1
APA Format Guide
Psychology Department
Mount Allison University
September 2016
2
Table of Contents
Introduction ....................................................................................................................................3
Section 1: General Requirements of APA Format......................................................................4
Setting up the Document .........................................................................................................4
Writing Style ...........................................................................................................................6
Citations ...................................................................................................................................7
References ...............................................................................................................................8
Other APA Requirements ......................................................................................................12
Section 2: APA Format for Lab Reports ...................................................................................13
Lab Reports: The Title Page.......................................................................................................13
Lab Reports: The Abstract ........................................................................................................14
Lab Reports: The Introduction ...................................................................................................15
Lab Reports: The Method Section .............................................................................................16
Lab Reports: The Results Section ..............................................................................................20
Tables and Figures .............................................................................................................21
Lab Reports: The Discussion Section ........................................................................................24
Lab Reports: The References Section ........................................................................................26
Lab Reports: Appendices ..........................................................................................................26
Section 3: Paraphrasing and Avoiding Plagiarism ...................................................................27
Section 4: Resources ....................................................................................................................30
Section 5: Sample Lab Report ....................................................................................................32
Section 6: APA Checklist.............................................................................................................45
3
APA Format Guide
Mount Allison’s Psychology department follows the American Psychological Association
(APA) format for most written assignments, including essays and lab reports. It is the standard
format used in the field of psychology. Students taking psychology courses at MTA are expected
to master APA format. This guide is adapted from the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association, 6th Edition, which sets out all the criteria for APA format.
This guide has been developed for students who are beginning to learn and apply APA
format. Therefore, it gives the minimum information necessary for 2nd year reports and papers
(students in upper year courses, doing research in psychology, or majoring in psychology may
wish to purchase the APA manual, which is available at the bookstore).
When using this guide, it is important to note the following points:

It helps to keep the guide nearby and refer to it often when writing, editing, and doing a
final check of your work. Even writers who regularly use APA format double-check their
papers before submitting them.

Some professors may want other APA formatting that is not included in this guide. For
example, third and fourth year assignments often involve more detailed APA
requirements. Your professor or lab instructor will explain their preferences to you in
class, lab, or in a written document (e.g., on an assignment, in the course syllabus, etc.).

By providing you with an introductory APA guide, we have left out many of the finer
points of APA style that you may encounter elsewhere. Follow this guide and your
instructor’s requirements. If you are uncertain, check with your instructor.

In some instances, we have modified APA format to meet our needs. These modifications
are rare and are noted in this guide. One primary example is on the title page, where we
4
have deleted the running head and author’s note and have added the course name and
date of submission.

There is a list of APA and other writing resources provided in this guide. They are
reliable resources that may be helpful to you. Be cautious with other resources; some
resources that claim to follow APA are not very reliable. For example, many websites
that claim to be able to format a references list in APA style are not very accurate.
One final note: Once journal articles have been published, they have been converted into the
journal’s final publishing style and are no longer in APA style. This can cause confusion, so
remember that APA format is a template that is followed before final publication. Follow the
guide, not what you see in journals.
SECTION 1: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF APA FORMAT
The following list outlines the general formatting requirements of all types of APA
assignments, including essays, lab reports, research proposals, and so on.
Setting up the Document

Use one-inch (2.54 cm) margins on sides, top, and bottom.

Include a title page, as described in Section 2 of this document (page 12).

Number all pages in the top right corner, beginning with the title page as page 1.

Use a 12 point SERIF style font (these are fonts that have “curls” on the letters, such as
Times New Roman, Cambria, or Garamond).

Use plain text formatting, or boldface or italics as outlined in the guide. Do not add extra
design, colour, word art, underlining, and so on.

Type and double-space the entire document including the title page (exception: tables,
drawings and/or math can be spaced smaller to make them easier to read).
5

Left-justify, which means straight edges on left and jagged on the right, like this
document.

Indent each paragraph (except the Abstract – see lab reports below).

There are 5 levels of headings in APA format; however, most papers only use the first
two or three:
o
Level 1: Centered horizontally, bolded, title case, text begins on the next line.
o
Level 2: Left-justified, bolded, title case, text begins on the next line.
o
Level 3: Indented (from left), bolded, sentence case with a period. Text begins on
the same line.
Example of levels of heading (note that any section can have Level 2 and 3 headings).
Method
Participants
Text begins here.
Materials
Text begins here.
Attitude towards campus curfew survey. Text begins here.
Perceived safety on campus questionnaire. Text begins here.
Procedure
Text begins here.
Results
Text begins here.
Discussion
Text begins here.
6
Writing Style
APA documents are written in scientific style, meaning that the writing is formal, factual,
precise, and concise. The APA manual contains two chapters on writing style and mechanics.
The main points are summarized here:

Always paraphrase, cite, and reference your sources of information.
o Paraphrase: put the material entirely into your own words (see Section 3 for more on
how to paraphrase).
o Cite: add notations in the body of the paper to acknowledge the source of the material
you present, even when you have paraphrased (see below for instructions on how to
cite).
o Reference: a separate page at the end of the main document with a listing of the full
information for each source you have cited, providing the detail needed to obtain the
material (see below for instructions on how to format the list).

Avoid direct quotes. Most instructors prefer that you do not use any direct quotes.

Use full sentences and paragraphs, unless otherwise specified.

Use transition sentences to continue the flow of ideas between paragraphs.

Avoid the use of jargon, colloquial writing (informal; writing like you speak), and
clichés.

Avoid biased language, such as using “men” to represent both males and females.

Use accepted terms for minority groups, those with disabilities, various age groups, and
sexual orientation.

Use active voice instead of passive voice.
7
Citations
Citation refers to naming the author or authors whose work you used to help you answer a
question, develop an essay, or write a lab report. Failure to cite someone when you have used
his/her material is plagiarism, which is a serious academic offense. (There is information on how
to avoid plagiarism in Section 3). Citations can be integrated into the body of a sentence or
inserted into parentheses. The following list provides examples of how to cite in APA format:

Always include the author(s)’ last name(s) and the year of publication.

Citations can be in the body of the sentence:
o E.g., “Wilson (1998) proposed that attribution theory…”

Or at the end of the sentence in parentheses:
o E.g., “…and the consequences are apparent in all aspects of social functioning
(Wilson, 1998)”.

List all authors’ last names in the first citation of a source.

If a source has two authors, always cite both names.

