Introduction
During World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union fought together as allies
against the Axis powers. However, the relationship between the two nations was a tense one.
Americans had long been wary of Soviet communism and concerned about Russian leader
Joseph Stalin’s tyrannical, blood-thirsty rule of his own country. For their part, the Soviets
resented the Americans’ decades-long refusal to treat the USSR as a legitimate part of the
international community as well as their delayed entry into World War II, which resulted in
the deaths of tens of millions of Russians. After the war ended, these grievances ripened into
an overwhelming sense of mutual distrust and enmity.
Postwar Soviet expansionism in Eastern Europe fuelled many Americans’ fears of a Russian
plan to control the world. Meanwhile, the USSR came to resent what they perceived as
American officials’ bellicose rhetoric, arms buildup and interventionist approach to
international relations. In such a hostile atmosphere, no single party was entirely to blame for
the Cold War; in fact, some historians believe it was inevitable.
The Cold War is a conflict between the United States of America (US), the Soviet Union
(USSR) and their respective allies, over political, economic and military issues, often
described as a struggle between capitalism and communism (but actually far greyer than
that). In Europe, this meant the US led West and NATO on one side and Soviet led East and
the Warsaw Pact on the other.
Some say the Cold War really began with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill’s speech
in 1946 in which he described an “iron curtain” which separated the East and the West, and
their respective ideologies. The East was the Soviet Union and its countries of influence and
the West included the United States and their allies, the major ones being Canada, France,
Britain, and Japan. The War involved the use of expensive resources on both of these sides.
The relationship between the two powers started to waiver between 1945 and 1947, but by
1947 the Cold War was visible.
Timeline of Major Events
1945
February 8: The Yalta Conference occurs, deciding the post-war status of Germany. The
Allies of World War II (the USA, the USSR, Great Britain and France) divide Germany
into four occupation zones. The Allied nations agree that free elections are to be held in all
countries occupied by Nazi Germany. In addition, the new United Nations are to replace
the failed League of Nations.
April 23: US President Harry S. Truman gives a tongue-lashing to Soviet Foreign Minister
Vyacheslav Molotov indicating that he was determined to take a "tougher" stance with the
Soviets than his predecessor had.
July 24: At the Potsdam Conference, US President Harry S. Truman informs Soviet Union
leader Joseph Stalin that the United States has nuclear weapons.
August 6: Truman gives permission for the world's first military use of an atomic weapon
against the Japanese city of Hiroshima in an attempt to bring the only remaining theatre of
war from the Second World War in the Pacific to a swift closure.
August 8: The USSR honours its agreement to declare war on Japan within three months of
the victory in Europe, and invades Manchuria. In accordance with the Yalta Conference
agreements, the Soviet Union also invades Japanese Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands.
August 9: US President Truman gives permission for the world's second and last military
use of an atomic weapon against the Japanese city of Nagasaki in order to try to secure a
swift Japanese unconditional surrender in the end of the Second World War.
September 2: The Japanese surrender unconditionally to the US on board the USS Missouri
to representative General Douglas MacArthur.
1946
February 9: Joseph Stalin makes his Election Speech, in which he states that capitalism and
imperialism make future wars inevitable.
March 2: British soldiers withdraw from their zone of occupation in southern Iran. Soviet
soldiers remain in their northern sector.
March 6: Winston Churchill warns of the descent of an Iron Curtain across Europe.
July 4: The Philippines gains independence from the United States, and begins fighting
communist Huk rebels (Hukbalahap Rebellion).
1947
January 1: The American and British zones of control in Germany are united to form the
Bizone also known as Bizonia.
March 12: President Harry Truman announces the Truman Doctrine starting with the
giving of aid to Greece and Turkey in order to prevent them from falling into the Soviet
sphere
June 5: Secretary of State George Marshall outlines plans for a comprehensive program of
economic assistance for the war-ravaged countries of Western Europe. It would become
known throughout the world as the Marshall Plan.
August 14: India and Pakistan gain independence from the United Kingdom.
