International Journal of Basic Sciences & Applied Research. Vol., 3 (12), 874-879, 2014
Available online at http://www.isicenter.org
ISSN 2147-3749 ©2014
The Comparison of Mental Skills of Elite Male and Female Chess Players in Iran
Majid Keramati Moghadam1*, Afsaneh Sanatkaran2, Seyyed Mohialdin Bahari3
Department of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Karaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Karaj, Iran
*Corresponding
Author Email: [email protected]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to compare the elite male and female chess players, mental
skills in Iran. The statistical community of this present study include the active and Iranian
women and men's chess players (n=867) and 260 woman (n=32) and man (n=228) players were
selected as a statistical sample by means of Morgan's chart and taking into account the
percent of women and men in the community. The instrument for collecting information is
included the Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Tool (OMSAT-3) under three broader
conceptual components: foundation, psychosomatic, and cognitive skills. The analysis of
data were done by descriptive statistics and MANOVA (p<0.05). The results of study show that
there are no significant difference in none of the areas of foundation, psychosomatic, and
cognitive skills between men and women. Therefore, it seems that sex has no decisive role
between man and woman chess players, mental skills with attention to there was no
significant difference between man and woman's chess players in the other mental skills
(p<0.05) and they were at the same level. Perhaps, we can conclude that both groups were
likely to use the mental skills but there is no difference between the amounts of their use. So
there is no significant difference between groups.
Keywords: Mental skills, Chess, Elite players
Introduction
The human has many of complexity as an unknown creature. These complexities are manifested in his/her mental ability
because the wonders of human are not reflected in sensory and motor skills but human cognitive abilities are admirable (Esmaeili,
2003). Human mental abilities are reached to degree of peak that the endpoint cannot easily be drawn to it. This kind of mental
abilities can be defined as the general factor or general intelligence (Parsa, 2003). Chess is two-player memory played on
chessboard with 64 squares (black and white colors), both opponents has 16 pawns that they can move one of their pawns in turn.
Cool, prediction of movements, speed decision-making, and mental and intellectual abilities are from success factors in chess
(Esmaeili, 2003). Therefore, the final result of a battle between two chess players is not depends only on their knowledge but also
other factors such as mental skills have influences on the outcome of chess play.
The studies showed that mental skills play an important role in achieving high sports performance (Morris & Kohen, 2004;
Murphy & Jowdy, 1992). Today, the Olympic level athletes have considerable improvements in their performance using mental skills
(Meyers et al., 1988; Vernacchi et al., 2000). Professor Rick who has many studies about men and women believes that man's world
is very different from woman's world and he says that woman cannot think or act like man due to man and woman has different
bodies. In addition, they do not show same reactions against events. They can understand and complete each other but they never
are like each other. This is due to the differences that exist in their (Sanati, 2006). Mental skills are a set of states (such as
motivation), abilities (such as mental imagery), and programs (such as goal setting) that improve sport performance moreover
increasing of well-being (Vaez Mousavi, 2000). Mental skills are learned and improved with practice (Vaez Mousavi, 2000).
Pashabadi et al (2011) examined the comparison of mental skills of elite and non-elite male and female volleyball players and the
results showed that elite volleyball players had better concentration, self-confidence, and mental skills than non-elite volleyball
players but there is no significant difference between men and women.
Riahifarsani et al (2013) surveyed the effects of emotional intelligence on mental skills in adolescent athletes. The results of
this study showed that there is no significant difference between emotional intelligence and mental skills. Dominikus et al (2009)
evaluated the relationship between mental skills and anxiety in hokey athletes and they expressed that the difference between male
and female is related to the severity of anxiety and self-confidence. Eloff et al (2011) evaluated the instruction of mental skills in
hokey athletes in South Africa and stated that women are better than men in goal-setting, self-talk, and commitment while men was
better than women in response to stress. Polatidou (2013) examined the mental skills of Greek swimmers with physical disabilities
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Intl. J. Basic. Sci. Appl. Res. Vol., 3 (12), 874-879, 2014
and showed that female swimmers are more powerful than male swimmers in acceptation of skills such as learning (the ability of
learning of coach), freedom from fear and anxiety, and performance under stress. Swimmers, s kind of inability effects on their
concentration indifferent conditions.
Finally, the results of this study showed that the swimmers who practice 8 hours a week are more powerful in achieving to
success and especial goals in the tournaments than swimmers who practice six or 10 hours a week. Charanjit and Jaspal (2014)
analyzed the mental skills between high and low level volleyball athletes and they expressed that there is no significant difference
between high and low level volleyball athletes but high level athletes has high scores in mental skills. Therefore, in this study the
researchers want to know that is there a difference between elite male and female chess players?
