y f r om it s r e lat ivel y under - deve loped s oci al, e conomic
and pol iti cal condit ions to a w el l deve loped pol ity, t he tr ans f or ma tion must
be a planne d one in w hic h the gove r nment ( bur eaucr a cy) has to be the
pr inc ipal planne r , ener gi zer , pr om oter a nd dir ec tor of ac cele r ate d
deve lopme nt ef f or t . The gove r nment al or ga ns ha ve to pr ovi de inc entive s f or
s ocia l cha nge and a ls o r emove se r ious bottl enecks a nd cor r ect imba lanc es
w hich a f f ect the s ys tem .
A dmini st r ati on's r ole a s a n agent of ins titut ional , soc ial and ec onomic change
has to be r eal is ed as the devel opment pr oces s has to pus h ahea d in a cl ima te
of unce r tai nty, and a t ti mes f lui d polit ica l and s oci al c lima te.
5.0 S um m ary
We have be en abl e to di sc uss in t his unit t he B ur eauc r acy and devel opment .
The bur eauc r acy know n f or r ed- t apis m, di vis ion of w or k, hier ar c hica l
ar r a ngeme nt of of f ic es , f or mal is m, adhe r ents of r ight s t o of f ice s e tc., is
cons ide r ed ce ntr al in the achi eveme nt of de velopm ent i n the deve loping
count r ies , thr ough t he inj ect ion of s peedy c hange t o br ing about the ne eded
s ocio- e conomi c tr a nsf or m ati on.
93
I t’ s ca paci ty f or ada ptat ion to c hange i s ve r y cr it ica l as exem plif i ed by the
nat ur e of B ur ea ucr ac y in deve lopme nt of deve loped c ountr ies . I t’ s r ole in the
deve lopme nt adm inis tr a tion ha s be en ques ti oned as mos t s tudi es of public
adm inis tr a tion i n devel oping count r ies have st r es se d the vi ew point t hat t he
band of of f i cia ls who ha ve bee n br ought up and t r ained in the colonia l
adm inis tr a tive cult ur e, inva ded to t he We ber ia n char a cter i st ics of hie r ar chy,
s tat us a nd r igidi ty in t he adhe r ence of r ules and c oncer ned mainl y w ith the
enf or c eme nt of la w a nd or der w hich a t ti mes thr e aten devel opm ent.
6.0 T u t or Mar ke d A s si gnm ent ;
- W hat a r e the conditi ons that exis t t o enhance the B ur e aucr a cy to a chie ve
i t’ s devel opmenta l r ol e in de veloping countr ie s?
- I de ntif y a nd explai n the char ac ter i st ics of the B ur eauc r acy i n De velope d
c ountr ies .
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A nder s on, Ja mes E, P ublic Poli cy- M ak ing, London, T homas N els on & S ons
Lt d, 1975.
A ppI eby, P aul H , Pol icy and Adm inis tr ati on, Al abam a U niver s it y of Al abam a
P r es s , 1957.
A r or a, R am es h ( ed) Adm ini st rat ive The ory , Ne w D el hi, U PA , 1984. . —, ( ed)
Pe rs pec tiv es in Adm ini st rat ive The ory , Ne w D el hi, A ss oci ate d
P ublis her s , 1979
A vas thi A and A r or a, R a mes h K ( eds ) Bur eaucr acy and De vel opme nt: I ndian
Pe rs pec tiv es , Ne w D el hi, A ss oci ate d Publ is hing H ouse , 1978.
A sa thi A ,S Ma hes hwa r i( 2005) ,Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation .28 th edit ion, O f f se t
pr int er s ,Agr a .p:485- 490) .
C r ozi er , M icha el, ( 1964) t he Bur eauc rat ic P henom enon, C hic ago, U niver s it y
of C hic ago P r es s.
B hai tac har ya, M ohit , ( 1979) Bur eaucr acy and De vel opme nt Adm ini st rat ion,
N ew De lhi, U ppal Publ is hing H ouse .
C ai den, G er al d E, ( 1971) D ynam ics of P ublic Adm inis tr ati on: Gui deline s to
C ur re nt T rans for m ations in T heor y and P rac tic e, N ew Yor k, H olt ,
R ine har t a nd Wins ton I nc .
94
UNIT 8
THE STRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES OF THE BUREAUCRACY
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 MERIT O F BU R EA U C R A CY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2. M AL AD I ES O F BU R EA U C R AC Y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.3 WA Y S O F MA K I NG TH E B U R EA U C R AC Y O VE R C OM E
C H AL LEN G ES TO B EC O ME MO R E E FF I C I E NT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .91
95
Unit 3 -The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Bureaucracy
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The bureaucracy as an instrument of change in the society has been discussed as
indispensible in the administration of government services. It has a lot of strengths and
weaknesses. However we will in this unit identify and discuss these strengths, identify and
discuss these weaknesses and altogether suggest ways of solving these problems.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to
-Identify and explain the strengths of the public Bureaucracy
-Identify and explain the weaknesses of the Bureaucracy
-Suggest ways of overcoming these weaknesses
3.0 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. M E RI T OF B UR E A UC R AC Y
B ur e aucr a cy s hould not be use d as ter m of abus e or condem nati on per s e.
I t ’ s c ontr ibuti on to gove r nmenta l a dminis tr a tion is not ins ignif i cant . I n
f a ct, B ur e aucr a cy has made admi nis tr at ion
- m or e ef f i cie nt,
- m or e r at ional,
- pr omot es impa r tia l t r eat ment
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- a nd mor e c onsi st ent i n the de liver y of se r vices tha n wa s t he ca se in ea r lie r
t imes .
A s alr e ady indi cate d ear l ier in this s ect ion, bur ea ucr ac y is indis pens abl e.
T hes e r es ea r ches in s ocia l ps ychology and the wor king of dif f er ent
bur e aucr at ic sys tem s have r e sul ted in f ur ther r ef i neme nt of the ear l ier
a nalys is of bur ea ucr ati c or ga nizat ion. I n the w or ds of H er ber t M or r is on,
“ B ur eauc r acy i s t he pr ice of par li ame ntar y democr a cy”.
B ot h the good a nd the ba d as pect of bur eaucr a cy w er e w el l br ought out by
L or d Mor l ey, the se cr eta r y of s tate of I ndia in his cla ss ic al de sc r ipti on of
t he nat ur e of the I ndia a dminis tr a tion: ‘ O ur admini st r ati on woul d be a
gr e at de al mor e popula r if it we r e a t r if le les s ef f ici ent a nd a tr i f le m or e
e las tic . O ur danger i s t he cr ea tion of a pur e bur ea ucr ac y, compe tent ,
honour a ble, f a ithf ul, indus tr ious , but r a ther me chani cal , r athe r lif e les s ,
pe r haps r ather soul les s .’ I n f ine, bur e aucr ac y is not in its elf a thing; in
f a ct, s ome ele ments of i t ar e indis pens able .
W hat i s ne eded i s t o guar d agai nst it’ s c har act er is ti cs , def ec ts and to
s ubje ct i t to a continuous s tr e am of i nst r uctive and ef f ecti ve cr i tic is m.
B ur e aucr a cy, in br i ef , has to be kept unde r contr ol. Some one has apt ly
r e mar ked that bur eaucr a cy i s l ike f ir e – inval uable as a s er vant , r uinous
w hen i t bec omes the mas ter . How ever , it has the f ollow ing mer it s; 1- R e utinis at ion of w or k and pr oc edur es is an i mpor tant as pect of
bur e aucr ac y bec aus e it leads to spec ial is ati on.
2- M os t bur ea ucr ati c of f i ces involve the expect ati on of lif e long te nur e. Thi s
s ec ur ity of t enur e e nsur e s de voted pe r f or mance of of f ici al dut ies w ithout
r e gar d to e xtr aneous pr e ss ur es .
3- T he chi ef mer i t of bur e aucr ac y is it’ s t echnic al ef f f ienc y wi th pr em ium
pl aced on pr ecis ion, spe ed, exper t contr ol , conti nuity, di sc r eti on and
opt imal r et ur n on inputs .
4- T he s tr uct ur e of the bur eaucr a cy i s one whic h appr oac hes the c omple te
e limi nati on of per s onal is ed r el ations hips a nd non- r ationa l cons ide r ati ons
i .e. hos til ity, a nxiet y, af f ect ual involve ment to enabl e r oom f or f or m ali se d
r e lati onshi ps.
5- T he bur ea ucr ac y entai ls s epar at ion of indi vidual s f r om the i nst r ument s of
pr oduc tion w hic h comple tel y avoi ds domi nati on, mis us e and a buse of
of f i ce.
6- D is ci pline in the bur eaucr a cy e ntail s devotion t o ones dutie s, t her eby
e ncour aging methodi cal per f or ma nce of r outine acti viti es wi th a de tai led
pa tter n of r equir ed behaviour .
7- T he s tr ic t r ec ognition of the l imit s of author it y and li ter a l adhe r ence to
r ul es , r ati onall y deter mined pr acti ces expl ici tly des igned f or the f ulf il ment
of f unc tions enc our ages pow er to be exer ci se d w ithin agr eea ble l imi ts .
Self Assessment Exercise 1;
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- l is t and e xplain the me r its of t he bur eauc r acy
3.2. MA L A DI E S OF B U R E AU C RA C Y ( AV AS T HI MA HE S HW)
M any a nd var ied have be en the cr iti cis ms le vell ed aga ins t bur ea ucr ac y.
O ne of t he s tr onges t c r itic s of bur eaucr a cy w as R ams ay M uir , w ho in hi s
book, how B r it ain i s gove r ned has dr aw n a gr a phi c pic tur e of t he dange r s
of bur e aucr ac y. I n s hor t, in our s yst em of gover nment , the powe r of
bur e aucr ac y is enor mous l y st r ong, whe ther i n admini st r ati on, in
l egis lat ion, or i n f inance . U nder the cloak of democr a cy, it has thr ive n and
gr ow n unti l, li ke F r ankens te in’ s monst er , i t s ometi mes s ee ms l ikel y to
de vour it’ s cr e ator , i t has bec ome t he mos t vi tal and potent ele ment in our
s yst em of gover nment , al though in t he eyes of t he law , it wi elds s car c ely
a ny f or mal author it y.
T her e a r e othe r cr iti cs of bur eauc r acy too. Thus , Lor d H ew ar t c har ac ter i zes
t he pow er and a uthor it y of B ur eaucr a cy as new D es potis m. H ugh
K ee nleys ide, a ver y di st inguis hed na tional and int er nat ional civi l s er vant
of C a nada, t hus por t r ayed t he pict ur e of a typica l bur ea ucr at : “ A ma n,
r a ther ne atl y dr es se d, who c omes to hi s of f i ce s omew her e betw ee n 9 and
10.30 i n the mor ni ng, the hour of ar r ival being ni cel y adjus te d to indi cat e
hi s pa r ticul ar pl ace in the of f icia l hi er ar ch y and the s iz e of his s ala r y; w ho
s pends his day i n wr i ting l ette r s that become pr ogr es si vely m or e
i ncompr ehe nsi ble and mor e dr ained of the s ap of huma n natur e as pr act ice
pr oduc es per f ect ion; who w il l pas s on ever y t r ans f er able deci si on to
s omeone el se , and w ill compos e e ndles s minute s that w il l r ea ch no f ina l
c onclus ion; who w il l pos tpone e ver y deci si on in the hope tha t
c ir cum st ances w il l cha nge, or that cor r es pondent s, we ar ied b y f r us tr a tion
a nd dela y, wi ll de si st f r om tr oubl ing; w ho w hen moved by some sudde n
r e sol ution or unus ual cir cu mst ance s to act ion or de cis ion w ill inevi tabl y
di sc over tha t the per tine nt f i le ha s be en mis la id and t her eupon w it h a s igh
of r e lief wi ll r e sume his cus toma r y r epos e; who w il l be s ubse r vient to his
s uper i or s, i ntoler a nt t o thos e bel ow hi m, and w hen oppor tuni ty of f er s , w ill
de monst r ate w hat S hake spe ar e de sc r ibed as ‘ the ins olenc e of of f ic e’ ; w ho
w il l look upon a ll ot her ci vil s er va nts as da nger ous r ival s, a nd upon
m embe r s of t he publi c as depl or able char ac ter s w hose compl aint s a nd
a r gument only his unus ual e ndowme nt of t oler anc e e nables him to endur e ;
w ho has adopt ed as his guide the r ul e of not too m uch ze al; who a f ter
t aking t wo hour s f or lunc h wi ll s pend t he af te r noon in pr epa r ing var i ous
m inor s tr at egies t o ens ur e tha t none of his s ubor dinat es lea ve the ir cubi cle s
be f or e 5 0’ cl ock and t hat ha s hi mse lf i s a ble to de par t be f or e the cloc k
c eas es to s tr i ke; w ho w ill then pr oc eed home wa r d, s topping but onc e on the
w ay t o pur chas e a sma ll contai ner of as pir i n; and who, home at las t, w ill
s ee k compens at ion f or t he f util it y of his day by hect or ing his chi ldr en a nd
c ar ping ove r the me als pr ovi ded by his w if e. T he f ollow ing a r e s ome of t he
m ain c r itic is ms le velle d agai nst it.
U n res p ons ive ne ss t o p opu lar de m and s and d es ire s. B ur e aucr a cy, as
s how n ear l ier , t ends to r ega r d its elf as the s elf - appointe d guar dia n and
i nter pr et er of publ ic i nter es t. I t is the public good t hat i s i mpor ta nt, not t he
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publ ic opi nion. The char ge, howe ver , tends to be exagge r ate d. Ac cor ding
t o Pf f i f f ner and P r es thus , B ur ea ucr ac y is ‘ r eluct ant but r es pons ive … in
m atte r s involving the gr e at obj ecti ves of public polic y in thi s c entur y. I n
bot h the U nit ed S tat es and B r it ain t he s ocial pr ogr amm es of the N ew D eal
a nd the A tt lee gover nment w er e c ar r ied thr ough. N ear er hom e, our ow n
c ivil se r vice has pr oved it’ s gr e at r e si lienc e w ith the big c hangeove r af te r
i ndependenc e.
R ed t ap e or u n du e f or m alis m . R ed t ape ha s be en def i ned as ‘ punct ilious
e xacti tude in the obse r vance of r egulat ions . I t is , unf or tuna tel y, tr ue t hat
bur e aucr ac y per ha ps put s t oo much e mphas is on ‘ pr ocedur e thr ough pr oper
c hannel’ and pr ec edents . I t must be c onceded, how eve r , that som e of the
t ape i s a bsol utel y neces s ar y f or pr ovi ding the e ss ent ial sa f ety a nd contr ol
de vices . G over nme nt by l aw r equir es a st r ict conf or mit y to es ta blis hed
pr oc edur es and l egal r egulat ions .
B u re auc racy i s s elf - pe rp et u at in g. We a r e all f ami lia r now wi th
P ar ki nson’ s La w of t he R is ing pyr am id of bur e aucr at s. Pa r kins on’ s
r e se ar che s poi nts to an a ver age incr ea se of 5.75 per ce nt per ye ar . H e give s,
by w ay of i llus tr at ion, t he s tat is tics of t he coloni al of f i ce.
Y ear
S taf f
Yea r
S taf f
1935 372 1947 1,139
1949 450 1954 1,661
1943 817
T hus, t her e ha s be en a c onst ant i ncr eas e in the sta f f of the c olonia l of f ic e
de spi te t he f ac t tha t the wor k of t he of f ice has been s te adil y decr e as ing as
one colony a f ter a nother i s gr a nted i ndependenc e. P ar kins on expl ains thi s
phe nomenon due to the wor k of t he la w of f ic ial s, m uch w or k is cr ea ted.
S el f –aggran di zem e nt : T he pow er - hungr y bur ea ucr ats , i t is s aid, ha ve no
i nher ent lus t f or pow er . The per mane nt c ivil se r vice is becomi ng mor e a nd
m or e impa tie nt of t he s ham f a çade of democr a cy behi nd whi ch it wor ks ,
a nd is show ing pr ogr e ss ive ly gr ea ter s kill in us ing t he f or ms of P ar lia ment
a nd the c onvenient doct r ine of mi nis ter i al r es pons ibi lit y as a cove r f or the
s te ady inc r eas e of t he pow er of the De par tme nt.
D ep art m e nt al is m or em p ir e- b ui ld in g. B ur eauc r acy e ncour ages t he evil of
s pli tting up the w or k of gover nme nt i nto a numbe r of is olat ed and s el f de pendent se ctions , e ach pur s uing i t’ s own ne eds wit hout any a dequat e
c or r elat ion w it h the r e st . Ther e develops a tendenc y on the pa r t of the se
uni ts to cons ide r thems el ves as indepe ndent a nd is olat ed unit s. T hey te nd
t o f or get t hat t hey ar e but par t s of a bigger w hole a nd r egar d t heir ow n
l ittl e ki ngdom as ends in t hems elve s.
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B ur e aucr a cy love s t r aditi on and s ta nds c ons er va tion. Ac cor ding to
B e r tr and R us s el, bur e aucr ac y ever yw her e tends to develop “ a nega tive
ps ycholog y per pet uall y pr one to pr ohi bitions .
I n br i ef s , mala dies f r om whi ch a bur e aucr ac y can suf f er a r e: a r r ogance ,
s el f - compla cenc y, obs es si on wi th r ules a nd r out ines r es ult ing in i gnor ing
t he human si de of thi ngs, pa r ochial att itude , r igidi ty in out look, and
i ndif f er enc e t o democr a tic ins tit utions a nd pr oces s .
F ur the r mor e. T he bur ea ucr ac y has some other we aknes s es a s a nalys ed b y
P oli naidu ( 2005) t o incl ude;
1) T he s ear c h f or r ationa lit y lea ds to s tandar di sa tion, continui ty and
pr e dicta bili ty i n its oper a tions . The se in tur n l ead t o unr e spons ive nes s
a nd sl ow a doption t o r apid c hange.
2) H ie r ar chic al St r uctur e of bur eaucr a tic or ganis at ions dis counts the
pa r tici pator y demands of mode r n democ r ati c s ocie ty.
3) F r am e w or k of law make s inf lexi bili ty a nd cons er vati s m
4) B ur e aucr a tic value sys tem der ive s f r om a s impl is tic deper s onal is ed and
m echani cal conc eption of the na tur e of ma n and his nee ds a s w el l as
f r om the not ion of pow er as s ynon ym ous wi th coe r cion i nst ead of
pe r vas ion.
5) D ete r mine d r ules and pr oc edur es of f er pr e dict abil ity, but can be
f r us tr at ing to t hose who a r e am biti ous a nd r es ult or i ente d.
Self Assessment Exercise 2; Wha t ar e the l imit ati ons of the publ ic
bur e aucr ac y?
3.3 Ways of Making the Bureaucracy overcome challenges and
to become more efficient.
T her e a r e s ever a l w ays in w hich t he bur eauc r acy c an bec ome m or e ef f i cie nt
a nd over come al l it s c halle nges ; a nd thes e w ays incl ude;
1- S pee dy imple ment ati on and e xecuti on of polic ies bac ked by ti me bound
r ul es and r egul ations , a nd judic ial pr ocedur es f or det er mi ning poli cy. The
r e sul t w ill be cont inuous sa ving of ti me a nd money as aga ins t r ed- t ape
a ppr oach.
2- P r oce dur al pr ot ecti on and t he encour a geme nt of par t ici pator y
m anage ment, whe r e all indivi duals c an f eel as s ur ed that they a r e par t of
t he maki ng or s ucces s es of the or ganis ati on and thus put i n thei r bes t to
f a cili tat e s pee dy and ti mely delive r y of s er vice s
3- T he im muniza tion of the B ur e aus f r om thr ea t t o their s ur viva l w hich i n
i ts elf c an be a demer i t a nd a mer i t. I mm unis ati on gives the of f ice holder
c er tai n degr e e of s ecur it y to pur s ue a nd atta in or gani sa tiona l goal s w it h the
ne eded z eal and comm itm ent.
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4- E ncour age ment of innovati on, w hich i s c hange- or i ented and in li ne w ith
t he cur r e nt nee d f or or ganis ati ons who a r e r ead y to mee t w ith t he cha nges
t hat ha ppen dai ly in t he s ociet y. This e nables the bur eau t o enjoy
r e spons ibi lit y f or soc ial f unctions w hic h ar e nor ma lly expanded by s oci eta l
ne ed.