December 30: In Romania, King Michael I of Romania is forced to abdicate by Gheorghe,
the monarchy is abolished and the Popular Republic of Romania is instituted instead. The
Communist Party will rule the country until December 1989.
1948 - 1954
Truman signs the Marshall Plan into effect. By the end of the programs, the United States
has given $12.4 billion in economic assistance to Western European countries.
Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin orders the blockade of all land routes from West Germany to
Berlin, in an attempt to starve out the French, British, and American forces from the city.
In response, the three Western powers launch the Berlin Airlift to supply the citizens of
Berlin by air.
The Berlin Airlift defeats Russia's attempt to starve West Berlin.
The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) is founded by Belgium, Canada,
Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the
United Kingdom, and the United States, in order to resist Communist expansion.
The Soviet blockade of Berlin ends with the re-opening of access routes to Berlin. The
airlift continues until September, in case the Soviets re-establish the blockade.
The Soviet Union tests its first atomic bomb. The test, known to Americans as Joe 1,
succeeds, as the Soviet Union becomes the world's second nuclear power.
Mao Zedong declares the foundation of the People's Republic of China - adding a quarter
of the world's population to the communist camp.
The United Kingdom recognizes the People's Republic of China. The Republic of China
severs diplomatic relations with the United Kingdom.
North Korea invades South Korea. The Soviet Union cannot veto, as it is boycotting the
Security Council over the admission of People's Republic of China. Eventually, the number
of countries operating under the UN aegis increases to 16: Australia, Belgium, Canada,
Colombia, Ethiopia, France, Greece, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, New Zealand, the
Philippines, South Africa, Thailand, Turkey, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
United Nations forces cross the 38th parallel, into North Korea.
Australia, New Zealand, and the United States sign the ANZUS Treaty. This compels the
three countries to cooperate on matters of defence and security in the Pacific.
The United States lays the keel for the world's first nuclear-powered submarine, USS
Nautilus.
The Marshall Plan ends, with European industrial output now well above that of 1948.
Dwight D. Eisenhower becomes President of the United States
Joseph Stalin dies, setting off a power struggle to succeed him.
An armistice agreement ends fighting in the Korean War.
Nikita Khrushchev becomes leader of the Soviet Communist Party. His main rival,
Lavrentiy Beria, is executed in December.
Foundation of the South East Asian Treaty Organisation (SEATO) by Australia, France,
New Zealand, Pakistan, Thailand, the Philippines, the United Kingdom, and the United
States. Like NATO, it is founded to resist Communist expansion, this time in the
Philippines and Indochina.
1955
February 24: The Baghdad Pact is founded by Iran, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and the United
Kingdom. It is committed to resisting Communist expansion in the Middle East.
April: The Non-Aligned Movement is pioneered by Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Sukarno of
Indonesia, Tito of Yugoslavia, Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt and Kwame Nkrumah of
Ghana. This movement was designed to be a bulwark against the 'dangerous polarisation'
of the world at that time and to restore balance of power with smaller nations. It was an
international organisation of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or
against any major power bloc.
May 5: Allies end military occupation of West Germany.
May 9: West Germany joins NATO and begins rearmament.
May 14: The Warsaw Pact is founded in Eastern Europe and includes East Germany,
Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary, Romania, Albania, Bulgaria, and the Soviet Union. It
acts as the Communist military counterpart to NATO.
July 18: President Dwight D. Eisenhower of the United States, Prime Minister Anthony
Eden of the United Kingdom, Premier Nikolai A. Bulganin of the Soviet Union, and Prime
Minister Edgar Faure of France, known as the 'Big Four', attend the Geneva Summit. Also
in attendance was Nikita Khrushchev of the Soviet Union.
1956-1960
Hungarian Revolution of 1956: Hungarians revolt against the Soviet dominated
government. They are crushed by the Soviet military, which reinstates a Communist
government.
Suez Crisis: France, Israel, and the United Kingdom attack Egypt with the goal of
removing Nasser from power. International diplomatic pressures force the attackers to
withdraw. Canadian Lester B. Pearson encourages the United Nations to send a
Peacekeeping force, the first of its kind, to the disputed territory.