If a source has three to five authors, cite all authors’ last names the first time. For
subsequent citations, use the first author’s last name followed by ‘et al.’
o E.g., “Past research (Evans, Smith, & Jones, 2000) ....Indeed, Evans et al. (2000)
found that...”
o E.g., “Lilienfeld, Lynn, Woolf, Cramer, and Schmaltz (2011) stress that
psychology is a science” …and later, “Psychology uses the scientific method
(Lilienfeld et al., 2011).”

Use the word ‘and’ before the last author’s name when the citation in in the body of the
sentence. Use an ampersand (&) before the last author’s name when the citation is in
8
parentheses. (See the preceding examples.)

When a source has six or more authors, cite only the last name of the first author
followed by ‘et al.’ and the year for the first and all subsequent citations.

Every paragraph that uses source material must have a citation, even if the same source
was cited in the previous paragraph.

Pronouns can be used when the same source is repeated within the same paragraph as
long as it is clear that you are referring to the same work. For example: “Smith and Jones
(2006) stated that children learn many social behaviours through imitation. They
explained that… They also suggested that…”
o If there is any possible confusion, use citations instead of pronouns.

Avoid secondary source citations. If you absolutely must use a secondary source citation,
you would put something like: “Freud (1921; cited in Lilienfeld et al., 2011) claimed
that…”

Note that many instructors do not allow secondary source citations. Always check before
you submit your paper.
References
The references provide the full information for every unique source that is cited in the paper.
This allows the reader to find and obtain the original work if they wish. To format the references:

List the sources in alphabetical order by the last name of the first author of each work.

Use a hanging indent for each reference, in which the first line is flush with the left
margin and the other lines are indented (as shown below).

If there are multiple sources by the same author(s), present them from earliest year to
most recent year.
9
o E.g., Smith, P. A., & Jones, M. M. (1988) comes before Smith, P. A., & Jones, M.
M. (1998).

If a source has seven or fewer authors: Include all the authors’ last names and initials in
the reference, in the order that they appear on the source.

If a source has eight or more authors, list the first six authors followed by an ellipse and
then the last author.
o E.g., Smith, H., Aaron, S., MacKenzie, T., Barns, M., Michaud, F., Leaman, P.,
… & Carlton, N.)

The other information to include varies according to the type of source being referenced.
Common formats (some with examples) are shown below. You can find information on
other types of sources in the APA Manual, the APA blog site, or other APA resources
(see Section 4 for a resource list).
 Book/Textbook
Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,
Initial. (year). Title of book in italics and sentence case. Location: Publisher.
*Note: If the title of a source has punctuation that ends a sentence or clause such as a period,
colon, question mark, or exclamation point, capitalize the first word after the punctuation
as well. This can be seen in many of these reference examples.
Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Namy, L. A., Woolf, N. J., Cramer, K. M., & Schmaltz, R. (2011).
Psychology: From inquiry to understanding (Canadian Edition). Toronto: Pearson
Publishing.
 Chapter in an Edited Book (book with different authors for each chapter)
Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,
Initial. (year). Title of chapter or entry in sentence case. In A. Editor, B. Editor, & C.
10
Editor (Eds.), Title of book in italics and sentence case (pp. xxx-xxx). Location:
Publisher.
Hartline, H. K. (1972). Visual receptors and retinal interaction. In D. Singh & C. T. Morgan
(Eds.), Current status of physiological psychology: Readings (pp. 25-33). California:
Brooks/Cole Publishing Company.
 E-Book
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book in italics and sentence case [E-reader version, if applicable].
Retrieved from http://xxxxx
OR
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of book in italics and sentence case [E-reader version, if applicable].
doi:xxxxx
Schiraldi, G. R. (2001). The post-traumatic stress disorder sourcebook: A guide to healing,
recovery, and growth [Adobe Digital Editions version]. doi1: 10.1036/0071393722
 E-Book, Chapter in Edited Book
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of chapter. In B. B. Editor (Ed.), Title of book in italics and sentence
case [E-reader version, if applicable] (pp. xxx–xxx). Retrieved from http://xxxxx
Author, A. A. (Year). Title of chapter. In B. B. Editor (Ed.), Title of book in italics and sentence
case [E-reader version, if applicable] (pp. xxx–xxx). doi:xxxxx
 Journal Article (Published)
Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,
Initial. (year). Title of article in sentence case. Title of Journal in Italics and Title Case,
1
A DOI or “Digital Object Identifier” is a unique code assigned to electronic documents. Many -but not all publishers will provide an article's DOI on the first page of the document, or it will be listed in PsychINFO. If the
DOI is available, list it as shown in the example.
11
Volume # in italics, page numbers. doi: #
Herbst-Damm, K. L., & Kulik, J. A. (2005). Volunteer support, marital status, and the survival
times of terminally ill patients. Health Psychology, 24, 225-229. doi:10.1037/02786133.24.2.225
* Note: The words “Volume”, “Vol.”, or “Pages” do NOT appear in a journal reference, nor does
the issue number.
 Journal Article (Advanced online edition)
Author’s Last Name, Initial., 2nd Author’s Last Name, Initial.,… & Last Author’s Last Name,
Initial. (year). Title of article in sentence case. Title of Journal in Italics and Title Case.
Advance online publication. doi: #
 Website (preferred version - with author information)
Name of the site author (year of article or year, month day retrieved). Name of webpage article
in sentence case. Retrieved from: website URL
Indiana University. (2008). Plagiarism: What it is and how to recognize and avoid it. Retrieved
from: http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml
 Website (use only when no author information is available)
Name of webpage article (year of article or year, month day retrieved). Retrieved from: website
URL
APA Style. (2010, July 12). Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APA_format
 Government Reports
Name of government department that published the report. (year). Report title in italics and
sentence case (Publication number). Retrieved from Agency name website and URL info.
12
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health, National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute. (2003). Managing asthma: A guide for schools (NIH
Publication No. 02-2650). Retrieved from
http://www.nhlbi.nih.gov/health/prof/lung/asthma/asth_sch.pdf
Other APA Requirements
There are many other formatting requirements outlined in the APA manual that often are
tailored to specific situations. This list provides a few common examples that you should follow:

Writing numbers (does not apply to mathematical copy, statistical results, etc.):
o Always spell out numbers that start a sentence.
o Except for the beginning of a sentence, present numbers 10 and above as numerals
(e.g., 65) and spell out numbers under 10 (e.g., seven).
o E.g., “The researchers administered three measures of depression to 67 participants.”
o There are many exceptions to this general rule; if you need clarification, check one of
the APA resources in Section 4.