5- E ncour age the publ ic di sc uss ion of bur e aucr at ic pol ici es as a pana cea to
pr omot e a ccounta bili ty a nd tr ans par enc y in the act ions of gover nme nt. Thi s
a ppr oach ma kes vis ibl e to t he public w hat w as pr evious ly di m and obs cur e .
Self Assessment exercise 3;
M ake sugge st ions on the w ays in w hic h the publi c bur ea ucr ac y pr oblem s
c an be s olve d.
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The bureaucracy is in no doubt an organised form of administration with certain
characteristics such as the formalisation of relationships, a system of rules, authority and
hierarchy. This hierarchical arrangement of offices encourages formalisation of routine
activities, specialisation and precision.
The bureaucracy though the most practiced form of organisation has its own limitations.
For example, a system of determined rules and procedures which might offer predictability
can also frustrate those who are ambitious and result oriented. On the other hand, the strict
adherence to procedures also exaggerates routine activities leading to time wastage and
delays.
However the bureaucratic problems can be handled by encouraging innovations, participatory
management and the little allowance for flexibility for the bureaus.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have been able to identify in this chapter the merits of the bureaucracy. These include
formalisation of procedures, which helps to cope wastages; routinisation of work which
lead to specialisation among others.
The unit also identified the limitations of the bureaucracy, particularly strict adherence to
rules and procedures which can lead to frustration to those who are ambitious and result
oriented.
6.0 Tutor Marked Assignment;
-Identify and explain five limitations of the public bureaucracy
-Identify and explain five merits of the bureaucracy.
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rumki Basu,(2005),Public Adminstration;Concepts and Theories. Sterling Publishers, New
Delhi:p 65-70
101
M ohit B ha tta char ya( 1979) ;Bur eauc rac y and D eve lopm ent A dmi nis tr ation;
U ppal P ubli shi ng Hous e, N ew D elhi ,p. 2.
V .A. P aj Pa nandike r and S .S. K s hir s ngar ( 1978) ,Bur eauc rac y and
D eve lopm ent. A dmi nis tr ation; C e ntr e f or P oli cy R es ea r ch, N ew De lhi; p. 13.
I r a S har ka nsky( 1978) P ublic Adm inis tr ati on— P olic y- M aki ng in G over nm ent.
Age ncie s; R a nd Mc Na lly C ol lege Publ is hing C o. C hic ago;p. 29- 30.
U N IT 9:
Public Administration (Bureaucracy) and the People
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 TH E C O N C EP T O F P E OP LE’ S P A R TI C I P AT I ON I N A D MI N I S TR A TI
.O. .N. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.2 M EA NS O F C I T I ZEN P A R TI C I P AT I ON . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.3. P R OB LEM S OF P EO PL E’ S PA R TI C I P A TI O N I N D EV ELO P I NG
C O UN TR I E S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
Unit 9 -Public Administration (Bureaucracy) and the People
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The gr owi ng use of cons ulta tive mac hiner y i n advanci ng the voice of the
peopl e is cor e as a pil lar of de mocr a cy and good gove r nance. This met hod is
me ant t o ens ur e tha t var i ous vi ew points have been t aken i nto cons ider a tion
bef or e r eac hing the deci si on.
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Thi s w il l al so he lp expl ain t he dec is ion ta ken by the admini st r ati on to t he
non- of f ic ial or other w is e t he ci tiz ens . The m ethod e ncour ages the people to
par t ici pate in el ect ing the ir r epr e se ntat ives by ar t icula ting their demands
thr ough t hes e r epr e se ntat ives to e nsur e that polic ies mad e ar e in thei r bes t
int er es t. T his met hod of par ti cipa tion i s not wi thout i ts inher ent li mita tions
li ke del ay in de cis ions and ope r ationa l i nadequac ies . The se ar e t he ma in tr us t
of thi s uni t on peopl e’ s par ti cipa tion.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;-Explain the main argument for people’s participation in administration
-Discuss the ways in which the citizens can participate in the Administration of their country
-Explain some of the problems confronting the participation of people in the administration
of their country.
3.0 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1T h e C onc ep t of Peop le ’ s P art ic ip at ion in Ad m in is t rat i on
The need a nd des ir abi lit y of mas s par ti cipa tion i n the pol itic al pr oces s es of
s ocie ty has bee n wi dely pr oc lai med, t ime and aga in, by dif f er e nt w r ite r s and
phil osophe r s, a s di ver gent in the ir vie ws as A r tis totl e a nd Ma r x. The e ntir e
the or y and pr ac tic e of dem ocr at ic pol iti cs r es ts on the w or kabil ity of the
noti on of an ac tive cit ize n involve ment in the holding a nd sha r ing of pow er
and r e spons ibi lit ies of gover nm ent a nd public of f ice . The c oncept of public
par t ici pati on wa s f i r st oper at ional in anc ient Gr e ece whe r e democ r ac y as a
f or m of gove r nment or igina ted. I n t he dir e ct de mocr a cies of a ncie nt G r eece
al l im por tant deci si ons w er e take n by popular a ss em blies a nd the ci tiz ens
w er e a cti ve par t ici pants in t he af f a ir s of st ate . Si nce t hen the meani ng and
cont ent of de mocr a cy has both w ide ned and na r r owe d wi th the changing
nat ur e and r ol e of s tat e. The connota tion of de mocr ac y has now wi dened to
inc lude t he poli tic al, s oci al a nd economi c c ontent as we ll.
Li ber ty and equal ity a r e now the t wi n goals of a de mocr at ic st ate. I ncr eas e i n
the si ze a nd populat ion of mode r n st ate s ha s m ade t he oper at ion of dir e ct
dem ocr ac ies im poss ibl e. M oder n dem ocr ac ies now oper at e on the pr incipl e
of indi r ect public par ti cipa tion t hr ough r epr es ent ati ve ins tit utions .
I n the moder n e r a of the ‘ Adm inis tr a tive St ate ’ many w r it er s have voi ced
the ir conc er n over t he pr oble m of r es pons ivene ss of the admini st r ati ve s tat e
to t he nor ms of dem ocr at ic pr oc edur es . To s af e guar d indi vidual r ights and
li ber ti es agai nst bur eauc r ati c or ar bi tr ar y a buse an inc r eas e i n pe ople’ s
vigi lanc e and pa r tic ipat ion in pol itic s is neces s ar y. M oder n s ta tes s hould
s how “ conce r n f or indivi dual pe ople i n the c r iter i a us ed i n making decis ions ;
as an e f f or t to a ss ign e ach pe r son ne eds equal we ight i n polic y delibe r ati ons
and a s a n ef f or t t o make as br oad as f ea si ble t he oppor tuni ties f or peopl e to
par t ici pate in the deci si ons t hat a f f ect them. ”
P olit ica l s cie ntis ts ar e unanim ousl y agr ee d on the f a ct t hat t he mai n util ity of
ext ens ive publ ic pa r tic ipat ion in pol itic s is to ens ur e t hat t he ves ted inter e st s
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of the pr ivil eged do not pr evai l over t he int er es ts of the major i ty. T o
s af egua r d agai nst suc h poss ibi lit ies , ade quate meas ur es of publi c
ac counta bili ty and ve ntil ati on of public gr ievanc es s hould exis t bes ides
ave nues of cit ize n par ti cipa tion i n polit ics .
R api d soc io- ec onomic devel opment is one of the key goals of mos t
gover nm ents , s peci all y devel oping count r ies w her e t he admi nis tr at ion is
invol ved in t he ec onomy in va r ious wa ys . T he gover nme nt t r ies to a chieve its
s ocioe conomi c obje cti ves thr ough the ins tr ume nt of publi c bur eauc r acy,
w hich be come s one of the c hief a gents of s ociet al change and tr ans f or ma tion
in t hes e s ocie tie s. T he ma in pr oble m of adm inis tr a tion i n developi ng
s ocie tie s i s t o r econc ile an aut hor ita r ian c olonial admi nis tr at ive legac y bas ed
on a not ion of pas s ive pol iti cal par ti cipat ion t o the ne eds and dema nds of a
goal - or ient ed adm inis tr a tion w hic h needs ac tive public cooper at ion and
s uppor t to f ul f ill mai n tar ge ts of devel opment al pl ans and pr ogr amm es of the
gover nm ent. W ithout suc h a s uppor t, eve n a w ell - concei ved pl an of
deve lopme nt is li kely t o f ail . De velopm ent a dmini st r ati on is admi nist r at ion
f or the soc ioec onomic devel opment of the pe ople, by t he people and f or the
peopl e. The ir ac tive cooper a tion a nd par ti cipat ion i n the pla nning and
im plem enta tion pr oc es s i s vi tal f or it’ s s ucce ss .
C it ize n par ti cipa tion m ay be us ed bot h f or suppor t by an age ncy and as a
cont r ol devi ce by t he la w- m aker s . P ar ti cipa tion ha s bot h a br oad a nd a
nar r ow connot ati on. I n a br oad s ens e, i t im plie s gi ving eve r y citi zen an
oppor tuni ty to a cti vely pa r tic ipat e in c onst r ucti ve public w or k ( wi thout
bel onging to a ny gover ning or m anagi ng bodies ) , bes ide s t he f r anc his e, in a
dem ocr ac y. I n a nar r ow s ens e, par t ici pati on woul d r ef er t o a s peci f ic a ction
by w hich t he ci tiz en r egi st er s his involve ment in publi c af f ai r s to achi eve a
par t icul ar obje cti ve.
P ar ti cipa tion m ay be di r ect or indir e ct, f or m al or i nf or mal ; it may be
poli tic al, s oci al or a dmini st r ati ve in na tur e. T he ef f ec tive nes s of mobili zed
or ins ti tuti onali zed c iti zen pa r tic ipat ion in publ ic a dminis tr a tion depends on
thr e e f ac tor s :
a) Wi th w hat de gr ee of s er i ousne ss the par ti cipa nt body or age nc y
as s er ts it se lf .
b) Whe ther publ ic a dmini st r ati on cons ults the body; and
c) Whe ther publ ic a dmini st r ati on dele gate s c er ta in f uncti ons to that
body.
C it ize ns’ pa r tic ipat ion in a dmini st r ati on may t ake ma ny f or ms . I t r e f er s to
al l thos e a cti viti es whi ch s how t he ci tiz en’ s involve ment in the pr oces s es of
adm inis tr a tion, t hat i s, pa r tic ipat ion in pol icy f or mul ati on and pr ogr a mme
pla nning, im plem enta tion a nd eval uati on of polic ies and pr ogr a mmes me ant
f or deve lopme nt of par t icul ar ta r get gr oups . I n deve loping s ocie tie s the
tr a diti onal de f init ion of peopl e’ s par ti cipa tion ( a cti ve cit ize n involve ment in
the deci si on- maki ng pr oces s ) of ten be come s i r r ele vant due to lac k of tim e,
ini tia tive , and r es our ce s of t he ci tiz en w ho f ails t o show the neces s ar y
ent husi as m or coope r ati on tow ar ds gover nme ntal pr ogr amme s meant f or his
bene f it. T her ef or e , in the se countr i es par ti cipa tor y ac tivit ies by ci tiz ens have
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to be sol ici ted by t he gover nm ent. T he s tat e not onl y plays the key r ole in
at tem pts at s oci oeconom ic t r ans f or mat ion and m oder niz ation but als o in
pr omot ing, w hat i s c all ed ins ti tuti onal pa r tic ipati on.
C it ize n par ti cipa tion de mands ce r tai n pr econdi tions , of thes e; per haps , the
mos t i mpor ta nt ar e enli ghtene d polit ica l le ader s , cons ci entious ci vil se r vants
and a n inf or me d and coope r ati ve gene r al publ ic. K now ledge of mutual
pr oble ms and dif f i cult ies on the par t of bot h of f icia ls and c itiz ens is a vi tal
input f or suc ces s f ul par t ici pati on. Pa r tic ipat ion at all level s – both r ur al and
ur ban – i s a ls o nece ss ar y f or s pee dy devel opment .
Self Assessment Exercise 1; w hat is your under s tandi ng of people ’ s
par t ici pati on in adm inis tr a tion?
3.2 Me ans of C it iz en Part i cip at ion
Low li ter a cy le vels , la ck of aw ar e nes s, pove r ty and ge ner al apathy of t he
peopl e obvious ly r e st r ict mas s par ti cipa tion i n the pol icy f or mul ati on pr oces s
in I ndi a. The cit ize n can a t bes t, pa r tic ipat e in t he outli ning of dir e cti ons and
poli cy obje cti ves only indi r ect ly by ( a) e lec ting hi s r e pr es entat ives bodie s at
the vill age, bl ock and di st r ict leve ls , to s tat e legi sl atur e s, and par li ame nt ( b)
par t ici pati on by enli ghtene d cit ize ns i n se minar s , s tudi es and dis cus s ions
pr omot ed by poli tic al pa r tie s, pr e ss ur e gr oups , youth f or um s, uni ver s iti es ,
volunt ar y as s ocia tions ; pr e ss , pla nning bodie s a nd gover nment mac hiner y,
and ( c ) by ar ti cula tion of t he nee ds a nd dema nds of pe ople be f or e polic y
ma ker s and pla nner s thr ough poli tic al pa r tie s a nd other i nst ituti ons.
C it ize n view point s a r e al so a r tic ulat ed by var i ous a gencie s such as politi cal
par t ies , pr es s ur e gr oups , pr es s a nd volunta r y as soc iat ions. I nst ituti onal
par t ici pati on r ef er s to t he par t ici pati on of cit izens i n polic y making in
gover nm ent of a dmini st r ati ve age ncie s s uch a s c entr a l and s tat e le gis lat ur es .
Ext ens ive e mpir i cal st udies on the natur e and degr ee of cit ize n’ s par tic ipat ion
in I ndi a have r evea led t hat t he col onial lega cy, s ocial diver s it y, pover ty a nd
il lit er ac y and the pecul iar i ty of the polit ica l pr oces s combi ne to gr eatl y
r es tr i ct popul ar par t ici pati on in the public admini st r ati on in I ndi a. The
col onial lega cy of li mit ed gover nm ent by a dminis tr a tive eli te st ands in the
w ay of the admi nis tr at or s’ s oli cit ing ext ens ive publ ic c ooper ati on. D ecis ionma king in a ll m ajor i ss ues of publi c poli cy is monopoli zed by sma ll politi coadm inis tr a tive eli te i n I ndia. T he s ocia l s tr uct ur e is char a cte r ize d by
nume r ous c lea vages al ong r eli gious , ethni c, li ngui st ic and cla ss li nes .
Wi des pr ead pove r ty and i lli ter a cy f ac ili tat e the dominanc e of pow er f ul
s ocioe conomi c gr oups in s ocie ty w ho monopoliz ed t he f r uit s of de velopme nt
and pr ogr e ss .
Wi th the gener a l pas s ivit y and s ubse r vienc e of the mas s es , it is s car c ely
s ur pr is ing tha t the bur eauc r acy ha s be come a pr ivil eged minor it y w ho r ef us es
to s har e any dec is ion- ma king pow er w ith t he peopl e. C ommuni ty
deve lopme nt pr ogr am mes f ai led t o gener a te t he nec es sa r y enthus ia sm and
r ur al init iat ive, a nd donati ons i n cas h and ki nd we r e not a s f or t hcoming as
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w as r equir e d to ma ke the movem ent a suc ces s The f r ui ts of devel opm ent did
not r e ach t he ta r get gr oups ( the r ur al a nd ur ban poor , la ndl es s f ar mer s , s mal l
ar t is ans , tr iba l and ba ckw ar d ca st es ) who ne ithe r par ti cipa ted in the
deve lopme nt pr ogr am mes nor bene f ite d f r om the m.
The maj or si gnif ic ance and com ponents of ci tiz en per c eptions of
adm inis tr a tion w hic h ar e ge ner al ly cons ide r ed es s enti al f or w ide spr e ad public
par t ici pati on in deve lopme nt adm inis tr a tion a r e:
1. A dequat e ci tiz en know ledge of admi nist r ati ve nor ms a nd pr acti ces ;
2. G enuine public suppor t f or the goa ls , polic ies and pr ogr a mmes of the
gover nm ent.
3. P os itive eval uati on of the j ob per f or ma nce of gove r nment al of f i cial s
by the public ;
4. P er ce ptions of the admi nis tr at ive s ys tem as se nsi tive and r es pons ive t o
the public ;
5. B el ief i n the i ntegr i ty and hone st y of the a dmini st r ati ve cadr e , r athe r
tha n a te ndency t o view it as cor r upt or c or r uptible ;
6. P er ce ption of a dmini st r ator s as com mit ted t o egal ita r ian goa ls and
pr ac tic es ;
7. F eel ings of ef f ic acy a nd optim is m about cit ize n acti on in t he polit ica l
s yst em ge ner al ly and i n the a dmini st r ati ve s ubsys te m par t icul ar ly; and
8. M otiva tiona l or ie ntat ions empha si zing c ooper ati ve a ction wi th
adm inis tr a tive of f ici als in t he im plem enta tion of de velopme ntal goals .
Self Assessment Exercise 2; I n wha t w ays can t he ci tiz ens
par t ici pate ef f ec tive ly in a dmini st r ati on?
A ll t hes e com ponents ar e es se ntia l f or the evolut ion of a ba lance d cit ize n
adm inis tr a tion r e lat ions hip, tha t is , to pr e vent t he domina nce or subs er vie nce
of adm inis tr a tion a s w el l as to m inim ize the i gnor ance, apath y or helple ss nes s
of ci tiz ens . Unf or t unate ly, in t he pr es ent Ni ger ia n context the major
com ponents of thi s r e lat ions hip ar e cons picuous by the ir abs ence , w hich in
f ac t is pr oving t o be the mai n hur dle i n wi des pr ead a nd ef f ect ive public
par t ici pati on in the public admi nis tr ati on in N ige r ia.
The att itude s of I ndi an ci tiz ens f or exam ple t owa r ds t heir gove r nment and it’ s
adm inis tr a tive of f ici als par t icul ar ly, a r e a c omplex and par adoxi cal mos aic of
s uppor t and hos ti lit y, of cons ens us a nd cr it ique. F r om 75 pe r cent to 90 per
ce nt vie w gove r nment al j obs a s pr e st igious , 90 per c ent f e el t hat hea lth and
com munit y devel opment pr ogr amm es ar e w or th w is e, a nd les s than 50 pe r
ce nt ( 20 per c ent r ur a l) ar e cr it ica l of the job per f or m ance of C entr a l
G over nme nt of f ic ial s. O n the other ha nd, the m ajor i ty f ee ls that 50 per cent
or mor e of the of f i cia ls ar e c or r upt, la r ge pr opor ti ons ( 60 pe r cent ur ban, 32
per c ent r ur a l) s ay the ir dea lings w ith of f i cial s ar e uns ati sf a ctor y, and being
s ucce ss f ul i n pr oces s ing the ir com plai nts wi th the m ar e low . Ove r 50 per
ce nt f ee of f ici als in c er ta in age ncie s a r e not f a ir , tha t the citi zen c an do li ttl e
by him se lf , and f r om 60 per ce nt to 75 pe r cent f eel that polit ical pull is
im por tant in get ting a dmini st r ati ve ac tion.
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O ther s tudi es on cit ize n- admi nis tr at ion r el ations ha ve r evea led var ious
r ea sons f or gene r al m is tr us t and l ack of f a ith of t he publi c in a dminis tr a tion.
The r eas ons f or this ar e :
( a) C or r upt ion, and unhe lpf ul a tti tude of t he bur ea ucr ats
( b) I n or dina te de lay i n gett ing the whe els of the admini st r ati ve ma chine r y in
mot ion
( c) C i tiz en’ s ignor anc e about pr ocedur e s a nd f or mal r ules , and
( d) D is cr im inat ion bet we en the r ich a nd the poor ; the r i ch having eas y acc es s
to a dmini st r ati on, and the gener a l te ndency of of f i cial s to avoid the poor and
under pl ay the ir nee ds a nd inte r es ts .
C it ize ns be come wha t the ir le ader s ma ke the m to be , and admi nis tr at ion
oper a tes under t wo f or c es : le ader s ; di r ect ion f r om a bove and c itiz en’ s
under s ta nding and c ooper at ion f r om be low . Admi nis tr at ion i s a tr us tee
s ubjec t to t he w atc hf ul eye and the guiding ha nd of people ins ide a nd people
bel ow. T he em phas is on the publ ic a nd the a dminis tr a tion’ s r e lati ons wi th it
ar e as impor t ant f or a nalys is of bur ea ucr ac y as the ne w t echnique s f or
im pr oveme nt of or gani zat ional ef f ic ienc y.
