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Table 1. Sampling site description
Study sites
Arctic Ocean
(Smeerenburgfjo 79° 42´ N 11° 05´ E
rd, Svalbard)
Average
Water depth environmental
Salinity [‰]
[m]
temperature
[°C]
a
33-34
a
a
27-30
a
0
a
34
Intertidal
12b
22-30b
Multi core
9
12
abr-07
Multi core
60
26
Arabian Sea
(Sadeyat Island,
24° 31´ N 54° 26´ E
United Arab
Emirates)
sep-07
Push core
Intertidal
8
Andaman Sea
(Phuket Island, 08° 03´ N 98° 25´ E
Thailand)
ago-07
Push core
9
South China Sea
(Hainan Island, 19° 35´ N 110° 48´ E
China)
sep-07
Push core
HAPS core
215
0
78° 16´ N 14° 02´ E
jul-05
Push core
Subtidal
0
3
Southern Ocean
65° 26´ S 61° 26´ W
(Weddell Sea)
sep-07
Multi core
850
4
Wadden Sea
(German Bight, 53° 27´ N 08° 07´ E
North Sea)
May-07
Push core
5
Baltic Sea
54° 46´ N 13° 48´ E
(Arkona Basin)
jun-07
6
Arabian Sea (off
the coast of Goa, 15° 6´ N 73° 24´ E
India)
7
Arctic Ocean
(Isfjord,
Svalbard)
2
b
Sampling Sampling
date
device
ago-07
1
a
Coordinates
a
b
8-9
a
34-35
30
a
200
Intertidal
28a
28-34a
Intertidal
30a
15-25a
In-situ measurements
Measurements from closest automated monitoring station
b
a
a
Sediment description
Permanently cold sediment with
abundant worm burrows, soft brown
colored in surface grading to clayey
mottled dark grey-black over depth
Seasonally freezing-thawing sediment
located at the tidal-dominated fringe of
a glacier moraine and consisting of
black colored coarse-grained sand with
abundant dead macrophytes
Permanently cold sediment situated in
the proximity of a methane-venting
cold seep, consisting of light-grey
colored stiff clay
Estuary system subjected to strong
seasonal temperature changes with
abundant meio- and macrofauna,
sediment consisting of light-brown
sandy mud changing to black mud over
depth
Sediment subjected to seasonal
temperature changes consisting of darkbrown and black colored mud
Permanently warm sediment from an
upwelling system consisting of green
colored soft fine-grained and watery
mud
Permanently
warm
hypersaline
sediment covered by a 0.5 cm-thick
microbial mat and consisting of yellow
with grey-black streaks fine-grained
sand
Permanently warm tide-dominated
mangrove forest, sediment consisting
of brown colored coarse-grained sand
Permanently warm sediment with
abundant worm burrows, consisting of
dark-brown colored dry sand
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250
0.8
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3
Topt
2000
0.6
200
1500
150
0.4
1000
100
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50
0
0
-10
SRR (nmol cm-3 d-1)
800
0
10
20
30
40
250
4
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-10
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
-10
80
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5
Topt
0
10
20
30
40
50
30
40
50
40
50
6
Topt
200
600
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0.2
Tcrit
500
60
150
40
400
100
Tcrit
200
Tcrit
Tcrit
0
0
-10
50
20
50
0
10
20
30
40
600
7
0
-10
50
0
10
20
40
50
8
0
10
20
9
Topt
60
Topt
50
400
30
-10
70
500
40
30
40
Topt
300
30
20
200
Tcrit
10
Tcrit
20
100
0
0
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Tcrit
10
0
-10
0
10
20
30
40
Temperature (°C)
50
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0
10
20
30
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45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
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0
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10
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0
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-1 .0
T c rit
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T crit
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
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2
6
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-2 .0
3
4
1
2
0
0
T c rit
-2 .5
2
-3 .0
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3 .1
3 .2
3 .3
3 .4
3 .5
3 .6
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
3 .7
0
3 .8
4
3 .2
3 .3
3 .4
6
Topt
3 .6
3 .7
0
3 .1
3 .8
5
5
3 .2
3 .3
3 .4
Topt
6
3 .8
-5
3
T c rit
3
T crit
2
3 .7
0
E a = 4 7 .1 k J m o l -1