Give the full text before using abbreviations.
o E.g., “The American Psychological Association (APA) publishes a style manual.
The APA manual is used to…”

Italicize mathematical and statistical symbols (see the Results section below for
examples).
13
SECTION 2: APA FORMAT FOR LAB REPORTS
You will write APA lab reports in most of your lab courses. Always follow the general APA
formatting described above and also the specific requirements for lab reports that are detailed
below. There is also a sample lab report at the end of this document, which models APA format
and content and also a lab report checklist to double-check your work.
Lab Reports: The Title Page (Modified from strict APA format)

Write your own unique title (e.g., don’t put “Social Psychology Lab Report” as your
title).

Write a descriptive title, meaning that you should give information about the topic,
variables, the participants, and the method of study (e.g., The Effects of Text Messaging
during Lectures on Course Grades among Undergraduate University Students).

APA recommends a title length of about 12 words but we are more flexible on this. In
general, give more than a few words but nothing that goes on for several lines.

Capitalize important words (called “title case”).

Number the title page as page 1.

Include the title of the paper, your name, the course name or number, the name of the
institution, and the date of submission, each on a separate line.

Type the title about one-third of the way down the page and center and double-space
everything.
14

Sample title page:
1
The Effects of Text Messaging During Lectures on Course
Grades Among Undergraduate University Students
Jane Doe
PSYC 1005
Mount Allison University
September 5, 2015
Lab Reports: The Abstract
The abstract is a summary of the study. It is generally about 120 words long (about ½ a page,
double-spaced) and should be clear and concise. (Note: Although the APA manual does not
specify an exact number of words, lab reports typically are written for simple, single study
research designs and therefore have short abstracts.)

Begin the abstract on a new page.

Type the word “Abstract” at the top centre of the page (not bolded and without quotation
marks).

Do not indent the first line of the abstract.

Include information on the following:
15
o The problem investigated or purpose of the study.
o The participants (specifying important demographic characteristics such as age and
sex, or genus and species for animal studies).
o The essential parts of the method and design (variables, general procedure).
o The basic findings or outcome of the study (including effect sizes and/or statistical
significance levels).
o The conclusions and the implications or applications.
Lab Reports: The Introduction
The introduction provides the reader with background information about the topic that was
investigated and about previous research that has been performed.
Format

Start the introduction on a new page, after the abstract.

Type the title of the paper in plain text (not bolded) at the top of the page and center it.

Do not type the word “Introduction.”

In general, write the introduction in past tense.
Content
A lab report introduction typically has three main components:

A section describing the general topic of interest or problem that exists, including a
review of past research;

A section that describes how the general topic was studied in the present research;

A section that defines and clarifies the terms of the study and clearly states the hypothesis
that were tested.

The figure that follows provides some ideas of what to include in the introduction. For
16
courses with labs, the lab instructor will provide more information on the content of the
introduction.
Lab Reports: The Method Section
This section describes in detail how your study was done. It should contain enough detail so
that others could replicate your study.

Begin the method section after the end of the introduction (not on a new page)

Type the word “Method” (bold and no quotation marks) centered on the next line right
after the last sentence of the introduction.

Write the method section in past tense.

Method sections are broken down into subsections. The typical subsections are for
participants, materials, and procedure; however, other options can be used, such as:
17
apparatus, survey design, data coding, and so on.

Type the subsection headings, in bold, on the left hand side of the page (as shown below).
What follows is a list of the kind of information that should be included in each of the most
common subsections. If you want to include other subsections, check with your instructor. He or
she might also provide you with this information when presenting the method for the lab report.
Participants

The purpose of this section is to describe the study sample. For humans, the preferred
term is “participants” and for other animals, the preferred term is “subjects.”

Lab instructors will often provide you with a list of information to include in this section.
If not, include the following (if the information is available):
o Eligibility and exclusion criteria;
o Total number of participants;
o Major demographic characteristics (e.g., age, sex, education, etc.);
o Other characteristics relevant to the study (e.g., number of left-handed and righthanded participants);
o Recruitment and sampling procedures, including an explanation of whether
incentives were given for participation (e.g., course credit, monetary
compensation, gift draw, etc.);
o For animals, provide the genus, species, strain number or other specific
identification (e.g., name and location of supplier), as well as sex, age, weight,
and physiological condition;
o For experiments, the number of participants in each group of the experimental
manipulation (e.g., “Of the 130 participants, 43 were in the low caffeine group, 44
18
were in the high caffeine group, and 43 were in the control group.”).
o Include the number participants who dropped out of the study as it was in
progress, and reasons why when possible (e.g., “One participant had a broken
wrist and could not take part in the mirror tracing portion of study,” or “One male
rat developed an illness on the third day of testing and was removed from further
trials.”)
o Include any other information provided by the instructor for this section.
Materials
There is a wide variety of materials that may be included in a study. This list provides a
general idea of the most common. As for the participant section, your instructor will explain
what should be included in this section for your lab report.

In general, include things like questionnaires, booklets, tests, or equipment that were
unique to the study.

Do not include common materials such as chairs, desks, paper, pencils or pens for
writing, etc., unless these items adhered to specific criteria (e.g., “Each participant used a
black pen for the note-taking condition and a blue pen for the underlining condition.”).

Describe the materials, including how they were obtained or designed (e.g., reliability
and validity of questionnaires, range of scores and what the scores signify, procedures
established for observational methods, etc.).

Describe any apparatus used, including publisher/company information.

Describe any other relevant materials (e.g., if booklets were assembled, the order of the
contents; if voice recordings of word lists, the type of voice, speed, etc.)

When describing, include enough information so that someone could obtain or create
19
similar materials to replicate the study.

Provide appropriate citations (e.g., test publishers, source articles from which
questionnaires were taken, instrument company information, etc.).
Procedure

Summarize each step of the research including instructions to participants, randomization
(how participants were assigned to groups), counterbalancing and other control features
of the design.

Include the steps that are necessary but leave out unimportant information (e.g., do not
include that you said “hello” to the participants, that it was a rainy day, that it was a
Wednesday at 1:30, etc.)

Describe the type of design – within-subject, between-subject, correlational, mixed?

For experiments, describe how the various conditions were manipulated.

Describe the instructions given to participants (if very detailed or if they must be repeated
exactly as in the experiment, add the verbatim instructions in an appendix).

Include information on the setting, duration, timespan, etc.

Be as concise as possible and avoid repetition. Example:
o This: “First, the participants completed the demographic questionnaire. After they
completed this questionnaire, the participants read the study passages.”
o Can be condensed to this: “Participants first completed the demographic
questionnaire and then they read the study passages.”
NOTE: In lab studies, we often require specific information to be in each subsection of the
method. Use your lab notes to ensure you are putting things in the correct place.
20
Lab Reports: The Results Section
This section summarizes the data collected and the analytic treatment of the data.