The Eisenhower doctrine commits the US to defending Iran, Pakistan, and Afghanistan
from Communist influence.
Sputnik satellite launched.
Sputnik 2 was launched, with the first living being on board, Laika.
Start of the second Berlin crisis, Nikita Khrushchev asks the West to leave Berlin.
The National Aeronautics and Space Administration, or NASA is formed.
Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro becomes the leader of Cuba although refrains from
declaring the country Communist. Cuban-inspired guerrilla movements spring up across
Latin America.
Explorer 6 is launched into orbit to photograph the Earth.
Khrushchev visits U.S. for 13 days, and is denied access to Disneyland. Instead, he visits
SeaWorld (then known as Marine land of the Pacific).
The Chinese leadership, angered at being treated as the "junior partner" to the Soviet
Union, declares its version of Communism superior and begin to compete with the Soviets
for influence, thus adding a third dimension to the Cold War.
Current Situation 1961
Dwight D. Eisenhower closes the U.S. embassy in Havana and severs diplomatic relations
with Cuba.
John F. Kennedy becomes President of the United States.
Yuri Gagarin becomes the first human in space and first to orbit the Earth when the Soviet
Union successfully launches Vostok 1.
April 17–19: Bay of Pigs Invasion: A CIA-backed invasion of Cuba by counterrevolutionaries ends in failure.
May 25: John F. Kennedy announces the US intention to put a man on the moon kickstarting Project Mercury, America's first manned spaceflight program
June 4: Kennedy meets with Khrushchev in Vienna.
August 13: The Berlin Wall is built by the Soviets following the breakdown in talks to
decide the future of Germany.
August 17: Alliance for Progress aid to Latin America from the United States begins.
Important Events/ Treaties
The Iron Curtain was an imaginary boundary that was formed between Europe that divided
the two halves into the so formed bipolar world. The Curtain was a result of the actions by
the Soviet bloc and its allied states to prevent interaction with the western bloc or the noncommunist nations. On the east side of the Iron Curtain were the countries that were
connected to or influenced by the Soviet Union. When it became physical, the iron curtain
was formed into proper border defences and blockades between the nations of the two blocs.
The most important ones among these are the two most commonly referred to blockades.
The Berlin wall and Check Point Charlie.
- Yalta Conference 1945
In early 1945, with World War II in Europe drawing to a close, the BIG Three -- British
Prime Minister Winston Churchill, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and U.S. President Franklin
D agreed to meet to discuss war strategy and issues that would affect the postwar world.
During the conference, the three leaders agreed to demand Germany’s unconditional
surrender and began plans for a post-war world. The major problems facing the three leaders
included Poland, Germany, Soviet entry into the war against Japan, and the United Nations.
The allied powers met at Yalta in Ukraine to plan the future of Europe after the calculated
defeat of Germany. At Yalta the ‘BIG THREE’– Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed on
the following points:
❖ Division of Germany and Berlin into four zones: American, Soviet, French and
British.
❖ They agreed to join UN which would help in establishment of international peace and
security.
❖ On Stalin’s demand, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed that Eastern Europe should be
seen as Soviet sphere of influence.
- Potsdam Conference
The Big Three—Soviet leader Joseph Stalin, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and
U.S. President Harry Truman—met in Potsdam, Germany, from July 17 to August 2, 1945,
to negotiate terms for the end of World War II.
Germany surrendered on May 8, 1945, and the Allied leaders agreed to meet over the
summer at Potsdam to continue the discussions that had begun at Yalta. Despite numerous
disagreements, the Allied leaders did manage to conclude some agreements at Potsdam. For
example, the negotiators confirmed the status of a demilitarised and disarmed Germany
under four zones of Allied occupation.
According to the Protocol of the Conference, there was to be “a complete disarmament and
demilitarisation of Germany”; all aspects of German industry that could be utilised for
military purposes were to be dismantled; all German military and paramilitary forces were to
be eliminated; and the production of all military hardware in Germany was forbidden.