Methodology
Method
The method of this study was casual-comparative.
Participants
The statistical population of this study was 1314 Iranian male and female chess players that 867 players was active and 477
players was inactive from these population according to statics department of world chess federation. Researchers of this study
selected statistical population in such way to be ensure that the sub groups (elite male and female players) were same ratio that
exist in the community be as a community representative in statistical sample. Therefore was used from stratified sampling and 285
subjects were selected by Morgan table for this study. According to that elite female chess players make up 12 percent and elite
male chess players make up 88 percent of statistical population so number of female subjects was 48 elite chess players and
number of male subjects was 237 elite chess players in this study.
Instruments and tasks
The instrument was the Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Tool (OMSAT-3): the first part of this questionnaire was included the
questions about athletes, s individual characteristics information on age, sex, level of education, field of study, history of chess
activities. The second part of questionnaire was included the questions about mental skills using the Ottawa Mental Skills
Assessment Tool (OMSAT-3). This questionnaire especially is made to measure the fitness of champion athletes that it was made
by Salma, Barbour, Cox, Gowlett, Imaj, and Ping in 1993 and was validated by Salma and Botha in 1993 (Vaez Mousavi, 2000).
Procedure
The second version of the questionnaire is scored according to 5-point Likret scale with words never =1, rarely = 2,
sometimes = 3, often = 4, always = 5. The Ottawa Mental Skills Assessment Tool (OMSAT-3) is included 48 questions and it is
assessed three categories of mental skills and 12 sub-scales. These three categories are included a) foundation mental skills
(1.goal-setting 2.self-confidence 3.commitment), b) psychosomatic skills (1.reaction to stress 2.control of fear 3.refreshment
4.relaxation), and c) cognitive skills (1.concentration 2.refocusing 3.mental imagery 4.mental training 5.plan competition) that it was
scored for reaction to stress, control of fear, refreshment, and relaxation with words never =1, rarely = 2, sometimes =3, often =4,
always = 5 and for goal-setting, self-confidence, and commitment and concentration, refocusing, mental imagery, mental training,
and plan competition with words never = 5, rarely = 4, sometimes = 3, often = 2, always = 1. The reliability of questionnaire was
calculated according to the Cronbach, s alpha r = 0.92 and from Guttmann method r = 0.88 in Maleki (2005) and p = 0.05.
Data analysis
In this study was used Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) for data analysis (α ≤ 0.05).
Results
The description of general characteristics was presented in table 1, including: age, marital status, level of education and history of
chess activities of male and female chess players.
Table 1. The description of general characteristics of male and female chess players.
Variable
Age
Marital Status
Level of Education
875
Single
Married
Under Diploma
Diploma
Advanced Diploma
Bachelor of Sciences
MSc
Female (n=48)
21.54± 7.18
38(13.33)
10 (3.50)
16 (5.61)
4 (1.40)
5 (1.75)
18 (6.31)
5 (1.75)
Male (n=237)
27.92±11.08
165 (57.89)
72 (25.26)
51 (17.89)
58 (20.35)
19 (6.66)
91 (31.92)
16 (5.61)
Total (n= 285)
26.84±10.78
203 (71.22)
82 (28.77)
67 (23.50)
62 (21.75)
24 (8.42)
109 (38.24)
21 (7.36)
Intl. J. Basic. Sci. Appl. Res. Vol., 3 (12), 874-879, 2014
PhD
0 (0)
9.08±3.60
History of Activity
2 (0.70)
14.32±8.12
2 (0.70)
13.43±7.80
The results of table 1 showed female chess players, s mean and standard deviation of age was 21.54±7.18 and male chess players,
s mean and standard deviation of age was 27.92±11.08. According to this table, 33.13 percent of female chess players were single
(n=38) and 3.50 percent of them were married (n=10) and also 57.89 percent of male chess players were single (n=165) and 25.26
percent of them were married (n=72). 5.61 percent of female chess players' level of education were under diploma (n=16) and 1.40
percent of them were diploma (n=4) and 1.75 percent of them was advanced diploma (n=5), 6.31 percent was bachelor (n=18) and 0
percent was PhD (n=0). Also, 17.89 percent of male chess players' level of education was under diploma (n=51) and 20.35 percent
of them were diploma (n=58) and 6.66 percent of them was advanced diploma (n=19), 5.61 percent was bachelor (n=16) and 0.70
percent was PhD (n=2). Female chess players, s mean and standard deviation of history of chess activities was 9.08±3.60 and male
chess players, s mean and standard deviation of history of chess activities was 14.32±8.12.