Start after the end of the method section (not on a new page) and type the word “Results”
in bold in the center of the line (no quotation marks).

Write the section in past tense.

Report sample sizes, means and standard deviations for each category.

Include the test statistic value, degrees of freedom, probability (exact p value), effect size
and direction of effect, and confidence intervals

Report in sufficient detail to justify your conclusions.

Mention all results, even those that run counter to expectation or those that are nonsignificant.

Do not report individual scores or raw data.

Give a clear statement about whether each hypothesis was supported (but do not give
explanations of or conclusions from this).

Present results in sentence format.
o E.g., “The effect for age was statistically significant, F(4,43) = 3.54, p = .042, η2
= .21. On average, older participants (M = 29.45, SD = 2.14) performed better on
the verbal task compared to younger participants (M = 22.45, SD = 1.87).
Therefore, the hypothesis that older participants would outperform younger
participants on this task was supported. ”
 Do not duplicate information; display descriptive information in a sentence, table, or a
figure.
 Your instructor may give you the numerical results to present in your lab report. If so,
21
your task likely will be to format them correctly and to present a table or figure.
Here is the format for commonly used statistics:
F test: F(4,43) = 3.54, p = .004, η2 = .092
t test: t(68) = 5.29, p = .033, d = .213
Correlation: r(58) = .87, p = .001
Chi-square test: X2 (4, N = 90) = 3.51, p = .024
A note on p values: The APA manual is not clear on the standard for reporting these values,
except to say that authors should be consistent in how they are reported, and that exact values
should be reported. Follow the norm established by your instructor. Typically, they will ask for 2
places or 3 places past the decimal.
Additional formatting for results:

Report numbers consistently, usually to two or three decimal places.

Report exact p-values and effect sizes. One exception is when a statistical software
reports the p value as .000. In this case, report p < .001. If you have hand calculated the
statistics, report the p value that was used to decide significance (e.g., p < .05)

Italicize all statistical symbols.

When a statistic can have a range of values greater than 1 or less than -1, place a zero in
front of the decimal (e.g., M = 0.37).

When a statistic has a restricted range of +1 to -1, do not place a zero in front of the
decimal (e.g., p = .084, r = .75).
Tables and Figures
Tables and figures may be used to present the results. Choose the format that presents the
results in the clearest way: Tables are good for reporting descriptive information such as means
22
and standard deviations, especially when there are several experimental conditions. Figures are
good for displaying differences or interactions among conditions. Tables and figures have
specific APA formatting guidelines, as shown in the examples below.
Formatting

Introduce the table in the text that precedes it, using numerals to identify each table as it
appears in the paper (e.g., “Table 1 shows participants’ mean test scores according to
gender and drug level”).

To create the table, first type the table label in plain text and then on the line below that,
type the table title.

Format the title in title case (all important words capitalized) and in italics.

Use tabs to line up the table columns and horizontal lines to distinguish the top, bottom,
and subsections of the table. Do not use vertical lines.

Do not split a table across pages and do not leave large amounts of blank space before or
after a table.
Sample Table
Table 1
Mean Age and Test Scores by Drug Level and Gender
Gender
Group
Female
Male
Mean Age (SD)
_________________________________________________________
Placebo
6
7
28.43 (3.19)
Low dose
6
5
29.12 (3.83)
High dose
7
8
27.97 (3.89)
_________________________________________________________
23
Formatting

Introduce the figure in the text that precedes it, using numerals to identify each figure as
it appears in the paper (e.g., “Figure 2 shows participants’ average recall scores for novel
and retested items”).

Use a 12 point Sans Serif font for the label, description, and caption. Examples are
Calibri, Tahoma, and Arial.

Label both axes and provide a legend if applicable.

Place the figure label in italics below the figure, then place a period after the figure label,
followed by the figure caption in plain text. Use full sentences with punctuation for the
figure description.

The range of values on the y-axis should match the total possible range of the variable
that was tested (e.g., if a test was graded out of 100 points, the axis should range from 0
to 100).

Use grayscale and patterns to distinguish among figure elements; do not use colour.

Add error bars if required by your instructor.

Eliminate any distracting formatting, which can include 3D effects, gridlines, double
borders, and so on.

Embed the figure in the paragraphs of text, as soon as possible after it is introduced OR
place each figure on a separate page after the references section (different instructors
have different preferences).

Do not split a figure across pages and do not leave large amounts of blank space before or
after a figure.
24
Sample Figure
12
Average Recall Score
10
8
6
4
2
0
Retested Items
Novel Items
Figure 1. Average recall scores on the final test of the two study passages. Retested items
included six items from each passage that was tested one week prior. Novel items included six
items from each passage that had not been seen previously.
Lab Reports: The Discussion Section
This section is where you interpret the results and discuss the implications of the research.
Format

Begin immediately after the results section (not on a new page).

Type the word “Discussion” (bold, no quotations) centered on the page.

Describe the results in past tense and discuss conclusions in present tense.
Content

Begin with a short restatement of the purpose of the study.

Discuss the result of each hypothesis test, beginning with a statement of whether the
hypothesis was supported.
25

Discuss all results, even non-significant ones.

Provide information on limitations and next steps.

End with an overall summary and conclusion (“take home” message).

A special note on wording: Non-significant and insignificant have different meanings.
Non-significant refers to whether the results occurred significantly above chance levels,
while insignificant means that something is trivial or not important.

The figure that follows provides some ideas of what to include in the discussion. For
courses with labs, the lab instructor will provide more information on the content of the
discussion section.
26
Lab Reports: The References Section
The reference list appears at the end of the discussion. It provides the information necessary
for the reader to locate and retrieve any source you have cited in your paper.

Begin on a new page and type the word “References” centered at the top of the page (not
bolded and without quotation marks).

Follow the guidelines specified in Section 1 of this document.
Lab Reports: Appendices

Appropriate for materials that are relatively brief and that are easily presented in print
format (e.g., copy of an unpublished questionnaire, word lists, detailed description of a
complex piece of equipment, etc.)

Each appendix begins on a new page and appears after the list of references and any
attached figures.

If there is only one appendix, label it Appendix.