Furthermore, German society was to be remade along democratic lines by repeal of all
discriminatory laws from the Nazi era and by the arrest and trial of those Germans deemed to
be “war criminals.”
The German educational and judicial systems were to be purged of any authoritarian
influences, and democratic political parties would be encouraged to participate in the
administration of Germany at the local and state level.
The reconstitution of a national German Government was, however, postponed indefinitely,
and the Allied Control Commission (which was comprised of four occupying powers, the
United States, Britain, France, and the Soviet Union) would run the country during the
interregnum.
One of the most controversial matters addressed at the Potsdam Conference dealt with the
revision of the German-Soviet-Polish borders and the expulsion of several million Germans
from the disputed territories.
In exchange for the territory it lost to the Soviet Union following the readjustment of the
Soviet-Polish border, Poland received a large swath of German territory and began to deport
the German residents of the territories in question, as did other nations that were host to large
German minority populations.
The negotiators at Potsdam were well-aware of the situation, and even though the British and
Americans feared that a mass exodus of Germans into the western occupation zones would
destabilise them, they took no action other than to declare that “any transfers that take place
should be effected in an orderly and humane manner” and to request that the Poles,
Czechoslovaks and Hungarians temporarily suspend additional deportations.
- World War 2 End Results
End of World War II was marked by the emergence of USA, and the former USSR as the
two super powers. These two countries followed completely different ideologies – i.e.,
Capitalism, and Communism respectively, due to which they stood apart as two opposite
poles, around which politics of Europe revolved.
Most of the countries of Western Europe joined the American bloc, and the countries of
Eastern Europe came under the influence of the Russian bloc. Both the blocs tried to
influence, and bring more and more countries to their camp, and most of the European world
was divided into two hostile camps leading to the emergence of Cold War.
Since, both the superpowers possessed vast Economic, and military capabilities, along with
the possession of the Nuclear weapons, the relations between them were no more cordial.
They started with their Militarisation, and arms race, which could at any time lead to an
actual war.
The American bloc included Democracies like Britain, France, Italy, Holland, Netherlands,
Belgium, Norway, and West Germany; while on the other hand, the Soviet bloc included
nations like Poland, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Hungary, Bulgaria, and East-Germany etc.
which were committed to Communism, and were called as – „Satellites of USSR’. The
period from 1950‟s till 1991 is known as the period of Cold War between these two rival
blocs, when the world was living in the condition of disturbed peace, and the fear of another
World War, probably the nuclear one.
- Truman Doctrine
The Cold War was essentially a hostile stalemate that represented the power struggle
between the two powers, and threatened the safety of the entire world for more than four
decades, as each tried to gain favour with nations around the world.
The Truman Doctrine (1947) pledged support for "free peoples who are resisting attempted
subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures"; the pledge was targeted at
communism and basically gave America a blank check to intervene in other nations’ affairs
if it was determined to be ‘threatened’ by communism.
The doctrine also devoted financial aid to Greece in the attempt to prevent the spread of
communism there. With the Truman Doctrine, President Harry S. Truman established that
the United States would provide political, military and economic assistance to all democratic
nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces.
Additionally, the Marshall Plan provided almost $13 billion (from 1948 to 1951) to aid
European countries, including Germany, Great Britain, and France, recover from the war.
- Berlin Airlift
By early 1948, the Western Powers had started the process of the creation of a separate state
of West Germany by merging the occupation zones of Britain, France and United States.
These zones were also being brought under the European Recovery Program under which the
United States was to provide massive aid for the building of the of Western Europe
devastated by the War.
The city of Berlin which came within the Soviet Zone had also been divided in to four zones,
like the rest of Germany. The three Western powers treated West Berlin as a part of West
Germany which was being created as a separate state. The Soviet Union was opposed to this
development. In June 1948, she closed the road which passed through the Soviet Zone
connecting West Germany with West Berlin.
The Blockade of West Berlin was intended to force the Western Powers to accept the Soviet
position on Berlin. This created the danger of War because the Western countries were not
willing to budge from West Berlin but they could not hold West Berlin without continuing
supplies from outside.