P eople ’ s pa r tic ipat ion in t he deve lopme nt pr oce ss mea ns acti ve coope r ati on
and i nvolvem ent of t he gene r al m as se s a nd the t ar gete d public in the var ious
int er f ac es of the de cis ion- m aking pr oc es s i n devel opment admini st r ati on.
Thi s c all s f or t heir a cti ve int er es ts , ent husi as m and c ooper ati on in pla nning,
im plem enta tion a nd eval uati on of devel opment pr ogr amme s at a ll le vels ,
par t icul ar ly a t the gr as sr oot s l evel . Publ ic pa r tic ipat ion mus t be come a mas s
move ment , f or , it i s not only a m eans to de velopme nt but in it se lf a
deve lopme nt goal s. P ubli c par t ici pati on is inte gr a l t o the ve r y pr oces s of
deve lopme nt, par t icul ar ly t he deve lopme nt of deve loping de mocr ac y like
N iger i a.
I t call s f or bot h polit ica l and a dmini st r ati ve dec entr al iza tion. B y es tabli shi ng
ins ti tuti ons of gr a ss r oots dem ocr ac y and of dem ocr at ic de velopme nt. S uch
ins ti tuti ons s hould be capa ble of hol ding el ecti ons to the m at st ated inter va ls ,
by deve loping a dequat e r es our ce s a nd powe r to the se local gover nme nt
ins ti tuti ons, by a ccor di ng adequa te r e pr es enta tion i n suc h bodies to me mber s
of w eake r se cti ons s uch a s w ome n, sc hedule d cas te and s chedule d tr ibe s b y
com puls or y r es er vat ion of s eat s, nom inat ion or co- opt ion, by er a dicat ing
pover t y thr ough s tr uct ur al c hanges in s oci ety i ncluding mor e e f f ecti ve
im plem enta tion of l and r ef or m s, i ncr ea si ng pr oducti on and pr oducti vit y
thr ough m oder niz ati on, sc ienc e and t echnolog y, gener at ion of e mployme nt
oppor tuni tie s a nd pr oviding a pur pose f ul r el evant educat ion t o our childr e n
and a dults and i nculc ati ng nati onal uni ty.
3.3. Pr obl em s of Peop le ’ s P art ic ip at ion in De velop in g C oun t ri es
The degr ee and ext ent of pe ople’ s par t ici pation in the admini st r ati on of
deve loping c ountr ie s l ike I ndi a is gr ea tly c onditione d by the bas ic na tur e and
oper a tiona l pec ulia r iti es of admi nis tr at ion dur ing t he coloni al per iod, w hen
ma inte nance of law and or de r and r eve nue r ai si ng we r e the pr ime
cons ide r ati ons of a dmini st r ati on. The a dminis tr a tive appa r atus and f unc tions
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w er e t hen to a gr eat exte nt, aut onomous and acc ountabl e to the publi c.
P ublic par ti cipa tion ne ithe r exis te d nor wa s s oli cite d by the gover nment . I n
the author i tar i an and une gali tar i an poli tica l a nd admini st r ati on cult ur e in
w hich c olonia l adm inis tr a tion f unc tione d, the be nef it s of a dminis tr a tion
ac cr ued m ost ly to t he upper a nd the pr i vile ged cl as se s of s ocie ty. I n te r ms of
me thods of oper at ion adm inis tr a tion w as es s enti all y coer c ive, f or m al a nd
pr oce dur al.
A f ter i ndepende nce w it h the a doption of t he goal s of a soc ial we lf ar e st ate,
the key r es pons ibil ity f or r a pid s ocioe conomi c pr ogr es s and moder ni zat ion
w as under ta ken by the st ate , whi ch s ought to i mplem ent them wi th the help of
publi c bur ea ucr ac y. Wit h the be ginning of t he pr oces s of plant ed deve lopme nt
in I ndi a the planne r s a nd admi nis tr at or s ha ve r epe atedl y s tr es s ed the need to
invol ve the mas s es and s olic it t heir c ooper ati on in t he tr e mendous chal lenge
of deve lopme nt adm inis tr a tion. T o sha ke f r ee the i ner ti a of the mas s es that
had hi ther t o been onl y use d to bei ng pas si ve r ec ipient s of gover nment aid the
gover nm ent s ought t o cr ea te a n ins tit utiona l inf r a st r uctur e to pr omote popular
par t ici pati on. C ommuni ty deve lopme nt pr ogr am mes w er e i ntr oduce d main ly
to s oli cit popular pa r tic ipat ion in t he deve lopment admi nis tr at ion of t he
gover nm ent. T he com munit y devel opment pr ogr amme w as a me thod of
s olic iti ng comm unity pa r tic ipat ion to a ss is t t he gover nme nt a uthor iti es in
im pr oving the econom ic, s oci al a nd cult ur al l if e of t he people in t he r ur al
ar e as .
The y incl ude enc our aging t he vil lage people to beco me s elf - r elia nt,
r es pons ible cit ize ns, c apabl e of par t ici pating in s ocioec onomic devel opment
and na tion- bui lding by pr ope r util iza tion of t he s car e r es our ces , adopti on of
mode r n agr ic ultur a l me thods and pr ac tic es . Ut ili zing t he f r ee time of the
vil lage r s i n use f ul com munit y wor k; exte nding the pr inci ple of c ooper ati on to
ma ke the r ur al f a mil ies cr e dit- w or thy; launc hing a m ulti - pr onged att ack on
hunger , di se as e, s qualor , i gnor ance and idl enes s and upgr ading the s ocia l
s tat us of t he vil lage tea cher s and a ss oci ating them in devel opment
pr ogr am me.
I n s hor t, the es se nce of t he conc ept of r ur a l deve lopmen t is the all r ound
deve lopme nt of the vill age c ommuni ty w ith t he ef f or t s of t he people
the ms elve s. S uch pa r tic ipat or y sys te m w as intr oduc ed to ope r ationa lis e the
conc ept of de mocr a tic dece ntr al iza tion a nd devolut ion of thei r ar ea s. T he
nee d f or cit ize n par ti cipa tion i n the pl an f or mul ati on and impl eme ntat ion
pr oce ss es have als o bee n r epea tedl y st ate d in the objec tive of f or e xampl e
I ndia ’ s F ive - Ye ar P lans , the r ecur r i ng them e of w hich i s t o br ing about the
s ocia l, ec onomic and poli tic al de velopm ent of t he I ndian mas se s wi th the
ac tive ins pir at ion, par t ici pati on and invol vement of the mas se s thems el ves in
the devel opment pr ogr amm es .
Self Assessment Exercise 3; Expla in s ome of t he pr oble ms af f ec ting
ci tiz en’ s par ti cipa tion i n admi nis tr at ion.
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
108
The concept of people’s participation in administration has been widely proclaimed time and
again. This is so because the entire notion of democratic politics rest on the workability of
active citizen’s involvement in the holding and sharing of power and responsibility of
government and public office. The system of citizen participation promotes liberty and
equality, encourages the people’s voice, their concerns, and promotes the interest of the
majority and to safeguard accountability and ventilation of public grievances.
The citizen’s participation can be formal or informal, direct or indirect, and it can take so
many forms from policy formulation and policy evaluation all aimed at promoting good
governance and speedy development.
There are certain problems that have inhibited the participation of citizens ranging from lack
of awareness, poverty and general apathy of the people. But most importantly, they can
overcome these problems by electing their representatives at the local, state and national
level, participate in enlightenment programmes, joining and actively participating in political
parties and institutions.
Therefore the people themselves need adequate knowledge of administrative norms, genuine
support for the public goals and positive evaluation of government efforts. It is also important
to beware that over the years these citizens’ efforts have been threatened by corruption,
citizen’s ignorance and discrimination. Thereby making the citizens to become what the
leaders want thereby denying them the benefits of participation and development.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have been able to discuss in this chapter the concept of people’s participation in
administration as core to the promotion of development and as a means of ensuring
accountability in governance. The unit also explained the means of ensuring the participation
of the citizens in administration either formal or informal.
It is quite clear from our explanation that the participation of the citizens is not without its
problems, but most importantly the advantages of participation far outweighs the problems
that have limited the effective utilisation of this means.
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment;
-Identify and explain the means of citizen’s participation in Administration.
-Discuss the significance of people’s participation in the Administration of its country.
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B ava ,Noor j ahan,( 1984) P eople 's Par ti cipati on in D ev elopm ent Adm inis tr ation
in I ndi a, Ne w D el hi, U ppal P ubli shi ng Hous e.
D utta , PR , Public Adm inis tr ati on and the St ate, New D elhi . Uppa l, 1978.
109
D wi vedi. O P and R B J ain, ( 1985) ,I ndi a's Adm ini st rat ive SO T ?, N ew
D elhi .Gi tanj ali Publ is hing H ouse .
El der s veld, S J , A P B ar na bas and J aganna dham ( e ds) ( 1968) T he C i tiz en and
the Adm inis tr ati on in a D eve loping D em ocr acy ^ An Em pir ic al Study , •
H PA , N ew De lhi.
S chapi r o, Leona r d,( 1970) T he Gov er nme nt and Pol iti cs of the Sovie t
U nion ,London, H utc hins on Uni ver s ity L ibr ar y.
S elf , Pe ter ( 1984) , Adm ini st rat ive The ori es and Poli tic s: A n Enquir y i nto the
Str uct ure and Pr oces s of M odem G over nm ent, N ew D elhi , S C ha nd and
C ompa ny.
B hal er ao, C N ( ed) ( 1972) A dmi nis tr ation, P olit ics and D eve lopm ent i n I ndia,
B omba y, Lal wa ni P ublis hing H ous e.
B ham bhr i, C P ( 1972) Adm inis tr ati on in a C hanging Soc iety , D elhi , Na tiona l
UNIT 10:
THE MEANING OF THE CIVIL SERVICE, SIGNIFICANCE AND
MODERN TRENDS.
110
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1T HE ME AN I N G O F TH E C I V I L S ER V I C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.2 TH E S I G NI F I C A NC E OF TH E C I V I L S ER V I C E. . . . . . . . . . . . .103
3.3 M OD ER N TR E ND S I N T HE C I VI L SE R VI C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Unit 10 ; The meaning of the civil service, significance and modern trends.
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T he ci vil s er vi ce i s popul ar ly r e f er r ed t o as the bur ea ucr ac y in mos t
c ountr ies pa r ticul ar l y Ni ger ia. This is beca use countr i es that have t r ied t o
a dopt thi s s yst em in the r unning of it ’ s a dminis tr a tion belie ve is the bes t
f or m in w hich l ar ge or ga nis ations c an be or gani se d. This is w hy we wa nt to
i n this unit look at the or i gin of the civil s er vice and it s m eani ng. We w il l
a ls o expla in the si gnif ica nce of the c ivil se r vice in the da y to day r unni ng
of or ga nis ations .
T he unit wi ll e xplain the r e cent tr ends in t he civi l s er vic e to e nable yo u
ha ve a good f oot ing f or the subs eque nt module on the c ivil se r vice in
N ige r ia.
2.0 Aims and objectives . . . . . . . . . . . .
A t t he end of t his unit, you w il l be a bl e to;
- E xplain the or i gin of the civil s er vic e
- E xplain the s igni f icanc e of t he civi l s er vi ce, and
- out line the mode r n tr e nd in the civil s er vice dis cus s.
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3.0 Main content . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 The meaning of the civil service
T he te r m ‘ C ivi l S er vic e’ coi ned by the Eas t I ndi a C ompany, has come to
s igni f y non- combat ant br anches of t he admi nis tr at ive s er vi ces of the st ate .
T he cr e dit f or c oining t he te r m “c ivil se r vice’ thus goe s t o I ndia. T he Ea st
I ndi a C ompan y ( 1600- 1858) had it s e mployee s who w er e call ed s er vant s.
T hose se r vants w ho we r e w or king on the civil s ide in c ontr as t t o thos e
e mployed f or mili tar y includi ng nava l dutie s w er e cal led ‘ c ivil se r vants ’ ,
a nd the t er m w as f or mal ly a dopted i n the yea r 1785.
T he O xf or d Engli sh D ic tionar y def ines t he ter m as ‘ The pe r mane nt
pr of e ss iona l br anc hes of st ate admini st r ati on excl uding mi lit ar y and
j udici al br a nches of s tat e admi nis tr at ion a nd elec ted pol iti cia ns. T he te r m
ha s hol der s of politi cal or judi cial of f ice s, who a r e empl oyed in a civi l
c apaci ty, a nd whos e r e muner at ion i s pa id w holly and di r ect ly out of m onies
vot ed by par l iame nt.
A n ana lysi s of this def i nition show s that the te r m exc ludes per s ons in
de f ence f or ces , per s ons holding pol itic al or judici al of f i ces , and pe r sons
w ho w or k f or gover nment in a n honor ar y ca pacit y or ar e not paid out of
publ ic r e venues . I n br ie f , the c ivil se r vices ar e a “ pr of e ss iona l body of
of f i cial s, per mane nt, pa id and s kill ed. O f lat e a new c ate gor y has been
a dded to t he ci vil s er vi ces , name ly i ndust r ial wor ker s . A s m or e and m or e
e nter pr is es i ndust r ial and comm er ci al come under public se ctor , t he
numbe r of s uch w or ker s incr ea se s.
H er ma n F iner ha s c las s if ied the B r i tis h civi l s er vi ce int o thr ee cat egor ie s –
A dmini st r ati ve, T echnic al and M anipula tive . The admini st r ati ve of f ic er s
a r e occ upied i n the ge ner al tas k of helpi ng in the f or mula tion of pol ici es
a nd exec uting t hem. T he tec hnica l of f ic ial s lend the aid of s pec if ic
s ci entif i c know le dge and t r aining, like doc tor s and engi neer s . The of f ici als
be longing t o manipul ati ve c ategor y execut e or der s hande d down by t he
f i r st tw o ar e c las s es by common phys ic al acti vity. I t is nece ss ar y he r e to
poi nt out t hat t he tw o te r ms ‘ civil s er vic e’ and publi c s er vic e ar e not int er c hangeabl e. A ci vil s er va nt is a publ ic s er vant but a publ ic s er va nt is not
ne ces s ar il y a ci vil s er va nt. S imil ar ly, judges ar e public s er va nts but ar e not
c ivil se r vants . P ublic se r vants ar e thos e w ho r ecei ve the ir s ala r y f r om ta xpa ye r s money but thos e w ho wor k on the civi l s ide ( not judic ial and
m ilit ar y s ide ) ar e c ivil se r vants .
Self Assessment Exercise 1;
W hat do you unde r st and by the ter m ‘ civil s er vant’ ?
3.2 The Significance of the civil service.
The impor t ance of civi l s er vic e in t he mode r n gover nmen t has bee n suc cinct ly
expl aine d and ti me a nd agai n it i s be lie ve d that , “T he w or k of the gover nm ent
w ould neve r be done i f ther e we r e only t he s ecr et ar ie s of st ate and other
112
hea ds of de par tm ents , the pr es ident s of l or ds, i n other w or ds , the mi nis ter –
to do i t.
The se people cannot be expe cte d to col lect taxe s, audit account s, i nspe ct
f ac tor ie s, t ake c ens use s, t o sa y nothing of ke eping a ccounts , del iver i ng mai l,
and c ar r ying m es sa ges . Suc h mani f old ta sks f al l, r at her , to t he body of
of f ic ial s a nd empl oye es know n as the pe r mane nt ci vil s er vi ce.
I t i s t his gr eat body of men a nd a w oman t hat t r ans lat es law into acti on f r om
one e nd of the c ountr y to t he othe r and br ings the nationa l gove r nment into
it ’ s publ ic e ye tha n the m inis tr y; this ar m y of f unctiona r ies i s ne ces s ar y to
the r eal iza tion of t he pur pos e f or w hich t he gover nm ent e xis ts .
Self Assessment Exercise 2; What is the s igni f ica nce of t he ci vil
s er vic e?
3.3 Modern Trends in the Civil Service
S ix ma in t r ends ar e vi si ble i n the c ivil se r vi ces of any c ountr ie s i n moder n
t imes
( 1) R a pid gr ow th in nume r ica l s tr e ngth;
( 2) G r ow ing dive r si f icat ion by t he empl oyment of mor e and mor e
s ci entis ts a nd technol ogis ts ;
( 3) C ont inuous exte nsi on in the powe r s of the civi l s er vic e;
( 4) S hif t f r om nega tive to pos itive w or k;
( 5) C ha nges in the tr adit ional conc ept of c ivil se r vice neutr al ity; and
( 6) I nc r eas ing e mphas is on mor al e a nd pr of es si onal s tanda r ds.
A dynami c pe r sonne l admi nis tr at ion ha s t o devis e me ans to cope wi th the
pr obl ems cr e ated by thes e t r ends . We s hall now dis cuss the se tr ends one by
one .
N u m eri cal s t re ngt h : We ar e a ll f a mili ar now w ith P ar ki nson’ s Law or the
R i si ng Pyr a mid of B ur e aucr at s. Pa r kins on’ s r e se ar ches poi nt to a n aver age
i ncr eas e of 5.75. Pe r cent per year of civil s er vants in most counti r es .The
f ol low ing s tat is tics r e gar ding gr ow th i n the ci vil s er vi ce i n B r ita in, in t he
U .S .A. a nd in I ndia wi ll i llus tr at e t he point.
T he f oll owi ng f igur es s how t he gr ow th of the non- i ndust r ial civi l s er vic e
i n B r ita in dur ing 1797 a nd 1988.
Y ear S t af f
1797 16,000
1914 281,000
113
1918 418,000
1934 370,000
1945 701,000
1957 637,423
1973 422,400
1988 530,300
I n the cas e of t he U nite d st ate s, w e f i nd that in 1817, w hen M onr oe w as
ina ugur ate d as Pr e si dent, f e der al empl oye es number ed no mor e than 6,500.
Whe n pr es ident Eis enhow er t ook his se cond oat h of of f ice in 1957, the
numbe r of f eder a l ci vili an em ployees ha d sw el led t o 2,300,000. Thus
em ployme nt at the e nd of Ma y 1957, tota lle d 2,281,238 wi th about one- half
em ployed i n the de f ence es tabl is hment s.
A s r e gar ds I ndia, t he numbe r of cent r al gove r nment empl oye es on apr il 1,
1948, w as 14.45 lakhs . The number r os e t o 17.73 lakhs in 1957, a s r e por ted
by the se cond P ay com mis s ion. A ccor di ng to the f if th pa y commi ss ion, the
ce ntr al gover nme nt em ployed 38.76 l akhs in 1994. The f ollow ing t able show s
the bur eauc r ati c gr ow th in t he ce ntr al Gove r nment.
Pos it i ve N at ur e of t h e ci vil s er vice . A gr e at c hange ha s t aken pl ace in the
appr oa ch to t he ci vil s er vi ce. T he old ne gati ve appr oac h has given place to
pos iti ve one. T he 19t h c entur y c oncept of the c ivil se r vice wa s ne gative in
tw o w ays . I n the f i r st plac e, the gover nme nt bei ng bas ed on the lais s ez f air
phil osophy, t he f unct ions of the c ivil se r vice s w er e lar gel y pr event ive in
nat ur e. S econdl y, the m ain c oncer n of t he per s onnel admin is tr at ion w as wi th
s af egua r ding the r ights of the public se r vants and pr ot ecti ng the civil s er vice
f r om the evi ls of patr ona ge and ‘ s poil s’ T oday, a mor e pos itive theor y of
per s onnel admi nis tr at ion has com e to t he f or ef r ont whi ch beli eves i n cr eat ing
pos iti ve mot ivat ion am ong of f ici als w hich w ould e nable them to give in thei r
bes t t o the publ ic s er vi ce. T he ai m is to m ake publ ic of f i cial compe tent ,
loya l, s ati sf i ed and i nter e st ed. A new type of a dmini st r ator i s c alle d f or if our
pla nning is to be a s ucce ss .
The new admi nis tr at or has to be a cti on- minde d to the point of e ven beco ming
aggr e ss ive to pus h the s che mes thr ough; human r e lati ons or iente d i.e car ing
mor e f or the pe ople t han f or the r egula tions and pr oc edur es ; dynam ic i.e, not
cont ent w it h mer e ly pus hing the f ile s; public – spi r ited, i.e, yea r ning a lw ays
f or the public inte r es t; a nd per s uas ive, i .e, abl e to w in publ ic a ppr oval,
cons ent and coope r ati on. The c ivil se r vant c an no longer comma nd the
peopl e; he has to per s uade them and w in the ir cons ent.