If there is more than one, use letters to identify each, in the other that they appear in the
paper (e.g., Appendix A, Appendix B)

To create an appendix, go to a new page and type the label at the top center, in bold (e.g.,
Appendix or Appendix A). On the line below the label, type the title of the appendix in
bold lettering and in title case. Attach the appended materials starting on the line below
the title. An example is shown in the sample lab report.
27
SECTION 3: PARAPHRASING AND AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
In general, plagiarism is the use of another person’s words, phrases, or ideas without proper
acknowledgement. Mount Allison, like most other educational institutions, regards plagiarism as
a form of academic dishonesty and the penalties for plagiarism can be severe.2 In writing,
plagiarism can occur when:

You copy a direct quote from an author without citing the source of the quote and/or
without indicating that it is a direct quote;

You paraphrase another’s work too closely, even if you cite the source (often called
mosaic plagiarism); and

You model your work too closely on the work of another person.
Many students understand how to avoid the first type of plagiarism but struggle to avoid the
second two types. A general strategy to avoid plagiarism is to:
1) Place the information completely in your own words, and
2) Always cite the source of your facts and information, and
3) List your sources in a reference list.
Use Your Own Words (Paraphrase Properly)
The phrase “use your own words” sounds simple but it is often very challenging for students,
especially those in first and second year. Placing the material into your own words takes practice
and effort. Here are some strategies you can use:

Take notes in your own wording as you read the original work (better than
highlighting the original).
2
See Mount Allison’s Academic Calendar, section 10.6 “Academic Integrity” for more information:
http://www.mta.ca/calendar/_10.html#_10.6
28
o Be sure to mark down the information necessary to create the reference entry
o If you must write something word for word, put it in direct quotes and put the
page number. Remember to paraphrase it when you add it to your paper. As
mentioned above, many instructors do not allow direct quotes on assignments or
lab reports.

Make sure you understand the material very well before you start to write your paper.
The more you understand it, the less likely you will be to plagiarize.

When it is time to write, use your notes to make a point form outline of what you want
to say.

Put all of the original sources away and write from memory, using your notes and
outline as a guide. (If you cannot do this, you may not be ready to write and should
consider re-reading the source materials.)

Finally, compare your writing to the sources to make sure you adequately paraphrased
and have kept the meaning of the material. Look also for important ideas or concepts
that you may have missed and add those to your paper.

There are several resources on how to recognize and prevent plagiarism listed in
Section 4, below.
An Example of Improper and Correct Paraphrasing
Original Source *
Where most students err in terms of unintentional plagiarism is not in failing to
acknowledge ideas, but in paraphrasing incorrectly. Many novice researchers
assume that if paraphrasing means putting a passage "in your own words," this
can be accomplished by simply substituting synonyms for key terms. Stealing
syntax, or sentence structure, is as significant an offence as stealing an idea
because, as you know from your own writing experience, trying to phrase a
point exactly is a difficult art. Proper paraphrasing depends on thorough
29
comprehension of material, not on a thesaurus.
Trent University (2015). Summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting. Retrieved from
https://www.trentu.ca/history/workbook/summarizingparaphrasingandquoting.php
Improper Paraphrase (Mosaic Plagiarism)
Where most students make the mistake of unintentional plagiarism is not by
failing to cite, but in paraphrasing improperly. Many novice researchers
assume that if paraphrasing means putting the material "in your own words,"
this can be done easily by substituting synonyms for key terms. Copying
syntax, or sentence structure, is just as bad as stealing an idea because, as you
know from your own writing experience, trying to phrase a point exactly is
difficult. Proper paraphrasing requires thorough comprehension of material,
not a thesaurus (Trent University, 2015).
Notice how most of the words, the sentence structures, and the order of the sentences are the
same as the original. This is not properly paraphrased, even though there is a citation.
Proper Paraphrase
Unintentional plagiarism often occurs because novice researchers do not
understand how to paraphrase properly. They have been told to put the material
“into your own words” but they may assume that it is acceptable to merely
replace a few words with synonyms or to change the sentences around.
However, this still a theft of ideas, as it requires no real effort. Paraphrasing is
difficult and requires a solid understanding of the material to be done correctly
(Trent University, 2015).
Notice that the meaning of the original content is kept, but the word choice, sentence
structure, and overall style is clearly different than the original. A citation is provided.
30
SECTION 4: RESOURCES
APA Style (These resources present the FULL APA format requirements)

APA Help: http://www.apastyle.org/apa-style-help.aspx

Basics of APA Tutorial: http://flash1r.apa.org/apastyle/basics/index.htm

Using APA Format: http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/01/

Tricks for APA Format in Microsoft Word: http://info.csp.edu/AcademicResources/WritingCenter/Instructional-Videos/
Planning to Write

Very, Very Useful Assignment Calculator (helps plan a detailed timeline based on type of
assignment and due date): https://www.lib.umn.edu/apps/ac/

Research Tips (a series of short how-to articles):
http://libraryguides.mta.ca/research_help/research_tips

Understanding Your Research Paper Assignment:
http://guides.jwcc.edu/content.php?pid=65900&sid=486801
Writing & Grammar

Purdue Online Writing Lab (OWL): http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/section/1/ Also:
Exercises for practice: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/exercises/

How to Avoid Colloquial (Informal) Writing:
http://concordia.csp.edu/writingcenter/WriterResources/Colloquial_Writing_-.pdf

Resources for Writers (also has some APA material): http://info.csp.edu/AcademicResources/WritingCenter/Resources-for-Writers/

Transitional Words and Phrases (great list!):
https://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/Transitions.html
31

Commonly Misused Words: http://wsuonline.weber.edu/wrh/words.htm

Basic Grammatical Terms That You May Have Forgotten Since High School:
http://grammar.about.com/od/terms/a/topgramterms.htm

Passive versus Active Voice: http://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples-of-active-andpassive-voice.html and also: http://www.grammarly.com/blog/2014/a-scary-easy-way-tohelp-you-find-passive-voice/
Recognizing and Avoiding Plagiarism

What is Plagiarism: http://gervaseprograms.georgetown.edu/honor/system/53377.html

Note Taking and Avoiding Plagiarism:
http://guides.jwcc.edu/content.php?pid=65900&sid=538553

The Writer’s Handbook: Avoiding Plagiarism:
http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/QuotingSources.html