E a = 6 9 .1 k J m o l -1
T crit
3
3 .6
Topt
4
4
3 .5
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
-5
5
E a = 6 7 .9 k J m o l -1
4
3 .5
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
6
5
-4 .0
3 .1
-5
7
ln (SRR)
0
3 T
opt
2
2
1
1
1
0
0
0
3 .1
3 .2
3 .3
3 .4
3 .5
3 .6
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
6
3 .7
0
3 .8
3 .1
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7
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8
3 .4
3 .5
3 .6
3 .7
0
3 .1
3 .8
3 .2
3 .3
5
-2
3
-4
2
3 .6
E a = 3 6 .1 k J m o l -1
3 .2
3 .3
3 .4
3 .5
3 .6
3 .7
3 .8
T c rit
1
0
1
3 .1
3 .8
-5
Topt
2
-6
3 .7
0
3
T crit
T c rit
4
3 .5
9
4
E a = 4 4 .6 k J m o l -1
5
0
3 .4
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
-5
Topt
6
E a = 4 7 .1 k J m o l -1
2
3 .3
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5
7
4
3 .2
3 .1
3 .2
3 .3
3 .4
3 .5
3 .6
3 .7
3 .8
3 .1
3 .2
3 .3
3 .4
3 .5
3 .6
3 .7
3 .8
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10
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Average environmental temperature (°C)
50
80
60
40
5
20
0
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0
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Arctic
Temperate
SRR [nmol cm-3 d-1]
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
0
0
A
1
2
3
3
4
4
5
6
7
8
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
B
1
2
Depth [cm]
Depth [cm]
5
SRR [nmol cm-3 d-1]
5
6
7
8
9
9
10
10
11
11
12
12
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0
Sulfate [mM]
5
10
15
20
25
30
Sulfate [mM]
$+( " 8 8
='?=?84
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8 $$B 1 AFLY-@L
@4-=$'?'813>>-@Q
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8
= $ ?1
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Arctic
Temperate
1400
600
A
B
1200
-1
SRR [nmol cm day ]
-1
SRR [nmol cm day ]
500
1000
-3
-3
400
300
200
800
600
400
100
200
0
0
-10 -5
0
5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
-10 -5
0
Temperature [°C]
5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
Temperature [°C]
8
8
C
D
7
7
-1
Ea 81 kJ mol-1
6
5
5
ln(SRR)
ln (SRR)
Ea 50 kJ mol
6
4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1
0
0
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.1
Inverse temperature [1000/K]
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10
5
0
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
Inverse temperature [1000/K]
-5
45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10
Temperature [°C]
5
0
-5
Temperature [°C]
$+( 1/ 3 8
)8
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= ? =? ' 8
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8"4
F-
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1 5
8
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8
88
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8
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5
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5
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8
Table 1. Sulfate reduction activities and Arrhenius parameters determined in the temperature-gradient incubation experiments for arctic
sediment
Sulfate reduction rates [nmol cm-3 day-1]
Incubation
temperature
Incubation
time
Topt.
[°C]
[months]
[°C]
At incubation
temperature
i.c.
22
72 ± 18
72 ± 18
48 ±
3
12
22
48 ±
3
26 ±
7
24
24
26 ±
7
62 ±
2
26
9
23 ±
4
59 ± 13
6
24
26 ±
6
10
66 ± 20
12
29
20 ±
6
24
30
20 ±
5
9
±
2
208 ± 30
2
29
35 ±
5
247 ± 109
6
29
28 ± 12
20
214 ± 59
12
31
45 ± 12
61 ±
24
32
6
9
±
1
i.c., initial conditions
a
% of SRR of 0°C to optimum temperature
b
The term "Range of linearity" refers to the linear part of the Arrhenius plot
0
%
SRRa
At Topt
At 0°C
546
377
369
344
227
121
48
437
148
360
121
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
136
23
96
53
50
37
13
63
66
99
13
13
13
7
7
12
17
18
8
19
12
8
Range of
linearityb
Ea
[°C]
[kJ mol-1]
-3, +22
-3, +22
-3, +24
-3, +26
-3, +24
-3, +29
-3, +30
-3, +29
-3, +29
-3, +31
-3, +32
50
54
50
74
63
41
41
56
53
50
53
Q10
1.9
2.1
1.9
2.7
2.3
1.7
1.7
2.1
2.0
1.9
2.0
+ 1 88 R-% " 4
8 D
"1
8
-%B$%B 6
=5 -? + 1 8 R-%
" " " 8
=5 $? 3>>
4 8
8
-$$F
=5$?5
" -%B $%B 8 + F$
8 1 3>> "
$F
1
4$%B =5@?