C ivil se rvic es ne ut r alit y: O ne of t he im por tant tr adi tiona l vir t ues of civi l
s er vic e has bee n it’ s neut r ali ty. I n the wor ds of the Ma st er man commi tte e,
“T he cha r act er is ti cs whi ch has long be en r ec ognized in the B r itis h
adm inis tr a tor and e xtoll ed as a s pec ial vir tue is his impar t ial ity, and, in his
114
publi c ca paci ty, a m ind unhinge d by politi cal pr epos s es si on. The ma in
ingr e dient s of t he B r it is h conce pt of ci vil s er vi ce ne utr ali ty ma y be li st ed as :
( i) publ ic c onf idenc e in t he f r ee dom of the civil s er vice f r om a ll poli tic al
bia s; ( ii) m inis te r ’ s c onf idenc e tha t pr omot ions and othe r r ew ar ds do not
depe nd upon polit ica l or igi ns or pa r tis an a ctivi ty but on mer it al one. The
A mer i can c oncept of civi l s er vic e neut r ali ty, as des cr i bed by the Hoover
C omm is si on, is :
- The y shoul d keep c lea r of all polit ica l ac tivit y; pr e se r ve thei r neutr a lit y in
ma tte r of polic ies .
- Thi s m eans tha t the y mus t avoi d suc h emot ional atta chme nt t o the pol icie s of
an y a dmini st r ati on that they c annot a cce pt, cha nge and w or k in har m ony w ith
new le ader s .
- S enior c ivil se r vants w ould nec es sa r ily r e f r ain f r om all polit ica l ac tivit ies
tha t w ould af f e ct a dver s ely t heir a bili ty to pe r f or m the ir of f ic ial duties f ai r ly,
or tha t w ould te nd to ide ntif y t hem pe r sona lly w it h a poli tica l pa r ty or its
poli cie s.
- The tr adi tiona l conc ept of ne utr al ity, how eve r , has been c halle nged on ma ny
gr ounds . I n the f i r st plac e, the conce pt is bas ed on a belie f in ‘ pol itic s,
adm inis tr a tion di chotom y. ‘ Now , the tr adi tional ide a of mini st er s or poli tica l
exe cuti ve to t hat of c olla bor ati on wi th it . Pol icy f or mul ati on, toda y, is an all
per va si ve pr oce ss and a cooper a tive endea vour .
O ne of the mos t im por tant as pect s of c ivil se r vice s ne utr ali ty i s t he pos ition
in r e spe ct of pol iti cal act ivit ies by ci vil s er va nts . The pr obl em i nvolved her e
is tha t of s tr iki ng a bal ance betw ee n tw o conf lic ting inter e st s. ( i) in a
dem ocr at ic s oci ety i t is des ir a ble f or a ll c iti zens to ha ve a voic e in t he af f a ir s
of the st ate and f or as ma ny as poss ibl e to pl ay an a ctive par t in public lif e ,
and ( i i) the public inte r es t dem ands the m ainte nance of polit ica l i mpar ti ali ty
in t he ci vil s er vi ce a nd of conf ide nce i n that impar t ial ity as an es s entia l par t
of the st r uctur e of Gove r nment .
N ot e: D if f er en t cat egor ies of p ub li c em p loye es .
The ter m ‘ public empl oye es ’ inc ludes em ployees of t he ce ntr al and s tate
gover nm ents , of f ic ial s of l ocal bodies and i ndust r ial wor ke r s. A new cat egor y
has now been a dded in t he f or m of t he em pl oyees of publ ic e nter pr is e. Let us ,
now , take a br ie f look at the pos it ion obta ining i n cer ta in i mpor tant countr i es
in ot her par t s of t he w or ld and t hen ana lys e the posi tion obt aining in I ndia.
A ‘ r es tr ic ted’ c ate gor y whi ch is deni ed al l poli tic al r i ghts except voting and
pas s ive pa r ty me mber s hip. H ow ever , e ven to t hes e per m is si on is to be gi ven
to t he utm ost exte nt pos si ble t o take par t i n local gover nme nt a nd politi cal
ac tivi tie s i n the l ocal f iel d, subj ect only to t he condit ion t hat t hey w ould act
w ith m oder at ion and di sc r eti on, and tha t the y woul d take car e not to i nvolve
the ms elve s i n mat ter s of poli tic al c ontr over s y, w hich a r e of nati onal r ather
tha n loca l s ignif i canc e.
115
Self Assessment exercise 3; Lis t a nd expla in the moder n t r ends in the
ci vil s er vi ce i n r ece nt ti mes .
4.0Conclutions . . . . . . . . .
T he ci vil s er va nts ar e r e f er r ed t o the per mane nt pr of e ss iona l br anc hes of
s ta te a dminis tr a tion excludi ng mil ita r y and j udicia l br anc hes of st ate
a dminis tr a tion and el ecte d polit ici ans . The ter m has hol der s of polit ica l or
j udici al of f i ces , w ho ar e e mployed in a c ivil capac ity, a nd whos e
r e muner a tion i s pa id w holly a nd dir ect ly out of monies vot ed by
pa r lia ment.
T he qual itie s to be l ooked f or in c ivil se r vants ar e br a ins per s onali ty,
e f f ect ivene ss , judgme nt, i ntegr it y and huma n s ym pathy. The w hole bl ended
i nto a s ane and bal anced individua l by a pr oces s of e ducat ion. The se
qua lif ic ati ons help t hem t o bette r cope w it h the r a pid gr ow th in num er ic al
s tr e ngth in t he s ect or ; G r owi ng diver s if ic ati on by the e mployme nt of m or e
a nd mor e s ci entis ts a nd technol ogis ts ; C onti nuous e xtens ion i n the pow er s
of t he ci vil s er vi ce a mong other s .
C ons ide r ing the ir s ignif i cance as a body t ha t tr a nsl ate law s into a cti ons i n
a dyna mic per s onnel admini st r ati on, it has to devis e m eans to c ope w ith t he
pr obl ems cr e ated by thes e t r ends .
5.0 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
W e have been a ble t o explai n in thi s uni t the mea ning of the ter m civi l
s er vi ce a nd who c onst itute a c ivil se r vant. The y ar e a pr of es si onal body of
of f i cial s who a r e pai d, tenur ed and s kille d and it excl udes the m ili tar y a nd
e lect ed of f i cial s.
W e al so e xplaine d that thes e civil s er vants ar e r es ponsi ble f or doi ng the
w or k of gover nme nt w hic h include col lect ion of ta xes , audit ing of
a ccounts , a nd car r ying mes sa ges among other s .
T he ci vil s er va nts in moder n day have cer ta in vis ibl e tr e nds. S ome of
w hic h incl ude the gr owt h in numer i cal s tr ength, s hif t f r om the negat ive t o
t he pos iti ve w or k and the pr omotion of pr of es si ona l s tanda r ds.
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment;
- E xplain the t er m c ivil se r vice and cle ar ly explai n the c ate gor ies r ef e r r ed
t o as the c ivil se r vants
- L is t and e xplain the t r end of the civil s er vice in a m oder n w or ld.
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
M ar ina R . Pi nto;( 1989) V al ues in P ublic Se r vice s: I ndian J our nal of Publ ic
A dmini st r ati on; V ol. X XX V ; N o. I : J an- M ar ch: p. 59.
116
K r is hna M ohan M athur ; ( 1985) Va lue S ys tem in A dminis tr a tion: I ndia n Jour na l
of P ublic Adm inis tr a tion; Vol . XX X I I ; N o. I ; J an- M ar ch; p. 118.
A lbr ow ,( 1970) Ma r tin, Bur eaucr acy, L ondon, Pa ll M al l.
B hai tac har ya, M ohit ( 1979) Bur eaucr acy and De vel opme nt Adm ini st rat ion,
N ew De lhi, U ppal Publ is hing H ouse .
C r ozi er , M icha el, ( 1964) T he B ure aucr atic Phenom enon, C hi cago, U nive r si ty
of C hic ago P r es s.
MODULE 3:
UN I T 11:
THE NATURE OF THE CIVIL SERVICE IN NIGERIA
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 THE EVOLUTION OF THE CIVIL SERVICE IN NIGERIA . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
3.2 DEFINITION AND COMPOSITION OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE. . . . . . . . . 110
3.3 THE STRUCTURE OF THE CIVIL SERVICE IN NIGERIA DURING THE
COLONIAL ERA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .110
117
3.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF THE NIGERIAN CIVIL SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.5 a FUNCTIONS OF THE CIVIL SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
3.5 b ROLE OF THE PUBLIC SERVICE IN THE GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT OF
NIGERIA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .113
3.5 c FU NC T I ON S OF TH E C I V I L S ER V I C E I N M OD ER N TI M E. . . .114
3.6 MEASURING THE PERFORMANCE OF PUBLIC SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.7 THE ROLE OF THE CIVIL SERVICE IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . 115
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
MODULE 3:
Unit 11 -The Nature of the Civil Service in Nigeria
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In a broad sense, public Administration refers to the art and science of managing
governmental affairs. It denotes the means, arrangements and processes by which policies,
programmes, purposes and goals of governments are fulfilled. Public Administration takes
place at all levels of government- Local, National and International. It is a body of officials
who are concerned with the organization and functioning of governmental administration
in a state that is, the civil service state.
The civil service designates the entire body or specialised part of the executive arm of
government whose primary responsibility is the implementation of the policies and
programmes of the government.
The employees of the government who carry out these functions, that is administrative and
executive duties are called civil servants. A British scholar defines them as those servants
of the crown, other than holders of political or judicial offices, who are employed in the
civil capacity and whose remuner ations is paid wholly and directly out of monies voted by
parliament.
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2.0. Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;
-State and explain the origin of the Nigerian Civil Service
-Explain the peculiarities that came with the expansion of the civil service
-State and explain the functions of the civil service
-State the role of the civil service in national development
-State how the civil service performance is measured
-And explain the ideals of the civil service.
3.0. Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 The evolution of the Civil Service in Nigeria
The civil service in Nigeria is a colonial heritage of public administration. During colonial
rule, the upper echelon of the civil service was dominated by Europeans on who were
concentrated executive, judicial and legislative powers. What became a major attempt in
establishing a central public service emanated from the acceptance of the Nigerianisation
Report of 1st January,1949.Later a caretaker central Public Service Commission was
constituted on 3rd May,1952 under the provision of Section 169 of the Nigeria Order-in-
Control(Constitution) of 1951.
The Federal Public service (Civil service) was established on the 1st of April, 1954 through
a provision under section 174 of the Nigeria Order-in-Council of 1954.
Thus, this could be regarded as the genesis of our present day civil service. And with the
evolution of the modern state and the adoption of the concept of separation of powers, the
civil service emerged as an organ of the executive responsible for advising the executive
on policy directions and the implementation of decisions.
-The civil service is thus in this light is suppose to assist the government in the
formulation of policy by providing the necessary data.
-To implement the decisions, that is the approved policies of government without fear or
favour
-To ensure that when advising government, the civil servant sets out the wider and more
enduring considerations against the exigencies of the moment so that the conveniences of
today does not become the embarrassment of tomorrow.
Self Assessment Exercise 1; Explain the evolution of the civil service in Nigeria.
3.2 Definition and composition of the public service.
The public service refers to all organisations that exist as part of government machinery
for implementing policy decisions and delivering services that are of value to citizens. It is
used to describe a service rendered by government institutions to the public for the
promotion of the common good. It is a mandatory institution of the state under the 1999
Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, as outlined in chapter VI of the
Constitution under the title: Executive, Part 1(D) and part II (C) which provides for a
public service at the Federal and state levels of government.
The public service in Nigeria comprises the following:
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1-The civil service often referred to as the core service consisting of line ministries and
extra-ministerial agencies.
2-The public bureaucracy, or the enlarged public service, made up of the following:
a) Services of the state and national assemblies
b) The judiciary
c) The armed forces
d) The police and other security agencies
e) Paramilitary services (immigration, customs, prisons, etc)
f)parastatals and agencies-including social service, commercially-oriented
agencies,regulatotry agencies, educational institutions, research institutions.(Public
Service Reforms,1999)
3.3 The structure of the civil service in Nigeria during the colonial era.
The structure of the civil service during the colonial; era was that of a central Agency
responsible for managing various governments functions into departments i.e. Public
works,Treasury,Trade,e.t.c.The major purpose of government then was the provision of
security and limited social services. These were provided timely and efficiently. However,
with the attainment of political independence in 1960 and the eventual transition into as
Republic in 1963,these departments transformed into ministries and Ex-tra Ministerial
Establishments with greater responsiibities.This was the position until 1967 when the
Nigerian civil War commenced.
With the end of the Civil war in 1970, there emerged the period of the oil boom that gave
Nigeria sudden wealth through multiple foreign exchange earnings on the sales of crude
oil. Nigeria also was confronted with the problem of rehabilitating its war devastated
economy. In an attempt to do this, the Policy of Reconstruction, Rehabilitation and
Reconciliation was introduced.
This meant;
-Increase in government responsibilities
-Increase involvement of government in the provision of social and economic services
-Diversification, expansion and erection of new infrastructures, such as roads, schools,
hospitals, industries and housing, e.t.c.
This resulted in the expansion of government Ministries and the creation of so many extraMinisterial Establishments, some of which became branded parastatals.These parastatals
were largely the creation of the military and they were often made through Decrees that
granted them enormous autonomy in the management of their day to day functions.
Consequently, by 1999 when the last military regime left office, the Federal Public Service
consisted of about 26 Ministries and over 400 Extra-Ministerial Departments and
Parastatals.They were divided into two categories ;The civil Service with a workforce of
about 273,392,while the Extra-Ministerial Departments/Par astatals had a work force of
about 1.8 million. The public service then had a total workforce of about 1,433,392 Public
Servants, servicing a growing population of 120 million people up-till the year 2003, when
its recent reforms commenced. Only 26% of these workforces were civil servants under
the control of the Federal Civil Service Commission.
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Since then the population of the civil servants increased and the number of ministries and
parastatals grew considerably. A peep into the distribution of these government Agencies
called parastatals indicated that the Federal Ministry of Health had 77 of them, Federal
Ministry of Science and Technology had 40, Federal Ministry of Education had 41,Federal
Ministry of Agriculture had 34,while the Federal Ministry of Power and Steel had 27 to
mention a few.
The result of this growth reveals some facts, that;1-Managing these parastatals had become a problem
2-Most of them were either over-bloated, or not properly staffed
3-There was duplication in the mandate/Functions
4-They were unable to provide timely and efficient services for which they were set up
5-They became a major source of waste of public funds
6-They became cesspit of corruption, resulting in the over-bloating of contracts, loss of
public confidence and great out cry for something to be done urgently.
Self Assessment exercise 2; What are the major challenges that came with the
growth and expansion of the civil service?
3.4 Characteristics of the Nigerian Civil Service
The civil servants are servants of the government. They are found in various ministries of
government, headed by political heads called ministers or commissioners. They are
responsible for planning, advising on and implementing polices not for making them. The
term civil servant cover the official’s of local government and public cooporations.The
definition also excludes holders of political office, ministers, and holders of judicial office
and members of the armed forces. A general term which embraces the officials in both the
civil service and those in the other government services is public servants.
Members of the civil service recognise themselves as belonging to a unified service. A
number of factors contribute to this idea of unification. These are outlined below:
1. Recruitment follows similar line throughout the administration and is governed by a
single body-the civil service commission.
2. General control is exercised by the treasury. This is done through its supervision of the
recruitment, promotion and training of civil servants. The treasury also keeps the
records of all members of the administrative class.
3. Arrangements are made by the cabinet office for the coordination of the activities of
the ministries.
4. The idea of a single civil service is fostered by the establishment of common
professional and social institutions.
Furthermore, the civil servants are encouraged to join their staff associations, which all have
professional, cultural and recreational features. These are:
a) Permanence
b) Neutrality
c) Anonymity and
d) Impartiality.
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Permanence
Civil servants are career government employees, rated and employed under a merit
system in which the principle of Federal character is also applied. Their jobs are
tenured, that is permanent, in contrast to those of political appointees which start and
end with the individual administrations i.e. elected political office holders. The
continuity of the civil servants job helps administration in carrying out government
policies effectively. Governments come and go, but the civil service remains.
Neutrality
This is the basic concept underlying the civil service system. The philosophy is that
civil servants are politically neutral and will remain loyal and dedicated to the ruling
party of government of the day. They are expected to perform their duties without
showing favour or sympathy to any party or group.
Civil servants are not allowed to engage in partisan politics. Although they may belong
to political parties and vote at elections as citizens demonstrating their civic rights, but
their views should not affect the loyalty with which they serve governments of the day.
Those who are interested in partisan politics are required by the civil service rules to
resign their appointments from the service.
Such political neutrality is necessary to retain public confidence in the administration
and to prevent the victimisation of known political opponents. When there is a change
of government, no civil servant is dismissed merely because his political views are
contrary to those of the new government.
Impartiality
This refers to the principle that the civil servants are expected to serve all parties fairly,
showing no bias or favour to any particular groups or party. To ensure that no doubts is
cast upon their impartiality, civil servants may not write or speak on controversial
public issues. Under the official Secrets Act information gained by civil servants in the
course of their duty must not be divulged.
Anonymity
Civil servants are not held responsible in relation to the discharge of their duties. They
do not receive any praise or blame for any good or defective policy. Ministers are
constitutionally responsible to the presidency for all the acts of the officials of their
departments done in the course of their duties. In some cases, ministers may be forced
to resign their appointments for any defective policy designed by civil servants under
them. It is the convention that no mention should be made in the House of
Representatives, of a minister’s permanent subordinates (That is, the civil servants),
either by way of praise or of criticism.
3.5a Functions of the Civil Service
1-The civil service assist in the formulation of policy. The political head .i.e. the
minister or commissioner looks to his career officials to provide them with expert
technical and administrative advice. While the minister is ultimately responsible to the
cabinet and legislature for his/her departments, they must depend considerably on the
experience and wisdom of senior civil servants i.e. the permanent secretary, directors,
deputy directors and assistant directors.
2-The civil servants are in charge of the administrative machine. They give the
necessary directives which put the decisions of government into effect. Once
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government policies are known, the higher civil servants ensure that the policies are
implemented.
Self Assessment exercise 3; Explain the following features of the civil service;
Permanence; Neutrality; Anonymity; and Impartiality
3.5 b Role of the Public Service in the Growth and Development of Nigeria.
The role of the Nigeria Public Service as a Bureaucracy include;
-The formulation, sustenance, Transformation and realisation of government objective
within the realms of our polity and the international Community.
-They are also involved in institutional transformation and infrastructural development
-Development of Human resource capacities
-Delivery of required services
-The Management of our environment to mention a few.
3.5 c Functions of the civil service in modern time.
The dutie s of t he ci vil s er vi ce t oday ar e many a nd var ied and incl ude;
17- advi ce t o mini st er s on all mat ter s of poli cy;
18- s uper vis ion of a ll a spe cts of the gover nme nt s cie ntif i c r es ear ch;
19- C ar r yi ng out the soc ial se r vice s; and nume r ous r out ine f unc tions , like
col lec ting t axes , kee ping ac counts and s el ling pos tage s tamps .
T he publi c of f ic ials , t oday, per f or m var ious kinds of f uncti ons.
1- T heir f i r st f uncti on is the i mplem enta tion of gover nment ’ s polici es .
2- S ec ondly, the y have qua si - legis la tive ( dele gate d legi sl ati on) and quas ij udici al ( a dminis tr a tive adj udicat ion) f unc tions .
3- T hir dly a t the higher l evel, they a dvis e the pol iti cal exec utive on polic y
m atte r s.
4- F our thl y, public r ela tions have become an i mpor tant par t of of f icia l
dut ies . I n addi tion, t he of f ic ials , i n cer ta in pos iti ons, a r e expe cte d to
e xplain the gove r nment polic y to the people a nd to w in the ir coope r ati on in
i t’ s imple ment ati on.
A ll thes e f unc tions of the public of f icia l ar e exer c is ed in t he cont ext of
pa r lia menta r y democ r acy in I ndia, and he is ac counta ble di r ect ly to t he
pol itic al execut ive and indir e ctl y thr ough hi m to the people .
3.6 Measuring the performance of Public Service
The Performance of the civil service can be measured through the established criteria on
global minimum standard for measuring the performance of state bureaucracies and
capacities. These are:123
-Demonstrable ability and capacity to deliver goods and services to the people of Nigeria in
cost- effective, efficient and timely manner,
-Existence of state institutions that are guided by high ideals of the public service in carrying
out their mandates in a fair, equitable, transparent and accountable manner,
-Perception by the citizens that the state institutions are respectful of citizens rights, interest
and generally demonstrate respect for the laws of the land.