Plagiarism: How to Recognize and Avoid It:
http://www.indiana.edu/~wts/pamphlets/plagiarism.shtml
SECTION 5: SAMPLE LAB REPORT
Page # in header
above margin (this
would normally be
page 1)
Descriptive title about 12 words long.
Variables are clear, type of study is
clear (effects of), and population is
named.
Effects of Retesting, Note-taking, and Highlighting on Recall in Undergraduate Students
Monique LeBlanc
Cognitive Processes
Mount Allison University
Name, course, university, date
– all centered and doublespaced under the title.
August 1, 2014
NOTE: This is a sample report to help students visualize the
final product. This document does not point out all the APA
requirements, so always double-check the department’s APA
guide and the requirements for your specific assignment.
32
Centered and not bolded.
Starts on a new page.
Not indented. One paragraph
for entire abstract.
33
Abstract
The current study examined the effectiveness of various study strategies among 118
undergraduate participants (87 female, 31 male, mean age = 19.52 years). Participants studied
two text passages by highlighting one and taking notes on the other. They completed two tests;
one immediately after studying and another one week later. The second test included repeated
test items and new test items. The results indicated a strong testing effect with performance on
repeated items significantly better than on new test items (p < .001). These results suggest that
students should integrate repeated testing into their studying.
Includes something from
each section. Purpose,
participants, design/tasks,
main results, conclusion.
Be concise – this abstract
has 93 words. Aim for
about 120 words, but
make sure you include all
the main parts.
Title, centered
and not bolded
1 inch
(2.54 cm)
margins
all sides
34
Effects of Retesting, Note-taking, and Highlighting on Recall in Undergraduate Students
Students are often faced with the challenging task of studying for several midterms or exams
at once, while also juggling class schedules, assignments, or work schedules. It is therefore
important for students to maximize their study time and to employ strategies that will promote a
high rate of recall. The purpose of the current study was to examine three such strategies:
Indent all
paragraphs
retesting, note-taking, and highlighting.
Roediger and Karpicke (2006) performed one of the first studies examining the effect of
retesting on recall. They felt that taking tests was not seen by students or educators as a study
strategy but only as a method of assessment and that tests could assume a formative role as well
as an evaluative one. They explained that taking multiple tests on material to be learned could
Define
and
explain
new
terms
promote better recall, a phenomenon called the testing effect. Roediger and Karpicke (2006)
suggested that the experience of attempting to answer test questions promoted practice in
recalling information and this practice could lead to enhanced recall on a subsequent test.
Roediger and Karpicke (2006) sought to recreate the testing effect found in previous
Purpose &
rationale
experiments and to eliminate a possible “exposure” confound in previous research. They
explained that in past experiments, participants were divided into two groups: one group studied
the test materials and the other studied the materials and completed a pretest on the materials.
The confound was that participants who studied and took a pretest were exposed to the test
material twice before the final test; perhaps the testing effect was simply due to this added
Basic method
& design
exposure. Roediger and Karpicke (2006) asked their participants to read and study two prose
passages in one of two ways: by rereading (Study-Study condition) or by testing (Study-Test
condition), thus controlling exposure. In a series of experiments, they also manipulated the
length of study time, the number of repeated study sessions, and measured recall at various time
Their major finding and
their explanation of why it
happened.
35
intervals.
Overall, Roediger and Karpicke (2006) found no differences on recall performance when
participants were tested within five minutes of studying but they did find differences in recall
after two days and after one week. On these tests, passages studied through retesting were
recalled better, even if no feedback was given regarding performance on earlier tests. Therefore,
Roediger and Karpicke (2006) found support for the testing effect and eliminated exposure as a
possible confound, suggesting that practice in recalling information enhanced overall learning.
They suggested that this occurs because it allows students to practice the skill of test-taking and
information retrieval and that educators should incorporate repeated testing into their class
schedules.
Full citation first
time in paper
Einstein, Mullet, and Harrison (2012) were aware of the research on testing effect but
suggested that students were not and tended to use rereading as their predominant strategy
Short form
for rest of
paper
instead. Einstein et al. (2012) suggested that students might overestimate their ability to recall
information simply due to their familiarity with the material from rereading. Furthermore, they
suggested that students may not realize that the struggle to recall information is an effective way
to improve memory. Therefore, they sought to replicate Roediger and Karpicke’s (2006) study in
an applied classroom setting to encourage students to use testing as a study strategy.
Twenty-six male and female students enrolled in a Memory and Cognition course
participated in Einstein et al.’s (2012) study, which followed the procedures established by
Roediger and Karpicke (2006). Students completed the experiment as part of a laboratory project
for the course. At the end of the semester, the students also anonymously rated the laboratory
project and whether they were more likely to use retesting as a study strategy as a result of the
project. The overall results of Einstein et al.’s (2012) study demonstrated the testing effect:
36
students recalled more information for passages using the Study-Test strategy than for the StudyStudy strategy. They also indicated that although students were initially unaware of the testing
effect, they intended to use it more often in the future. Overall, Einstein et al. (2012) concluded
that the testing effect methodology is applicable in classroom settings.
Transition sentence linking
studies and ideas
While the testing effect has received much scrutiny over the past several years, students do
commonly employ other methods of studying, such as taking notes from or highlighting
information in their textbooks. As such, it is important to examine the effectiveness of some of
these alternate strategies. Researchers examining study strategies often base their methods on
depth-of-processing theory proposed by Craik and Lockhart (1972). Craik and Lockhart’s (1972)
classic study was designed to address the limitations of memory theories that were popular at
that time, which indicated that memory was simply the transfer of information to and from
various memory stores in the brain. Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed that the process of
storing and retrieving involved more than the simple transfer of information and felt that memory
operated more like a processor. They argued that information processed more deeply (i.e.,
semantic encoding) would benefit recall when compared to information processed more
shallowly (i.e.: visual encoding).
Depth of processing theory is now widely accepted in the field of memory; however, few
studies have examined the testing effect from a depth of processing viewpoint. The present study
was designed to examine both the testing effect and the difference between note-taking and
highlighting on recall in a classroom setting. Following the general method outlined by Roediger
and Karpicke (2006), participants studied by note-taking or highlighting. They were also
pretested on half of the studied material to examine the testing effect. Final testing took place
immediately after the study sessions and again after a one-week delay.
Format check: If your margins,
spacing, and font size are correct
there will be 23 lines per page
37
Depth of processing theory suggests that deeper processing of information should produce