Table 2. The description of foundation mental skills (goal-setting, self-confidence, and commitment) of elite male and female chess
players.
Variable
Number of
question
Goal-setting
4
Self-confidence
4
Commitment
4
Foundation Skills
12
Gender
Mean
Middle
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
9.29
9.79
8.70
7.89
9.43
9.29
27.43
26.98
9
10
8.50
7
9.50
9
26
27
3.35
3.42
3.05
3.03
3.19
3.43
7.60
8.32
4
4
4
3
4
4
12
12
17
19
14
16
17
19
46
48
The results of table 2 showed that mean of goal-setting, self-confidence, commitment, and foundation skills was respectively 9.29±
3.35, 8.70±3.05, 9.43±3.19 and 27.43±7.60 in female chess players and mean of goal-setting, self-confidence, commitment, and
foundation skills was respectively 9.79± 3.42, 7.89±3.03, 9.29±3.43, and 26.98±8.32 in male chess players.
Table 3. The description of psychosomatic skills (reaction to stress, control of fear, refreshment, and relaxation) of elite male and
female chess players.
Variable
Number of
question
Reaction to Stress
4
Control of Stress
4
Refreshment
4
Relaxation
4
Psychosomatic skills
16
Gender
Mean
Middle
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
10.20
9.77
8.62
8.18
10.22
10.70
11.25
10.79
40.31
39.45
9.50
9
8
8
10
11
11.50
11
40
39
Standard
Deviation
3.40
3.11
3.57
3.18
2.99
2.73
3.81
3.28
8.85
8.18
Minimum
Maximum
5
4
4
4
5
4
4
4
23
21
18
19
17
20
17
19
18
20
56
64
The results of table 3 showed that mean of reaction to stress, control of fear, refreshment, relaxation, and psychosomatic skills was
respectively 10.20± 3.40, 8.62±3.57, 10.22±2.99, 11.25±3.81 and 40.31±8.85 in female chess players and mean of reaction to
stress, control of fear, refreshment, relaxation, and psychosomatic skills was respectively 9.77±3.11, 8.18±3.18, 10.70±2.73,
10.79±3.28, and 39.45±8.18 in male chess players.
Table 4. The description of cognitive skills (concentration, refocusing, mental imagery, mental training, and plan competition) of elite
male and female chess players.
Variable
Number of
question
Concentration
4
Refocusing
4
876
Gender
Mean
Middle
SD
Minimum
Maximum
Female
Male
Female
Male
9.75
9.39
11.27
10.66
9
9
11
10
3.74
3.21
3.64
3.02
4
4
4
4
17
20
18
19
Intl. J. Basic. Sci. Appl. Res. Vol., 3 (12), 874-879, 2014
Mental Imagery
4
Mental Training
4
Plan Competition
4
Cognitive Skills
20
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
9.79
9.95
11.35
11.99
10.31
10.97
52.47
51.97
10
10
11
11
10
11
52
53
3.37
3.21
3.49
3.34
3.26
3.37
11.27
10.25
4
4
4
4
4
4
27
21
18
19
18
20
18
20
74
83
The results of table 4 showed that mean of concentration, refocusing, mental imagery, mental training, plan competition, and
cognitive skills was respectively 9.75±3.74, 11.27±3.64, 9.79±3.37, 11.35±3.49, 10.31±3.26, and 52.47±11.27 in female chess
players and mean of concentration, refocusing, mental imagery, mental training, plan competition, and cognitive skills was
respectively 9.39±3.21, 10.66±3.02, 9.95±3.21, 11.99±3.34, 10.97±3.37, and 51.97±10.25 in male chess players.
Table 5. The description of elite male and female chess players, mental skills.
Variable
Number of
question
Gender
Mean
Middle
SD
Minimum
Maximum
48
Female
Male
120.22
118.42
116.50
118
23.20
22.35
64
60
165
189
Mental Skills
The results of table 5 showed that mean of mental skills was 120.22±23.20 in elite female chess players and 118.42±22.35 in in
elite male chess players. In this study, Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was used to determine that there is any
significant difference between independent groups in more than one continues dependent variable.
Table 6. Group of statistics.
Goal-setting
Self-confidence
Commitment
Gender
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
N
48
237
48
237
48
237
Mean
2.3229
2.4494
2.1771
1.9747
2.3594
2.3238
SD
0.83945
0.85746
0.76311
0.75765.
0.79878
0.85917
standard error of the mean
0.12116
0.05570
0.11015
0.04921
0.11529
0.05581
Table 7. Multivariate Analysis of Variance
q
0.968
Wilk's lambda
F
3.095
Dfh
3.000
Dfe
281.000
Sig.