-The legitimate use of physical force and coercion,
-Safe and secured environment that allow citizens to carry out their daily routines without
fear, encumbrances and hindrances other than those imposed by law,
-General perception that justice is dispensed justly, fairly, equitably and in a very timely
manner
-And legitimate enforcement of laws. Rules and regulations that is not selective or perceived
to be tainted with bias.
3.7 The role of the civil service in national development include in the areas
of;-Strict obedience to the rule of law and due process.
-Political and economic stability of the country
-Sustenance and integration of our rich cultures
-Maturity Capital and financial Markets
-Cooperate governance
-Availability of core competence
-Favourable investment climate
The civil service in the word of Amb Ahmed Al-Gazali chairman of the civil service
commission in 2007, said Nigeria has taken a lot of giant strides in the development of the
country, while apportioning failures where necessary. These moves are as follows;
1-The sustenance of the Nigerian nation as an entity, as well as it’s unity in diversity, is a
bond which the civil service nurtured, despite deep ethnic and cultural diversities of the
component units.
2-Through the instrumentality of the civil service bureaucracy, the colonial creation known as
Nigeria in 1914,became transformed to the present 36 states structure of a federal system of
government in response to the yearnings and aspirations of the multi-ethnic groups that
constitute the Nigerian State.
3-During the colonial era and immediately before Nigeria independence in 1960, the purpose
of the service was the provision of governance for revenue collection, provition of security
and limited social services, such as health care, education, sanitation and pipe born water in
selected cities of the country, these was provided by the public works department, health
department, education department e.t.c to a limited population who then constituted the elites.
4-With the attainment of independence and the emergence of oil boom in the 1970’s,the civil
service was able to provide expansion in its scope of activities in the areas of construction of
new infrastructures,education,health,housing,agriculture,other social services and increase in
national income, as well as per capita income.
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5-Govrnment and in particular through the civil service was a bureaucracy was able to attain
visible strides in the expansion of state capacities to provide for it’s citizens literacy level,
more colleges and universities were built, several thousands of kilometre roads were
constructed including new airports and aerodromes, human capital development were
vigorously persued, new cities were developed and conscious urban renewal efforts were
made.
He explained further that the civil service was able to perform these functions effectively
because;-The civil servants were assured of the fact that their political bosses would not get at them
for taking the right and correct actions that might not be politically correct or palatable to the
powers that be.
-In Britain for example, this type of protection for the civil servant was guaranteed with the
institution of public service commission which was introduced in the country in 1853, but in
the United States of America, the political executive controlled the power of recruitment,
promotion and discipline in the public service. The system which emerged in the United
States became known as the “Spoils or patronage” system as opposed to the “merit system”
in practice in Britain of, which we inherited at independence.
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The civil service during the colonial era was strictly driven by the observance of efficient
and dynamic rules and regulation to enable it perform it’s primary responsibility; which is
the protection of life and security. Its evolution can be traced to the Nigerianisation report of
1st Jan, 1949 to the order-in-council of 1954.
As an organ of the executive, it is responsible for advising the executive on policy
directions and implementations. In Nigeria it comprises of the public bureaucracy,
parastatals and agencies.
The scope of the civil service in Nigeria increased significantly with the oil boom of 1970’s
to include the provision of social services, which led to the establishment of several
departments and parastatals that have to cope with the expansion and increased
responsibility.
There are certain features of the civil service which have come to define it’s existence;
Permanence; Neutrality; Anonymity and Impartiality. These features aid in the civil service
in the performance of its functions particularly in the modern world; quasi legislative
functions and public orientation functions. But most importantly, their performance can be
measured in terms of ideals, perceptions, observance of laws and due process.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have been able to look at the origin of the public service in Nigeria and their functions
from the colonial era to the present day. The civil service in the past performed very limited
functions in terms of providing security and safety of life. But with the oil boom of the
1970’s, it’s functions enlarged to include the provision of social services and quasi-judicial
functions.
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6.0Tutor Marked Assignment;
-Identify and explain the modern functions performed by the civil service in Nigeria.
-Describe the means in which the performance of the public service can be measured.
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A f anas yev, V G , ( 1971) T he Scie ntif ic M anage me nt of Soc iet y, M osc ow,
P r ogr es s Publi she r s.
A lbr ow , Ma r tin,( 1970)
Bur eaucr acy, L ondon, Pa ll M al l.
A nder s on, Ja mes E,( 1975) P ublic Poli cy- M ak ing, London, T homas N els on &
S ons L td, 1975.
A r or a, R am es h ( ed) ( 1979) Adm ini st rat ive The ory , Ne w D el hi, U PA , 1984. .
—, ( ed) Per s pecti ves in Admi nis tr ativ e T heor y, N ew De lhi, A s soc iat ed
P ublis her s .
B ar ne tt, D oak A , C adr es , Bur eaucr acy and Poli tic al Pow e r i n C omm unis t
C hina, New Y or k, C olumbi a U niver s it y Pr e ss , 1967.
C r ozi er , M icha el, T he B ure aucr atic Phenom enon, C hi cago, U nive r si ty
of C hic ago P r es s, 1964.
D utta , PR ,( 1978)
Public Adm inis tr ati on and the St ate, New D elhi . Uppa l.
G oel, S L,( 1993) Advance d Publi c Adm ini st rat ion, N ew De lhi, S te r ling, 1994.
—,Pe rs onnel Adm inis tr ati on and M anagem ent, S le diag, N ew D elhi .
S elf , Pe ter ,( 1984) Adm ini st rat ive The ori es and Poli tic s: A n Enquir y i nto the
Str uct ure and Pr oces s of M odem G over nm ent, N ew D elhi , S C ha nd and
C ompa ny.
S we r dlow , I r ving( 1983) ,D eve lopm ent A dmi nis tr ation, C onc epts and
Pr oble ms , N ew Yor k, S yr ac use Uni ver s ity P r es s , Syr a cus e.
U veges , J ose ph A J r ( eds ) ( 1982) Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation: H is tor y and T heor y
in C ont em porar y P er spe cti ve, M ar c el D ekke r I nc, N ew Yor k, B a se l.
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UNIT 12:
THE CIVIL SERVICE REFORMS
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 CONCEPTUAL DEFINITION OF THE CIVIL SERVICE REFORMS . . . . . 119
3.2 THE PRINCIPLE UNDERLYING THE PUBLIC SERVICE REFORM . . . . . 119
3.3 CHRONOLOGY OF ADMINISTRATIVE REFORMS TO RE-INVIGORATE THE
PUB LIC SERVICE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .124
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Unit 12-Civil Service Reforms
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Various countries reform their civil service from time to time in line with particular needs of
such countries. It is therefore, difficult to generalise about reforms in civil services. Africans
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have demonstrated a great passion for revising and reorganising the structural bases for their
governments. This has been brought t about by the natural desire to render government more
efficient and also accommodate the new services expected by the public. Demand for these
change have been promulgated under the title of reforms and in many instances the need for
reforms have been supported by logic and practical needs.
The problem at hand is if these reforms have resulted into the anticipated benefits.
Note; The willingness to engage continually in experimentation in this field is evidence of
ongoing operational inefficiencies and a faith that more suitable combinations may one day
be found. However, the mere legality or constitutionality of administrative action does not
guarantee acceptability by the public.
We shall, therefore, limit ourselves to the 1988 reforms of the civil service in Nigeria. This
is because Nigeria had it’s major civil service reform referred to as the Dotun Philips Civil
Service Review Panel in that year, though the committee for the review was set up in 1985
by the Federal government. We shall make further attempts to itemise other reforms in
terms of their contents for comparism purposes.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;-State the reasons behind the civil service reforms in Nigeria.
-Identify and explain the main content of the civil service reforms.
3.0 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Conceptual definition of the Civil Service Reforms
Reforms connote a deliberate and planned change. It refers to any intervention which is
aimed at producing fundamental change in the public service in it’s conduct and operation.
Examples of such interventions are administrative actions. While they may produce short
term quantitative improvements, public service reform is a systematic intervention aimed at
improving the structure, operations, systems and procedures of the public service to enable its
transformation as a multi-faceted agent of change, and as in our case Nigeria, as a veritable
instrument of national cohesion and socio-economic development.
Reform is neither a quick fix nor a random injection of solutions. Reform is a sustained
process that is people-focused based on the realisation that while it’s target is the people, it’s
tool for achieving the desired change is also the people, an aspect of good governance we
talked about earlier.
3.2 The principle underlying the public service reform.
The principle underlying past and ongoing reforms of the public service are that:
1-The Nigerian Public Service is crucial but deficient;
2-The public service faces enormous problems and challenges which must be addressed;
3-A reformed service is key to meeting the development challenges of the 21st century;
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4-Nigeria’s dream of a better future can only be realised by modernising the machinery of
government-the public service;
5-Reform provides the platform for applying a combination of strategies and approaches to
resolve the crisis of governance and undevelopment.
6-It is aimed at reinvigorating the public service and revitalising it.
7-The need to halt the erosion of public confidence in government and fulfil the heightened
expectations of the citizenry in the delivery of democratic dividends.
8-Pressures arising from regional and global development initiatives.
9-Pressures from international development partners for reforms as conditionality for wining
their support and for access to their grants.
10-Emergence of civil societies exerting additional pressures on government to adhere to
tenets of good governance.
Self Assessment exercise 1; what are the major principles underlying the public service
reforms?
3.3 Chronology of Administrative Reforms to Re-invigorate the Public
Service.
Successive administrations in Nigeria instituted various administrative reviews and reforms
to reinvigorate the public service, some of which predated Nigeria’s independence. From
1945 till date, the initiatives range from installing more appropriate structures and conditions
of service to issues of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of the service and lately
ensuring service delivery improvements. The salient features of each initiative are listed
below:
1-Tudor Davis Commission, 1945;
-Reviewed wages and general conditions of service.
2-Harragin Salary Review Com mission, 1946;
-Reviewed wages and general conditions of service; and
-Divided the civil service into senior and junior service (2 distinct compartments)
3-Gorsuch Commission, 1951;
-Reviewed Remunerations and structure of the service, noted absence of viable middle
category and created 5 main grades.
4-Hewn Committee, 1959;
-Proposed integration of Ministries and Departments
-Defined the roles and functions of Permanent Secretaries
5-Mbanefo Salaries and Wages Commission, 1959;
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-Reviewed Salaries and Wages.
6-Morgan commission, 1963;
-Reviewed salaries/wages of junior staff of federal government and private establishments
-Introduced for the first time the minimum wage in Nigeria on geographical basis.
7-Elwood Grading Team , 1966;
-Examines anomalies in the grading of the posts to proposed uniform salaries for officers
performing identical duties.
8-Adebo Salaries/Wages Commission, 1971;
-Proposed establishment of a public serviced review commission to examine: the role of the
public service commission; structure of the civil service; conditions of service and training
agreements.
9-Udoji Comm ission.1972;
-Focused on the issue of increasing efficiency and effectiveness within the context of meeting
the challenges of a development oriented society;
-Introduce a new conception of management which is results oriented, concentrating attention
and resources on identified priority action;
-Introduced open Reporting System for performance evaluation;
-Established a unified Grading and Salary Structure covering all post in the service; and
-created a Unified senior Management Group for Administrative and professional Cadres for
central management of career.
-Recommended a new single public service staffed and led by professionals and officers
possessing the requisite knowledge and skills who can apply the acquired knowledge and
skills in establishing goals and achieving targets.
-Underscored the need for every public service manager to be trained in project management,
management by objective and programme budgeting.
-Recommended the adoption of project management as a tool for interminsterial task
execution for broadening of skills and competences and ensuring better integration of
government services.
-Recommended more delegation of human resource management functions to ministries,
Departments and Agencies.
-Recommended decentralisation of machinery for staff consultation and negotiation.
-Recommended speedy treatment of disciplinary cases arising in the face of complicated
disciplinary procedures and canvassed for the recognition of civil service.
-Recommended the institution of an ombudsman at the federal and state levels for reviewing
administrative decisions which are considered unjust.
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Self Assessment Exercise 2; What are the major components of the Udoji’s Reform of
1972?
10- The Dotun Philips 1988 Civil service reform s
The element of the 1988 civil service reforms are;1-The minister not the permanent secretary, becomes the chief executive and accounting
officer of his ministry. If there were anything suspicious about payments to be made by the
minister as the chief accounting officer, the auditor general was empowered to alert the
president to warn the minster about the possible misappropriation for which the minister
would be liable or responsible. This was to ensure proper accountability.
2-The permanent secretary was now called Director- general and his appointment was
entirely political i.e. he would retire with the government that appointed him. He might,
however, be reappointed by a new administration. Any one so appointed had the right to
reject such appointment and remain in service if he did not wish to retire.
3-Another result of the reform was the professionalization of ministries. Each officer made
his career in the ministry or department of his choice. The system of centralised pooling of
administrative, executive and clerical officers was discontinued .Each civil servant spent his
entire career in a ministry, thus ending the inter- ministry transfer of officers.
4-Each ministry was responsible for the appointment, discipline and promotion of it’s staff,
under the general guidelines provided by the Federal Civil Service Commission. The Federal
Civil Service Commission was given the power to appoint staff from grade level 07 to Grade
Level 10; the ministries appointed officers of Grade level 11 and above in their departments.
5-By virtue of the reform, the Federal Civil Service Commission:
a) Spelt out the responsibilities of the employees of the ministries;
b) Monitored the ministries to ensure compliance with the guidelines and general
existing civil service rules;
c) Served as an appellate body on all personnel matters and kept records of employees of
the entire civil service;
d) Trained civil servants, with emphasis on specialisation and professionalism
e) Reviewed the organisation and method ,grading and pay, and general management
services of the entire civil service; and `
f) Managed the pension scheme, pending the reorganisation of the civil service pension
scheme.
6-The horizontal structure of the civil service was based on three departments:
a) personnel department
b) finance department
c) planning department
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A ministry may have five additional operations departments for handling of it’s basic
functions. The total number of departments must not exceed eight.
A vertical structure in a ministry, designed to further professionalism and specialisation,
consisted of divisions, which could be broken down into branches. These branches could
be further broken into specialised sections.
7-each ministry set up its own personnel management board, with its committees. It’s
composition must be shown a fair geographical spread. The principle of Federal Character
was applied in the recruitment of officers from GL O7 to 10.Merit was the criterion for
promotion of officers from GL 07 to GL 10.From GL 11,promotions became political
.The civil service commission ,however , remained an appellate body for an aggrieved or
dissatisfied officer.
8-The central bank and the ministry of budget and planning were located in the office of
the president, while the productivity, prices and incomes board was located in the
ministry of finance and economic development.
9-The office of the head of service was abolished at the federal level .The secretary to the
government remained wielding considerable undisputed political and administrative
powers.
Following the restoration of democracy in Nigeria on May 29th, 1999, the civilian
government of President Olusegun Obasanjo quickly overturned the 1998 civil service
reforms –to the relief of Nigerians. With this action, the full functions of the civil service
commissions were restored .Other significant effects of the reversal were that:
1-The office of the head of service was restored.
2-The title permanent secretary, was restored, (in place of the Director- general) and the
position was entirely insulated from politics.
3-The permanent secretary become, once again, the chief executive officer of his ministry
4-The so-called professionalization of ministries was discontinued, with the restoration of
centralised pooling staff.
5-Merit was fully restored as the criterion for the promotion of officers at all levels.
(Oyediran et-al, 2005:117/118).
11-The Ayida Review Panel, 1995;
-Recommended the abrogation of the Civil Service Reorganisation Decree No.43 of 1988
and a return to the status quo.
Self Assessment Exercise 3; What are the measure components of the 1988 Civil
service reforms?
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have been able to analyse in this unit that reform is a journey not a destination, which
requires careful planning and diligent implementation. This is because the public service is
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ver y important as an instrument for change and implementing government policies and
should be given the deserved high priority.
For reforms to succeed, it requires building new capacities for effective management, broad
collaboration and broad support to enable it cope with the 21st century challenges and deliver
services effectively and efficiently. This is because the public service needed to be altered
considerably in order to inject some confidence in government by citizens who have
helplessly watched the declining fortunes of the nation over the years.
This is necessitated by the fact that nations are moving from government to governance and
the public service has to reflect that change. And since the role of government has changed
considerably, it requires the transformation of the public service along the pattern of change.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have been able to look at the definition of the civil service reforms particularly the one
that emphasise planned actions aimed at inducing improvement in the system. The unit also
outlined the underlying principle for public service reform to include but not limited to
meeting up with the challenges of the 21st century.
The unit was able to identify and state the major content of reforms from 1945 to 1995 in
order to help you clearly understand the changes that took place over the years. The unit
concluded that the civil service is the only instrument responsible for moving government to
it’s required state.
6.0Tutor Marked Assignment.
-What are the underlying principles of the public service reforms.
-What are the distinguishing features of the 1988 Dotun Philip Civil Service Reform?
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rodee, Anderson, Christol and Greene (1983) Introduction to Political Science. Fourth
Edition. McGraw-Hill, Japan pg 237.
The Obasanjo Reforms ;( 1999) Public Service Reforms and National Transformation
publication of the Federal Ministry of Information and Communications. Radio House Abuja.
G olem biew s ki, R T ( e d) ( 1976) Publi c Adm ini st rat ion, Re adxs gs i n
I ns tit utions , Pr oce ss es , Be haviour , C hic ago, R and M cN af l y.
H eady, F er r e l,( 1984) Publ ic A dmi nis tr ation: A C ompar ati ve P er spe cti ve, N ew
J er s ey, P r enti ce- H al l I nc.
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UN I T 13:
THE CIVIL SERVICE AND GOVERNANCE
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 D EF I N I TI ON O F GO VE R NA N C E . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
3.1 a Rights- based definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.1 b Economic- based definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .127
3.1 c Political/Administrative definition: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.2 ELEMENTS OF GOOD GOVERNANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.3 The Three Access Principles of Governance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .129
3.4 Dimensions of Good Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.5 Institutional Conditions for Good Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .133
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Unit 13-The Civil Service and Governance
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
134
Good governance is a relatively new term that is often used to describe the desired objective
of a nation-state’s political development. The principles of good governance, however, are
not new. Good governance is, in short, anti-corruption whereas authority and its institutions
are accountable, effective and efficient, participatory, transparent, responsive, consensusoriented, and equitable. These are the major characteristics of good governance as outlined by
the United Nations. The World Leaders at the 2005 World Summit concluded that good
governance is integral to economic growth, the eradication of poverty and hunger, and
sustainable development. The views of all oppressed groups, including women, youth and the
poor, must be heard and considered by governing bodies because they will be the ones most
negatively affected if good governance is not achieved. For good governance to exist in both
theory and practice, citizens must be empowered to participate in meaningful ways in
decision-making processes.
Governance as it relates to the civil service forms the central theme of this part. It begins by
giving different definitions of the concept of governance from various perspectives. Having
defined governance, the various functions of governance .The above functions of government
cannot be adequately and effectively executed without the government embracing the
principles of good governance. In recognition of this fact, the unit also explains the
institutional conditions necessary for good governance. We will also attempt to highlight it’s
principles and various dimensions as well.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to;
-To define the broad principles of governance.
-To identify the statutory functions of government.
-To highlight impediments to the realization of good governance.
-To highlight the role of the people towards securing good governance.
-To define the perspectives and measures of good governance.
-To offer suggestions on ways to bring about good governance to the civil service in
Nigeria.
-Identify and explain the institutional conditions for good governance.
3.0 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 Definition of Governance.
The term governance has been variously interpreted to suit legal systems, political systems,
economic systems or ideologies. However, one string that runs through the definitions is that
governance has to do with the relationship between the government and the governed.
Various institutions and agencies have also given their own definitions of the term
‘governance’. These have been done in such a way as to either give credence to it’s
(agency’s) operations or it’s goals. The following are good examples:
i. Governance has been described as: “the set of values, policies and institutions by which
a society manages economic, political and social processes”.
ii. Governance has also been described “as the manner in which power is exercised in the
management of a country’s economic and social resources for development”. Other
definitions include:
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iii. The process of decision-making and the process by which decisions are implemented.
iv. The framework of rules, institutions and practices that set limits and provide incentives
for the behaviour of individuals and organisations. (Agbakoba & Ogbonna, 2004)
3.1 a Rights-based definition:
Governance has been described as: the process whereby public institutions conduct public
affairs, manage public resources and guarantee the realization of human rights”.