better recall over shallow processing of information. The literature on the testing effect suggests
that practice in retrieving and recalling information though testing should produce better recall
over other study strategies, especially in the long term. Three hypotheses were developed to
examine these possibilities: First, scores on a final recall test should be higher for material
studied by taking notes than for material that was highlighted; second, scores on a final recall test
should be higher for the items that were pretested, displaying a testing effect; and third, the
difference between the scores on pretested items and non-pretested items should be larger after a
After intro, bold
& centered
one week delay than at immediate testing.
Subsection:
left justify
and bold
Method
“Numbers” rule
(spell out,
digits, etc.)
Participants
One hundred and eighteen students from a pool of 124 students enrolled in an
undergraduate psychology class at a small Liberal Arts university participated as part of a class
project. Participants’ mean age was 19.52 years (SD = 1.04) and most (60.23%) were in their
second year of studies. There were 31 males and 86 females and the majority of the participants
were Caucasian (88.41%). Of the 118 participants, 60 were in the note-taking condition and 58
were in the highlighting condition. Incentives were not provided and participation was voluntary.
Materials
Citation for source
of materials
The two passages used by Einstein et al. (2012) were used in this study. These passages
were originally taken from an English as a second language test and discuss one of two topics:
sea otters and the sun. Each passage is approximately 350 words long. Einstein et al. (2012) had
also developed 12 short answer questions for each passage; these questions and the
corresponding answer keys were used in the present study. A copy of these materials is included
Even with citation, materials are described and
appended
38
Materials described – nothing
about procedure here
in Appendix A.
A short demographic questionnaire asking about participants’ age, gender, year of study,
and ethnicity was developed and included in a study and pretest booklet that contained the
reading passages and instructions, a distraction task (a general hidden figures test), and the first
short answer test that was comprised of six items from each 12-item test. There were four
versions of this booklet so as to counterbalance the order of passages (sea otter or the sun) and
study format (highlight or take notes). A follow-up testing booklet was designed for the final
recall test. This booklet included six previously tested and six novel questions for each study
passage. Two versions of this booklet were created to counterbalance the order of the topic of the
tests. Sample booklets are included in Appendix B.
Straightforward
& concise
Procedure
Participants were told about the study and provided consent. Participation was in a group
setting, with a within-subject repeated measures design. First, participants received the study
and pretest booklet, with the various booklets assigned at random to each participant.
Participants were given seven minutes to study the first passage according to the instructions for
that passage and then did the same for the second passage. They then completed the
demographics questionnaire and were given six minutes to complete the hidden figures test.
Finally, participants answered the 12 pretest questions. Participants were not given feedback on
the results of this pretest. One week later, participants returned to complete the final short answer
test and were debriefed.
Test Scoring
Can use
subsections
in other parts
of paper
After method,
bold & centered
Results
Participants’ free recall answers were scored as either correct or incorrect according to
Numbers rule is being broken
for clarity and continuity.
There’s even a
citation here
39
the marking key developed by Einstein et al. (2012). This resulted in six scores for each
participant: 1) a pretest score for the highlighted passage, out of 6 points; 2) a pretest score for
the note-taking passage, out of 6 points; 3) a score for the final test on the highlighted passage
for novel items, out of 6 points; 4)a score for the final test on the note-taking passage for novel
items, out of 6 points; 5) a total score on the final test for retested items, out of 12 points; and 6)
a total score on the final test for novel items, out of 12 points.
Note-Taking versus Highlighting
Describes how raw data
were treated before the
analysis
The first two hypotheses examined differences between the highlighting study strategy
and the note-taking strategy. First, the study method on pretest scores was examined with a
paired t-test. No significant difference between test scores for highlighting (M = 4.51, SD = 1.42)
and for note-taking (M = 4.67, SD = 1.21) was found, t (115) = -1.21, p = .230. Therefore, this
hypothesis was not supported.
Stat symbols
in italics
The second hypothesis examined the possible difference between highlighting and notetaking after a one-week delay, on questions not previously tested. A paired t-test showed no
significant difference between test scores on novel items for highlighting (M = 2.15, SD = 1.23)
and for note-taking (M = 2.04, SD = 1.42), t (110) = 0.68, p = .501. Therefore, this hypothesis
was not supported.
The Testing Effect
Statement of support (or
lack of) for hypothesis
The third analysis examined the testing effect hypothesis by comparing the scores on
retested items to scores on novel items, both tested one week after studying. A paired t-test
showed a significant difference between test scores for new items and repeated items, t (110) =
14.97, p < .001, with higher scores for repeated items, as shown in Figure 1. This indicates
support for the testing effect hypothesis.
Sans-serif, grayscale, y-axis shows total range of possible
scores, axes labeled, no gridlines or other distracting features.
40
12
Average Recall Score
10
8
6
4
2
Sansserif
0
Retested Items
Novel Items
Figure 1. Average recall scores on the final test of the two study passages. Retested items
included six items from each passage that was tested one week prior. Novel items included six
items from each passage that had not been seen previously.
After results,
bold & centered
Discussion
The current study sought to examine two common study strategies, highlighting and notetaking, and a less-known strategy known as the testing effect. Participants studied passages by
highlighting, note-taking, or by repeat testing. The results indicated no difference in recall
performance between highlighting and note-taking, either immediately after studying or after a
one week delay. Support for repeat testing was found, regardless of original study method. On a
final test, questions that participants had answered previously were answered correctly more
often than novel questions. This testing effect occurred even though participants had not been
given feedback on their pretest performance.
Restate purpose and
brief outline of results.
The current findings mirror those of Roediger and Karpicke (2006), who also found a
Comparing and contrasting
to other studies.
41
testing effect after a two-day and one week-delay. While Roediger and Karpicke (2006) did not
manipulate the type of studying used by their participants, the current study specifically asked
students to highlight or to take notes. The fact that the testing effect still emerged with varying
encoding strategies indicates that it is a robust effect that can be used in many situations. In
addition, the current results replicated those of Einstein et al. (2012), who also examined the
testing effect in a classroom setting with the same materials and overall design.
Contrary to depth-of-processing theory (Craik & Lockhart, 1972), note-taking while
studying the passages did not result in higher recall performance over highlighting while
studying. It is possible that in the current study, participants were not motivated to create detailed
notes or to take notes in their own words as they studied, knowing that the test was for
experimental purposes only. In this case, the note-taking strategy may have been shallow due a
simple transcription of words onto a piece of paper.
Explain non-sig. results, using theory to