**(%'%
) 5
4'*+
864 '>+3D
)8'4
18
'*+
8
5@
,$*$*%(,'
' )81 &
@
F-)-% +%B )81
" $F + -%B $%B )8 &
@
&
@F)-% $$)-% @
1 8"41 $F 5 8 &
@
A%)-% )8 %B 1-%B $%B 4
"
)8
+%B )87%Q
'*+
4 4; !++++ 8
5
&
@
@@)-% '$F
%B-%B 1
"1
N& 7-Q '*+ 5 8
"4 $%B &
@
)8'
)8
4-$)-% F@
4 '>+3D
4ALQ
'*+
*
%B 8
&
@
F$ ) -% &
@
$& ) -% $F 5
7FQ NLQ1 8"4 + &
$%B )81
@N)-% @
"1
8
-$Q
'*+ 5 C@@7 8
4
%-Q
'*+
Table 2. Sulfate reduction activities and Arrhenius parameters determined in the temperature-gradient incubation experiments for temperate
sediment
Sulfate reduction rates [nmol cm-3 day-1]
Incubation
temperature
Incubation
time
Topt.
[°C]
[months]
[°C]
12
24
i.c.
2
10
6
12
24
2
6
20
12
24
i.c., initial conditions
0
30
32
33
33
33
33
33
35
36
33
35
At incubation
temperature
%
SRRa
At Topt
At 0°C
Range of
b
linearity
[°C]
15
17
76
47
96
40
35
568
300
288
91
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
4
2
28
8
20
12
5
162
33
49
15
15
17
20
18
26
14
14
21
33
14
9
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
4
2
7
3
5
4
2
6
4
2
1
a
% of SRR of 0°C to optimum temperature
b
The term "Range of linearity" refers to the linear part of the Arrhenius plot
536
696
1333
799
1174
502
512
682
866
413
217
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
±
144
101
293
129
244
153
74
194
94
70
35
3
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
4
3
4
-3, +30
-3, +31
-3, +33
-3, +33
-3, +33
-3, +33
-3, +33
-3, +35
-3, +36
-3, +33
-3, +35
Ea
Q10
-1
[kJ mol ]
75
75
81
77
81
73
73
71
67
72
72
2.73
2.73
2.95
2.81
2.95
2.64
2.64
2.6
2.46
2.63
2.63
(&)(*$%+*$
+)8 48
33LA7 1 -$Q '*+ 5 " 4; 4 8
3>LA-13&7A3"F$7F-Q1-Q$NQ
'*+
1
8"4 < 8 FF
8 4 8
4
' $F -%B 1 8
3>LA-1 3&7A1 3"F$7 -Q1 $$Q %$Q1
8"4'
$%B )8
)8
4; 3>LA-
8
1%FQ
'*+
' 8 1
8
33LA7 1 &- Q '*+
*
3>LA-13&7A3"F$7$&1-L
-7Q1 8"4 + 3"1
8 " 8 3>
8
Table 3. Quantification* of bacteria by CARD-FISH in arctic and temperate sediments
Arctic
Incubation
temperature [°C]
0
Incubation time
[months]
i.c. 12 24
10
2
6
12
20
24
2
6
12
Temperate
0
10
24
12 24
i.c.
2
6
20
12 24
2
6
12 24
Cell
number
9
-3
[10 cm ]
4.1 4.5 4.3
4.3 3.6 4.8 3.4
4.1 3.5 1.8 2.2
3.8 3.8
5.0 5.8 6.1 6.1 4.8
4.6 5.0 5.3 5.1
Cell
number
Probe
9
-3
EUB 338 [10 cm ]
3.3 3.7 3.4
3.5 2.9 3.9 2.8
3.4 2.8 1.3 1.2
3.1 2.9
4.2 4.9 4.6 4.8 3.7
3.9 4.3 4.4 3.7
80 84 79
81 82 82
83 80 72
56
83 76
84 85 76 78 79
84 86 84 72
4.9 5.2 5.5
4.6 2.9 2.6 n.d.