In this regard, governance is seen as the process through which those charged with the
regulation of people’s conducts and the management of resources have as their basic guide
and target, the guarantee of basic rights of those that are led.
The rights – based approach to governance is meant to integrate the norms, standards and
principles of international human rights systems into the plans, policies and processes of
development. The norms and standards are those enshrined in international (including
regional and sub – regional) treaties and declarations.
Essentially, this approach has it’s foundation in the Universal Declaration on Human
Rights which proclaimed human rights “as a common standard of achievement for all
peoples and all nations”.
It is worthy to note that countries have their own human rights laws and standards too.
These are expressed in their respective constitutions. They are equally given different
names. But these notwithstanding, countries are under obligations arising from their
acceding to various human rights treaties “to respect, protect and fulfil” all human rights,
civil, political, economic, social and cultural.
In effect, this approach tends to emphasize the fact that governance worldwide should be
measured or assessed on grounds of it’s political, social and economic policies complying
with both local and international human rights obligations. To this end, public resources
should be managed in such a way and manner as to guarantee the basic civil, political,
economic, social and cultural rights.
Self Assessment Exercise 1; Define governance from the human rights perspective.
3.1 b Economic-based definition:
This perception tends to view governance as a means whereby the resources of a people
are managed towards development. It recognizes government as an institution that
oversees these resources, makes laws governing their uses and allocation; and above all
channel these resources to engender the needed development.
This approach to governance is championed by international financial institutions, donor
and economic development agencies. It has thus been opined by the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) that:
“The concept of governance is concerned with the management of the development
process, involving both the public and private sectors. It encompasses the functioning and
capability of the public sector, as well as the rules and institutions that create the
framework for the conduct of both public and private business, including accountability
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for economic and finance performance, and regulatory frameworks relating to companies,
corporations and partnerships.”
In every legal or political system, there are rules guiding resource allocation and
exploitation. This is to ensure even distribution of resources. Taxes and other revenues are
imposed and collected for or by the government. In this same system also, there are natural
and human resources which are to be harnessed by the government. The manner in which
the government does the above for the overall benefit of the people and to enhance
development is known as governance.
3.1 c Political/Administrative definition:
Governance in this guise is seen as an administrative process through which the State
(institutions of governance) administers it’s human and natural resources for the benefit of
the people. Towards this end, the UNDP has stated that:
“Governance can be seen as the exercise of economic, political and administrative
authority to manage a country’s affairs at all levels. It comprises the mechanisms,
processes and institutions, through which citizens and groups articulate their interest,
exercise their legal rights, meet their obligations and mediate their differences.”
The main drivers in this approach to governance are government institutions and the Civil
Service. This definition is predicated upon the fact that the constitution confers legislative,
executive and judicial powers upon certain persons and institutions, the exercise of which
will either constitute good or bad governance. Governance in this respect being the ability
of the concerned institutions of government to play creditably, their rightful roles of
legislating for the order, peace and good governance of their area of operation; executing
government policies for the public good and creating a forum for the adequate redress of
wrongs.
Another important area is that of creating opportunities for interest articulation and
aggregation. Individual members of any given society should be able to form groups or
elect to join any of their choice. Governance entails government being able to make good
use of these diverse interests for the benefit of the society at large.
3.2 Elements of Good Governance
1. Public Participation:
Good governance presupposes the participation of the citizens in the art of governance and
decision making. It is the modern form of decentralization of powers, this time the
recipient being the citizens. Participation in local governance will not only involve access
to decision making but also access to information.
2. Accountability and transparency.
It is important that the affairs of governance are conducted with as much openness and
sincerity as possible. This will not only give the citizen the desired trust in government but
also check improprieties and allow for the needed development. The case of the local
government becomes more special because of it’s proximity to the people. Thus, it is
important for leaders at the local government level to observe the tenets of accountability
and transparency. Doing otherwise will lead to loss of faith in democracy and further
underdevelopment.
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3. Respect for the rule of law and Human Rights:
Good governance entails the recognition of the rule of law and its corresponding pillars of
separation of powers and respect for human rights. There cannot be good governance
without constitutionalism and by extension, the respect for fundamental freedoms. Each
arm of government should be independent with distinct powers.
4. Efficient and effective public sector management:
An efficient Civil service is the foundation of any successful government. The civil
service is responsible for implementing and executing government’s policies. If the civil
service is weak and corrupt, then the ends of governance will be defeated.
The local government should ensure that its manpower at every time is highly motivated
and efficient. Regular training and re – training should be embarked upon and anti –
corruption measures put in place to check corruption.
Self Assessment Exercise 2; List and explain the elements of good governance.
3.3 The Three Access Principles of Governance.
Access to Information is defined as the ability of citizens to obtain governmental
information in possession of public authorities. the information referred to here relates to
any issue of governance affecting the citizen in any way.
this includes (but not limited to) the right to know government expenditure and revenue
(the budget), information on the wealth and sources thereof of a public official, access to
documents that affect his rights like court documents or those of a commission.
Access to Participation is defined as the opportunity for citizens to provide informed,
timely, and meaningful input and influence decisions on general policies, strategies, and
plans at various stages of either formulation or implementation by the government or the
community in which they live in. individuals may for instance, engage in electoral
processes, testify at hearings and meetings, serve on advisory committees, have direct
contact with public officials, express views and opinions through the media, or engage in
some form of protest action.
Access to Justice is defined as the ability of citizens to turn to impartial arbiters to resolve
disputes over access to information and participation in the decisions making. Such
impartial arbiters include mediators, administr ative courts (commissions) and formal law
courts amongst others. The citizen can for instance sue the government over an act of a
public official or an unfavourable or unlawful policy.
The citizen can also proceed against a fellow citizen for any violation of right. Access to
justice does not stop at suing but includes a favourable climate to prosecute the case, i.e.,
the cost and duration of litigation. Litigation must be affordable and speedy. Gove r nance
ne eds atti tudina l c hange i n or der to pr e vent gr os s i nst abil ity i n the s ys tem .
3.4 Dimensions of Good Governance
1. Political Dimension:
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Governance as we have seen involves the exercise of powers by an elected few over other
persons. Good governance is that in which citizens have input in the business of
government. Such participation usually begins with the involvement of the citizens in the
electoral process. Since the local government is the closest to the people, it becomes
imperative for local government councils to ensure mass participation in governance
through the engagement of the civil society in decision making.
The political dimension of good governance also entails that people be allowed to form
political groupings through which they canvass for elective positions. In the same vein, it
presupposes that citizens be guaranteed the right to vote and be voted for in elections.
Such elections should be periodic, free and fair.
Another manifestation of good governance is in the area of prevention and management of
conflict. Good governance entails that government of the day should be able to hold forth
and be in total control of the lives of the people. Government should be able to curtail the
excesses of the masses, whilst not infringing their fundamental freedoms.
Conflicts of ethnic, linguistic, political or religious characters are prevalent in any given
human society. In entrenching good governance, government should be able to prevent
these conflicts by harmonizing all the diverse interests and also, manage these conflicts so
as not to endanger the peace and corporate existence of the society.
The local government will find a veritable partner in the traditional institutions in the task
of conflict prevention. It is, therefore, suggested that though the local government wields
political power, it should involve traditional rulers in taking decisions that will affect the
lives of the people or in settling disputes.
2. Economic Dimension:
The primary object of enthroning any government is to provide for the welfare of the
people and the needed economic development. Good governance thus requires
government to formulate credible economic policies targeted at the realization of these
objectives. The true test of good governance is not, however, in the beauty of these but in
their end results, which is, the translation of the policies into development. Thus, good
governance should be able to provide the much-needed development, attain the desired
goals and affect progressively, the lives of the citizens. The local government should
ensure prudent management of it’s resources so as to attain the desired goals. It should
evolve a scale of priorities and set targets for achieving them. No matter the policy it
chooses at a particular time, the effect on the lives of the people should first be borne in
mind.
3. Human Development Dimension:
In any political system, the target of government is to create conducive environment for all
to live a happy, fulfilling and long life. Human development is that development that
results in enhancing the capacity of people to live long healthy lives, acquire relevant
skills and knowledge that will enable them to access employment, earn higher incomes,
increase their productivity and improve their quality of life.
Good governance seeks to attain human development by placing high premium on the
citizens and the future generations.
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The human development dimension of governance is also aimed at eliminating poverty,
promoting human dignity and rights and providing equitable opportunities for all through
the observance of the basic tenets of good governance. The central themes of human
development are building human capacity, promoting human dignity and the realization of
all human rights, economic, social, cultural, civil and political.
The importance of human development is expressed in the annual evaluation of
Human Development Index (HDI) published annually by the World Bank. The HDI
contains measures in Gross Domestic Product (GDP), per capita income, life expectancy
and adult literacy level.
Human development in most developing countries is still being assaulted by factors such
as poverty, illiteracy and HIV/AIDS. Good governance aims at eliminating these
retrogressive factors.
Just as in other tiers of government, human beings form the foundation of the local
government. However , unlike other tiers of government, the local government is the
closest to the people. Every person lives in a local government be it rural or urban.
Human development should thus be the aim of every local government. This may prove to
be a herculean task for the local government due to funds. But suffice it to say that with
the involvement of the other stakeholders like the civil society, the local government will
find itself on the right path towards attaining its goals.
4. Gender Equality:
Equality between men and women has come to be recognized as a human right, a
democratic and economic imper ative. Women still constitute the bulk of the poorest
households; have limited access to productive resources, power and decision-making,
education and training as well as adequate health services.
Good governance will seek to recognize women’s worth and equality with men. This must
be complemented with various policies and legislations aimed at enhancing women’s
living conditions, access to employment, political participation, and better access to credit
and other productive resources as well as inheritance rights.
In a nutshell, the notion of gender equality is aimed at eliminating the marginalization of
women and eliminating the discrimination that is prevalent in our societies.
The local government as the cradle of democracy should evolve policies that will eradicate
obnoxious customs and traditional practices which set to relegate women and other
individuals to the background.
3.5 Institutional Conditions for Good Governance.
Stable policy environment: Unpredictable policies, risk of economic disruption has a
negative influence on the ability to deliver good govenrnenance.Whereas continuity of
political leadership, adequate degree of institutional independence, clear and functional
division of task between the political arm and the administration and an equitable legal
framework to secure human rights, including freedom to work, organise and express
opinions.
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In this context transparency and accountability will be ensured in the use of public
resources, which is a strong condition for the attainment of good governance and industrial
harmony.
Clear Delineation of the role of the state: The idea of the state as primarily a facilitator
of production and growth is predicated on the fact that the state provides institutional
infrastructure (organisations, human and legal elements e.t.c) within which the economy
and the private sector could more effectively operate as a facilitator of growth and
developoment.This is a panacea for responsible governance and sustained development.
Adequate indigenous institutional structures for development policy formulation and
implementation: The lack of adequate indigenous institutional machinery for
development policy formulation and implementation has militated against the evolution of
structures appropriate for the promotion and management of development in each country
and Nigeria in particular. Public institutions have to be equipped in order to manage
development policies effectively through the promotion of popular commitment to
government activities, standards of institutional effectiveness and managerial capacity,
proper policy analysis, appropriate information and proper planning.
These efforts will all be sustained through adequate development of indigenous
institutional structures that have the capacity to deal effectively with external agencies.
Popular participation: An increasing number of African countries subscribe to the
concept of popular participation. Thus, the need to develop an institutional framework that
promotes such .This process has to promote the involvement of the masses at all levels of
policy making, and the ruling class should also imbibe the culture of transparency and
accountability to the people as part of their entire process of good governance.
Popular participation implies greater role of peoples and institutions whether or not they
are called non-governmental organisations .Getting more popular participation in its
various forms into the system is an element to achieve good governance, because it
encourages political authorities to change attitudes and be ready to listen and that helps
achieve accountability.
Self Assessment Exercise 3; List and explain the Institutional conditions for good
governance.
4.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The critical importance of good governance and adequate institutional capacity to support the
realisation of sustainable and equitable growth cannot be overemphasised. This is because
Good governance is seen as the first prerequisite for the realisation of sustainable and
equitable development. Equity is a cornerstone for good governance which can be achieved
through equitable sharing of the burden of adjustment cost and a reduction in the prevailing
levels and patterns of elite consumption.
Good governance require that the government makes consistent efforts to promote the
welfare of the people through policies aimed at achieving equitable and sustainable growth in
per capita income while providing safeguard for national and personal security. Good
governance further requires broad popular involvement in the formulation and
implementation of government policies. Good governance is important for the removal of
distortions of fiscal reforms and is an important step towards sustainable and equitable
growth.
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One ver y important element of modern thinking is the universal recognition of the
fundamental importance of existing institutional capacity to the achievement of sustained and
sustainable development. The need for the public sector and particularly the civil service to
manage the process of structural adjustment has also increased enormously.
Several examples were given to illustrate the critical importance of institutional capacity to
deliver good governance. For instance, consensus can be reached among policy makers on
the need for exchange rate devaluation. This would have to be decided upon on the basis of
the institutional capacity to administer a structure of multiple issues.
The process of enhancing sustainable institutional capacity for development policy
management is however complex but can be achieved through good governance and
improvement in manpower,procedures,structures and organisation of the civil service in other
to enhance overall institutional infrastructure will depend on the adoption of a long term
multi-dimensional and integrated approach towards indigenous institutional development.
During the last Century also, there has been a considerable rethinking on the ways the
governments now conduct their business. They are now looking more and more towards
innovative solutions to respond to an increasing number of new and complex environmental
and global problems and pressures, which are further accentuated in a developing, multilinguistic, and a multi-cultural country like Nigeria for example, having diversity of social
and religious systems and tremendous ecological, cultural and external constraints. It is thus
natural that students of good governance and public administrationists all over the world,
more specifically in Nigeria must now concern themselves increasingly with more vital issues
beyond the realm of mere regulation and maintenance of law and order, to Citizen
Participation in Governance.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The civil service plays a central role in the governance of any country as the main discussion
of this unit. It is the process whereby public institutions conduct public affairs and manage
them in a way that encourages citizen’s participation and guarantees their rights.
The Unit was able to explain the elements of good governance, and these include;-public
participation, Accountability and transparency, respect for the rule of law and human rights
and effective and efficient public sector management. These elements can be achievable if the
access points of good governance are properly secured viz: Access to Information, Access to
participation and access to justice.
The unit also explained in details the various dimensions of good governance to include;Political dimension, Economic dimension, Human development dimension and gender
equality among others. The unit concluded by outlining the required institutional conditions
for good governance which include; - Stable policy environment; Clear Delineation of the
role of the state; Adequate indigenous institutional structures for development policy
formulation and implementation; and Popular participation.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
1. What is your understanding of Governance?
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2. Identify and list the elements of good governance.
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dr. Randhir B.Jain(2009) Public Administration in India: 21st Century
Challenges for Good Governance.Sephis E-Magazine.
http://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/public/documents/UNPAN/UNPAN001526.pdf:R
etrieved on the 22nd of August, 2009, by 3.45 pm.
Corker y Joan and Jean Bossuyt (1990) Governance and Institutional Development in SubSaharan Africa. European centre for development and policy management Summary report
on a seminar organised at ECDPM on 28, 29, and 30 March, 1990.Maastricht.
This Day Newspaper, pg 14, September 20, 2009.
Adapted from: D.L. Derasang and J.J. Gosling; (1999) Politics and Policy in American States
and Communities. Boston: Allyn and Bacon Publishers.
Danate E Dagin (2007), Local Government Administration and Development in Nigeria: A
Capacity Building Manual: by Human Rights Law Service. Apapa Lagos, Nigeria.
UNIT 14
INTERNATIONAL PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND DOMESTIC
PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 D I F FE R EN C ES I N TH E R OL ES O F PU B LI C AD M I NI S TR A TI O N I
D
N EV
THELO
E P ED AN D DE VE LO PI N G C OU N TR I ES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.2 THE MAJOR CHARACTERISTICS OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN
DEVELOPING COUNTRIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .139
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .140
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
143
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Unit 14-International Public Administration and Domestic Public
Administration
5.0 .Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Public Administration as a way of carrying out governmental activities does exist in both
the developing and developed countries of the world. .The nat ions of Wes te r n
E ur ope, N or th A mer ic a a nd Englis h s pea king domini ons of t he B r it is h
C om monwe alt h ar e usua lly r e cognize d as devel oped s ocie tie s. T he new ly
i ndependent poor count r ies of A si a, A f r ica and Lat in A mer i ca a r e ca lle d
de veloping countr ie s. We s hould be ar in mi nd that public admi nis tr at ion is
e cologic al and cul tur e bound. H enc e, the na tur e a nd r ole of publ ic
a dminis tr a tion ar e gr e atl y inf luenc ed by t he envir onm enta l condi tions of
t he s ocie ty in w hic h it f unc tions , be i t devel oped or deve loping. F or thi s
r e as on the r ol e- pla ye d by public admi nis tr at ion in de velope d countr i es
di f f er s f r om the r ole pl ayed by i t in de veloping c ountr ie s
T his unit i s goi ng to look a t the r ol e pla yed by publi c adm inis tr a tion i n
bot h devel oped and de veloping countr ie s. The unit als o expl ains the
c har act er is ti cs of public admi nis tr at ion i n t he deve loped a nd devel oping
c ountr ies , t he cha r acte r is tic s of public admini st r ati on in deve loping
c ountr ies a nd f ur ther s tr e ss the dif f er enc es betw ee n them and ar e as of
i nter - r e lati onshi p.
2.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A t the end of thi s l ect ur e, you s hould be a ble t o:
- Expl ain t he cha r act er is ti cs of Publ ic A dmi nis tr ati on in de veloped and
deve loping c ountr ie s.
- Expl ain t he cha r act er is ti cs of Publ ic A dmi nis tr ati on in D eve loping c ountr ies .
- Exa mine the di f f er enc es
deve loping c ountr ie s.
betw ee n public admin is tr at ion in de veloped and
- A nd point out the a r eas of int er r el ati onshi ps .
3.0 Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. The main differences in the roles of public administration in
the developed and developing countries are as follows:
1. I n the devel oped pos t indus tr i al s oci eti es admini st r ati on pla ys
li mit ed r ole . I n thes e s oci eti es the hi ghly deve loped a nd wi des pr ead
inf r a st r uctur e is owne d and ma naged by pr i vate or ganiz ations . T he
publi c adm inis tr a tor s r egula te pr i vate se ctor t o pr omote acce ler a ted
deve lopme nt and t o pr ovide s er vi ces to t he peopl e ef f ic ient ly. I n the
144
deve loping c ountr ie s publ ic a dmini str ation has a maj or and
s ignif i cant r ole t o play i n br inging a bout the much- ne eded s ocioec onomic change s i n soc iet y. I n the de velopi ng soc ieti es the
gover nm ent i s r e quir ed t o cr ea te t he nec es sa r y inf r as tr uc tur e a nd
ma nage i t. A genci es and or gani zat ions have t o be es tabl is hed by
gover nm ents f or r ende r ing s ocia l w elf a r e s er vic es . Ther e is high
degr e e of r el ianc e on publi c adm inis tr a tion a s a n ins tr ument to
ac hieve devel opment al goa ls .
2. I n the devel oped s ocie tie s publ ic a dminis tr a tor s have to tac kle the
pr oble ms of incr e as ing cr i me a nd se r ious soc ial pr oblems s uch a s
r ape , viole nce, dr ug a ddict ion, et c., w hich pos e t hr eats t o the
publi c’ s we lf ar e . They de al w it h compl ex pr oble ms , whi ch dema nd
com plex s olut ions . They ha ve to s olve suc h pr oblems w it h the he lp
of adva nced t echnol ogica l te chnique s. T hey have to per f or m
inc r eas ingl y compl ex ma nager i al t as ks. I n ot her w or ds, t he dif f ic ult
cha lle nges f ace d by public admi nis tr at or s de mand unpr e cedent ed
expe r tis e a nd se nsi bili ty on the ir par t . C ontr as ti ngl y, the pr oblems
f ac ed by publi c adm inis tr a tion i n the de velopi ng soc ieti es ar e quite
dif f e r ent. T hey inc lude s uch pr obl ems as pover t y, unemplo ym ent,
poor hea lth, l ow a gr icul tur al and indus tr i al pr oduc tivit y, et c. The
pr oble ms have “ pose d a f or mi dable chal lenge’ f or public
adm inis tr a tor s of the de velopi ng soc iet ies . U sua lly t he
bur ea ucr ac ies ar e def ic ient in s kill ed manpow er f or devel opmenta l
pr ogr am mes .