0.277
According to table 7, the probability value is greater than the significance level (0.05), so there is no significant difference between
elite male and female chess players in foundation mental skills (goal-setting, self-confidence, and commitment) (p=0.277).
Table 8. Group of statistics
Reaction to stress
Control of fear
Refreshment
relaxation
Gender
N
Mean
SD
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
48
237
48
237
48
237
0.85047
0.77997
0.9004
0.82327
0.95441
0.820958
Female
48
2.5521
2.4441
2.1042
2.0643
2.8125
2.6983
2.5573
2.6772
Standard error of the
mean
0.12275
0.05066
0.12996.
0.5348
0.13776
0.05333
0.74776
0.10793
Male
237
0.6406
0.4443
According to table 9 the probability value is greater than the significance level (0.05), so there is no significant difference between
elite male and female chess players in psychosomatic skills (reaction to stress, control of fear, refreshment, and relaxation)
(P=0.110).
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Intl. J. Basic. Sci. Appl. Res. Vol., 3 (12), 874-879, 2014
Table 9. Multivariate Analysis of Variance.
q
6.4.0
Wilk's lambda
F
2.478
dfh
4.000
dfe
345.000
Sig.
0.110
Table 10. Group of statistics.
Concentration
Refocusing
Mental Imagery
Mental Training
Plan Competition
Gender
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
N
48
237
48
237
48
237
48
237
48
237
Mean
2.4375
2.3481
2.8177
2.6667
2.4479
2.4884
2.8385
2.7479
2.5781
2.7426
SD
0.93612
0.80262
0.91201
0.75610
0.84419
0.80361
0.87441
0.83710
0.81729
0.84322
standard error of the mean
0.13512
0.05214
0.13164
0.4911
0.12185
0.05220
0.12621
0.05438
0.11797
0.05477
Table 11. Multivariate analysis of variance.
Wilk's lambda
q
0.123
F
1.458
dfh
5.000
dfe
489.000
Sig.
0.370
According to table 11 the probability value is greater than the significance level (0.05), so there is no significant difference between
elite male and female chess players in cognitive skills (concentration, refocusing, mental imagery, mental training, and plan
competition) (p=0.370).
Table 12. Multivariate analysis of variance.
Wilk's lambda
q
0.410
F
3.313
dfh
3.000
dfe
122.000
Sig.
0.269
According to table 12 the probability value is greater than the significance level (0.05), so there is no significant difference between
elite male and female chess players in mental skills (p=0.269).
Discussion and Conclusion
According to the analysis of data, the findings shows that there is no significant difference between elite female and male
chess players, s all mental skills in Iran. The results of this study is consistent with Pashabadi et al (2011) findings that they showed
that there is no significant difference between male and female athletes in mental skills. The results of this study is also consistent
with Riahifarsani et al (2013) findings that they expressed that there is no significant difference between male and female athletes, s
emotional intelligence and mental skills. On the other hand, the results of this study is conflict with Dominikus et al (2009), Eloff et al
(2011), Polatidou (2013) and Charanjit and Jaspal (2014) findings that Dominikus et al (2009) stated the difference between male
and female is related to the severity of anxiety and self-confidence, Eloff et al (2011) showed that women are better than men in
goal-setting, self-talk, and commitment while men was better than women in response to stress, Polatidou (2013) showed that
female swimmers are more powerful than male swimmers in acceptation of skills such as freedom from fear and anxiety, and
performance under stress, and Charanjit and Jaspal (2014) expressed that there is no significant difference between high and low
level volleyball athletes.
Many athletes and coaches do not pay attention to training of mental skills despite usefulness of them. They express that
reason of it is due to the lack of acknowledge about instruction and training, and unchanging of mental skills, and lack of their time.
There are incorrect beliefs about mental skills such as these training are for people who have mental health problems or these
training are only for high level athletes. Some people expect that the training of mental skills in the short time is caused a drastic
change in them that this suggests an unrealistic understanding about mental skills (5). The result of this study that there is no
significant difference between lite male and female chess players can be due to the subjects, level of education and cultures
(Cheraghbirjandi & Cheragh Birjandi, 2011) research, there is a positive relationship between level of education of mental skills),
also the numbers of male and female no be equal in this study. Finally, we can conclude that although several studies showed
results about the effects of gender on mental skills but these results are not consistent and sometimes are contradictory therefore
more researches are essential about mental skills.
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Intl. J. Basic. Sci. Appl. Res. Vol., 3 (12), 874-879, 2014
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