3.4 2.0 0.4 n.d.
3.8 5.1
4.5 5.7 6.6 6.1 4.5
5.2 4.7 5.9 5.0
12 12 13
11 8.2 5.4 n.d.
8.3 5.7 2.1 n.d.
10 14
9.1 9.8 11 9.9 9.5
11 9.4 11 9.7
2.2 1.2 1.0
1.7 0.8 0.6 0.3
1.7 1.0 0.2 0.1
0.5 1.2
1.4 1.4 0.9 3.6 0.5
1.2 1.3 1.8 0.5
5.2 2.7 2.4
4.1 2.3 1.3 1.0
4.2 3.0 0.9 0.4
1.4 3.1
2.9 2.4 1.5 5.9 1.1
2.6 2.5 3.4 1.0
2.1 1.2 1.5
0.4 0.9 0.9 0.8
0.6 0.6 0.3 n.d.
0.8 0.4
0.8 0.6 0.6 1.3 0.7
0.4 0.9 1.1 0.5
% DAPI
5.0 2.7 3.4
1.0 2.5 2.0 2.2
1.4 1.6 1.8 n.d.
2.0 1.1
1.6 1.0 1.0 2.1 1.5
0.9 1.7 2.1 1.1
Cell
number
8
-3
[10 cm ]
1.6 0.8 1.1
1.1 0.8 0.5 0.1
1.1 0.9 0.3 n.d.
0.8 0.6
0.9 0.8 0.4 1.1 0.7
0.7 0.6 1.0 0.2
% DAPI
3.9 1.8 2.5 2.7 2.2 1.0 0.2 2.7 2.5 1.9 n.d.
*The results are expressed as the average of duplicate measurements
i.c., initial conditions
n.d., not detected
2.2 1.5
1.8 1.4 0.7 1.9 1.5
1.4 1.1 2.0 0.4
DAPI
% DAPI
Cell
number
Probe
8
-3
DSS 658 [10 cm ]
% DAPI
Cell
number
Probe
8
-3
DSR 651 [10 cm ]
% DAPI
Cell
number
Probe
8
-3
DSB 985 [10 cm ]
Probe
Sval 428
81
FA
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Arctic
A
0°C
10°C
20°C
100
SRR [% of max.]
80
60
40
20
0
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
Temperature [°C]
Temperate
B
0°C
10°C
20°C
100
SRR [% of max.]
80
60
40
20
0
-10
0
10
20
30
40
50
$+( 4/ 3 8
)8 ='? =? 8
4
%B 1-%B $%B Temperature [°C]
F&
&&* & %+), ,#( '0$&' % 0 ,$*$ *,,(%$2
*,#'$$%
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Table 4. CARD-FISH probes and hybridization conditions used in this study
Probe name Specificity
Sequences (5´-3´)
EUB (I-III)
Bacteria
EUB338
Most Bacteria
EUB338P
Planctomycetes
EUB338V
Verrucomicrobium spp.
NON338
Antisense of EUB338
DSR651
Desulfobulbaceae
DSS658
Desulfosarcinales
DSB985
Desulfobacter spp., Desulfobacula spp.
Desulfotalea spp.
Sval428
a
Formamide concentration in the hybridization buffer
b
Hybridization temperature
Mixture of the following three probes
GCT GCC TCC CGT AGG AGT
GCA GCC ACC CGT AGG TGT
GCT GCC ACC CGT AGG TGT
ACT CCT ACG GGA GGC AGC
CCC CCT CCA GTA CTC AAG
TCC ACT TCC CTC TCC CAT
CAC AGG ATG TCA TCT TCA AAA
CCA TCT GAC AGG ATT TTA C
Faa(%) Thb (°C) Reference
35
46
35
35
50
20
25
46
46
46
46
46
Daims et al., 1999
Amann et al., 1990
Daims et al., 1999
Daims et al., 1999
Wallner et al., 1993
Manz et al., 1998
Manz et al., 1998
Manz et al., 1998
Sahm et al., 1999
3>8
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Incubation
Incubation
a
Maximum hydolysis rates
Topt.
time
temperature
Sediment
type
(°C)
(months)
(°C)
(nmol monomer cm-3 h-1)
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24 months
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20
a. Temperature at which maximum hydrolysis rates were measured
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