The Soviet Union ended the Blockade in May 1949. In the mean time, a new Western
Military alliance had come into being. In April 1949, most countries of Western Europe
Britain, France, Belgium, Luxembourg, Holland, Norway, Denmark, Portugal and Italy-and
Iceland and Canada formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation(NATO).Through this
alliance the Western countries launched a massive program rearmaments to check what they
called “Russian Expansion” in Europe and to “Contain” Communism. During the next six
years, the United States gave massive military aid to the NATO countries of Europe. In
1952, Greece and Turkey were also made members of NATO.
- Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombings
Since 1941, when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbour, the forces of the United States and
her allies had been at war with Japan. The combined land, sea and air forces of the Allies
fought back against Japan until only the Japanese homeland remained in Japanese control.
Together with the United Kingdom and the Republic of China, the United States called for a
surrender of Japan in the Declaration on 26 July 1945, threatening Japan with "prompt and
utter destruction". The Japanese Government ignored this ultimatum, and two nuclear
weapons developed by the Manhattan Project were deployed.
On August 6, 1945, a B-29 plane, dropped a uranium atomic bomb, code named "Little Boy"
on Hiroshima, Japan's seventh largest city. In minutes, half of the city vanished. It is
estimated that around 60,000 to 70,000 civilians were killed, 140,000 were wounded while
the rest were homeless and struggled to survive in the ruins and deadly radiation.
The city was unbelievably devastated. Of its 90,000 buildings, over 60,000 were demolished.
Three days after Hiroshima, on the morning of August 9, “Fat Man” was dropped on
Nagasaki creating turmoil in an already devastated place. Buildings collapsed, Electrical
systems were shorted and lives were lost. A wave of secondary fires resulted, adding to their
holocaust.
The radioactive particles give the atomic bomb its greatest deadliness. They may last years
or even centuries in dangerous amounts. Gamma radiation and neutrons caused thousands of
cases of radiation sickness in Japan. First the blood was affected, and then the blood making
organs were impaired including the bone marrow, the spleen and the lymph nodes. When
radiation was severe, the organs of the body became necrotic within a few days, marking the
victim for certain death within a short period of time.
- NATO Formation
The Cold War was in full swing, as the Soviet Union was rising to power, capturing satellite
countries. Using their strong dynamic forces, the Soviet Union captured surrounding
countries first to help protect them from any invasion. This tactic was used to imprison
civilians and force them to join the Soviet military. As their armed forces greatly increased in
numbers, other countries and nations feared that the Soviet Union would expand their control
and take over other countries.
In response to this, the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation was formed. NATO is a formal
alliance between the territories of North American and Europe. From its inception, its main
purpose was to deterring Soviet expansionism, forbidding the revival of nationalist
militarism in Europe through a strong North American presence on the continent, and
encouraging European political integration.
Many powerful countries joined NATO by the signing of the official document in 1949:
Belgium, Great Britain, Italy, Iceland, Luxembourg, United States, Canada, Netherlands,
Denmark, Norway and Portugal. In 1950, General Dwight D. Eisenhower was nominated
and appointed as the first supreme allied commander. West Germany, Turkey and Greece
joined by 1955.
- KOREAN WAR
The Korean War was described as the first incident of open confrontation between
communist headed by USSR and the capitalist headed by US. The US strongly believed in
domino theory, which stated that nations sharing borders with communist countries are in the
imminent danger of getting swayed by the communist rule. North Korea had become
Communist country with its communist leader trained in USSR. South Korea was Anti
Communist in nature.
On June 25, 1950, North Korea attacked South Korea by crossing 38th parallel (the latitude
line which divided the Korean peninsula). President Truman immediately responded by
supplying necessary army and warships around Korea. In the meantime, US were able to
convince UNSC to take action against North Korea.
