Written Expression:
Development, Assessment,
and Intervention
ASHA 2006
Nancy Larkin Reed, Ph.D., CCC-SLP
Georgia State University
Vygotsky’s Model
• Cognition and
speech develop
separately, but then
converge as
language
Cognition
Speech
Language
Oral Language
Listening
comprehension
Expressive
Language
Written Language
Reading
Written
expression
Receptive
Expressive
Auditory
Verbal
Listening
Speaking
Visual
Verbal
Reading
Writing
Language Development:
Visual verbal expressive
(Written Expression)
Visual verbal receptive
(reading)
Auditory verbal expressive
(Speaking)
Auditory verbal receptive
(Listening)
Pre-school readiness skills
related to written expression
• development of written expression in
pre-schoolers
• critical skills that must be in place
• encouraging readiness skills essential
for the development of written
expression
Development of Written
Expression in Preschoolers
• Pre-instrumental phase
• Primary, undifferentiated graphic sign
phase
reminds by position, relationship
• Pictographic phase (4 to 5 years)
– Length of lines, rhythm, amount of
scribbling
• Symbolic phase
Critical Readiness Skills
• Cognitive Development
Knowledge and experience
Attention and self-regulation
Differentiation
Things that are of interest
Things that are instrumental
Critical Readiness Skills, cont’d
• Oral Expressive Language
• Reading
• Spelling
• Visual-motor skills/orthography
Encouraging Readiness Skills
• From graphic sign to pictograph
– Use a stimulus with
• Number
• Form, color
• Oral Expressive Language
• Reading
• Visual-motor skills/orthography
• Experiences and knowledge
Possible causes of difficulties
in written expression
• Poor Visual-motor integration
• Poor visual scanning and visual
memory
• Poor spelling
Possible causes of difficulties in
written expression, cont’d
• Expressive language deficits
Semantics
Syntax
Formulation
Word retrieval
Possible causes of difficulties
in written expression, cont’d
• Poor knowledge/use of mechanics
• Poor monitoring/proofing
• Lack of experience and information
• Poor or inappropriate instruction
Assessment of Written
Expression
• Formal assessment
• Informal assessment of the various
aspects of written expression
• Things to look for quickly in a written
language sample.
Formal Assessment
Examples:
• Picture Story Language Test
• Test of Written Language
• Test of Early Written Language
• OWLS Written Language Scales
Informal Assessment
• Two Approaches
– Wholistic
• Overall quality
• Coherence
• Cohesiveness
• Sense of Audience
Informal Assessment, cont’d
• Analytic approach
– Vocabulary
– Syntax
– Spelling
Informal Assessment, cont’d
• Handwriting
– Pencil grip
– Pressure
– Orientation
– Spacing
– Letter formation
Informal Assessment, cont’d
• Mechanics
– Capitalization
– Punctuation
– Paragraphs
Remediation of Written
Language
• There are hierarchical and reciprocal
patterns of development among all
forms of language
– Reading can aid aspects of oral language,
such as phonemic discrimination,
memory, syntax
– Writing may facilitate strategies for
memory and organization
– Johnson and Blalock
Deficits in Auditory
Comprehension
• Expect to see problems in
– Word meaning
– Syntax
– Content
– Poor auditory discrimination
Deficits in oral expressive
language
• Errors in written language may reflect errors
in oral language
• Severity depends on degree of deficit in
auditory comprehension
– Omits words and word endings
– Errors on Plurals
– Errors in verb tense, pronoun usage
– Severe auditory memory deficit---written may be
better than spoken.
Deficits in Reading
• Developmentally, you must be able to
read in order to be able to write. You
can copy, but it’s not meaningful.
• Deficits in reading due to
– Visual discrimination, sequencing, and
memory
– Auditory processing---may omit syllables,
misperceive words
Remediating Written Expression,
cont’d
• Mechanics (punctuation, capitalization)
• Spelling (patterns)
• Semantics/vocabulary
• Syntax
• Formulation, organization
• Abstract/concrete levels
• Monitoring
B. Use of Assistive Technology
1. Word
• Spellcheck/grammarcheck
• Thesaurus/dictionary
• Outline function
2. Inspiration — formulation, organization,
structure, word prediction
3. Text to Voice, Screen readers
4. Voice to text –Dragon Naturally Speaking
5. Monitoring—text reader, Texthelp, WYNN
Resources for
Assistive Technology
See handout