3. P ublic admi nis tr at ion of the devel oped s ocie tie s i s i nf luence d by
deve lopme nts of sc ienc e and t echnol ogy. He nce, publ ic
adm inis tr a tor s have t o f ami lia r ize them se lves w ith f a st changing
s cie ntif i c dis cove r ies and t echnol ogica l te chniques f or ma naging
huma n af f ai r s. I n t he deve loping c ountr ie s publ ic a dminis tr a tion is
gr ea tly i nf luenc ed by deve loped e conomy a nd the c halle nges of
s ocio- e conomi c deve lopme nt. The devel oping countr i es depend on
the ir gover nm ent f or a ll c r ucia l dec is ions r egar di ng econom ic
deve lopme nts . Thes e s oci eti es have l imi ted m ater ial and human
r es our ce s f or de velopm ent. B e caus e of s ca r cit y of r es our ces ,
gover nm ents of the devel oping s ocie tie s i nter vene in s ocia l l if e by
la yi ng dow n maj or pr ior it ies and goa ls of gover nment .
4. P ublic admi nis tr at ion in de velope d soc iet ies is pr agm ati c and
pr oduct ion or ie nted. P ubli c adm inis tr a tor s ar e l oya l t o the
or gani zat ion and c ommi tte e to a chie ve it ’ s obj ect ives . B ur ea ucr ac y
no longe r conf or ms to t he tr a diti onal W eber ia n model . I t i s pa ss ing
thr ough t he pos t- We ber ia n phas e of deve lopme nt. B ur ea ucr ac ies in
the devel oping s ocie tie s e mphas iz e or ie ntat ions that ar e othe r than
pr oduct ion dir e cte d. Muc h of the bur e aucr a tic
act ivit y is diver te d
tow ar ds the non- devel opment al goa ls and non- pr oduct ive ope r ations .
Lo ya lty t o the or ga niza tion or i ts mis s ion is not pow er f ul
Self Assessment Exercise 1; Identif y and discuss the differences in the administration of
Developed and Developing countries.
145
3.2 The major characteristics of public Administration in Developing
countries
The countr i es r ef er t o as devel oping ar e so c all ed deve loping bec aus e of w hat
the y do and have in com mon. The y exhibit the f ollow ing c ommon f e atur es .
1. C om monly s har e d colonia l pa st : The developi ng countr i es comm only
s har e a col onial pas t. A s a r es ult of t he pr otr ac ted colonia l and i mper i al
e xploita tion, thes e c ountr ies ha ve under deve loped e conomi es and ar e in the
gr i p of a dee p cr is is . I n the se soc ieti es , the nationa l inc ome pe r head i s
ve r y low .
2. F ac ing s imil ar pr obl ems : T he deve loping c ountr ies ar e f aci ng si mil ar
pr obl ems s uch as pover t y, unemplo ym ent, illi ter a cy, popul ation e xplos ion,
s oci al s ta gnation, poor healt h, mal nutr it ion, and l ow a gr icul tur al and
i ndust r ial pr oducti vity. T hes e pr oble ms have “pos ed a f or mida ble
c halle nge f or t he gover nme nts ” of t he devel oping nat ions .
3. M aj or ity of t he r ur al peoples a r e in t he ear t hly s tage s of de velopm ent:
t he vas t ma jor it y of the r ur al ma ss es i n the de veloping c ountr ie s a r e in t he
e ar ly s ta ges of soc io- ec onomic developm ent. The deve lopme ntal pr oces s ,
w hic h is usua lly a n unbalanc ed one , f avour s the ur ban e lit e or the domina nt
r ur a l gr oups . I t does not gi ve much impor ta nce t o the va st maj or ity of t he
r ur a l poor .
4. P oli tica l i nst abili ty: Pol itic al ins tabil it y c ontinue s t o af f ec t s ocia l or der
a nd economi cal deve lopment s in the developi ng countr i es . Pol iti cal
i nst abili ty i s c aus ed by ec onomic f r ust r ations a nd f eeli ngs of
di sc r imina tion among di ver s e r el igious , lingui st ic, c as te, e thnic , and tr i bal
gr oups . The st ate and gover nme nt of t hes e countr i es have a r es ponsi bili ty
of de aling wi th the se dar k f or ce s, w hich ar e thr e ate ning the ir s ocia l f abr i c
a nd blocki ng their economi c de velopme nt.
5. H et er ogeneous pi ctur e of admini st r ati on: T he devel oping s ocie tie s
pr e se nt a he ter ogene ous pictur e of old a nd new , t r adit ional and mode r n in
or ga nizat ional f or ms and a dminis tr a tive behavi our . The developm enta l
pr oc es s r e f lect s this divi si on.
6. A n ins tr ume nt of de velopme ntal goal s: I n the de ve loping s oci eti es , ther e
i s hi gh degr ee of r elia nce on public admini st r ati on as an ins tr um ent t o
a chieve deve lopment al goals : s ocio- economi c pr ogr es s and nat ion buil ding.
T he poli tica l l eader s of t hes e countr i es w idel y s har e s c ommi tme nt to t hes e
goa ls . They a im a t pr ogr es s ive t r ans f or mati on of thei r s ociet ies thr ough
publ ic a dminis tr a tion. He nce, gove r nment centr a liz es the pr oc es s of
de velopme nt.
P O LI N AI D U in a s imi lar vein s impl y obs er ved t hat t he char a cte r is tic s of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion in deve loping c ount r ies have been i nher it ed f r om
t heir e x- colonia l r ul er s . Publ ic a dminis tr a tions i n t he deve loping c ountr ie s
ha ve ce r tain gener al f eat ur es , w hich ar e indic ati ve of it s na tur e. T he mos t
i mpor tant of the m ar e br ief l y dealt w ith a s unde r :
146
T h e i m it at ive pat t e rn of pu b lic adm i ni st r at ion : The bas ic pa tter n of
publ ic a dminis tr a tion in the developi ng countr i es is imi tat ive r a ther t han
i ndigenous . U sua lly, t he admi nis tr at ive sys tem of a deve loping c ountr y
r e se mble s t hat of i ts ex- col onial r uler of w es ter n nation. The inhe r ite d
a dminis tr a tive s ys te m i s a uthor ita r ian, elit is t, a nd di st ant f r om people .
A n acu t e s hor t age of s ki lled an d t rain ed m an pow er : The bur e aucr ac ies
a r e def i cient in s kil led ma npowe r nece ss ar y f or developm enta l
pr ogr a mmes . T her e i s a n acute s hor tage of tr aine d admi nis tr at or s w it h
m anage ment capac ity, developm enta l s kill s, people- or i ente d outlook a nd
t echnic al compet ence .
B u re auc racy i s ve ry m u ch con cern ed w it h n on- p rod u ct ive ope rat ors :
M uch of t he bur ea ucr ac y acti vity in the developi ng countr i es is diver t ed
t owa r ds t he non- deve lopment al goals and non- pr oduct ive ope r ati ons.
L oya lty to the or ganiza tion or it’ s mis s ion i s not a powe r f ul et hic a mong
t he bur ea ucr ats . T hey us e admi nis tr at ive methods to e xtend t heir pe r sona l
pow er w it hout r ef e r ence to the goals of the or ga niza tion.
Wi de sp re ad d is cr ep anc y be t we en f orm an d r ealit y in adm i ni st r at ive
p rac t ice : The r e is w ides pr ead dis cr epanc y betw ee n f or m and r e ali ty, i.e .
be tw een t he f or mal ly pr e sc r ibed f or ms a nd their pr acti ce. R i ggs ha s
l abell ed t his phenomenon as “F or mali sm ” B e caus e of “ f or mali sm ” the
of f i cial beha viour of publi c of f ic ials doe s not c or r es pond to the lega l
s ta tus alt hough public of f icia ls ins is t on f oll owi ng law s , r ules and
r e gulati ons. Thus , bur eaucr a cy i n the de veloping c ountr ie s i s W eber i an in
f or m but not i n conte nt.
O pe rat ion al au t on om y: B ur eauc r acy i n the de veloping countr ie s enjoys an
unus ual degr ee of oper ati onal autonomy. This is beca use of bur eauc r aci es
ne ar monopol y on techni cal exper t is e i n admini st r ati ve ma tte r s. T he
bur e aucr at s enjoy ma ximum pow er w ithout ef f ect ive contr ol over it. This is
be caus e c onst ituti onal account abil ity sys tem in the devel oping count r ies
l acks impl eme ntat ion due to the politi ciz ati on of admi nis tr at ion.
O ver- l app in g in t h e p olit i cal an d adm i ni st r at ive f u n ct ion s : Ther e is als o
ove r lapping in the politi cal and a dminis tr a tive st r uctur e s a nd in the ir
f unc tions . I n the developi ng count r ies , it is not uncomm on f or bur eauc r ats
t o inte r f er e i n politi cal poli cy- maki ng. This pr ivi lege they e njoy bec aus e
t hey monopoli ze some ce ntr al f unctions a nd be come the m ajor i nter e st
gr oup.
A n admi nis tr at ive sys tem havi ng the a bove bur eauc r ati c tr a its w as st r ong
e nough in the per f or manc e of r e gulator y and extr a cti ve f unct ions of
c olonial gover nme nts . B ut i t w as f ound to be ine f f ect ive a nd inef f i cie nt to
c ar r y out pr omot ional and de velopme ntal tas ks .
Self Assessment Exercise 2; List the unique challenges of public administration in
developing countries.
4.0Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
147
I n t he deve loping c ountr ies t he admi nis tr at ive s ys tem inher i ted f r om the
e x- coloni al r ul er s wa s r e as onably e f f icie nt in se r ving the inter e st s of i t’ s
c olonial mas te r , name ly, t o dominat e a nd oppr ess the nati ves , and to
pe r f or m f unct ions most ly of a r egulat or y and e xtr act ive natur e. The
i nher ite d admi nis tr at ive sys tem is char a cte r ize d by ( i) r igi d or ganiz ati on
s tr uc tur es . ( ii ) C umber s ome pr ocedur es , ( i ii) e liti st s, author it ar ia n,
c onse r vative outl ook, ( iv) cor r upt ion ( v) al oof nes s f r om t he com mon
pe ople ( vi ii) l ack of ne ces s ar y tec hnica l s kill s a nd compe tenc e is and
f ound t o be gr os sl y inade quate and uns uitabl e f or deve lopme ntal tas ks .
F ur the r , public admini st r ator s s te eped i n the c ol onial admi nis tr at ive
t r aditi ons and r igi dly ti ed to t he notions of bur ea ucr at ic s ta tus and
hi er ar ch y may be les s use f ul. D evelop ment admini st r ator s in the pos t
c olonial admi nis tr at ive tr adit ions w ho ar e r i gi dly ti ed to t he nat ion’ s
bur e aucr at ic st atus and hi er ar ch y may be les s us ef ul as devel opment ef f or t
i n r ur al a r eas is guide d by neithe r any c oncer n f or the poor nor any cl ear c ut s ocia l pur pos e.
F or the r eas ons st ated in the pr ecedi ng par agr a ph, the inher it ed
a dminis tr a tive s ys te m i s not sui table f or the pur pos e of de velopi ng an
e f f icie nt publ ic a dminis tr a tion. For t he s ame r eas ons , the pr oble m of big
ga p betw ee n the pol icy a nd it’ s impl eme ntat ion, the pr omis e a nd it’ s
pe r f or mance exi st s i n almos t all developi ng countr i es of the T hir d Wor l d.
T he pr ec eding di sc uss ion c lear l y s hows that the admini st r ati ve s yst em i n
t he deve loping c ountr ies i s a sour c e of f r us tr ati on f or the pol icy m aker s
a nd the publ ic a like in ac hieving developm enta l obje cti ves . He nce, t her e i s
ur ge nt nee d to phas e- out the e ntir e sys tem and to pr om ote a tti tudina l
c hange a nd st r uctur es t hat c an be ec ologic all y adapt ed to our pe culi ar ca se .
T his change is needed to incr e as e the inte gr ity, e f f ici ency a nd
e f f ect ivene ss of gover nme nt of f i cial s and make them tr ul y motiva ted a nd
c ommunit y nee ds or i ented.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
We have been able to discuss in this unit the differences between the public administration in
developing countries and developed countries. I n the devel oped pos t indus tr i al
s ocie tie s, a dmini st r ati on plays li mit ed r ole si nce i nf r as tr uctur e is ow ned and
ma naged b y pr i vate or ganiz ati ons w hil e in t he devel oping s ocie tie s the
gover nm ent i s r e quir ed t o cr ea te t he nec es sa r y inf r as tr uc tur e a nd manage it.
We have e xplai ned the char a cter is tics of publi c adm inis tr a tion in devel oping
count r ies to i nclude comm only s har ed pol itic al pas t, populat ion e xplotion,
unbal ance d devel opment and poli tic al i nst abili ty a mong other s .
The unit f ur t her expl ains the impor t ance of public admini st r ati on in
deve loping c ountr ie s t o incl ude s ett ing the r ight de velopme nt goa ls , utili si ng
ma ter i al a nd human r e sour c es , suppor t f or devel opment ef f or ts , deve loping a
s ens e of nat ion hood and he lping de mocr a cy to s ur vive .
The pr oblem s of publ ic a dmini st r ati on in deve loping c ountr ies c an be
over c ome t hr ough f lexi ble a cti on- or ient ed ini tiat ives , pr of e ss ional is ing t as k,
148
at tit udinal change and the si mpli f ica tion of r ul es and r egula tions t hat w ill
r educ e r ed- t apis m.
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment;
1- I dent if y and di sc uss the comm only s har ed c har ac ter is t ics of
A dmini st r ati on in deve loping c ountr ie s
2- Wha t ar e the m ajor di f f er enc es in the admin is tr at ion of deve loping vs .
deve loped c ountr ie s.
7.0 References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A vas thi A and S M ahes hw ar i,( 1983) ,P ublic Adm inis tr ati on in , A gr a,
La kshm i N ar ai n Aga r wa l, B ar ne tt, D oak A ,( 1967) C adr es , Bur eaucr acy
and Pol iti cal P ow er in C om muni st C hina, N ew Yor k, C ol umbia
U niver s it y Pr e ss .
D utta , PR , ( 1978) , P ublic Adm inis tr ati on and the St ate, New D elhi . Uppa l.
D wi vedi. O P and R B J ain ( 1985) , I ndi a’ s A dmi nis tr ativ e S OT ?, N ew
D elhi .Gi tanj ali Publ is hing H ouse .
H enr y, N ichol as ,( 1975) Publi c Adm ini st rat ion and Publ ic A ffair s , N ew
J er s ey,P r enti ce- H al l.
H ill , Mi chae l J ,( 1972) ,T he Sociol ogy of P ublic Adm inis tr ati on, London,
We idenf i eld & Ni cols on.
N igr o, F eli x A( 1970) , M ode rn P ublic Adm inis tr ati on, Ne w Y or k, H ar per a nd
R ow .
P anandi kar , V A P al and S S K s hir s agar ( 1985) ( e ds) B ure aucr acy and
D eve lopm ent A dmi nis tr ation, N ew D elhi , C entr e f or Pol icy
S apr u, R K , ( 1993) Publi c Pol icy ; For mul ation, I m ple me ntati on and
Ev aluati on, Ne w D el hi, S ter l ing.
S chapi r o, Leona r d,( 1970) T he Gov er nme nt and Pol iti cs of the Sovie t U nion,
L ondon, Hut chins on U niver s it y Libr a r y.
UN I T 15:
THE PROBLEMS OF PUBLIC SERVICE IN NIGERIA/SUGGESTED
WAYS OF SOLVING THEM.
TITLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .PAGE
1.0 INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
149
2.0 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
3.0 MAIN CONTENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 THE PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .142
3.2 TH E C R I TI C I SM O F TH E C I V I L S ER V I C E. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .143
3.3 ACTION PLAN BY GOVERNMENT FOR THE REVIVAL OF THE CIVIL SERVICE
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.4 SU G GE ST ED WA YS O F S O LV I NG TH E P U B LI C S ER V I C E P R OB L EM
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
S
3.5. a O TH ER WA Y S O F I MP R O VI N G TH E A DM I N I ST R AT I VE
P R OB L EM S . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
3.5b TH E R E SP O NS I B I LI T Y O F GO V ER N ME NT . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4.0 CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
5.0 SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
6.0 TUTOR- MARKED ASSIGNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .149
Unit 15 -The Problems of Public Service in Nigeria/Suggested Ways of
solving them.
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Nigerian Public sector just like any other in the world has faced several problems. Some
of these are general and can be found in almost all public administrations, while some are
peculiar to the third world countries. The civil service has witnessed a number of problems.
Some of these problems are manmade, in other words they are avoidable, while some are
structural due to colonial inheritance and years of military rule where rules and regulations
are suspended. The civil service has thus witnessed series of suggestions to better improve
the effective and efficient delivery of services. The problems will be discussed in our main
content below including the suggested solutions to these problems These countries have an
administration that is not transferred to them from their colonial masters and without any
semblance of the local needs of the people nor is it borne out of any local initiative.
Thus, with the increase in government responsibilities, the public sector was faced with a lot
of problems ranging from those inherited from the colonial masters and those that arise from
the day to day running of the system itself.
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Government on its part has made several attempts to solve these problems. But this unit will
enumerate some of them and also allow room for you to identify others you have noticed that
are not necessarily mentioned here.
6.0 Aims and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
At the end of this unit, you will be able to understand the following;-Origin of the problems in the Nigeria Public Administration
-The main problems of Public Administration in Nigeria, and
-Suggested ways of solving them.
3.0. Main Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1 The public administration problems.
The problems of public administration
worthy of mentioned include;-
1.One central problem of public administration according to Rodee et al(1983;pg 230) is the
modern democratic state of increasing the efficiency of governmental performance without
sacrificing the basic democratic principles of government and making its officers and
employees to remain responsible to the sovereign people.
2. The cons tit ution c onf er s imm unity upon t he pr es ide nt ( and G over nor s ) f or
an y a ct done in the exer c is e and pe r f or manc e of the pow er s and duties of his
of f ic e. H e ca n, howe ver , be i mpea ched by pa r lia ment. No c r imina l
pr oce edings ca n be s tar t ed aga ins t him , nor can he be ar r e st ed or impr i sone d.
C ivi l pr oce edings ca n, howe ver , be i nst itut ed aga ins t him dur ing his ter m of
of f ic e in r e spe ct of a ny act done in hi s pe r sona l ca paci ty af t er a tw o mont hs
noti ce i n wr i ting. S er vi ng gover nor s and s enat or s i n Ni ger ia als o enj oy suc h
im munit ies al ike. T his mea ns t hey ca nnot be t r eate d like or dinar y citi zens
bec aus e of the of f ice they oc cupy.
3. The judic ial of f ice r s a r e im mune f r om lia bili ty, as pr ovided f or in the
cons ti tuti on. This me ans that no judge, ma gis tr at e, j ust ice of peace , coll ect or
or othe r per s on act ing judi cia lly s hal l be l iabl e to be sue d in any c ivil cour t
f or an y a ct done or or der ed t o be done by hi m in t he dis cha r ge of his of f ici al
duty, w het her or not w it hout the lim its of his jur i sdi ction, pr ovided t hat he a t
the tim e, in good f a ith, be lie ved him se lf to ha ve jur i sdi ction to do or or der
the act compl aine d of .
A s r e gar ds the non- j udici al of f i cia ls the pos it ion is tha t the y ar e not
per s onal ly li able in r es pec t of any c ontr ac t or as s ur ance made or exec ut ed f or
the pur pose s of t his cons tit ution or f or t he pur pos es of enac tment r el ating to
the Gove r nment of Ni ger ia . A publ ic of f i cia l inc ur s l iabil it y f or tor ts and
il lega l ac ts unles s he has ac ted i n good f aith in the exer ci se of s ome s tat utor y
pow er . C ivi l pr oce edings ca n be ini tia ted a gains t hi m af te r tw o months not ice
in w r it ing. F or exam ple, t he cr i mina l li abil iti es of any of f ic ial as an or dinar y
ci tiz en ar e def ine d by the I ndi a P enal code, t hus: “N othing i s a n of f ence
w hich i s done by a per s on w ho is or who by r e as on of a mis ta ke of f a ct a nd
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not by a mis ta ke of la w i n good f ait h beli eves hims el f to be bound by law to
do it . This pr ovis ion pr ovi des a w ide pr ot ecti ve umbr e lla to publ ic of f i cial s.
S elf A s se ss m e nt E xer cis e 1; D is cu s s t h e s t ru ct u ral pr obl em s of
ad m in is t rat ion .