The US took advantage of USSR’s absence from UNSC (USSR was boycotting the UN
because US had denied China its permanent seat in UNSC and had refused to recognise PRC
as a legal government of China). As a result of this, a UN collective force was organised
from 18 different countries who contributed in one form or the other to the coalition. But the
military coalition was overwhelmingly American.
It was also led forward by American Commander General Mac Arthur. Within few weeks,
the UN led coalition was able to drive back North Koreans to their original position i.e. 38th
parallel. China wanted to secure North Korea as a buffer against possible US invasion. In
1953, an armistice was signed which re-established the 38th parallel as the border between
North Korea & South Korea.
- Chinese Civil War
The long Chinese Civil War began in April of 1927 and was a conflict in China between the
Chinese Communists and Chinese Nationalists. The force that was loyal to the Chinese
government was called the Kuomintang (KMT), and they fought with the Communist Party
of China (CPC). The war ended in 1950 and resulted in the establishment of the People’s
Republic of China in mainland China and the Republic of China in Taiwan. At that time,
both sides claimed to be China’s legitimate governing power.
This war was an ideological separation between the KMT and CPC. The Chinese Civil War
carried on sporadically until late part of the 1937. Then, these two parties came together to
form the Second United Front in order to battle the Japanese invasion. In 1946, the civil war
started again just one year after the fighting with Japan had ended. Fighting finally ended
four years later when the People’s Republic of China (PRC) was founded to control
mainland China. The Republic of China (ROC) ended up controlling Taiwan, Quemoy,
Penghu, Matsu, and many other outlying islands.
- SEATO
In September of 1954, the United States, France, Great Britain, New Zealand, Australia, the
Philippines, Thailand and Pakistan formed the Southeast Asia Treaty Organisation, or
SEATO. It was formed to prevent communism from spreading into any further regions in
these. Despite being called a South East Asia organisation, only 2 members were from SEA.
Philippines joined mainly for two reasons.
One because of its close ties with the United States of America. And secondly, because it
was worried about communist insurgency and didn’t want it to come in their region.
Thailand then joined after creating a “Thai Autonomous Region” in Yunnan Province in
South China, because of its worries for the communist reigns in some regions. The
remaining part of it was far from worrying about communism affecting internal stability.
- WARSAW PACT
In 1955, when West Germany was admitted as a member of NATO, the Soviet Union and
the East European countries ruled Communist parties formed their military alliance which
is known as the Warsaw Pact. It included all the Communist countries in East Europe
except Yugoslavia. The members were Soviet Union, Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Poland,
Romania, Czechoslovakia and East Germany.
They had a strong military of their own and were much stronger and more in number than
NATO. The Warsaw pact was just as a rebuttal to NATO and to have a strong defence
against the western bloc. Although it was stressed by all that the Warsaw Treaty was based
on total equality of each nation and mutual non-interference in one another's internal affairs,
this pact became a tool of combined power to use the strength of the total military. The
Warsaw Pact was officially disregarded in Prague in 1991, after many powerful governments
seceded from the treaty and parted ways.
- Bay Of Pigs Invasion
On January 1, 1959, a young Cuban named Fidel Castro took his army trained with guerilla
warfare into Havana and overthrew General Fulgencio Batista. General officials at the U.S.
State Department and the Central Intelligence Agency set a huge attempt to remove Castro
from reign. Unfortunate for them, the invasion was not completely in their favour. Castro
and his troops were much more in number than them, and this outnumbering resulted in their
early back out and they gave up in less than 24 hours.
- Formation of Berlin Wall
The end of World War II in 1945 saw Germany divided into four Allied occupation zones.
Berlin, the German capital, was likewise divided into occupation sectors, even though it was
located deep within the Soviet zone. The future of Germany and Berlin was a major sticking
point in postwar treaty talks, and tensions grew when the United States, Britain, and France
moved in 1948 to unite their occupation zones into a single autonomous entity–the Federal
Republic of Germany (West Germany). In response, the USSR launched a land blockade of
West Berlin in an effort to force the West to abandon the city. However, a massive airlift by
Britain and the United States kept West Berlin supplied with food and fuel, and in May 1949
the Soviets ended the defeated blockade.