guide the explanation.
These current findings lend support to the growing body of research on the testing effect,
suggesting that the effect can be found in various learning situations. However, our findings are
limited in that only free recall questions were answered. It is possible that the testing effect might
not apply to a recognition task, such as multiple choice questions. Future studies may wish to
examine both free recall and recognition tests to see whether the testing effect will emerge in
both.
Limitations and
next steps.
A second limitation is the nature of the task itself. While this study was designed and
conducted in a lab setting and mimicked a class setting, students do not typically learn materials
in a only few minutes, followed by an immediate test. As also noted by Einstein et al. (2012),
future researchers may want to apply this general design using real course-related materials that
apply to actual grades in a course, following a typical lecture and midterm timeframe.
42
Overall, the current study found evidence that the testing effect is a robust phenomenon
that may be applied in a real-life class setting. It also found no overall differences between notetaking and highlighting as study strategies. Taken as a whole, this suggests that students wishing
to learn information for their courses should study using their preferred method and that they
should test themselves as they study in order to maximize the benefits of their study sessions.
Not only will this help them to learn and recall the material in the short term, it may also help
them remember their course materials until – and after – the final exam.
Strong concluding
paragraph with final “take
home” message
New page after
discussion, centered
not bolded
Alphabetical list
43
References
Craik, F. I. M., & Lockhart, R. S. (1972). Levels of processing: A framework for memory
research. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 11, 671-684.
Einstein, G. O., Mullet, H. G., & Harrison, T. L. (2012). The testing effect: Illustrating a
fundamental concept and changing study strategies. The Teaching of Psychology, 39, 190 193. doi: 10.1177/0098628312450432
Karpicke, J. D., & Roediger, III, H. L. (2008). The critical importance of retrieval for learning.
Science, 319, 966 – 968. doi: 10.1126/science.1152408
Hanging indents. Use the ruler
feature. Search Word’s help for
“hanging indent” to learn how.
References have very detailed formatting.
Follow the APA guide and pay attention to
punctuation, uppercase lettering, italics,
etc.
44
Content – formatted as it
was used; do not reformat
to APA style
Appendix heading and title,
centered and bolded.
Appendix A
Study Passages and Short Answer Quiz with Answers
The Sun
The Sun today is a yellow dwarf star. It is fueled by thermonuclear reactions near its center that
convert hydrogen to helium. The Sun has existed in its present state for about 4 billion, 600
million years and is thousands of times larger than the Earth.
By studying other stars, astronomers can predict what the rest of the Sun’s life will be like.
About 5 billion years from now, the core of the Sun will shrink and become hotter. The surface
temperature will fall. The higher temperature of the center will increase the rate of thermonuclear
reactions. The outer regions of the Sun will expand approximately 35 million miles, which is
about the distance to Mercury. The Sun will then be a red giant star. Temperatures on the Earth
will become too hot for life to exist.
Once the Sun has used up its thermonuclear energy as a red giant, it will begin to shrink.
After it shrinks to the size of the Earth, it will become a white dwarf star. The Sun may throw off
huge amounts of gases in violent eruptions called nova explosions as it changes from a red giant
to a white dwarf.
After billions of years as a white dwarf, the Sun will have used up all its fuel and will have lost
its heat. Such a star is called a black dwarf. After the sun has become a black dwarf, the Earth
will be dark and cold. If any atmosphere remains there it will have frozen onto the
Earth’s surface.
Sea Otters
Sea otters dwell in the North Pacific. They are the largest of the mustelids, a group that also
includes freshwater otters, weasels, and badgers. They are from 4 to 5 feet long and most weigh
from 60 to 85 pounds. Large males may weigh 100 pounds or more.
Unlike most marine mammals, such as seals or dolphins, sea otters lack a layer of blubber, and
therefore have to eat up to 30 percent of their body weight a day in clams, crabs, fish, octopus,
squids, and other delicacies to maintain body heat. Their voracious appetites do not create food
shortages, however, because they are picky eaters, each animal preferring only a few food types.
Thus no single type of food source is exhausted. Sea otters play an important environmental role
by protecting forests of seaweed called kelp, which provide shelter and nutrients to many
species. Certain sea otters feast on invertebrates, like sea urchins and abalones that destroy kelp.
Sea otters eat and sleep while floating on their backs, often on masses of kelp. They seldom
come on shore. Sea otters keep warm by means of their luxuriant double-layered fur, the densest
among animals. The soft outer fur forms a protective cover that keeps the fine underfur dry. One
square inch of underfur contains up to one million hairs. Unfortunately, this essential feature
45
SECTION 6: APA STYLE CHECKLIST
Section 1: General Requirements – Apply to all assignments
 1-inch margins on all sides
 Pages numbered on the top right with title page numbered as page 1
 Title is descriptive and about 12 words
 Title page includes your name, course, university, and date
 Font is 12 point Serif style throughout (except for figures)
 There is no “fancy” formatting; only plain, bold, or italicized text is used
 Entire document is double-spaced
 Text is left-justified
 Paragraphs are indented
 Proper heading formats are used
 Document has been checked for typos, spelling, and grammatical errors
 There is no biased language
 No jargon, clichés, or other informal language is used
 Material is paraphrased, cited, and referenced
 There are no direct quotes (unless your professor allows them)
 Citations formatted correctly (name(s), year)
 Proper use of long and short citation formats
 Citations use ‘and’ in text and ‘&’ in parentheses
 Reference list is on a new page and headed by the word ‘References’ centered, and not
bolded
 References are listed in alphabetical order
 References are hanging indented
 Every citation has a reference and every reference has a citation
 References are formatted properly (punctuation, italics, etc.)
 The “numbers” rule is followed (starting a sentence, 10 and over, etc.)
 No contractions are used
 Mathematical and statistical symbols are italicized
46
Section 2: Additional Requirements for Lab Reports
 Abstract begins on a new page
 Abstract is headed by the word ‘Abstract’ centered at the top, and not bolded
 Abstract text is one paragraph and is not indented
 Abstract is about 120 words long (1/2 page)
 Abstract contains information from each section of the report
 Introduction begins on a new page, headed by the paper’s title
 Title is centered, not bolded, with important words capitalized
 Method, results, and discussion sections immediately follow the previous sections
 Section headings are centered and in bold type
 Subsection headings are left-justified and in bold type
 Past tense is used when writing the introduction, method, and results sections
 Tables are introduced in the preceding text
 Tables are formatted properly
o Correct format for table label and title
o Horizontal lines used to denote headings and content
o No vertical lines
o Table is not split across pages
 Figures are introduced in the preceding text
 Figures are formatted properly
o Correct format for figure label and caption
o Sans-serif font is used
o Y-axis reflects possible range of scores
o Both axes are labelled and legend is provided (if applicable)
o Grayscale and patterns are used (no colour)
o No distracting formatting (e.g., no 3D, gridlines, etc.)
o Figure is not split across pages
 In the discussion, past tense is used to describe results and present tense is used to
discuss conclusions
 All results are reported and discussed (including non-significant results)