3.2 The criticism of the civil service.
The civi l s er vic e has bee n a ta r get of a tta ck by cr i tics on the f ollow ing
gr ounds :
1- S low n es s in t ak in g d ecis ion s : C ivil se r vants del ay ac tion on m att er s
r ef e r r ed to t hem, be caus e of bur e aucr a cy or r ed t ape. T his means ove r devot ion to pr e cede nts and of f ic ial r outine s. T hey ca nnot act pr omptl y on
ca se s be f or e the m bec aus e the ir ac tions have to be s tr ic tly guided by exi st ing
r ule s a nd r egula tions , in or de r to ac hieve unif or mit y and a void undue
mi st akes .
2- L ack of I ni t iat ive and I m agin at ion : C ivil se r vants s eldom take deci si ons
inde pendlt ly.The y ar e, t her ef or e , of ten c r iti cis ed f or be ing cons er va tive and
la cking i niti ati ve. The y have l itt le or no oppor t unity t o exer ci se indivi dual
j udge ment and ca nnot bend e xis ting r ul es to ada pt to c hanging c ir cums ta nces .
The y ar e of t en unw ill ing to t ake r e spons ibi lit y or intr oduce new mea sur e s.
3- Poor at t it u d e t o w ork : C i vil s er va nts ar e of t en ac cus ed of la ck of
dedi cat ion and de votion t o duty, ca use d by poor conditi ons of se r vice and
ins ec ur ity of j obs, l eadi ng to poor mor a le.
4- I n ef f ect i ve organ is at ion , w ast e f ul ne ss an d m isu s e of m an pow er :
R ec or ds a r e of te n not w ell kept, w hil e docum ents s uch as f ile and i mpor tant
le tte r s c an us uall y not be f ound w hen t hey ar e most neede d. O f f ices and
duti es ar e of t en dupli cat ed in t he var i ous m inis tr ie s, wi th no ef f ec tive
coor di nati on among t hem. A dded t o this , ma ny civil s er vant s w it h decli ning
pr oduct ivit y due to ol d age a nd poor heal th ar e r eta ined i n the s er vic e, w hile
hea lthy a nd we ll t r aine d you ths r ema in jobl es s. T he r es ult is a w as te of
ma npowe r and s car c e ec onomic r es our ces , le ading t o over al l inef f icie ncy.
5- R em ot en es s f rom t h e re st of t h e s er vice : C ivil se r vants ar e of ten
ina cce ss ibl e to t he publi c. The of f ici als tr e at m ember s of the public
im per s onall y and ar e som eti mes im pati ent w it h or r ude to t hem.
6- Op p u rt u ni ty f or T yran ny ; t his is as soc iat ed w ith t he del egat ion of
addi tiona l pow er s to ci vil s er va nts over le gis lati ve a nd admini st r ati ve
ma tte r s. T he exe r cis e of t hes e pow er s by the c ivil se r vants may be abus ed.
( O yedir a n et- a l,2005:116& 117) .
F ur her mor e , the N ige r ia P ubli c S er vic e is la r gely dom inate d by condit ions
ac cent uate d by the e xis tenc e of bad publ ic s er vi ce. S ome of the pr oble ms that
ma de it bad inc lude t he f oll owi ng:-
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1. La ck of G ood Lea der s hip; T he r uli ng cla ss of te n tim es do not have a cle ar
age nda of w hat t hey w ant t o pur sue and es ti mate d ti me of a chievi ng s uch. I n
othe r wor ds , it is a le ader s hip w it hout a vi si on and thus ca nnot el icit the
s uppor t or unle as h the pot enti als of the f ollow er s .
2. La ck of P olit ica l and E conomi c S tabi lit y; N iger i a as a c ountr y has f ace d
s er ie s of c hange i n gover nanc e w ith t he mi lit ar y r uling f or a gr eat er
pr opor ti on of it’ s yea r s s inc e inde pendenc e. The se mil itar y r egime s too have
not be en s tabl e as gover nm ent c an be c hanged i n a s hor t ti me as S ix mont hs.
Thi s l ong ter m ins tabi lit y has come to af f e ct t he nat ur e in w hich gover nment
ac tivi tie s a r e ca r r ied out .
D ur ing the mil ita r y r egim es , the e ntir e cons titut ion of t he count r y is
s uspe nded and t he us e of dec r ees w hich ha s no r e gar d f or human f ace in
adm inis tr a tion i s of t en int r oduced. T his tr end m ade i f dif f icul t e ven f or the
f ew mom ents of ci vil r ul e up to t he pr es ent time w her e e lect ions ar e uns ta ble
and e r r ati c.
3. C ult ur al a nd Soc ial I nequal iti es . Ni ger ia has over 250 ethni c gr oups and
ea ch cl amour i ng f or a pla ce a t the f eder a l publi c s er vic e. S uch s tr uggle f or
r epr e se ntat ion w hich i s ba se d on quota s ys tem and at time s bas ed on the f act
tha t ea ch gr oup w ants to be long to t he s er vic e. S uch s ituat ions have come to
ques ti on the ve r y need f or m er it and ef f i cie ncy as appoint men ts ar e no longe r
bas ed on m er it .
4. La ck of f avour a ble e conomi c envi r onment f or both dome st ic a nd f or eign
inve st ment .This s itua tion i n the e conomy i s br ought about by i nces s ant
indus tr i al s tr i ke ac tion by publ ic w or ker s in de mand of i mpr oved c onditions
of s er vic e. Wa r s a nd conf li ct pa r tic ular l y the r e cent Ni ger - D elt a mil ita ncy
ac tivi tie s w hic h have r e duced N ige r ia’ s oil ear ni ngs by 40% .
5. O the r pr oblems i nclude high pover t y l evel s, hi gh ill ite r acy l evel s,
i nadequat e i nf r as tr uctur e , and he avy depende nce on f or e ign ai ds A nd
f or e ign te chnica l s uppor t. A nd bec aus e of the de pendenc e, loc al i niti ati ves
a r e kil led a nd usua lly not appr eci ate d.
6. C or r upt ion. Thi s ha s e aten so de ep into the publi c s ect or , as contr a ct
s ums ar e inf lat ed a nd bad behavi our s go unpuni she d. This , the r ef or e,
e ncour ages t he aba ndonment of tenet s of commi tme nts and a s ens e of
s er vi ce t o the na tion be comes a mir age .
7. I na dequate inf r a st r uctur es t o f acil ita te pr oductivi ty. I ndus tr ie s ha ve
l ear n t o pr oduce w it h obsol ete equipme nts , whi le t he s itua tion i n ter t iar y
i nst ituti ons ar e s uch t hat s ci ence st udents ar e onl y thought t heor y w ithout
pr a ctic als .A nd the r es ult i s t he pr oducti on of half - ba ked gr adua tes .
8. T he N iger i an expe r ience in t r yi ng to br i ng about t r ans f or mati on of it’ s
publ ic s er vi ce a ppear s to be muddled up betw een t he pr es ide ntia l and
pa r lia menta r y s ys te m of t he public s er vice . The r es ult is tha t, poli tic al
i nter f er e nce in the se r vice has br ought about the em er genc e of hal f - baked
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bur e aucr at s to mana ge t he public s er vice at var ious tie r s of gove r nment .
C ons eque ntly, t he pr es enc e of ill - gr oomed, inexper i ence d and inc ompet ent
bur e aucr at s in the se r vice.
Self Assessment Exercise 2; List and explain the problems of
administration.
3.3 Action Plan by Government for the Revival of the Civil Service
The Obasanjo Administration has developed an institutional framework for the
implementation of the reform agenda and revival of the civil service in the period
2003/2004.The outline of the plan is as follows:
1- The establishment of the National council on the Reforms chaired by the president to
oversee the reform process.
2- The establishment of the steering committee on reforms chaired by the minister of
finance.
3- Establishment of the bureau of public service reforms to serve as the coordinating and
operating hub secretariat of the public service reform process.
4- Establishment of the service delivery unit to monitor adherence to the service delivery
charter to be developed by all public sector institutions.
5- Establishment of the policy and programmes monitoring unit, in the office of the
president, to build a comprehensive policy database for monitoring the process of
implementation of government policies and programmes.
3.4 Suggested ways of solving the public service problems.
Though hi st or y has show n tha t the r e is no s yst em t hat w or ks sa tis f act or il y, it
is im por tant to me ntion be f or e w e pr oce ed tha t it is not good to ha ve a publ ic
s er vic e tha t is under t he cont r ol of the exec utive and f or the appointm ents to
cha nge ac cor ding t o the t ur n of polit ical w heel. This has of ten led to
ins ta bili ty and i n som e count r ies the sys tem had pr ove d near l y f atal . The
publi c s er vic e mus t be r ef or me d in or der t o att ain t he public s er vice of our
dr ea m tha t ca n r ival it’ s count er - par t s i n other c ountr ies of t he w or ld.
Thi s c an be a chie ved if t he f oll owi ng ideal s ar e uphe ld;1. A Publ ic S er vi ce t hat i s pr oa cti ve, ant ici pate s pr obl ems and pr ovi des
w ell cons ider e d indige nous s olut ions and compe tent to e valuat e f or e ign
bas ed s olut ions usua lly pa ckage d thr ough expe r ts /cons ulta nts or by
w hate ver othe r des ignat ion know n.
2. A public se r vice in w hich c or r uption i s a t Ze r o toler a nce level .i.e
w her e c or r uption i s ne ar abs ent or ins ignif i cant to af f e ct t he goals of
the se r vice .
3. A public se r vice that pr ovides s tr uct ur es and w or king condi tions that
cr e ate s s pac e f or mot ivat ion, gr ow th, ef f i cie nt man ager i al s ucc es si on
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and f ul f ilm ent of t he nee ds of t he em ployees a nd not bas ed on s ec tional
int er es t or t r ibal af f il iat ions .
4. A public se r vice that pur sue s uni ty by kee ping the countr y t ogether ,
and c ommi tte d to f indi ng las ti ng sol utions to t he N iger D el ta a nd other
et hnic na tiona lit ies .
5. A public Se r vice that att r act s a nd r eta ins some of the bes t br ains and
cor e compe tent holder s tha t w ould r ende r ef f ic ient and ti mel y se r vice .
6. A public se r vice that is st r ict ly dr ive n by the obs er va nce of e f f icie nt
and dyna mic R ules and R e gulat ions .
7. A public se r vice that is appr opr ia tel y enume r ated, and
8. A public se r vice that is conf ide nt in i t’ s people and ins tit utions t hat
ca n wi ths tand c hanges in our de mocr a tic pr oces s .
3.5 a Other ways of Improving the Administrative Problems
T he var i ous a dminis tr a tive r ef or ms c ommis s ions have sugges te d var ious
m eas ur es f or impr ovi ng the admini st r ati ve s yst ems . T hey br oadly i ndica ted
r e f or ms in the f ollow ing l ines :
1. The devel opment wor k, w hic h is mos t of te n si tuati onal, needs s ome
f le xibil ity f r om a s tr ic t obs er vat ion of r igi d r ules and r e gulat ions.
The r ef or e, t he r igi d r ule bound bur e aucr a cie s s hould be change d
int o f lexi ble a cti on- or ient ed and m or e r es pons ive i nst r uments of
s ocia l cha nge. The bur eauc r ats have to be pos it ive, per s uas ive and
innova tive .
2. The civi l s er vic e mus t be made f ully pr of e ss iona l, dynami c, a nd
equa l to t he ta sk t hr ough appr opr ia te m ethods of r ec r uitme nt a nd
tr a ining. T he ci vil s er va nts shoul d combi ne adm inis tr at ive shi lls
w ith m oder n ma nagem ent t echni ques f or gr eat er ef f e ctiv enes s and
r es pons ivene ss in a dmini st r ati on.
3. C r ea ting r i ght val ues and at tit udes in the admini st r ator s . T hey ar e
r equi r ed to be les s oliga r chic and cl ose r to the or dinar y pe ople.
Thus , w hat i s r e quir ed i s c hange i n the be haviour al or ient ati on of
publi c adm inis tr a tor s .
4. S impl if ic ati on of r ules , r egul ati ons, pr oc edur es and r e duction of r ed
ta pe in t he im plem enta tion of de velopm enta l poli cies a nd
pr ogr am mes . Thi s i s a ls o nece ss ar y f or t he conve nienc e of the
publi c, the cutt ing edge leve l of publi c admi nis tr at ion.
T o be mor e pr ecis e, the f ol low ing ar e some of the i mpor ta nt
r e comm endati ons made by the e xper t c ommit tee s and comm is si ons f or
r e st r uctur ing the a dminis tr a tive s ys te m of a developi ng soc iet y like I ndia
w hic h can be applic able to N ige r ia and other deve loping c ountr ie s:
(a) D e- em phas is ing hie r ar chy i n the a dmini st r ati ve s tr uct ur e
( b) C oll egia te de cis ion – m aking
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( c) G iving pr e cede nce t o the a chie vemen t of goal s ove r st r ict adher enc e to
r ule s a nd r egula tions
( d) D ece ntr al iza tion of a uthor it y
( e) D emoc r ati zat ion of adm inis tr a tion
( f ) C r ea tion of ne w w or k cul tur e, a nd encour a ging cr e ati vity
( g) El imi nati on of ar cha ic of f i ce pr oc edur es , and t he us e of s uch
te chnologi cal devic es as f ax, per s onal comput er and t he ele ctr oni c ma il i n
adm inis tr a tion.
( h) A doption of m oder n ma nagem ent t echni ques suc h as manag emen t by
obje cti ves .
( i) El imi nati on of cor r upti on so a s t o se cur e c lea n, hones t, im par ti al a nd
ef f i cie nt adm inis tr a tion.
( j ) Ef f e cti ng the ne eded a tti tudina l and be haviour a l cha nges in the
bur ea ucr ac y thr ough pr oper r e cr uit ment sys te m and or i enta tion t r aini ng
( k) S ecur i ng inte gr ity of a dmini st r ator s
( l) P r omoti ng ef f ic ienc y, econom y, and publi c coope r ati on
( m) Spec if ying tas ks a nd r es ponsi bili tie s f or be tte r impl eme nt ati on of pla ns
and pr ogr a mme s, a nd
( n) F aci lit ati ng expedi tious dis pat ch of gover nm ent w or k.
Self Assessment exercise 3; in what ways can the administrative
problems be improved?
3.5b The responsibility of government
The gover nme nt has a m ajor r e spons ibi lit y to pla y in ens ur ing t hat t he
ci vil s er vi ce r e mai ns f oc us a nd r es ult or i ente d thr ough;1- Ens ur ing t hat t he publi c s er vic e com mis s ion is ins ula ted f r om politi cs
and t hat t he pr ovis ion of a ppointm ent s hould not only make it ’ s
inde pendenc e a r e ali ty but a ls o be cl ear l y under s tood to be so.
2- The appoint ment ,pr omoti ons,t r ans f er ,te r mina tion of a ppointm ent,
dis mi ss al and dis ci plina r y contr ol of public of f ice r s s hould be ves ted i n
the comm is ion.I t s hould be a cr i mina l of f enc e to i nter f er e or att empt to
int er f er e wi th the public se r vice commi s si on or f or a me mber of t he
com mis s ion to c ompound or to be a par t y to s uch int er f er e nc e. T her e
s hould be c onst itut ional pr ovis ions se tti ng out the sc ope of the of f ence.
3- The gover nme nt s hould ens ur e t he im medi ate r es tor at ion of , and r e spe ct
f or , the polit ica l neut r ali ty of the public se r vice.
4- The author i ty of the civi l s er vic e com mis s ion mus t e xtend t o all public
of f ic er s r athe r than s ta f f whos e a ppointm ent i s ve st ed in s ome other
aut hor iti es .
5- G over nme nt s hould al so r e spe ct t he ti me- honour e d pr acti ce of engaging
in ne gotia tions thr ough t he nor ma l cha nnels bet we en the gover nment and
it ’ s e mployee s , beca use this appr oa ch appe ar s to have colla pse d and s ince
has bee n r epla ced by hos ti lit y of gover nme nt tow ar ds it ’ s e mployee s.
4.0Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In view of the foregoing, the Nigeria public service has witnessed a lot of successes through
the establishment of unity in the appointment, promotions and establishment of a strong and
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virile service in the sustenance of the Nigeria Nation as an entity. The civil service has
through it’s quota system ensured unity in diversity despite deep cultural and ethnic
diversities of the component units.
Government and in particular through the civil service as a bureaucracy was able to attain
visible strides in the expansion of public service capacities to provide for it’s citizens several
social services such as water,electricity,roads,transportation and even human capital
development.
Unfortunately, corruption, ethnicity, civil unrest, conflict, incompetence, overdependence on
foreign support, coupled with limited insight on the part of the leadership of the sector crept
in and has been responsible for the rapid retrogression into a near failed sector .These also
deteriorated the entire public system and gradually abandoning the tenets of commitment and
service to the people, with the huge sector investment wasting and in some cases vandalised
by those placed under it’s care.
For the public service to effectively play it’s role it must embrace impartiality, anonymity and
confidence in hard work must be restored .The public service must serve as the bastion of
continuity and development driven. It must not be politicised in other to allow it successfully
play it’s role.
The public servant must be provided with an option available in the shaping of policies. It is
important that the public service be insulated from politics and career civil servants should be
allowed to perform traditional functions of implementing government policies and
programmes without fear or favour in accordance with approved procedure.
5.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
In this unit, we have been able to identify and discuss the problems of the public service
particularly in Nigeria. These problems ranges from corruption, civil unrest, ethnicity and
bad leadership among others.
We have clearly identified the ways in which these problems can be solved. These include a
proactive public service, a committed public service and that which is driven by observance
to dynamic rule and regulations. A public service that motivates it’s workforce and is also
committed to solving conflicts by promoting unity in the country.
6.0 Tutor- Marked Assignment
-List and explain five problems of the Nigeria public service
-How can the problems of the public service be solved?
7.0References/Further Readings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1- Ahmed Al- Gazali (2007), The Role of the Civil Service in National Development. A
paper delivered at Orientation Retreat for Political appointees in Plateau State, at the National
Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies (NIPSS) Kuru, Plateau State, October 3rd to 6th.
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2-The Bureau for public service review (2004), Action plan for the public sector review,
Abuja.
3-Federal Government of Nigeria. The corrupts Practices and other Related Offences Act,
2000
4-Ibrahim Jibrin (2003). “Corruption in Nigeria “The Role of the civil Society in Ayodele
Aderinwale (Eds) Corruption, Accountability and Transparency for Sustainable Development
.African Leadership Forum Abuja.
5-Ibrahim Jibrin (2004) Public Administration and the Crisis of Policy Making and Policy
Implementation in Nigeria, in the Nigerian Journal of Policy and Strategy, Volume 14, No 2,
December 2004.National Institute for Policy and Strategic Studies(NIPSS) Kuru.4
6- C har l es E Li ndblom,( 1959) “ The S ci ence of Muddl ing Thr ough” in P ublic
A dmini st r ati on R evie w, 19, N o 2 ( S pr ing 1959) , pp.79- 88.
7- Y ehez kel D r or ( 1968) , P ublic Pol icy m aking R e - exam ined, C ha ndler , S an
F r anci sc o, p.8.
8- I r a S har ka nsky( 1970) ,P oli cy A nalys is in P oli tic al S ci ence , Ma r kham,
C hic ago.
9- S mit h, Gor don,( 1980) Public Poli cy and A dmi nis tr ation i n Sovie t U nion,
N ew Yor k, P r ae ger .
10- S we r dlow , I r ving,( 1983) D eve lopm ent A dmi nis tr ation, C onc epts and
Pr oble ms , N ew Yor k, S yr ac use Uni ver s ity P r es s , Syr a cus e.
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BLURB
BHM 776: Public Administration and Governance is a core course which carries two (2
) credits units. The course is designed for Post Graduate students (PGD) of Corporate
Governance. The course is taught in the first semester to enable the students have a firm
understanding of issues relating to administration in National Development.
programme is found in the school of Business and Human Resource Management at the
National Open University of Nigeria.
The
The course is structured into fifteen (15) study units and a course guide to enable students
locate with ease topics in the study, all about the course, the course materials that a student
should use/and will be using and how they can work through these materials.
Most importantly, the course is to expose students of Corporate Governance
emerging
issues in the study and practice of governance learning from past experiences. It
the
also exposes the students to the issues of Reforms of the civil Service in a modern world
and the changing role of Socio-Economic and political transformation of Domestic Public
Administration aimed at making the civil service a dynamic instrument for change.
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to